Historical and Ethnographical Aspects of the Sea Toponomy

Alexander Ivanovich Alekseev (Professor, Department of Geography, Moscow State University)

The problem has been put to find out, what is difference in names of the seas and their parts (straits, gulfs, etc.) in atlases issued on different languages. With this purpose in library of Geographical faculty of the Moscow Lomonosov university we have been seen atlases in English, German, French, Spanish and Russian languages, issued in the period from the end of XIX up to the end of XX centuries. Results of such comparison are given in this abstract.

The majority marine toponyms on maps of all atlases are identical (differing only features of a transcription in various languages). But there are some geographical objects which differently refer on maps depending on country and language the atlas is issued.

The most widespread case - the straits dividing the countries which speaking in different languages. Among them - the well-known strait dividing the Great Britain and France. On English-language maps (issued in the Great Britain and in the USA) the English names are resulted only: in a wide part the strait refers to English Channel, in the narrowest part - Strait of Dover. On the French maps the French names are resulted only: La Manche and Pas de Calais. More closed to the French language, Spanish-speaking cartographers name it Canal de la Mancha and Paso de Calais. In Russian atlases the French variant prevailed before, then both variants began to be resulted frequently. It is necessary to recognize German atlases as the most complete: two pairs names are always used - English and French (and at the end of XIX century a German variant was added also: Der Kanal).

Other example - a strait between Korea and Japan. Here a variety is more. English-language

atlases, as a rule, result general name Korea Strait and also Chosen strait (for the western part of a strait) and Tsushima strait (for eastern part). Eastern part of a passage named only sometimes. Last variant (the general name plus the name of eastern part) is characteristic and for Spanish-language atlases. In Russian atlases - Koreiskiy proliv and its two parts: Zapadniy prohod and Vostochniy prohod. The most detailed German HAAKWELT ATLAS issued in the German Democratic Republic (Gotha - Leipzig, 1972) where two names are resulted for the western part of a passage: Čosŏn hehjop / Chosen-Kaikyo, and for eastern - one: Tsushima-Kaikyo.

The third example - a strait dividing islands Sakhalin and Hokkaido. On English-language maps it is named only Soya Strait. On French maps - only La Perousse. Both names are on Spanish-language maps. On Russian - only proliv Laperuza. And WELTATLAS gives two names - not in a classical variant (La Perousse), but in languages of two countries: proliv Laperuza and Soya-Kaikyo.

Besides there are some seas with equal name almost everywhere in the world - except for one country with traditional name. A classical example - Baltik Sea on English, French, Spanish and Russian maps - but not on German maps where it refers Ostsee.

Various names can be consequence of different points of view on a history of geographical investigation of the seas. For example, at the end of XIX - the beginning of XX centuries on German maps it was shown Nordenskiold see; from middle ХХ century it refers to Laptevs see (as it was usual in Soviet Union); on the English maps both names are used. A number of other examples will be given in the report also.

A.I.Alexeev Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia Faculty of Geography Lomonosov Moscow State University

Some historic and ethnic aspects of marine toponymy

Our task is to find out the influence of historic, political and ethnic factors on geographical names of marine objects, such as seas, straits, bays, islands, etc. In line with the theme of the seminar we have narrowed the problem of investigation. We suggested that the widest diversity of names is characteristic of the cases when the same marine object neighbors the territories of different countries. Besides, it is believed that the greater are the difference (language, religion, etc.) and the contradictions between the countries the more profound are the disagreements in the names of their "common" marine objects. For this purpose atlases published in English, French, German, Spanish and Russian during the period from the end of the 19th to the middle of the 20th century from the library of the MSU Faculty of Geography were analyzed. Of course it was not possible to compare all names. Besides, it is clear that the majority of marine objects, particularly large ones, have the same names on the maps published in different countries. Therefore we have selected only several marine objects which are the most interesting for our study.

