The Cambridge Guide to African American History Raymond Gavins Frontmatter More Information

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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10339-9 — The Cambridge Guide to African American History Raymond Gavins Frontmatter More Information

The Cambridge Guide to African American History

This book emphasizes blacks’ agency and achievements in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, notably outcomes of the Civil Rights Movement. To consider the means or strategies that African Americans utilized in pursuing their aspirations and struggles for freedom and equality, readers can consult subjects delineating ideological, institutional, and organizational aspects of black priorities, with tactics of resistance or dissent, over time and place. The entries include but are not limited to Afro-American Studies; Anti-Apartheid Movement; Antilynching Campaign; Antislavery Movement; Black Power Movement; Constitution, US (1789); Conventions, National Negro; Desegregation; Durham Manifesto (1942); Feminism; Four Freedoms; Haitian Revolution; Jobs Campaigns; the March on Washington (1963); March on Washington Movement (MOWM); New Negro Movement; Niagara Movement; Pan-African Movement; Religion; Slavery; Violence, Racial; and the Voter Education Project. While pro- viding an important reference and learning tool, this volume offers a critical perspective on the actions and legacies of ordinary and elite blacks and their nonblack allies.

Raymond Gavins is professor of history at Duke University. He is the author of The Perils and Prospects of Southern Black Leadership (1993) and dozens of scholarly articles, essays, book chapters, and reviews. He co-edited Remembering Jim Crow (2001). The co-recipient of the Oral History Association Distinguished Project Award (1996) and the Lillian Smith Book Award (2002), he received the John W. Blassingame Award for “distinguished scholarship and mentorship in African American history” (2008).

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10339-9 — The Cambridge Guide to African American History Raymond Gavins Frontmatter More Information

The Cambridge Guide to African American History

RAYMOND GAVINS Duke University

University Printing House, Cambridge cb2 8bs, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, ny 10006, usa 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vic 3207, Australia 4843/24, 2nd Floor, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, Delhi - 110002, India 79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107103399 © Raymond Gavins 2016 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2016 A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data Gavins, Raymond, author. The Cambridge guide to African American history / Raymond Gavins, Duke University. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978-1-107-10339-9 (hardback) – isbn 978-1-107-50196-6 (pbk.) 1. African Americans–History. I. Title. e185.g33 2015 973´.0496073–dc23 2015029273 isbn 978-1-107-10339-9 Hardback isbn 978-1-107-50196-6 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Contents

Preface page xiii Cross References xvii

Entries 1 Abbott, Robert S. 1 Abele, Julian F. 2 Afi rmative Action 3 Africa 4 African Blood Brotherhood (ABB) 7 Afro-American Studies 8 Agriculture 9 AIDS 11 Ali, Muhammad 12 Allen, Richard 12 American Revolution 13 Anderson, Marian 14 Angelou, Maya 15 Anticommunism 16 Antilynching Campaign 16 Antislavery Movement 17 Antiterror Wars 18 Apartheid 19 Architecture 20 Art 21 Ashe, Arthur R. 23 Associated Negro Press (ANP) 24 Atlanta Compromise (1895) 24 Back-to-Africa Movement 25

vi Contents

Baker, Ella J. 25 Baker v. Carr (1962) 26 Bakke v. Board of Regents of California (1978) 27 Baldwin, James 28 Barnett, Claude A. 29 Bates, Daisy L. 29 Bethune, Mary McLeod 30 Birth of a Nation, The (1915) 31 Black Arts Movement 32 Black Belt 32 Black Bourgeoisie (1957) 33 Black Manifesto (1969) 33 Black Nationalism 34 Black Panther Party (BPP) 35 Black Power Movement 36 Black Towns 37 Bloody Sunday 38 Bond, Horace M. 38 Bond, Julian 39 Bouchet, Edward A. 40 Brooke, Edward W. 41 Brooks, Gwendolyn E. 42 Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP) 43 Brown, Charlotte Hawkins 43 Brown, James N. (Jim) 44 Brown v. Board of Education (1954) 45 Buchanan v. Warley (1917) 46 Buffalo Soldiers 47 Bunche, Ralph J. 47 Business 48 Caesar, Shirley 52 Capitalism 52 Carmichael, Stokely (Kwame Turé) 53 Carver, George Washington 54 Chesnutt, Charles W. 55 Children’s Defense Fund (CDF) 56 Chisholm, Shirley A. 57 Cities 57 Civil Rights Act of 1957 59 Civil Rights Act of 1964 60 Civil Rights Act of 1968 60 Civil Rights Movement (CRM) 61 Civil War 63

