Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, October 2017 ______

Asia Pacific Journal of Comparative Analysis of Nigeria Foreign Education, Arts and Sciences Policy Under Muhammadu Buhari Vol. 4 No.4, 43-52 October 2017 Administration 1983-1985 and 2015-2017 P-ISSN 2362-8022 E-ISSN 2362-8030 Ismail Bello, Asmau Isyaku Dutse and Muhammad Fuad Othman www.apjeas.apjmr.com School of International Studies, Universiti Utara Malaysia [email protected]

Date Received: August 9, 2017; Date Revised: October 18, 2017

Abstract –This research paper provided a international system [1; 33]. The foreign policy is set comparative analysis of foreign policy of Nigeria of tools which are used to pursue and achieve under Muhammadu Buhari’s military regime 1983- country‟s national interests. Foreign Policy of 1985 and his current civilian administration which Nigerian state has continued to change under different started in May 2015. Foreign policy is a set of tools or governments and leaders. This is usually influenced activities developed by states to drive its interest in the by the type of government and to a great extent international system, and internal and external factors personality of the countries leader [1], [2], [29]. From usually influence this. The personality and independence, where Nigeria pursue a non-aligned environment of which leaders assumes leadership also foreign policy under Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa, plays an important in defining a state foreign policy. Under Yakubu Gowon 1966-1975 the country was The objective of this paper is to provide a comparative plagued with civil war, but his foreign policy was also analysis of Buhari’s foreign policy under his military Afrocentric in nature, Murtala Mohammed and and civilian administration. The research utilizes Olusegun Obasanjo 1975-1979 the government secondary data from journals, books, newspapers, pursued a radical foreign policy which was aimed at government reports among others. The findings of the liberation of African states from clutches of apartheid study shows the under Buhari’s military and colonialism and reducing the influence of Western administration relations between Nigeria and capitalist countries, Shehu Shagari 1979-1983 ECOWAS was hostile which led to border closures, continued with the Afrocentric policy and also liberal relations with Nigeria’s former colonial master, policy, Muhammadu Buhari 1983-1985 chose to United Kingdom was also strained due which resulted follow foreign policy of Murtala/Obasanjo foreign to diplomatic rows between both countries, the Buhari policy which was radical in nature. Ibrahim administration also continued with Afrocentric policy Babangida 1985-1993 foreign policy was seen mainly with continuous call for end to apartheid and as pro-western countries which led to the acceptance colonialism on the continent. While under his civilian of Structural Adjustment Programs and also its government Buhari was able to create friendly economic diplomacy, Sani Abacha 1993-1998 choose relations with ECOWAS member nations, maintained to pursue an isolation foreign policy which meant good relations with UK and US, and improve the Nigeria had limited engagement with outside world. countries relations with China to improve the Olusegun Obasanjo 1999-2007 decided to re-open country’s economy. The paper concludes that the type Nigeria to the world after isolation of Sani Abacha of government and environment in the international government, his foreign policy was hinged on shuttle system with which Buhari served played a role in diplomacy which was aimed at economic shaping the foreign policy direction of the state. development, Umaru Musa Yar'Adua and Goodluck Jonathan 2007-2015 foreign policy was opened and Keywords:– Foreign Policy, ECOWAS, United States, encourages relations with other countries around the China, Buhari, and Nigeria. world, and its policy was hinged on citizen diplomacy, Muhammadu Buhari 2015-Present foreign policy is INTRODUCTION also hinged on improving relations with neighbors and Foreign policy is an essential tool with which to maintain ties with the United States and China states relateto states and non-states actors in the among other countries in the world. 43 P-ISSN 2362-8022 | E-ISSN 2362-8030 | www.apjeas.apjmr.com Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, October 2017 ______

As a Head of Government under a military directly and indirectly. The people are provided with government General Buhari pursued a radical foreign the opportunity to elect their representatives through policy which led confrontation with Nigeria free, fair and periodic elections. Features of a neighbours, radical countering of colonial and democratic government are an independent judiciary, apartheid governments on the continent. President respect for fundamental human rights, a multi-party Buhari assumed shuttle diplomacy between different system which ensures alternatives and competition countries immediately after assuming office in 2015 candidates for people. FPDM in a democratic he was referred at as “Jet-Setting President”, this was governmentincludes the presidency, ministry of attributed mainly to the fact he spent a quarter of first foreign affairs (state departments or foreign and 100 days in office in different countries. The president commonwealth office) and the parliament or upon inauguration assumed the responsibility of been legislature.All these multiple bodies influence FPDM countries chief diplomat and foreign policy officer to in a democratic government which makes foreign re-launch Nigeria into the international community. policy a long drawn process due to due process and Thisis mostly attributed to the international broad consultation and finally FPDM shows broad environment Buhari found himself, this situationwas consensus mainly due to debates and approval of characterised by dwindling oil prices, terrorism and ministerial appointments, ambassadorial positions, counter-terrorism, nuclear deals and neoliberalism treaties, a budget which are required to be approved among others [3]. by national assembly [4]. The objective of this research is to have a comparative analysis of Muhammadu Buhari foreign Nigeria Foreign Policy under Major-General policy under his military and civilian administrations Muhammadu Buhari 1983-1985 to understand the change of foreign policy direction Major-General Muhammadu Buhari rose to under the same person and different form of become Nigeria‟s head of state and Commander-in- government. Chief from December 31, 1983, and his government ended August 27, 1985. He became head of state as a METHODOLOGY result of military coup d‟état which deposed civilian This paper utilises secondary sources of data for president Shehu Shagari. The military accused the the research; this includes journals, relevant books, civilian authorities of mismanaging the economy, periodicals, newspapers reports, internet sources, corruption, civil disorder and uncertainty in which the government releases, and pronouncement. nation found itself under the leadership of the former civilian government. General Buhari government Foreign Policy Decision Making (FPDM) Under focused on fighting corruption especially those Military Regime committed by former government and businessmen Military administration are regime who came into with a link to government, as a result of the corruption prayers via coup de ‟tat either by overthrowing a drive over 500 officials of government, politicians, democratic government or fellow Foreign Policy and people in business were thrown into prisons and under a military administration revolves around the tried to the military tribunal‟s setup. In his inaugural personality of head of state who has the prerogative to speech, General Buharistated:“to put an end to the accept or ignore advice from government bodies, also serious economic predicament and the serious crisis FPDM is faster and quicker because it is usually via of confidence now afflicting our nation”. [5]. With the decree rather than constitution, influence in military start of its administration, the Buhari administration regime is limited because the head of state determines prided itself as an offshoot of Murtala/Obasanjo the position of government foreign policy, and FPDM government, it hereafter built it foreign policy after in military regime does not entail broad consensus that of the previous military regime. In one case, in which is a feature of a democratic as decision are following suits of Murtala/Obasanjo, which personalized [4]. recognised MPLA in Angola, the Buhari regime recognised Polisario government in Western Sahara Foreign Policy Decision Making (FPDM) Under despite opposition from fellow African states. The Democratic Government regime also re-launched commitment to the liberation A democratic government is that in which power of South Africa from the apartheid regime [6]. The is vested in the people, and it is exercised by them key features of the General Muhammadu Buhari 44 P-ISSN 2362-8022 | E-ISSN 2362-8030 | www.apjeas.apjmr.com Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, October 2017 ______foreign policy wereits relations with Nigeria were released and return home from Britain, the ECOWAS neighbours, Nigeria-Africa relations and a British Jet was also released and allowed to return to diplomaticface-off between Nigeria-Britain. London [7], [31], [4]. In international relations, the withdrawal or recall Nigeria-United Kingdom Relations of ambassadors or high commissioner is always a sign Nigeria has been a former colony of United of escalation or serious rift between countries in the Kingdom; both countries enjoyed peaceful and cordial conduct of relations between each other. Due to relations. However, in 1984 there was a break in diplomatic escalation as a result of the Dikko Affair, diplomatic relations between both countries due to the the Nigerian government recalled its high “Dikko affair”. Umar Dikko was an influential commissioner in London, General Halidu Hanania for minister in the toppled ShehuShagari civilian consultation, because he was summoned by Britain administration, with the coup d‟état which toppled foreign office and was requested to submit himself to Shagari‟s regime, General Buhari government police questioning, these were clear contravention his released a list of former government officials accused diplomatic immunity, in response Nigeria called on of corrupt practices. Umar Dikko was top on the list London to recall its high commissioner in Lagos Sir and was accused of syphoning about six billion dollars Hamilton Whyter. Britain later compiled by recalling from the national treasury. However, Dikko escaped its top diplomat after much pressure. The standoff Nigeria and found succour in the United Kingdom between both countries was the hallmark of Buhari‟s where he came to a critic of Buhari‟s junta and even junta foreign policy with her former colonial masters. promised to lead a holy war against the junta. There To this effect, there were even calls for the was an attempt to kidnap him on July 5,1984; the downgrading of economic relations and breaking of action was carried out by Nigeria‟s diplomats and diplomatic ties with Britain as a result of this issue. MOSSAD officers from Israel. Dikko was kidnaped The junta claimed that its decision on foreign policy and drugged by MOSSAD with the help of an Israeli was informed by national interest because the former medical Doctor, he was packaged in a crate which had ruling elites had bastardised the economy which was a Mossad agent Shapiro, which was to be flown out of complimented by dwindling fall in oil prices made it UK with Nigeria Airways Boeing 707 which had imperative for the junta to take action which has a arrived the UK, and however, Dikko‟s secretary nationalistic outlook and was commended by the witnessed the kidnap and promptly reported to populace in the country [9]. authorities. The crates were opened at the airport these led to freeing of Dikko and arrest of the Israeli agents Nigeria-United States of America Relations and Nigerians involved. In continuation of it Afro-centric policy and strive This action of Nigeria led to a serious diplomatic to rid the continent