/ What conclusions could we make? • Our initial suggestion is only partially true. The largest variety of names is typical for the objects sweeping the territories of different countries. • At the same time there is no direct interrelation between the degree of difference, or conflict, of the nations and the variations in names. Moreover, in some cases the difference between the countries has practically no influence on the situation with the names of marine objects. For example, distinctions between Tunisia and Italy have no relation to the name of the straight: to call it Sicilian or Malta depends to a much larger extent on the history of Great Britain and France. Another example: luckily, the extremely acute conflicts of recent decades between Cuba and the United States have no effect on the name of the Florida Straight. • The general trend of gradual transition to local names is basically reasonable, but only with due account to historical traditions of national geographical schools and maintaining the succession in geographical names. • Sometimes the straits situated within the territory of a country are de-facto the objects of international importance associated with the events of the world history. In such cases the application of local names (for example, for the Bosporus and Dardanelles) could pose great difficulties to map users. • Changes in the political orientation of a country could have peculiar effects on the names of its marine objects. Example 1. 1. Name of the strait between Great Britain and France A. Countries neighboring the straight Great Britain - English Channel + Strait of Dover France - La Manche + Pas de Calais B. Other countries Spain - Canal de la Manche + Peso de Calais Russia - La Manche + Pas de Calais Germany - Der Kanal (or Armel-kanal) I English Channel (La Manche) + Strasse von Dover (Pas de Calais)

1a Why Russia prefers French names? 1) Predominantly French-speaking of the Russian aristocracy from the end of the 18th to the beginning of the 20th century th th 2) Anglophobia in the Russian society (middle 19 - the beginning of the 20 century) BUT: the first reason has ceased to exist after 1917 English has become the most wide spread foreign language

Nevertheless French tradition is still predominant

Example 2 The bay between France and Spain The Spanish name is Golfo de Biscaya. The same name is on English, German and Russian maps (the Bay of Biscay). The French name is Golfe de Gascogne.

Example 3 The Baltic Sea The Russian, English and French names are Baltic Sea. The German name is Ostsee

Example 4 The strait between Sicily and Africa The French name is Canal de Sicile (in the memory of "the Sicillian Vespers"). The English name is Malta Strait (in the memory of the English Malta?). The German name is Canal di Tunisi/Canal de Sicile+Canal di Malte The Russian name is the Strait of Tunisia.

Example 5 The strait between Korea and Japan The French name as of 1899 is Detroit de Broughton The Russian name is the Strait of Kruzenshtem+ Korea strait. The English name is Korea Strait. The German names are Coson hehjop/Chosen-kaikyo+ Tsushima-kaikyo.

Example 6 The strait between Sakhalin and Hokkaido The French name as of 1899 is Detroit de La Perouse. The French name as of 1957 is Soya KaikyolDetroit de La Perouse The Russian name is Strait of La Perouse. The English name is Soya Strait. The German name is proliv Laperusa/Soya-kaikyo.

Example 7 The straits of the Black Sea The traditional names are the Bosporus and Dardanelles (Russian, English and French). New names are Karadeniz bogazi, Canakkale bogazi (Turkish and ... GERMAN!?)

Example 8 The names of marine objects of the Arctic. The Russian Sea - the Barents Sea. The Nordenskiold Sea - the Laptev Sea. The Kolchak Island - the Rastorguev Island - the Ko1chak Island.

---~~ ~~ ~ A.I.Alexeev

Department of Economic and Social Geography of Russia Faculty of Geography Lomonosov Moscow State University