Contents vii

Clark, Kenneth B. 64 Clark, Septima P. 65 Clubs 66 Cold War 66 Colonialism 67 Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 68 Constitution, US (1789) 68 Conventions, National Negro 70 Convict-Lease System 70 Cooper, Anna Julia 71 Cosby, William H. (Bill) 72 Dance 74 Davis, Angela Y. 76 Davis, W. Allison 77 Death Penalty 78 Delany, Martin R. 78 DePriest, Oscar S. 79 Desegregation 80 Divine, Father (George Baker) 82 Douglass, Frederick 83 Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) 83 Drew, Charles R. 84 Du Bois, W. E. B. 85 Durham Manifesto (1942) 86 Education 87 Ellison, Ralph 90 Emancipation 90 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) 91 Evers, Medgar W. 92 Executive Order 9981 (1948) 93 Exodusters 93 Family 95 Farmer, James L. 96 Farrakhan, Louis A. 97 Feminism 98 Film 100 Fisher, Miles Mark 101 Foreign Affairs 102 “Forty Acres and a Mule” 103 Four Freedoms 104 Franklin, Aretha L. 105 Franklin, John Hope 105 Fraternal Orders and Lodges 106

viii Contents

Fraternities 107 Free African Society (FAS) 108 Free Blacks 108 Freedmen’s Bank 109 Freedmen’s Bureau 109 Freedom Rides 110 Freedom Summer 111 Freedom Train 111 Fugitive Slave Act (1850) 112 Garvey, Marcus M. 113 Ghetto 113 G. I. Bill (1944) 114 Gibson, Althea 114 Gospel of Freedom 115 Graves, Earl G. 116 Great Depression 117 Great Migration 118 Haitian Revolution 119 Hall, Prince 119 Hamer, Fannie Lou 120 Hampton–Tuskegee Idea 121 Hancock, Gordon B. 122 Handy, William C. (W. C.) 122 Harlem Renaissance 123 Harris, Abram L. 124 Hastie, William H. 125 Height, Dorothy I. 126 Higginbotham, H. Leon 127 Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) 128 Hope, John 129 Horne, Lena M. 129 Houston, Charles H. 130 Hughes, Langston 131 Humphrey–Hawkins Bill (1976) 132 Immigration 134 Indentured Servitude 134 Indian Wars 135 Institute of the Black World (IBW) 136 Interracial Relations 136 Jackson, Jesse L. 138 Jackson, Luther P. 138 Jackson, Mahalia 139 Jackson, Michael J. 140

Contents ix

Jacobs, Harriet A. 141 Jemison, Mae C. 142 Jobs Campaigns 143 John Brown’s Raid 143 John Henryism 144 Johnson, John A. (Jack) 144 Johnson, John H. 145 Johnson, Sargent C. 146 Jordan, Barbara C. 147 Jordan, Michael J. 148 Journalism 149 Journey of Reconciliation (1947) 150 Just, Ernest E. 151 Justice, US Department of 152 Katzenbach v. McClung (1964) 154 Kerner Report 154 King, Martin Luther, Jr. 155 Korean War 156 Ku Klux Klan (KKK) 157 Kwanzaa 158 Labor 159 Law Enforcement 161 Lawson, James M. 163 Lee, Shelton J. (Spike) 164 Letter from Birmingham Jail (1963) 165 Lewis, Edmonia 166 Lewis, John R. 166 Lewis, Reginald F. 167 “Lift Every Voice and Sing” 168 Literature 169 Little (X), Malcolm 172 Little Rock Crisis 172 Louis, Joe 173 Loving v. Virginia (1967) 174 Mandela, Nelson R. 176 Manumission 176 March on Washington (1963) 177 March on Washington Movement (MOWM) 178 Marshall, Thurgood 178 Massive Resistance 179 Mays, Benjamin E. 180 McCoy, Elijah J. 181 McKissick, Floyd B. 182