of Apartheid regimes and colonial spat between both countries. Seventeen individuals rules. The Buhari government tried to exact some were arrested while four were convicted and jailed, influence on Ronald Regan government to secure they included three Israelis Abithol, Barak, Shapita independence for Southern Africa state of Namibia and a Nigerian Major Yusuf. After the failed attempt, independence and the withdrawal of Cuban troops Nigeria government formally requested for the from Angola. One enormous success of the extradition of Dikko;Britain rejected this. The administration was the appointment of Joseph Garba, Nigerian government also retaliated by arresting two a Major General as Nigeria permanent representative British engineers for stealing an aircraft. Another to United Nations. He was subsequently elected as UN diplomatic implication was the grounding of Nigeria special committee against Apartheid. Through the Airways Boeing 707 and the expulsion of two instrumentality of Joseph Garba, Nigeria was able to Nigerian diplomats from London; they include Peter recruit non-governmental organisation, business Oyedele (Counselor) and EdetOkon (attaché). The leaders, and civil societies to lobby the America Nigeria government retaliated with the suspension of political establishment with regards to Southern British diplomats; Head of Chancery in Lagos John Africa states. Companies such as Kellogg, Gulf Oil, Harrison and diplomatic attaché. This was also Bechtel Corporation and Mobil while personalities followed up by the grounding and seizure of British such as Reverend Jesse Jackson, Anthony Solomon Caledonian jet which was carrying 221 passengers and and David Rockefeller were all enlisted to push 22 crew members. However, when the Nigeria crews forward Nigeria‟s foreign policy thrust on the 45 P-ISSN 2362-8022 | E-ISSN 2362-8030 | www.apjeas.apjmr.com Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, October 2017 ______

Southern Africa states. It is noteworthy that much and to the north Niger Republic. On assumption of was not achieved during Buhari government with the office in 1984, the Federal Military Government US, as president Regan at no time showed any interest (FMG) sent a delegation led by Major-General in relations with Nigeria, as a result of these relations Domkat Bali; the Nigerian defense minister to the between both countries were strained [7; 31]. three countries that shared border with Nigeria to assure them of commitment of new government to Nigeria- Africa Relations foster relations with the countries, and seek their Nigeria since independence has pursued an cooperation towards the enhancement of Nigeria Afrocentric foreign policy; which implies that Africa national security, check cross-border smuggling and is the centrepiece of Nigeria foreign policy. As stated prevent hostile action against Nigerians living in these above, the regime continued to toe the foreign policy countries.Meeting were held with Mathieu Kerekou of of Murtala/Obasanjo regime with regards to Africa, Benin, Paul Biya of Cameroon, Seyni Koantche of especially the liberation of the Africa continents as a Niger and Tahiru Ginaso of Chad on 11-17 January whole from the shackles of colonialism and apartheid 1984. regimes, with Namibia and South Africa topping its However, relations between these countries went agenda. The administration reasserted the need for sour less than just a month of sending diplomatic liberation by contributions to the Organization of emissaries. Two factors were said to have influenced African Union (O.A.U) liberation committee. these decisions; Security implication as religious Nigerian foreign affairs minister, Ibrahim Gambari, crises which occurred in Yola Adamawa state which undertook a tour of states under these colonial and was blamed on aliens from neighbouring countries apartheid rule to assert the government commitments and Economic implication; ruling elites were leaving towards the liberation of the continent. The the country through the various porous borders with a appointment of Murtala/Obasanjoerst while minister large sum of money which could cripple the economy of foreign affairs as Nigeria Permanent representatives if allowed escape. The border was closed between to UN and his subsequent election as the chairman of April 25 and May 6, 1984. The security implication UN anti-apartheid committee boosted the regime role was as a result of February 1984 religious violence in fighting colonial and apartheid rule in Africa. which broke out in Yola Adamawa state claiming the Another milestone in Nigeria-Africa relations under lives of over 100 military and police officerswere General Buhari regime was its recognition of Polisario reportedly killed while over 1,000 civilians lost their Front as the legitimate representatives of Western lives. The minister of internal affairs Brigadier Sahara and Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic Muhammadu Magoro accused foreigners of been (SADR). The government condemned the occupation responsible for the crises and directed that Nigeria of Western Sahara by the government in Morocco and borders with neighbouring countries be closed and call for decolonisation and granting of independence armed with military officers to prevent illegal entry, to the Western Sahara. The government positionwas with over 700,000 immigrants ordered to leave hinged on the fact that it cannot continue to call for an Nigeria, these led to straining of relations between end to the colonisation of Africa by foreigners and Nigeria and this member nation still condoneconquest of Africa by Africans. This Economic Implication: One of the key reason for gave an impetus to the liberation struggle by the overtaking the Shagari government was its people of Western Sahara [10]. mishandling of Nation economy which was characterised by greed and corruption especially at Nigeria-ECOWAS Members Relations high echelon of government, coupled with oil glut in Economic Community of West African States early 1980‟s. The three policy of border closure, (ECOWAS) was created to facilitate free movements medication of the