Some historic and ethnic aspects of marine toponymy

Let me begin with the best known example - the strait between Great Britain and France. On all French maps the wider part of it is named La Manche and the narrow one is Pas de Calais - and nothing more. On English maps published both in Great Britain and the USA the names are the English Channel and the Strait of Dover respectively. It is quite understandable that the same strait has different names in the languages of the countries it separates from one another. But what is the situation in the countries situated far away from the strait? The geographers should seemingly keep neutrality there and use both names. But the things are not so simple. Cartographers speaking Spanish (one of the Roman languages) prefer the cognate French, of course, and practically always use only French names for the strait. In th th Russian atlases published in the end of the 19 - the beginning of the 20 century the French names predominated and then both French (the main one) and English names were used. But simple and small-scale maps had only French name. It is interesting to remember in this connection that the French was practically the th native language of the Russian aristocratic society since the end of the 18 and during the whole 19th century. At the same time the attitude towards Great Britain was rather suspicious. This country was called not only foggy, but also insidious Albion. This anglophobia became particularly pronounced after the Crimea War (the siege of Sevastopol) and the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 when the gains ofthe Russian victories were considerably reduced with the help of the English diplomacy provided by the governrilent of Disraeli. There is another reason to remind you of the Crimean War. It is this very war that provided new interesting names within the Russian Far East. Of course, we don't know with certainty why were the names Golden Horn and Eastern Bosporus given to the bay in the town of Vladivostok and the neighbouring strait respectively. The most common explanation is that the form of the bay is similar to the Golden Horn harbour in Constantinople (Istanbul). My opinion is that it was a specific reflection of the need to have a certain moral compensation for the defeat in the Crimean War. It is well known that for a long time Constantinople was the geopolitical aim of Russian on the Balkan Peninsular. So, it seems something like this: "We didn't manage to annex Constantinople, but still we have our own Golden Hom". Traditions are very stable however. There is no Russian aristocracy for decades already and French was replaced by English in this country, but in the latest Russian atlas published in 2001 French names are still given as the main ones and English ones as supplementary. There are only in German atlases where two pairs of names, both English and French, are always used, sometimes together with the German version, i.e. Der Kanal or Armel-kanal. The reason is probably the well-known thoroughness of German scientists and their interest to the smallest details. The following story comes to my mind in this connection. Albert Schweizer, the Nobel Peace Prize winner and the famous humanist, who had organized a hospital for local people in the village of Lanberene in Gabon, started his work as an organist and musicologist and wrote a book about Bach. A native of Alsace, he had a fluent command of both French and German. At first he wrote his book in French and it had 300 pages. The German version wrote by the author himself was 600 pages already. Schweizer's comment was the following: French is suitable for short and proper expression of ideas, while German is capable of conveying the finest details. Thus, among three countries that do not border the strait only one always use both English and French names, and this could be explained by linguistic and historic factors.

Another European example is the bay between Spain and France. It is called the Bay of Biscay practically in all countries except France where its name is Golfe de Gascogne (Bay of Gascogne). Besides, on the Spanish maps a part of this bay is called Mar Cantabrico (the Cantabrian Sea).

A similar example from the Northern Europe. A sea located to the south of Scandinavia is called the Baltic Sea on all maps except the German ones where it is Ostsee, i.e. the Eastern Sea. It is clear that for the Germans this sea has always been the "eastern" one. But the same name is used in other German-speaking countries, for example Switzerland, which seemingly should not matter how to call this sea.

The strait between Africa and Sicily has also several names. It is the Strait of Tunisia on Russian maps, while its part between Malta and Sicily is the Malta Strait. It is the Sicily Strait on German maps and the Malta Strait is absent on them. On French maps they use the names Canal de Sicile (as well as its Italian name Canal di Tunisi) and the Malta Strait. And on English maps the part of the strait between Malta and the continent is the Malta Strait, while its western part has no name at all. This situation could be partially explained by historic reasons. Sicily is the most known object ofthe region in France. The most profound historic reminiscences are related to it - those of the Sicilian Vespers of 1282 (the revolt oflocal people after almost 200 years of French dominion), when almost all Frenchmen were killed there and the island became the Spanish possession for several centuries. On the other side Malta, which was the British possession during the whole 19th and a half of the 20th century, is closer to Englishmen. But it is very difficult to understand why Russians call this strait the Tunisian one and Germans - the Sicily one. Maybe, it was by chance only.