x Contents

McKissick v. Carmichael (1951) 183 Medicine 184 Micheaux, Oscar 185 Military 186 Milliken v. Bradley (1974) 189 Minorities, Racial and Ethnic 190 Miscegenation 191 Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) 191 Mitchell, Clarence M. 192 Montgomery Bus Boycott 193 Moore, Harry T. 193 Morgan v. Virginia (1946) 194 Morrison, Toni 195 Moseley-Braun, Carol 195 Motley, Constance Baker 196 Moynihan Report 197 Muhammad, Elijah 198 Multiculturalism 199 Murray, Pauli 200 Music 200 Nation of Islam (NOI) 206 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) 206 National Association of Black Social Workers (NABSW) 207 National Association of Colored Women (NACW) 208 National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) 209 National Urban League (NUL) 209 Négritude 210 Negro History Movement 210 New Left 211 New Negro Movement 212 Niagara Movement 212 Norris v. Alabama (1935) 213 Obama, Barack H. 214 Operation PUSH (People United to Save Humanity) 214 Owens, James C. (Jesse) 215 Pan-African Movement 217 Parks, Gordon 217 Parks, Rosa L. 218 Persian Gulf War 219 Philanthropy 219 Photography 220 Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) 221

Contents xi

Politics 222 Port Chicago Mutiny (1944) 225 Poverty 226 Powell, Adam Clayton, Jr. 227 Powell, Colin L. 228 Race Labels 230 Race Man/Woman 230 Randolph, A. Philip 231 Reconstruction (1865–77) 232 Redistricting 234 Religion 234 Resegregation 238 Rice, Condoleeza 238 Robeson, Paul 239 Robinson, Jack R. (Jackie) 240 Roots 241 Rosenwald Schools 242 Rustin, Bayard T. 242 Scholarship 244 Science 247 Segregation 249 Share Croppers’ Union (SCU) 250 Sharecropping 251 Shaw v. Reno (1993) 251 Sit-ins 252 Slavery 253 Smith v. Allwright (1944) 257 Societies, Mutual Aid 258 Sororities 258 Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 259 Southern Negro Youth Congress (SNYC) 260 Spanish-American War 260 Spaulding, Charles C. 261 Sports 262 State Convention of Colored Men of Texas (1883) 265 Student Activism 266 Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 269 Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971) 270 Sweatt v. Painter (1950) 270 Talented Tenth 272 Technology 272 Television 273 Temperance Movement 275

xii Contents

Terrell, Mary Church 275 Theatre 276 Thomas, Clarence 277 Thurman, Howard 278 TransAfrica 279 Truth, Sojourner 280 Tubman, Harriet R. 281 Tuskegee Experiment 281 Tuskegee Machine 282 Underground Railroad 283 United Negro College Fund (UNCF) 283 Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) 284 Vietnam War 285 Violence, Racial 285 Voter Education Project (VEP) 287 Voting Rights Act of 1965 287 Wagner Act (1935) 289 Walker, Alice 289 Walker, David 290 Walker, Madam C. J. 291 Walker, Maggie Lena 292 Washington, Booker T. 293 Weaver, Robert C. 294 Welfare 294 Wells-Barnett, Ida B. 296 Wheatley, Phillis 297 White, Walter F. 298 Wilder, L. Douglas 299 Wilkins, Roy O. 300 Williams, Robert F. 301 Wilmington Ten 302 Winfrey, Oprah G. 302 Woods, Eldrick T. (Tiger) 303 Woodson, Carter G. 304 World War I 305 World War II 306 Wright, Richard 307 Young, Andrew J. 309 Young, Plummer B. 309 Young, Whitney M. 310