naira (national currency) and of citizens of the 15-member nations within the expulsion of illegal aliens had an impact on Nigeria‟s region, however, like it, relations with the former and its member‟s relations. The border was closed to colonial masters, Nigeria relations with its curtail excessive smuggling which occurs at Nigeria neighbourswas everything but friendly. These alluded borders with neighbouring countries which to some factors which will be discussedin the paper. havebecome a feature of commercial and trade To the east Nigeria shares border with Cameroon, to relations. The closure was justified by external affairs the west, it shares a border with the Benin Republic, minister who said:“to have a weak Nigeria, 46 P-ISSN 2362-8022 | E-ISSN 2362-8030 | www.apjeas.apjmr.com Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, October 2017 ______economically, nor to have a Nigeria whose currency is attributed to the fact that Chad has always been central a subject of trafficking all over” [4, pp. 161]. Another to security issues in Nigeria due to its closeness and economic implication was the fact that second previous encounters when Chadians invaded Nigeria republic politicians had run the country to ground territories. The Nigérien President Kountche took a economically, and with the coup, they were escaping diplomatic tour to Nigeria in order to persuade the through the countries porous borders and making government of Nigeria to reconsider the policy, away with their loots from the national treasury. because the policy severely affected the country Furthermore, he stated that borders had to be closed because the country is landlocked and depends on because of the government determination “to look Nigeria for Gas and Petroleum, there was also inward and record it priorities internally, to check economic cooperation between both countries through indiscipline; to consider the value of our currency to the Nigeria-Niger Joint Commission on Economic check smuggling and then put our trade relations on a Cooperation which is located in Niamey the Niger positive path with our neighbours.” capital with a Nigerian as the secretary general. Both The impact of the policy was immense in these countries also share cultural ties as a good number of border countries, for Niger the closure was adversely Nigériens are Hausa speakers. affecting it economy because it was a landlocked The government also without prior notice expelled country which depended on Nigeria for supplies of foreign nationals in the country especially those from petroleum products, The presidents of Benin, Niger ECOWAS region, those expelled were those with Republic, Chad, all visited Nigeria in a bid to get illegal entry visa or expired visa and overstayed their concession from the government of Nigeria on the welcome in the country. This action further infuriated issue of border closure. the member nations who call to question Nigeria The border closure issue became an international leadership in ECOWAS, as the action defeats the goal economic and diplomacy issue. The Benin Republic, of the creation of ECOWAS which was to aid free for example, was affected by the closure, these were movements of citizens of member nations. attributed to cultural and historical ties between both Submissively, it could be arguedthat relations between countries, they also share economic ties because of Nigeria and its immediate neighbourswere not cordial. some strategic projects sited in Benin and Nigeria In the international arena, the junta was unable to which benefits both countries these include the continue on the path of General Murtala/Obasanjo training of Béninois at the Nigeria College of Aviation regime; thiswas attributed to the state of the economy Technology at Zaria, academic collaboration between in the country which was in the bad state as a result of University of the Republic of Benin and the mismanagement of the economy by the previous University of Ibadan for the training of Béninois. Also civilian regime. [11], Summed General Buhari junta economic projects such as Save Sugar project and by saying Onigbolo Cement project. There was also a military collaboration with the 1979 agreement which allowed The continued decline in oil price and the cooperation in security and military between both inability of OPEC to do much to change the countries and finally, both countries share cultural ties situation, and the Counter-Trade and other because 15% of Béninois are Yoruba speaking people. alternative economic arrangements into which All these were affected due to the closure of the Nigeria was forced, could not bring about the border. With regards to the Chad Republic, it took an much-desired autonomy of action, under the international diplomacy aspect because of the conflict General Muhammadu Buhari's regime [11, pp. which has displaced a lot of people. 187). The Americans and French tried to persuade the Nigeria leader to reconsider the closure, American Achievement and Summary of General Buhari president sent General Vernon Walters as a special foreign policy envoy to Nigeria in order to convince Buhari on need  In keeping in line with the country Afrocentric to reopen the border in order to aid the passage of policy, the regime continued to push for relief materials and urgent supplies to refugees who decolonisation and end to apartheid in SADR. have been displaced as a result of conflict in Chad. This finally culminated in eventual independence However, the border remained closed despite for South Africa, the recognition of Nigeria to diplomatic overtures to the Nigerian leader; thiswas 47 P-ISSN 2362-8022 | E-ISSN 2362-8030 | www.apjeas.apjmr.com Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, October 2017 ______