7 Now let us come closer to my country. The strait between Korea and Japan has much wider variety of names. French maps of the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century call it Detroit de Broughton. On Russian maps it is the Kruzenstern Strait. Both names commemorate European travelers who investigated this strait. The name of the strait on English and German maps is the Korea Strait. English atlases published in the middle of the 20th century usually gives the common name Korea Strait, as well as the individual names for its eastern (Tsushima Strait) and western (Chosen Strait) parts. In some ofthem only eastern part of the strait has the name. Both parts are also named in French atlases since the middle of the 20th century but in Japan version, i.e. Tsushima kaikyo and Chosen kaikyo respectively. German atlases are the most comprehensive again. For example, Haak Weltatlas (Gotha-Leipzig, 1972) gives two names for the western part - Korean (Coson hehjop) and Japan (Chosen kaikyo) ones, and the Japan name (Tsushima kaikyo) for the eastern part. In recent decades the whole strait is named the Korea Strait in Russian atlases, and its parts are Western Pass and Eastern Pass respectively. Russian geographical dictionaries note that the Western Pass could be also named the Broughton Pass while the Eastern Pass is the Kruzenstern Pass or the Tsuchima Strait. It is much more difficult for me to interpret the changes in the name of the strait than in the European names. But it is obvious that there is a trend to replace the names given by European travelers by the local ones. It is also worth noting that Russian geographers do not want to use the name of Tsushima. I think this has to do with probably the latent desire not to remember the Tsushima battle lost by the Russian Navy in 1905 during the Russian-Japanese war.

Another example from the Eastern Asia is the strait between Sakhalin and Hokkaido islands. Practically all English maps name it the Soya Strait. On French, as well as German, maps it was only named Detroit de la Perouse some time ago. This name is the only one used on Russian maps now. But in many countries two names are increasingly used since the middle of the 20th century. Of course, German atlases have two names, but French ones as well! The most interesting thing is that some French maps give the French name as supplementary one and even in smaller letters (for example, the Atlas International Larousse published in 1957 - Soya kaikyolDetroit de la Perouse). Until now we analyzed the names of the straits separating different countries. But those situated within one country could also be of interest, particularly if they are internationally important. Since the 18th century free passage of ships through the straits connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean Sea has been of vital importance for Russia. These are the Bosporus and Dardanelles - the so-called Black Sea Straits. It is known that the latest international document regulating shipping through these straits is the Decision of 1936 Montreux Conference according to which merchant vessels of all countries should be allowed to pass these straits free both in peace times and during wars. However, recently Turkey has introduced one-sided limitations on cargo transportation through these straits. This has affected, in particular, the export of oil from the Black Sea Russian terminals. Until the middle of the 20th century the straits had similar names on the maps published in different countries, i.e. the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Until now English and Russian maps give only these traditional names, while you can read about all possible versions in geographical dictionaries. The situation lost its uniformity after the 1950-s. Turkish names - Karadeniz bogazi and Canakkale bogazi - appeared along with traditional ones on French maps. But the most surprising thing is that German cartographers have gone even further: they use only Turkish names with no regard to the long-lasting traditions. Of course, German geographers have formal reason to use only local names, because the straits are situated within the Turkish territory, hence the officially accepted name should be used. However, in my opinion, the famous German accuracy and thoroughness have played a trick on them in this case. Being formally right according to the principles of indicating names in native languages they have made their maps less informative. The names of the straits are related to many historic events, by far not in Turkey only. Let us remember at least the crossing of Hellespontus by the Persian troops five centuries before Christ when the storm destroyed the pontoon bridge and the king became so angry that he ordered to punish the sea and beat it with th lashes. We can also remember the crusades of 11 til to 13 centuries, operations of the Russian Navy against Turkey during 18th and 19th centuries, the British operation on the Dardanelles in 1915 during the First World War, and so on and so forth. Last ten years I was engaged in writing textbooks and compiling atlases for the Russian secondary schools. I remember how anxious were teachers of geography when we add several new geographical names in the textbook on the economic geography of Russia. I could imagine what a mess it would be in this country if one suggests to change the names of the Black Sea straits and it becomes necessary to learn the names Karadeniz and Canakkale instead of usual the Bosporus and Dardanelles. I hope it is impossible now in Russia. It is just for the most detailed maps or the maps of Turkey that both pairs of names could be used. And what about German schoolchildren and students? I think we can only feel sorry for them ...

Before I finish my presentation I'd like to speak about marine geographical names along the coasts of Russia and how these are influenced by political changes. Just a few examples. The name Barents Sea which is now known to all geographers appeared on the maps not so long ago. In the middle of the 19th century this sea had different names (for example, Russian Sea), but the majority of maps had no name within it. In the end of the 19th century the Russian Geographical Society suggested to name it after the famous Dutch traveler Willem Barents. In 1594-97 he investigated this sea trying to find the north-eastern way to India. He spent winter on the Novaya Zemlya Island where he died and was buried. So the sea received his name and has not changed it since that time.

