PERCEPTION AND CONSUMERS' CHOICE OF
SHOPPING CENTRES
A thesis presented in partial fulfilment
of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Town Planning
at
University of New South Wales
Annie To
1988 PREFACE
Shopping, at times, may be a discomfort activity, rather than a pleasure maximising one. The negative feelings can be associated with many reasons, but most probably with the shopping experience itself, such as congestion, lack of choice, difficulty of parking, poor service and unreasonable prices. All these reflect intangible aspects of the quality of shopping centres and, although important to shoppers, are usually insignificant, as compared to economic parameters, in the planning process.
The main interest of the author is in people's subjective views of the centres. Unfortunately, there is a lack of published material available in the public domain, and an in-depth understanding of the perceptions, needs and aspirations of consumers could only be gained through a survey. As a result, considerable effort was necessary to carry out a case study on the North Shore of Sydney metropolitan area. Pilot surveys were conducted early in 1986 prior to the major fieldwork which began in mid-1986 and it then took the author about three months to obtain 257 responses. In retrospect, the difficulties encountered collecting interviews in the evenings and on weekends, and the indifference of some residents have proved to be a particularly instructive part of the process. The results were very fruitful, however, in that they generated a wealth of information and formed an integral part of this thesis.
I am most grateful to Dr. Bob Zehner for his super vision of the survey and guidance for statistical analysis. Certainly, my gratitude must be given to my supervisors, Dr. Danny Wiggins, as well as Bob, for their invaluable advice, critical comments, and especially their patience in reading my draft chapters.
My thanks are extended to Dr. Peter Murphy of the School of Town Planning and Dr. Peter Simons of the School of Geography, who provided precious ideas during the protracted preparation of this thesis, and to Municipal Council of Willoughby, Municipal Council of Ku-ring-gai, Plant Location International as well as Macquarie Centre, for their supply of materials.
I am heavily indebted to my friends, Kin Hong Kau and Nevill Inglis, who input the data and prepared computer graphics, Helen Wong and Treasa Yan, who typed the draft chapters. Special thanks are given to my sister, Daisy To, and all my friends, especially Samuel Leung and Grace Huang, who helped me in many ways, including their support in the survey, assistance in the amendments of the thesis and constant encouragement throughout the project.
i ABSTRACT
Traditionally, planners have been concerned with macro models of consumer behaviour, which include central place theory and gravity models. In some circumstances these provide a reasonable description of the empirical regularity of the aggregate shopping pattern of consumers. But they cannot fully explain these observed patterns and give little insight into why consumers are behaving in a certain way. This thesis aims to examine consumer behaviour from a cognitive-behavioural perspective.
In order to develop a framework for an empirical study, the first part of the thesis reviews a range of approaches to the study of shopping behaviour and traces the origin of the cognitive-behavioural approach, with an emphasis on individual-environment interaction. The second part deals with a case study. In an attempt to obtain data from individuals, a significant study of consumers' views of centres was carried out on the North Shore of Sydney, where two regional centres, Chatswood and Macquarie Centre are located. It analyses consumers' sources of information, the nature of centre images, and the links between image and behaviour.
The results show that consumers have varying levels of information and possess incomplete knowledge of shopping facilities. Although their information level is not strongly associated with the length of residence and socio-economic characteristics, it does contribute to the development of images of centres. A subjective centre image which is composed of three underlying dimensions: assortment, physical layout and facilities and functional characteristics, exerts an influence on consumers' choice of a shopping centre. The conventional 'least effort strategy', that is, the attribute of 'location' plays a relatively insignificant role in the observed pattern.