SADR also granted impetus to the SADR calls for Nigeria- ECOWAS Countries Relations independence. During his campaign for election to the  In international economic relations, the regime presidency of Nigeria, Muhammadu Buhari promised was able to pursue an independent policy despite to tackle head-on three main issue of Insecurity (Boko pressure from capitalist bodies such as IMF & Haram Insurgency), Corruption and Economy World Bank for the devaluation of Naira due to development. Before his declaration as president, economic imbalance. The regime was able to Boko Haram had taken over swat of Nigerian maintain the value of naira against dollars and territories and declaring an Islamic state within the provide basic service for the populace. Nigeria territory. Apart from Nigeria, the Boko Haram  The regime was able to pursue an independent terrorism took a transnational dimension by carrying foreign policy without unnecessary influence from out attacks in Nigeria and receding into the her former colonial master- the United Kingdom, neighbouring countries. Multinational Joint Task or other western power. The regime was able to Force (MNJTF) which was charged with the pursue a foreign policy which isimportant to the responsibility of insurgency in the Lake Chad region achievement of her national interest. was not effective although it tried to curtail the  Through the instrumentality of international activities of Boko Haram as members countries organisation such as O.A.U and U.N, the regime contributed to the war against Boko Haram in Nigeria. pushed for the independence of states under With onslaught against the group by MNJTF member colonial rules. countries, Boko Haram soon targeted these countries Nigeria Foreign Policy under President for daring to aid Nigeria in the fight against terrorism, Muhammadu Buhari 2015-2017 thereby giving the Boko Haram action an international President Muhammadu Buhari won the election dimension [12 & 13]. It was observed that MNJTF the 2015 election by defeating the incumbent was not effective and efficient as Boko Haram even president Goodluck Jonathan. The election which was overran it base in Baga Borno State, and went ahead conducted on March 28, 2015, saw the former military to commit one of the most heinous crimes against leader returning to power, making him the second humanity when it massacred the locals in Baga town Nigeria‟s former military leader elected under a [14; 32]. democratic rule. Factors which contributed to On the assumption of office, President President Buhari success at polls could be attributed to Muhammadu Buhari first trip overseas was to the the failure of the former government to deal decisively Niger Republic on June 3, 2015. The Cameroon with the Boko Haram terrorism which was badly president also attended the meeting; the trip was on affected Nigeria‟s image in the international Anti-Boko Haram summit which was aimed at community. President Buhari hinged his campaign discussing the regional offensive against the group. promises on three cardinal points which include, The Nigerien President Combating Terrorism, Fighting Corruption and MahamadouIssoufoucommitted his countries resolve Improving on the economy. to help Nigeria tackle the growing threats of Boko As stated earlier, foreign policy under a Haram which has continued to threaten peace and democratic government involves a lot stages for stability in the region. It was also agreed that MNJTF planning and execution. The main foreign policy headquarters be relocated from Nigeria to N'Djamena under president Buhari government includes in Chad an appointment of a Nigerian as the improving relations with its neighbors in order to commander of the organisation. The meeting was jointly fight Boko Haram which assumed a followed up with a visit to Chad on June 4, 2017; multinational or transnational dimension, partner with thisvisit was followed up by a bilateral meeting with US and other world power to support the government President Paul Biyaof Cameroon. Although Benin in order to fight terrorism by providing needed republic was not affected by the insurgent activities of manpower and intelligence, and more importantly Boko Haram, Buhari visited Benin republic and these improvement of economy and fighting corruption, visited was reciprocated by Benin President BoniYayi improved relations with China in order to foster who committed troops to the MNJTF to combat economic development through provision of needed terrorist activities in the country [35]. infrastructure. As Onapajo [15] and Waddington[16] argued, the shuttle diplomacy by President Buhari to his West 48 P-ISSN 2362-8022 | E-ISSN 2362-8030 | www.apjeas.apjmr.com Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, October 2017 ______

Africa neighbors played a decisive role in limiting the of Nigeria which is the heartbeat of the Boko Haram capabilities of Boko Haram to strike in Nigeria and insurgency. The trip also afforded president Buharian recede to these neighboring countries as shield against opportunity to meet Treasury Secretary, Attorney Nigeria forces, this diplomatic relation between these General Loretta E. Lynch and Bob Work the Deputy ECOWAS countries help curtail the activities of Boko Defense Secretary [7], [19], [20]. Haram. Under the administration of Donald Trump, Apart from using foreign relations to tackle Boko nothing seems to have changed, as US Department of Haram insurgency, president Buhari played a key role Justice recently filed a civil complaint for the as the chief mediator in solving the constitutional forfeiture of money ($144 million) which are from impasse in Gambia, where President Yahaya Jammeh corrupt proceedings by former Nigerian minister of initially refused to give up power to democratically petroleum Diezani Alison-Madueke. The DOJ was elected president Adama barrow, President Buhari said to have accused the former minister and two was tasked by ECOWAS to led a negotiation with accomplices in the name of Olajide Omokore and Jammeh in order to concede power to Kola Aluko of fronting for the former minister Barrow.President Buhari resolves for a peaceful through oil lifting contracts which were awarded to transition and the need to avoid violence which could the duo without due process. The DOJ seeks the lead to a civil war and a possible a humanitarian forfeiture to return these assets to benefit the populace disaster for the ECOWAS sub-region. The negotiation which is harmed by this corrupt practice [21]. [22] was fruitful, and