Index 313

Preface

Scholarly accounts of blacks date from the 1880s, owing especially to black Union veteran and legislator George Washington Williams’s History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880 (two volumes, 1882). Black scholars W. E. B. Du Bois and Carter G. Woodson made vital contributions. Du Bois formed the Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems, publisher of nineteen Atlanta University Studies (1896–1917), including The Negro Church (1903) and The Common School and the Negro American (1911). Edited mostly by Du Bois, those works enlarged blacks’ scholarly foundations. The “Father of Black History,” Woodson founded the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History (1915), Journal of Negro History (1916), Associated Publishers (1921), Negro History Week (1926), and Negro History Bulletin (1937). Publishing many books, Woodson and his associates i rmly shaped Negro history long before the Brown v. Board of Education decision of 1954 disal- lowed segregation in education. The Civil Rights, Black Power, women’s, Hispanic, Indian, and other rights movements in the 1960s inl uenced colleges, universities, and schools’ consent to create black, minority, and women’s courses and programs. Intersecting the New Social History, which integrated non- elite and marginalized people, African American history increasingly gained recognition in historical scholarship and proceeded apace. It now stands at the cutting edge of studies of not only black experiences from slavery to contemporary times but also race, ethnic, gender, and class relations and the state, politics, and culture in the United States, African diaspora, Atlantic World, and across the globe. Blacks and women “are

xiii

xiv Preface

so essential to American history that it is perverse to think of it without them,” Nathan I. Huggins stated in 1986, assessing their roles in the “new social history” and the “reconstruction of American history.” Race, ethnicity, class, gender, and injustice were contexts “whereby previously mute and unsummoned witnesses could offer testimony” (Huggins, 1986 , p. 157). With blacks and women paving the way, more and more natives and immigrants, working and underclass groups of color began gaining visibility in historiography. Historiographies of slavery, abolition, racism, colonialism, decolonization, and national independence in the African, Atlantic, and global world appropriate African American themes of agency, freedom, civil and human rights, too. Gerald D. Jaynes, ed., Immigration and Race: New Challenges for American Democracy (2000) and Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (2000) attest to such relationships. My goal in this book, intended for secondary school and college students, teachers, adult educational groups, and general readers alike, is to inform the study, teaching, and understanding of African American history. Building on Earl E. Thorpe’s seminal work, The Central Theme of Black History (1969), I posit that the central theme is the quest of African Americans for dignity, freedom, citizenship, and equality. To learn, teach, and understand blacks’ means or strategies in pursuing and sustaining that quest, as an example, I would suggest that readers consult the essays depicting ideologies, institutions, and movements over time and place. These include but are not limited to the Antilynching Campaign, Antislavery Movement, Black Nationalism, Black Power Movement, Civil Rights Movement, Conventions, National Negro, Education, Emancipation, Interracial Relations, Reconstruction, Religion, Segregation, Societies, Mutual Aid, and Student Activism. They explore ideological, institutional, and organizational aspects of blacks’ priorities in and tactics of dissent, of nonviolent direct action and self-defense approaches. Each suggests accessible sources for Further Reading, which could supplement critical discussion, think- ing, and writing. The entries increase numerically after 1770 and par- ticularly in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, although those on Africa, Family, Music, Religion, Slavery, and others cover important pre-1770 developments. I emphasize the later periods to portray black life and thought before and after the Civil War and emancipation; institution-building and struggle during the Jim Crow era; the

Preface xv

evolution and consequences of the modern civil rights movement; and stride toward equity in post–civil rights America.

Reference Huggins , Nathan I. , “Integrating Afro-American History into American History.” In Hine, Darlene Clark, ed., The State of Afro-American History: Past, Present, and Future. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986, p. 157.