Another story had the similar beginning. It is the story of the sea which is now named after Laptev brothers, who participated in the Great Northern Expedition organized by the Russian Academy of Sciences in the first half of the 18th century. Until the end of the 19th century the sea had different names on Russian maps (the Siberian Sea, the Lena Sea, etc.), while on the maps published in other countries it usually had no name at all. In 1878-79 the Swedish researcher Adolf Eric Nordenskiold had achieved the long-term target of many geographers, including the late Barents - he circled Eurasia via north-eastern pass. To commemorate this event the Russian Geographical Society suggested to name the sea after Nordenskiold. This name was used on all maps in the end ofthe 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. During the 1930-s rapid investigation ofthe Northern Sea Route started in the USSR. It was considered necessary to stress that these areas were always developed by Russian people. This was true for the majority of cases, but for the sake of propaganda the USSR authorities tried to give the impression that no foreigners at all came to the Arctic Ocean. Therefore they decided to change the name of the sea and

( [) commemorate Khariton and Dmitry Laptev instead of Nordenski old. After 10 to 20 years the new name was accepted everywhere. The name of Nordenski old is used now on some English maps together with the new one.

And the last, quite recent example is the transformation of the name of an island in the Kara Sea. This island was discovered by the Russian expedition headed by Edward Toll (1900-1902) and named after a member of the expedition - Alexander V. Kolchak. It was this officer who took command ofthe expedition when Toll left for the route on foot and did not return. The Kolchak's name is widely known in Russia however not for his Arctic research, but as the name of a leader ofthe anti-bolshevist activities during the Civil War. Kolchak headed these activities in Siberia, he was proclaimed the "High Ruler" of Russia in 1919 threatening the very existence of the Soviets. But in the end of 1919 his troops were defeated and he was executed. Of course, it was impossible for the Soviet regime to have the name of its enemy commemorated on the national map. Therefore the island was renamed after Rastorguev, another member of the expedition. Recently the political situation has changed and this spring the island received its initial name back.

What conclusions could we make? • Our initial suggestion is only partially true. The largest variety of names is typical for the objects sweeping the territories of different countries. • At the same time there is no direct interrelation between the degree of difference, or conflict, of the nations and the variations in names. Moreover, in some cases the difference between the countries has practically no influence on the situation with the names of marine objects. For example, distinctions between Tunisia and Italy have no relation to the name of the strait: to call it Sicilian or Malta depends to a much larger extent on the history of Great Britain and France. Another example: luckily, the extremely acute conflicts of recent decades between Cuba and the United States have no effect on the name of the Florida Strait. • The general trend of gradual transition to local names is basically reasonable, but only with due account to historical traditions of national

( / geographical schools and maintaining the succession in geographical names. • Sometimes the straits situated within the territory of a country are de-facto the objects of international importance associated with the events of the world history. In such cases the application of local names (for example, for the Bosporus and Dardanelles) could pose great difficulties to map users. • Changes in the political orientation of a country could have peculiar effects on the names of its marine objects.

References 1. Methodischer HAND-ATLAS .. . von E. von SYDOW. Gotha, 1852 2. Atlas de Geographie moderne. Paris, 1896 3. Andress Allgemeiner HAND-ATLAS.Bielefeld und Leipzig, 1899 4. Atlas universel Quillet. Paris, 1925 5. Neuer Welt-Atlas. Zurich, 1949 6. Encyclopaedia Britanica Worldatlas. Chicago-London-Toronto, 1950 7. Worldatlas. Rand McNally-Cosmopolitan. Chicago-New York-San Francisco, 1950 8. Nuevo atlas Geografico metodico Universal. Buenos Aires, 1951 9. Atlas International Larousse. Paris, 1965 10. Haak Grosser Weltatlas. Leipzig, 1968 11. Haak Weltatlas. Gotha-Leipzig, 1972 12. The TIMES Concise Atlas of the World. Times books, 1975 13 . Webster's Geographical Dictionary. Springfield, 1963

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