former president Jammeh conceded agreed and stated that US government officials saw power and stepped aside [17], [18]. the election of Buhari as an avenue to aid the President Muhammadu Buhari made it a cardinal government‟s anti-corruption drive and on the larger objective of his foreign policy to pursue its national extent improve bi-lateral relations This action can be interest by maintaining good relations with its linked the agreement between Buhari administration immediate neighbours. The result of this was an and DOJ under Loretta E. Lynch for collaboration to improvement on the counter-insurgency war which fight corruption and assist Nigeria to recover its loots led to decimation of Boko Haram. domiciled in the US and other western countries. The Trump administration also demonstrated Nigeria-United States Relations efforts to aid Buhari administration in his fight against Unlike his predecessor, Muhammadu Buhari Boko Haram with the proposed sales to military enjoyed somewhat better relations, the grudge equipment to Nigeria, Nigeria was earlier blacklisted between Obama Administration and Goodluck under President Jonathan, this led to declining for a Administration over the handling of Boko Haram request for the purchase of military equipment. The insurgency especially the kidnap of Chibok girls and proposed sale included 12 Ember A-29 Super Tucano Human Rights abuses committed by the military. aircraft. The proposed arms sell also got the approval Relations between both countries under Buhari of Senators in US Congress who had earlier blocked administration started with a high-level diplomatic the sales under Obama administration citing Leahy meeting between Obama and Buhari which held at law which prohibited the US from selling arms to Oval on the 20th July 2016. President Obama countries where their militaries have cases of human committed that the United States will assist the right abuses [24], [23]. government of Nigeria, tackle the growing threats of Boko Haram and countering violent extremism. Nigeria-China Relations President Buhari also requested Obama administration China has been termed the fastest growing to assist the government in curtailing corruption which economy and the second largest economy in the world has continued to plague the country, also seek the and Nigeria have been trying to establish a balance of assistance of the government towards improving the power with China in economic and diplomatic economy which included reforms in the energy sector relations. Both countries share demographic and by stopping oil theft. The meeting was followed up by geographic significance in their continent. With China a meeting with Vice President Joe Biden where it was continuous aggressive expansion regarding agreed that the USwould assist Nigeria to root out commercial, technical and economic matters Nigeria corruption, ensure stability in the economy and also has become an important player in Africa with regards the policy with special reference to a Northern region to China new strategic expansion. Owing to its large 49 P-ISSN 2362-8022 | E-ISSN 2362-8030 | www.apjeas.apjmr.com Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, October 2017 ______population Nigeria is considered a large market. On Table 1. Showing Infrastructural Project Agreement the hand also, Nigeria and other Africa countries, Signed Between China and Buhari Administration. considers China a partner in development due to S/n Amount Project infrastructure loans which it provides at interest rates 1 $ 1.231 Lagos-Kano modernization lower than what is obtainable from Bretton Woods billion projects, Lagos-Ibadan segment institutions (World Bank and International Monetary 2 $1.146 billion Lagos-Kano railway modernization Fund). The importance of China has been affirmed by project, Kano-Kaduna segment a wide range of analyst and academics, CNN asserted 3 $ 3.474 Lagos-Calabar Coastal Rail project billion that the US is the most significant nation on the world 4 $ 6.1 billion Ibadan–Ilorin–Minna-Kaduna– stage, but China is de-facto leader of the global st Kano line economy in the 21 century [25]. 5 $ 1.4 billion Lagos to Ibadan Rail Project Barely one year after assumption of office, 6 $ 15 billion Agricultural Development President Muhammadu Buhari visited China, the visit 7 $ 2 billion Dangote Group Cement Project was on the heels of invitation by Chinese president Xi 8 $478 million Construction of 300 Mega Watts Jinping. The visitwas aimed at solidification of both solar power in Shiroro, Niger State countries trade, diplomatic and economic relations 9 $55 million Construction and equipping of between both countries. The visit led to the signing of granite mining plant the framework to enhance infrastructural development 10 $1 billion Greenfield expressway for Abuja- and industrial activities in Nigeria between National Ibadan-Lagos Development Reform Commission of China and 11 $250 million Ultra-modern 27-storey high rise Ministry of Industry, Trade and investment of Nigeria; complex Technological and Scientific Cooperation between 12 $1 billion Hi-tech industrial park in Ogun- Guangdong Free Trade Zone both countries, the visit lasted for one week. In the 13 $200 million Construction of two 500MT/day aftermath of the visit, a number of the loan was float gas facilities granted to Nigeria especially to finance the deficit of 14 $363 million Comprehensive farm and 2016 budget, infrastructure loan for trains, among downstream industrial park others. 