Cross References

Reference See Aaron, Henry L. (Hank) Sports Abernathy, Ralph D. Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) African American Women in Defense Feminism of Ourselves (1991) African Heritage Studies Association Afro-American Studies African Liberation Support Committee Black Nationalism African National Congress (ANC) Apartheid Africanisms Afro-American Studies Afro-Christianity Afro-American Studies Afrocentrism Afro-American Studies Agricultural Adjustment Great Depression Administration (AAA) Albert, Lawrence A. Music Alexander, Clifford L. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) Alexander, Raymond P. Law Enforcement Allen, Richard Music Alridge, Ira F. Theatre American Anti-Slavery Society Antislavery Movement American Civil Liberties Union ACLU) Interracial Relations American Colonization Society Antislavery Movement American Council on Race Relations Interracial Relations American Federation of Labor (AFL) Labor American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) Interracial Relations American Indian Movement (AIM) Civil Rights Movement American Teachers’ Association (ATA) Education

xvii

xviii Cross References

Reference See American Tennis Association (ATA) Sports Anti-Apartheid Movement Apartheid Anti-Defamation League (ADL) Interracial Relations Aptheker, Herbert Scholarship Armstrong, Louis Music Armstrong, Samuel C. Education Asian American Legal Defense and Civil Rights Movement Education Fund Atlantic Slave Trade Slavery Back to the Farm Agriculture Banneker, Benjamin Architecture Baraka, Amiri Theatre Battey, C.M. Photography Belafonte, Harry Music Berry, Chuck Music Berry, Mary Frances Scholarship Bill of Rights Constitution, US (1789) Black Cabinet Great Depression Black Entertainment Television (BET) Film Black Radical Congress Politics Bland, James Music Blassingame, John W. Scholarship Blyden, Edward W. Pan-African Movement Boy Scouts of America Education Brewer, James H. Scholarship Brown, James Music Brown, John Antislavery Movement Brown, William Wells Scholarship Browne, William Washington Religion Bundles, A’Lelia Walker, Madam C. J. Burris, Roland Politics Carter, Robert L. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) Central Collegiate Athletic Association Sports (CIAA) Césaire, Aimé Negritude Chambers, Julius L. Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971) Charles, Ray Music Chávez, César E. Labor Civil Rights Division (CRD) Civil Rights Act of 1957 Clayton, Eva M. Shaw v. Reno (1993) Cleveland, James Music

Cross References xix

Reference See Coachman, Alice Sports Cobb, Charles Science Cobb, W. Montague Medicine Cole, Nat (King) Music Colored Farmers’ Alliance Agriculture Colored Ofi cers’ Training Camp Military Coltrane, John Music Commission on Civil Rights, US Civil Rights Act of 1957 Commission on Interracial Interracial Relations Cooperation (CIC) Committee on Fair Employment March on Washington Practice (FEPC) Movement (MOWM) Communist Party (CP) Politics Comprehensive Employment and Training Family Act (1973) Congressional Black Caucus (CBC) Politics Conservatives Politics Cook, Sam Music Cornely, Paul B. Medicine Council on American-Islamic Relations Civil Rights Movement Crop-Lien System Agriculture Crummell, Alexander Scholarship Davis, Miles Music Derricotte, Juliette Medicine Dessalines, Jean-Jacques Haitian Revolution Doby, Lawrence E. (Larry) Sports Domestic Slave Trade Slavery Dorsey, Thomas Music Double-V Campaign World War II Douglas, Aaron Art Draft Riots (1863) Violence, Racial Eaton, Hubert Gibson, Althea ; Medicine Eaton v. Board of Managers of the James Medicine Walker Memorial Hospital (1950) Ebonics Afro-American Studies Edmonds, Helen G. Scholarship Ellington, Edward (Duke) Music Emancipation Day Emancipation Emancipation Proclamation (1863) Emancipation Equal Employment Opportunity Civil Rights Act of 1964 Commission (EEOC) Equal Rights Amendment (1972) Feminism Extended Family Family Fair Housing Act Civil Rights Act of 1968 Farm Security Administration (FSA) Great Depression