This study supports the basic contention that consumers are acting and behaving in a subjective environment, according to their needs and wants. Nevertheless, there is a lack of strong correlation between image and actual behaviour. This indicates the high complexity of consumer behaviour and perception of a centre may not be a single determinant for patronising a centre. This study has envisaged the importance of qualitative aspects of an image. In establishing an efficient, equitable and flexible retailing system, the significance of these subtle and intangible factors should not be overlooked in the planning process. Undoubtedly, the broader adoption of a more behavioural approach in planning will improve the quality of shopping experience.
ii CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 1 PAST RESEARCH 15 1.1 Normative Models 17 1.1.1 Central place theory 17 1,1,2 Gravity models 21
1.2 Behavioural Approaches 23 1,2,1 Trade Area Studies 24 1.2.2 Aggregate Consumer-Behaviour 25 Studies 1.2.3 Cognitive-Behavioural Studies 27
1. 3 An Overview 38
Conclusion 41
CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS 43 2,1 Environmental Psychology 43
2.2 Individual-environment interaction 46 2,2,1 Perception and Cognition 48 2.2,2 The Concept of Image 51 2,2.3 Image and Behaviour 56
2,3 Consumer Behaviour 60
2.4 Conceptual Framework 64
Conclusion 69
PART~
CHAPTER 3 THE EMPIRICAL STUDY 71
3.1 Design of the Study 71
3.2 Methodology and Data Collection 76
3.3 The Study Areas 79 3.3.1 Choice of Study Area 79 3.3.2 Chatswood and Macquarie 82 Centre 3.3.3 Socio-economic Characteristics 85 of the Study Area
Conclusion 90
iii CHAPTER 4 LEVEL AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION 92
4.1 Information Level of the Respondents 93
4.2 Centres Used Most Often and Sources 102 of Information
4,3 Information Level, Length of Residence 106 and Socio-economic Characteristics
Conclusion 111
CHAPTER 5 COGNITIVE IMAGE OF SHOPPING CENTRES 113
5.1 Shoppers' Cognition of Specific 114 Centres
5.2 Components of the Centre Image 121
Conclusion 130
CHAPTER 6 IMAGE AND SHOPPING BEHAVIOUR 132
6.1 Cognitive and Actual Measures of 134 Physical Attributes
6.2 Consumers' Actual Behaviour 141
6.3 Centre Image and Shopping Behaviour 147
6.4 Motivation, Constraints and Shopping 153 Behaviour
6.5 Image, Motivation, Constraints and 157 Shopping Behaviour
Conclusion 160
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION 163
7.1 Theory and Results 163
7.2 Critique of Results 168
7.3 Implications for Planning 172
7.4 Future Research 176
APPENDICES 179
BIBLIOGRAPHY 204
iv LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Fig 1.1 A classification of consumer-behaviour 16 studies
Fig 2,1 A simplified concept of individual-environment 48 cognitive relationship
Fig 2,2 A paradigm of individual spatial cognition 57 and behaviour
Fig 2.3 An illustrative representation of consumer 65 decision-making process
Fig 3.1 The study area on the North Shore 78
Fig 3.2 Total net selling area of centres in the 81 study area
Fig 4.la Centres visited and centres, Chatswood 95 stratum respondents
Fig 4.lb Centres visited and centres, Macquarie 95 Centre stratum respondents
Fig 4.lc Centres visited and centres, Central 96 stratum respondents
Fig 5.la Centre image of Chatswood and Macquarie 117 Centre
Fig 5. lb Centre image of Gordon and Lane Cove 118
Fig 5.lc Centre image of Lindfield and Top Ryde 119
Fig 6.1 Subjective and objective measure of location 136
Fig 6.2 Subjective and objective measure of centres' 137 size
Fig 6.3 Subjective and objective measure of centres' 138 age
Fig 6.4 Subjective and objective measure of compact 139 ness of the centres
Fig 6.5 Subjective and objective measure of speciali 141 sation of the centres
V LIST OF TABLES Page
Table 3.1 A summary of population and housing in 87 the study area
Table 3,2 A summary of occupational groups in the 87 study area
Table 3.3a Occupation of the main income earner in 88 the study area
Table 3.3b Occupation of the respondents in the 88 study area
Table 3.4 Socio-economic characteristics of the 89 respondents
Table 4.1 Number of centres visited once of the 93 respondents
Table 4.2 Centres not being visited 94
Table 4.3a Distance of sampled clusters from 97 Chatswood
Table 4.3b Distance of sampled clusters from 98 Macquarie Centre
Table 4.4 Reasons for not visiting the centres 99
Table 4.5 A comparison of the attractiveness of 101 the six centres
Table 4.6 Centres used most often and respondents' 102 location
Table 4,7 Centres used most often and sources of 103 information
Table 4.8 Number of centres visited by length of 106 residence
Table 4.9 Number of centres visited and socio 108 economic variables of respondents