15 $500 million Project for the provision of The rail project as argued by the government was television broadcast equipment aimed at solving the infrastructure deficit in the 16 $25 million Facility for production of pre-paid country, also provide needed jobs for the populace, smart meters and most importantly stimulate the economy. The Source [34] government took a bold step towards breaking the hegemony of USD in the Nigeria market by signing a On the issue of Taiwan, which China has refused deal which allows for Chinese currency Yuan to be to recogniseas an independent state but as a province used for transaction in the country. This will facilitate of China, President Muhammadu Buhari recently inclusion of Yuan in the country‟s foreign reserve and assured Chinese foreign minister of its resolve to also allow banks to allow Yuan transaction from adopt the “one China policy”. This policy ensures that foreign and local investors alike. The Industrial and there is only one state called China and Taiwan and Commercial Bank of China also provided $2 billion to mainland China isincontrovertible part of a single AlikoDangote for funding of his cement factories. China. In keeping with this policy, the government in Apart from Economic relations between both Nigeria ordered the Taiwanese embassy out of the countries, the countries also enjoy good diplomatic federal capital which means downgrading of relations between both countries, China recently stated diplomatic relations with Taiwan, and itsmovement to it full support for Nigeria‟s quest for a permanent seat Lagos. However, it maintains minimal trade relations on the United Nations Security Council, Chinese and consular activities with Taiwan which will be parliament speaker Zhang Dejiang made this known domiciled in Lagos. The minister of foreign affairs during a meeting with his Nigerian counterpart minister, Geoffrey Onyeama made the policy Yakubu Dogara, this was part of effort to reform the statement stating that “Taiwan will stop enjoying any UN and accommodate countries from another region. privileges because it is not a country that is recognized [26]. under international law” stating the country justification for a trade relation the minister stated that 50 P-ISSN 2362-8022 | E-ISSN 2362-8030 | www.apjeas.apjmr.com Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, October 2017 ______

“Chinese Government does not oppose trading with corruption which has become endemic in the Taiwan as long as there is no formal contact with the country. government that will suggest recognition of Taiwan as sovereign country” (Yusuf, 2017). Nigeria decision CONCLUSION can be justified in the sense that Taiwan possesses less The paper concludes that there was a major shift economic leverage in comparison to China. Nigeria- in Muhammadu Buhari foreign policy under his Taiwan economic relations which cover seafood, military and civilian regimes. Under the military industrial equipment, natural gas and other food regime, General Buhari pursued a more radical product stood at $800 million in 2016, compared to foreign policy direct which was anti-west and anti- $6.4 billion trade relations between Nigeria-China in capitalist. Also with regards to Nigeria neighbours in just first half of 2016 [27], [28]. the West Africa sub-region. This action could be Conclusively, it can be argued that under linked to the environment which the government took President Muhammadu Buhari, Nigeria-Sino relations over the leadership of the country. These situations have been taken to great heights with improvement in include acolonial rule in southern Africa, smuggling bilateral economic and diplomatic relations between and economic sabotage which was aided by Nigerian both countries. neighbours, among others. While on the other hand, the civilian regime there was a change in the Achievement and Summary of President Buhari personality of President Buhari foreign policy Foreign Policy 2015-2017 postulations. President Buhari maintained good  In two years of the administration, the government relations with its neighbours to fight Boko Haram has been able to improve its foreign relations with insurgency, the administration also improved bilateral Nigeria neighbours which are ECOWAS and relations with China to cater for countries economic LAKE CHAD Commission members. These as imbalance, despite the relations with China, Nigeria also helped the government achieved some level also maintained good relations with the United States. of success in the fight against Boko Haram insurgency which has taken an international REFERENCES dimension. [1] Levy, J. S. (2013). Psychology and foreign policy  Buhari administration has been able to forge decision-making. H Leonie, DO Sears & JS Levy important diplomatic and economic relations with (red.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology, 301-333. China, which is a growing economicpowerhouse [2] Fawcett, L. (2016). International relations of the in the global economy. This relation has provided Middle East.Oxford University Press. the country with needed funds to cushion the [3] Aning, K., Abdallah, M., & Kofi, F. (2017). 12 effect of the infrastructural deficit. This provided Responding to Boko Haram. Understanding Boko the nation needed foreign direct investments. Haram: Terrorism and Insurgency in Africa, 237.  On the international scene, Nigeria has gained [4] Yakubu, Y. A., (2014) Nigeria‟s Foreign Policy: A more respect under Buhari administration this is Basic Text. Zaria. ABU Press. largely attributed to his personality and committed [5] Teniola, E. (2015, August 23). Making a fight against corruption and insecurity in the scapegoat.DailyTrust url: https://goo.gl/FrQDG8 country. This was evident at the invitation of [6] Akinboye, S.O., (2005) Nigeria‟s Foreign Policy in Anifowese, R., &Enemuo, F.C., (Eds) Elements of President Buhari to G7 meeting immediately after Politics. (364-383). Lagos.Sam Iroanusi he was sworn in. Publications.  President Buhari assumed leadership in [7] Abegunrin, O. (2003). Nigerian foreign policy under negotiation for the peaceful return of military rule, 1966-1999. Greenwood Publishing democratically elected government in the Gambia. Group. Recently President Buhari was appointed to lead [8] Kolawole, D. (Ed.). (2004). Nigeria's foreign policy AU anti-corruption drive in the region. since independence: trends, phases, and changes.  Unlike his predecessor, President Buhari was able Julius and Julius. [9] Akinterinwa, B. A. (Ed.). (2004). Nigeria's New to improve relations between Nigeria and the Foreign Policy Thrust: Essays in Honour of United States which has led to improving Ambassador OluyemiAdeniji, CON, at 70. Vintage collaboration in the fight against Boko Haram and Publishers.

