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Chapter 1 France, 1774–1814 1 Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-73392-2 — Cambridge International AS Level History Modern Europe, 1750–1921 Coursebook Graham Goodlad , Patrick Walsh-Atkins , Russell Williams , Edited by Patrick Walsh-Atkins Excerpt More Information Chapter 1 France, 1774–1814 1 Learning objectives In this chapter you will: ■■ understand why the Ancien Régime in France was unable to deal with the problems facing it in the 1780s ■■ learn why the attempt to bring financial reform to France in 1789 developed into a radical revolution ■■ analyse the various factors which affected the course of the revolution and determined its outcome ■■ understand how and why this revolution came to an end under the leadership of Napoleon, and assess his impact on France. Timeline Aug 1786 Finance Minister Dec 1804 Napoleon Calonne submits plan for July 1789 Storming Oct 1791 Legislative July 1794 Fall becomes Emperor major financial reforms of the Bastille Assembly meets of Robespierre of France July 1790 Civil Oct 1799 Directory May 1789 Estates Constitution of Jan 1793 Execution overthrown by Napoleon General meets the Clergy of the king and Consulate established June 1789 National June 1791 Royal Apr 1793 The Mar 1804 Civil Code Assembly is announced Flight to Varennes Terror starts published (later to become Code Napoléon) Apr 1787 Calonne Aug 1789 Declaration Sept 1792 Overthrow Nov 1795 Directory 1814–15 Napoleon is dismissed and of the Rights of Man of the monarchy established defeated and forced financial crisis grows into exile; Bourbon monarchy restored © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-73392-2 — Cambridge International AS Level History Modern Europe, 1750–1921 Coursebook Graham Goodlad , Patrick Walsh-Atkins , Russell Williams , Edited by Patrick Walsh-Atkins Excerpt More Information Cambridge International AS Level History Modern Europe, 1750–1921 Before you start • Research the human and physical geography of France in the late 18th century. • Was it a rich or a poor country? • Why was France seen as the centre of European culture? • Look at the countries surrounding France in 1789. What sort of relationship did France have with them? Was it always peaceful? 1.1 What were the causes and local community – work they were not paid for. Landlords had the right to hunt on the peasants’ land. The peasants immediate outcomes of the 1789 were also forced to use their landlords’ wine presses and revolution? flour mills, at a high price. The Ancien Régime: problems and policies of There were only three good harvests between 1770 and Louis XVI 1789, and this resulted in rural poverty and hunger. The France in the late 18th century was ruled by an absolute economy was simply unable to provide an adequate living monarch, Louis XVI. It was, however, a difficult country to for those who lived in the countryside, so many peasants govern. It had a population of about 27 million. There was were forced to move to the towns. This growing urban significant regional difference across the country, along population, poor and unskilled, found there was little or with a strong tradition for each part of France to deal with no chance of quality employment. Unlike Britain, France local issues in its own way. There were also different legal had few factories making textiles, for example, to absorb systems, which dated back for centuries. The regions had this migration of workers. Meanwhile, the existing urban 2 different systems of taxation and there were also customs working class saw their wages decline as food prices rose. barriers between some parts of France, meaning that Bread usually formed about 75% of the French working- trade could not move freely around the country. These class diet. In normal times, a family would spend between conditions meant that, in practice, the king’s orders were 35 and 50% of its income on bread. After a bad harvest, often ignored or proved too difficult to carry out. when prices soared, fear of starvation took hold, and there was no money for heating and clothing. Increasing poverty, KEY TERMS worsened by a decline in real wages, led to growing urban unrest, including bread riots. The police force had only Ancien Régime: Literally ‘the old system of government’, limited numbers and found it difficult to maintain order. this describes how France was governed before 1789. It not only covers the government and administration, but also the A hungry, highly taxed lower class who were not structure of society and the role of the Church as well. represented by politicians, in both town and countryside, Absolute monarch: A king or queen who has complete power was an important factor in the events that followed. The in a state. They can make laws and there are no constitutional distance between the rich and the poor was growing. limits to their power. The poor saw those they paid taxes to – the aristocracy Real wages: Wages measured in terms of what they enable and the Church in particular – enjoying lives of luxury, but workers to buy, rather than the actual money received. peasants had no means of redressing their grievances. The legal system worked against them, and was, in fact, Social divisions in France another means of control. The vast majority – 80% – of the French population at In French towns, the middle class was growing. this time were poor peasants. Agriculture was not highly Increasingly, these people were well educated and rich. developed and was inefficient. Peasants farmed tiny plots By 1780, they owned around 20% of the land in France. of land and their main aim was to grow enough food to They were involved in either commerce or industry, or in survive. At the same time, they were heavily taxed by the professions such as law and medicine. The vast majority government, their landlords and the Church. In addition, of France’s future revolutionary leaders came from this they had to maintain the roads for their landlords and their middle class; many of them had been lawyers. Some © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-73392-2 — Cambridge International AS Level History Modern Europe, 1750–1921 Coursebook Graham Goodlad , Patrick Walsh-Atkins , Russell Williams , Edited by Patrick Walsh-Atkins Excerpt More Information Chapter 1: France, 1774–1814 were increasingly involved in aspects of local government They dominated all the key posts at court and in the and administration, but became frustrated by their government, the Church, the judiciary and the army. One powerlessness. In addition to having no political power, of the reasons why the French army often performed it was not possible for them to join the top levels of badly was because the officers were noblemen and government, the military and the judiciary system. Only the promotion came through noble rank rather than through higher nobility could expect to take up those jobs. While ability or experience. people in the middle class were not as heavily taxed as the French aristocrats tended to be hostile to those involved peasantry, they did pay some taxes, and naturally resented in trade and commerce. Unlike the British aristocracy a system where they had no say in how their money was during the same period, who were deeply involved spent. Many traditional middle-class career posts such in innovation in agriculture, industry and commerce, as judges and tax collectors, began to be passed from and who usually accepted their sons marrying the rich father to son, or could be bought for cash. Jobs were no daughters of middle-class industrialists, the French longer decided by ability. As a result, money influenced aristocracy tended to remain a group apart. Generally, local administration and the law. These educated and they did not wish to associate with the lower classes in increasingly angry members of the middle class were to such matters as industry and commerce. play a decisive role in the coming events. As in the clergy, there was a division between the ‘higher’ The Church and the aristocracy and ‘lower’ aristocracy. The highest levels of this social The Roman Catholic Church, with over 130 000 clergy, monks class lived at Versailles, the court of the king of France and nuns, was a very wealthy organisation. It owned 10% of near Paris. Here, in this vast and splendid palace, they the land across the country and paid no taxes. It controlled had access to power, influence, and the top jobs and most of the education in France and also approved (or not) pensions awarded by the king. They lived in an isolated all publications. The Church was determined to maintain its and privileged environment and were determined to keep it. A talent for court politics and intrigue was the control over as many aspects of French life as possible, and 3 to keep hold of its wealth and benefits. key to the top jobs, and administrative ability often had little to do with success. The ‘poorer’ or ‘lower’ nobility, The most senior posts in the Church invariably went to while anxious to retain their privileges, often resented members of the aristocracy, often totally inexperienced the power and wealth of the ‘higher’ nobility at Versailles. young men with little interest in performing their religious The lower nobility, like the case of the lower clergy, were duties. As a result, many of the ordinary clergy from the lower a reason why the nobility did not act together to defend classes – often hardworking and devout men determined their power during the years of the revolution. to help their parishioners – could not progress to senior roles where they would be able to direct the Church towards carrying out what they considered to be its proper KEY TERM duties.
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