Table 4.10 Number of centres visited by household 109 income
Table 4,11 Number of centres visited by respondents' 110 age
vi Table 5.1 Mean values of the attributes of the 115 centres that are used most often
Table 5.2 Correlation matrix of shopping centres 123
Table 5.3 Factor analysis of centres' attributes 125 (all centres)
Table 5.4 Three most important factors when 128 choosing a centre
Table 6.1 Objective measures of some physical 135 attributes of six centres in the study area
Table 6.2 Choice of centres by three strata 142
Table 6.3 Physical travel distance of consumers 143
Table 6.4 Stated reasons for using the centres 144
Table 6.5a Frequency of shopping in all centres 146
Table 6.5b Frequency of shopping in specific centres 146 (centres used most often)
Table 6.6a Correlation and multiple regression: 148 Ratings of attributes of centre and centre choice
Table 6.6b Correlation and multiple regression: 148 Ratings of attributes of centre and shopping frequency
Table 6.7 A comparison of the rank order of stated 152 reasons, three most important factors and centre image for choice of centre
Table 6.8 Perceived importance of reasons of 154 shopping
Table 6.9a Correlation and multiple regression: 155 Reasons for shopping and choice of centre
Table 6.9b Correlation and multiple regression: 155 Reasons for shopping and shopping frequency
Table 6.10a Correlation between centre choice and 157 consumers' socio-economic variables and travel distance
vii Table 6.10b Correlation between shopping frequency 157 and consumers' socio-economic variables and travel distance
Table 6.lla Multiple regression: centre choice and 158 all variables
Table 6.llb Multiple regression: shopping frequency 159 and all variables
viii APPENDICES
Page
Appendix I Pilot survey (a) 179
Appendix II Pilot survey (b) 180
Appendix III The questionnaire 181
Appendix IV A summary of the results of the 186 survey
Appendix V The size (no. of shops) and composition 187 of the centres in the study area
Appendix VI Existing and proposed development in 188 Chatswood Centre
Appendix VII Factor matrix using principal 194 components
Appendix VIII Actual measures of centre attributes 195
Appendix IX Stated reasons for using the centres 196
Appendix X Stepwise multiple regression 197
Appendix XI Publicity of Macquarie Centre 198
Appendix XII Centre image, motivations, constraints 200 and choice of Chatswood Centre
Appendix XIII Centre image, motivations, constraints 201 and choice of Macquarie Centre
Appendix XIV Centre image, motivations, constraints 202 and shopping frequency in Chatswood
Appendix XV Centre image, motivations, constraints 203 and shopping frequency in Macquarie Centre
ix INTRODUCTION
Background
The distribution of shops and shopping centres within cities constitutes a significant component of the physical fabric of the human-made environment. The retailing system forms an essential part of urban areas because, on the one hand, it is a reflection of consumers' effective demand and associated travel and purchasing patterns, and, on the other hand, those patterns of day to day travel by consumers can be important in affecting the overall spatial structure of cities.
Traditionally, physical planning has been concerned with foreseeing and guiding change with respect to the future configuration of land use patterns. Retailing, as a vital ingredient of the land use mosaic and the generator of major traffic and pedestrian flows, along with residential, industrial, recreational and other functional land uses, attracts the detailed attention of planners. The major concern of planners is to assess existing shopping facilities and to make estimates of future needs and ways of meeting them. Overprovision or poor location of shops might lead to frequent changes of tenant, lower shop rentals and vacant shops whereas underprovision might cause long and difficult shopping trips for local people. As a result, retail planning deals mainly with the provision of shopping facilities in terms of scale, numbers and location of retail outlets and, to a certain extent, the timing of development,
1 Questions such as 'how much or how many?' 'what type?'
'when?' 'where?' are of crucial importance (Wade 1979 p,51).
Retail activity also performs a social function.
Shopping facilities usually provide a focal point for many other community facilities and activities. Therefore, besides deciding the optimum spatial distribution of shopping centres in a city, planners have to consider the social function of centres as well as associated commercial land uses, Basically, they can control shopping facilities through land use planning and through development control.