xx Cross References

Reference See Fifteenth Amendment (1870) Constitution, US (1789) Fisk Jubilee Singers Music Ford, Johnny L. Politics Fraternal Council of Negro Churches Religion Free Speech Movement Student Activism Freedom Forum Journalism Freedom’s Journal (1827) Journalism Fourteenth Amendment (1868) Constitution, US (1789) Fuller, Metta Vaux Warrick Art Gandhi, Mahatma Thurman, Howard Garrison, William Lloyd Antislavery Movement Gillespie, John Music Giovanni, Nikki Theatre Girl Scouts of America Education Goode, Malvin R. Journalism Greene, Lorenzo J. Scholarship Grand United Order of True Reformers Business Gutman, Herbert G. Scholarship Hampton Singers Music Hansberry, Lorraine Theatre Harding, Vincent Institute of the Black World (IBW) Hayes, Roland Music Haynes, George E. National Urban League Harris, Patricia Roberts Sororities Henderson, Stephen Institute of the Black World (IBW) Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks Scholarship Highlander Folk School Clark, Septima P. ; Parks, Rosa L. Hill, Herbert Labor Hill, Oliver W. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) Hill-Burton Act Medicine Hill-Thomas Hearings Thomas, Clarence Hine, Darlene Clark Scholarship Holiday, Billie Music Holmes, Hamilton E. Journalism House, Callie Religion Hunter-Gault, Charlayne Journalism Jackson, James E. Student Activism Jackson, Joseph H. Religion Jackson, Maynard H. Politics James, Sherman A. John Henryism

Cross References xxi

Reference See Jim Crow Segregation Johnson, Charles S. Harlem Renaissance Johnson, Edward A. Negro History Movement Johnson, Joshua Art Johnson, James Weldon “Lift Every Voice and Sing”; Music ; NAACP Johnson, J. Rosamond “Lift Every Voice and Sing”; Music Joint Center for Political and Politics Economic Studies Jones, Absalom Free African Society Joplin, Scott Music Jordan, Vernon E. Jr. National Urban League Julian, Percy L. Science Juneteenth Emancipation King, Horace Architecture King, B. B. Music Koontz, Elizabeth D. Education Latimer, Louis H. Technology Lawrence, Jacob A. Art Lawyers’ Committee for Civil Rights Afi rmative Action Under Law Leadership Conference on Civil Rights Interracial Relations (LCCR) League of United Latin American Civil Rights Movement Citizens (LOLAC) Lewis, David L. Scholarship Liberalism Politics Liberty Party Antislavery Movement Lincoln, C. Eric Religion Litwack, Leon F. Scholarship Locke, Alain Harlem Renaissance Logan, Rayford Scholarship L’Ouverture, Toussaint Haitian Revolution Los Angeles Riot (1992) Violence, Racial Lynching Violence, Racial Major League Baseball (MLB) Sports Marable, Manning Scholarship Marsalis, Wynton Music McCarthy, Senator Joseph Anticommunism McDaniel, Hattie Film Middle Passage Africa, Slavery Million Man March Farrakhan, Louis A. Million Woman March (1997) Feminism Monk, Thelonious Music

xxii Cross References

Reference See Morgan, Garrett A. Technology Morgan, Irene Morgan v. Virginia (1946) Moses, Robert P. Science Moynihan, Daniel Patrick Moynihan Report Muslims Religion Nat Turner’s Revolt Slavery NAACP Legal Defense and National Association for the Educational Fund Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) National Association for Equal Education Opportunity in Higher Education National Association of ‘Black Journalists Journalism National Basketball Association (NBA) Sports National Black Farmers Association Agriculture National Black Feminist Organization (1973) Feminism National Black Police Association Law Enforcement National Black United Front (NBUF) Black Nationalism National Collegiate Athletic Association Sports (NCAA) National Conference of Black Lawyers Law Enforcement National Council for Black Studies Afro-American Studies National Education Association (N EA) Education National Football League (NFL) Sports National Medical Association (NMA) Medicine National Negro Business League Business National Negro Insurance Association Business National Negro League Sports National Newspaper Publishers Journalism Association National Women’s Law Center Afi rmative Action Negro History Movement Afro-American Studies Newkirk, Pamela Journalism Newton, Huey P. Black Panther Party Norman, Jessye Music Northern Student Movement Student Activism Ofi ce of Economic Opportunity (OEO) Business Oliver, Joseph Music Owen, Chandler A. Philip Randolph Parker, Charlie Music Payne, Daniel A. Gospel of Freedom Paterson, David A. Politics Patrick, Deval L. Politics Patterson, Frederick D. United Negro College Fund (UNCF) Patton, Charley Music