51 P-ISSN 2362-8022 | E-ISSN 2362-8030 | www.apjeas.apjmr.com Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, Vol. 4 No. 4, October 2017 ______

[10] Kia, B., Nwigbo, T. S., & Ojie, P. A. (2016). Foreign [25] Aja, A.A. (2012) “Nigeria-China Relations: Policy Strategy of the Federal Republic of Nigeria Dynamics, Challenges and Strategic Options”, in. 1960-2012: The Missing Link. Journal of Thomas A. Imobighe and Warisu O. Alli (eds.) International Relations and Foreign Policy, 4(1), 21- Perspectives on Nigeria‟s National Politics and 38. External Relations. Essays in honor of Professor A. [11] Osaghae, E. E. (1998). Crippledgiant: Nigeria since BolajiAkinyemi. Ibadan. University Press. independence. Indiana University Press. [26] Tijani, M. (2015, August 31) China „backs‟ Nigeria [12] Bello, I. &Dutse, A. I. (2017). The Political for permanent UN seat. Retrieved from Economic Impact of Boko Haram Terrorism on https://goo.gl/p578tH Nigeria‟s Development, Presented at Transforming [27] Ayobolu, J. (2016, July 28). Gains of Buhari‟s Correctional, Rehabilitation and Crime Policies Shuttle Economic Diplomacy to China. Retrieved towards Human Well-being Conference on https://goo.gl/MWMwT1 Correction and Criminal Justice 2017, SOIS [28] Kuo, L. (2017, January 12). After getting a $40 Auditorium, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 17th August billion pledge from China, Nigeria ordered Taiwan‟s 2017. Sintok: unofficial embassy to move out. Retrieved from [13] Johnson-Rokosu, S. F., &Enobi, A. L. (2016). https://goo.gl/7swXPX Terrorism Financing: The Socio-Economic and [29] Musa, A., Bashir, M., and Bello, I. (2017). The Political Implications of Boko Haram Insurgency in Impact of Civil War on Nigerian Foreign Lake Chad Basin. Policy.Social and Administrative Review.3 (1) pp. [14] Akinbi, O. J. (2015). Examining the Boko Haram [30] Abegunrin, O. (2009). Africa in global politics in the Insurgency in Northern Nigeria and the Quest for a twenty-first century: a pan-African perspective. Permanent Resolution of the Crisis. Global Journal Springer. of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(8), 32-45. [31] Abegunrin, O. (2016). Nigeria, Africa, and the [15] Onapajo, H. (2017). Has Nigeria Defeated Boko United States: Challenges of Governance, Haram? An Appraisal of the Counter-Terrorism Development, and Security. Lexington Books. Approach under the Buhari Administration. Strategic [32] Oluwadare, A. J. (2016). Boko Haram Terrorism in Analysis, 41(1), 61-73. the Lake Chad Basin Region: Implications for Sub [16] Waddington, C. (2015). In the fight against Boko Regional Security. Journal of International & Global Haram, the Multinational Joint Task Force limps Studies, 8(1). forward: West Africa-issue in focus. Africa Conflict [33] Igwe, S. C., Abdullah, M. A. I. L., Kirmanj, S., Fage, Monitor, 2015(Jul 2015), 50-54. K. S., & Bello, I. (2017). An Assessment of the [17] Kora, S., &Darboe, M. N. (2017). The Gambia's Motivations for the 2011 Nato Intervention in Libya Electoral Earthquake. Journal of Democracy, 28(2), and Its Implications for Africa. Canadian Social 147-156. Science, 13(4), 1-12. [18] Hartmann, C. (2017). ECOWAS and the Restoration [34] Tanimu, A.M.T (2016, April 10). New Agreement of Democracy in the Gambia. Africa Spectrum, and MOU Between Nigeria And China To Be Signed 52(1), 85-99. As President Buhari Visits China. Retrieved from [19] Harris, G.T. (2015, July 21). President Obama‟s http://www.nta.ng/news/investment/20160410-new- Meeting with Nigerian President agreement-and-mou-between-nigeria-and-china-to- MuhammaduBuhari. Retrieved from be-signed-as-president-buhari-visits-china/ https://goo.gl/dHgPPR [35] Bello, I., &Dutse, A. I. (2017). Fight Against [20] Blanchard, L. P., & Husted, T. F. (2016). Nigeria: Terrorism and Economic Development as Key Current issues and US policy. Congressional Nigeria‟s Foreign Policy Objectives Under Research Service. MuhammaduBuhari 2015-2017. Asian Journal of [21] Campbell, J. (2017, July 19). The U.S. Justice Multidisciplinary Studies, 5(9). 123-128 Department and Kleptocracy in Nigeria. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/pUaPPw [22] Page, M. T. (2016). Improving US Anticorruption Policy in Nigeria.Council on Foreign Relations. [23] Iroegbu, S. (2016, May 17). Obama Mulls Visit as US Okays Sale of 12 Attack Aircraft to Nigeria. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/zRZ8zD [24] Gional, F. (2017) Nigeria‟s war on Boko Haram gets US armament boost. Africa Conflict Monitor 2017 (5) 29-33

52 P-ISSN 2362-8022 | E-ISSN 2362-8030 | www.apjeas.apjmr.com