New developments such as shopping centres or hypermarkets need to be integral to the accepted planning strategy for the area and should not be detrimental to providing all consumers with retail facilities (Dawson 1980 p.221).
When planning the location of new centres and expansion of existing facilities, planners usually emphasize economic parameters such as profitability of shops, consumer expenditure, level of total turnover and extent of trade area. Sometimes an over-reliance upon quantitative techniques of retail planning can diminish the significance of a qualitative appraisal, which also includes the consideration of environment, access, level of amenity, variety of goods and shops, and the provision of non- retailing facilities (Brown 1985 p.11), Moveover, the quantitative technique might infer a direct causal relationship between turnover, expenditure and number of visits, But such a relationship cannot provide a prediction of store/shopping centre turnover because it cannot lead
2 directly to the assumption of a similiar fixed relationship in real terms between average expenditure and the number of visits. Therefore, the practical use of retail planning models may be limited, and relevant input data may be unavailable at reasonable cost at any case (Brown 1985, pll).
The traditional approach to the study of consumer behaviour is central place theory and gravity models which focus on the spatial aspects of the urban retailing system.
This approach presupposes that all consumers are identical and familiar with all possible shopping opportunities in their environment and have an exact idea of the relevant factors which characterise each shopping centre and, therefore, that they are able to select that centre which will maximise their utility, The main deficiencies of these theories are that they are based upon the concept of rational
'economic man' who holds perfect levels of information about the retailing environment. This approach is also based on the unrealistic assumptions of equilibrium between supply and demand, and the omission of significant intervention by public authorities in locational decision-making. The move towards a behavioural approach by studying the subjective aspects of consumer decision-making process involved in shopping is clearly necessary as well.
Although a large number of individuals and groups
(including retailers, consumers, planners, policy-makers and property developers) may be involved in the planning process, the location and form of retail facilities are very much dominated by the aggressive and expansionist strategies of
3 large retailers. The developers' principal aim is to match the location, size and composition of the centre to the needs of the trade area (Urban Land Institute 1977). The development of these centres is dictated by profitability, that is, the interests of developers and large retailers.
Decisions concerning these strategies tend to have little regard for the subtle aspects of consumer behaviour, more specifically, consumers' 'subjective views' or 'image' of centres. Consequently, there may be oversupply of retail facilities or poor design of centres.
In Australia, the early major centres developed as small suburban strips which were either part of an existing larger shopping district or a nucleus around which a clustered shopping district eventually developed. The retailing pattern in Australia has changed considerably over the last two decades and the need for planning control in the field of retailing is increasingly important. Since the
1960s, retailing in Australia has undergone considerable changes in both nature of services provision and its spatial structuring, Among the most notable features are increases in shop size, in the range of goods for sale, and a decentralisation of shopping centres (Harrison, 1975 p151),
The outward movement of retail activity in Sydney is mainly in response to decentralisation of consumer demand as a result of dispersal of population in 1950s. Since retailing is a population-serving activity, the distribution of retail facilities has always been governed by population trends. More importantly, the increased personal mobility
4 Another major change in retail structure in the Sydney metropolitan area is the development of planned regional shopping centres such as Top Ryde, Birkenhead Point,
Roselands and Macquarie Centre. These large, planned shopping complexes have developed either within the existing centres or as entirely separate entities. They are car- oriented in design and are controlled in single ownership and management (Cardew 1982 p.159). In general, they are based around a department store and/or a junior department store, one or two supermarkets, and a number of specialty shops. The mix of shops is decided by the centre management. This type of shopping centre is described as:
'a group of architecturally unified commercial
establishments built on a site which is planned,
developed, owned and managed as an operating unit; it
is related in its location, size and type of shops to
the trade area that the unit serves' (Urban Land
Institute 1977 p.1),
After examining the recent changes in retailing, it is worth looking at the impact of these changes and the relevance of consumer behaviour in retail planning.