Cross References xxiii

Reference See Peace Movement Congress of Racial Equality Philippines War Spanish-American War Poitier, Sidney Film Police Brutality Law Enforcement Populist Party Agriculture President’s Initiative on Race Interracial Relations Price, Leontyne Music Proctor, Samuel D. Religion Professional Golf Association (PGA) Sports Prosser, Gabriel Slavery Quarles, Benjamin Scholarship Racial Proi ling Law Enforcement Radicalism Black Arts Movement, New Left Radio Education Project Television Reason, Patrick Art Reparations, Slavery Black Nationalism; Black Power Movement; Student Activism Revolutionary Action Black Nationalism Movement (RAM) Rice, Thomas Music Richardson, Willis Theatre Rickey, Branch Robinson, Jack R. (Jackie) Robinson, Frank Sports Robinson, Randall TransAfrica Robinson, Spottswood W. Morgan v. Virginia (1946) Ross, B. Joyce Scholarship Savage, Augusta Art Savio, Mario Student Activism Scott, Timothy E. Politics Scurlock, Addison N. Photography Seale, Bobby Black Panther Party (BPP) Shuttlesworth, Fred L. Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Simkins, George C. Medicine Simkins v. Moses H. Cone Hospital (1963) Medicine Sklarek, Norma M. Architecture Smith, Anna Deavere Theatre Smith, Bessie Jackson, Mahalia Smith, Lonnie Smith v. Allwright (1944) Smith, Mamie Music Southern Conference Educational Interracial Relations Fund (SCEF) Southern Conference for Human Interracial Relations Welfare (SCHW)

xxiv Cross References

Reference See Southern Negro Youth Congress (SNYC) Student Activism Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) Interracial Relations Southern Regional Council (SRC) Interracial Relations Southern Student Organizing Committee Student Activism Southern Tenant Farmers’ Union (STFU) Agriculture Special Field Order 15 (1865) “Forty Acres and a Mule” Stampp, Kenneth M. Scholarship Stokes, Carl B. Politics Student Organization for Black Unity Student Activism Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) Student Activism Sullivan, Louis W. Science Sweatt, Heman Sweatt v. Painter (1950) Tandy, Jewel V. W. Architecture Tanner, Henry Ossawa Art Tate, Merze Scholarship Taylor, A. A. Scholarship Taylor, Gardner C. Religion Taylor, Robert R. Architecture Tharpe, Rosetta Music The Negro in Business (1899) Business Thirteenth Amendment (I865) Constitution, US Thorpe, Earl E. Scholarship Till, Emmett Johnson, John H. Turner, Nat Slavery Tuskegee Airmen Military United Auto Workers of America (UAW) Labor United Farm Workers (UFW) Labor United States Colored Golfers Association Sports United States Professional Tennis Association Sports Universal Negro Improvement Association Business (UNIA) Vesey, Denmark Slavery Virginia Negro League Sports Wagner, Robert F. Wagner Act (1935) Walker’s Appeal (1829) Slavery Walker, LeRoy T. Sports Waller, Calvin A. H. Persian Gulf War Watt, Melvin Shaw v. Reno (1993) Weather Underground Organization (WHO) Student Activism Wesley, Charles H. Scholarship Williams, Daniel Hale Medicine Williams, Frances Barrier DePriest, Oscar Williams, George Washington Negro History Movement; Scholarship

Cross References xxv

Reference See Williams, Hosea Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Williams, Serena J. Sports Williams, Venus E. Sports Wilson, August Theatre Women Family; Feminism; Slavery Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Military Service (WAVES) Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WACS) Military Woodard, C. Vann Scholarship Wright, Louis T. Medicine Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) Education Young Women’s Christian Association Education (YWCA)