In considering the changes in retailing, the relationship between the structural organisation of an urban retailing system and consumer behaviour is of great significance because such changes have undoubtedly affected consumers' shopping patterns. Retailing is a dynamic
industry, changes in consumer needs and behaviour, and in
retailing operations and technology will create increasing
6 pressure for the modification of existing system. The system, therefore, must be flexible enough to cope with these changes. The planning of new centres and rejuvenation of existing facilities must be able to cope with changes in consumer preferences and behaviour. For example, there is a trend for the shopping centres to develop into community centres. 'The shopping centre is no longer merely a physical place where retail sales occur. It has become an integral part of the social structure of most communities' (Frank and
Sprink 1985 p,2),
Research evidence has indicated that an approach which explicitly traces the relationship between the urban retailing structure and decision-making process of consumers would benefit planners, policy-makers as well as entrepreneurs (Bacon 1971, Downs 1970, Potter 1978,
Patricios 1979, Shepherd and Thomas 1980, Timmermans 1982).
Since predictive models adopted by planners are mainly based on the distance travelled by consumers and attractiveness indices in terms of total floor space, they look at population behaviour at the aggregate level and ignore the real world influences on the individual (Downs 1970 p.14,
Herbert 1982 p.252, Timmermans 1982 p.2).
A more micro approach with an emphasis on the factors underlying the spatial behaviour of individual shoppers would provide useful information to local government which aims at planning a satisfactory level of shopping facilities
(location, size, structure and functional complexities), and to entrepreneurs who want to employ appropriate marketing
7 strategies and decide on investments. Such data can also serve as a means of predicting the likely behavioural responses of individuals to environmental policy decisions.
To sum up, a focus on consumer-oriented studies is increasingly important in retail planning because a closer understanding of the underlying determinants of consumers' choice of shopping centres contributes to a more rational design of urban environment and to the establishment of a more efficient and flexible retailing system.
The aim of this thesis is to identify forces underlying consumers' choice of shopping centres from a cognitive behavioural perspective. Various macro approaches, including central place theory and gravity models, -used for analysis and prediction of retail patronage tend to accept that there are differences in consumer behaviour without trying to understand in any detail reasons for those differences.
Consumers, in fact, have different motives and aspirations operating under widely divergent levels of constraints such as time, cost and level of information.
The hypothesis in this thesis is that consumers perception and evaluation are systematically related to the physical and functional attributes of shopping centres and that these perceptions and evaluations strongly affect their subsequent choice behaviour. More specifically, this research aims to: i ) investigate consumers' knowledge of available
8 location of shopping centres, that is, their level of
information of the retailing environment. ii) analyse the variables constituting the image of the
shopping centres; and iii) examine the relationship between image and behaviour
and identify the most important forces affecting the
choice of shopping centre.
Current research on retailing has shown that people do not invariably visit the nearest available centre and their behaviour is far from optimal if assessed on purely economic grounds (Downs 1970, Davies 1976, Shepherd and Thomas 1980,
Herbert 1982). Consumer behaviour is not guided solely by the principle of distance minimisation, but is rather the result of a subjective decision-making process based on personal and environmental constraints, as well as imperfect and incomplete knowledge of the retailing system (Hanson
1976, Hudson 1981). As a result, when choosing a shopping centre, an individual consumer tends to evaluate a set of alternative destinations on a number of attributes and make a decision by evaluating each destination. This thesis focuses on the factors affecting consumers' decision-making process in their choice of shopping centres. Starting with the individual as the basic unit of analysis, the individual is recognised as making decisions within the framework of his or her perception of the environment and various influences on consumer behaviour including value system, motivation, goals and preferences have to be considered.
9 which is enhanced by the use of motor cars has also accounted for the change in consumer shopping patterns. Consumers tend to consider factors such as price, quality and parking facilities, in addition to distance, when choosing a shopping centre. Johnston and Rimmer (1969 p.31) pointed out that
'with a vehicle, factors other than mere distance affect the choice of a centre, such as congenial shopping environment and ease of parking. In addition, the consumer may wish to avoid the drudgery of several shopping trips per week and complete all purchases for a seven-day period during a single outing'.
On the other hand, the increasing dominance of large retailers, (for example, Grace Bros, David Jones), with their strategies to attract more trade, together with the rise of direct trading, has also accounted for changes in the distribution of shopping facilities (Cardew 1982 p.153). The use of direct channels of distribution enables large retailers and chain stores to offer significantly lower prices than smaller retailers, causing a decline of small shops and some small centres in older parts of the city.
The change in the income structure of the population also has a significant impact on the shopping behaviour. The rise of living standards since the 1960s, with the greater access of households to money and finance, plus changes in taste, have led to a higher demand for more luxurious goods and the creation of new markets. The increased proportion of women in the workforce, in addition to the change in pace of life, has also affected shopping patterns.
5 One of the constraints of consumers' choice of shopping centre is the information level of the shopping facilities in their living area (Hanson 1976, Smith 1976). Retail centres and shops are distributed in a complex way through space. An individual has limited mobility, stimulus sensing capabilities, information processing abilities and available time, so that the individual consumer interprets the urban retail environment in a subjective manner. This constitutes the consumers' cognitive image of shopping centres and, instead of having perfect knowledge about a set of shopping centres, consumers tend to have a selective view of their characteristics and it is on this basis that they make their choice of shopping centre.
In adopting a cognitive-behavioural approach, this research focuses on linkages between environmental information, shopping centre images and overt consumer behaviour. It is hoped that a closer understanding of this relationship will provide a framework for explaining observed shopping patterns, so that future patterns may be more predictable and so that the significance of behavioural variables will be more evident in the planning process.
Methodology
This thesis employs two methods - a review of past research and an empirical study. Firstly, the literature review describes a range of approaches to consumer behaviour.
It places this study in a broad context of previous research and helps to indicate the theoretical direction and approach
10 adopted in this thesis. It is hoped that data and information from past research can provide clues to the relationship between image and shopping behaviour, and to help formulate a conceptual framework for the consumer decision-making process.
Secondly, this research includes a significant study of consumers 'views' of shopping centres. An empirical study was conducted on the North Shore (Sydney, New South Wales), where two regional centres of different characteristics
Chatswood and Macquarie Centre - are located. This area was selected because of the presence of a number of centres which vary in terms of size, age, type (both planned and unplanned) and functional, locational and morphological attributes. Household samples were selected so that a significant proportion were located at more or less the same distance from the major Chatswood and Macquarie Centres. The study then examines why people choose one centre rather than the other, and why both centres are bypassed by some consumers for a smaller one.
One of the difficulties in this study is the relative absence of research information on consumers' perception of shopping centres in the 1980s*, It may be due to a shift of emphasis with studies directed towards the modelling of
*Major relevant journals are: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Australian Geographer, Economic Geography, Environment and Behaviour, Environment and Planning, Geografisca Annaler, Geographical Analysis, Journal of American Institute of Planners, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Retailing, The Planner, Regional Studies, Tijchrift voor Economische en Sociale, Town Planning Review, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, and Urban Land.
11 consumer behaviour (Van Lierop and Nijkamp 1980, Cadwallader
1981, Hubbard and Thompson 1981, Roy 1984, Fotheringhan 1984,
Hensher 1985). Moreover, there is little Australian literature in this field in the public domain, although there have been trade area studies and market surveys repeatedly conducted for major retailers by research companies such as
Plant Location International Ltd., and the Retail Survey Ltd.
Published Australian material of direct relevance to the aims of this thesis is limited to Walmsley and Giggs 1976, Fraser
1980, National Capital Development Commission 1981, Hudson
1981, and Tse 1987,
Because of the interdisciplinary nature of consumer behaviour, this literature review also introduces some marketing research on determinants of consumers' decision to buy and qualitative images of stores.
STRUCTURE
This thesis comprises two parts, literature review and empirical study. In Part A, Chapter 1 provides a review of the recent literature relevant to the analysis of spatial patterns and processes associated with consumer shopping behaviour. Literature at a general level is available and a considerable range of approaches and methods of investigation exists. This review includes normative models, trade area analysis, aggregate consumer-behaviour studies, and cognitive-behavioural studies. Particular attention is given to their applications and limitations.
12 Chapter 2 traces how the study of consumer behaviour evolved from the discipline of environmental psychology. It focuses on the interaction between individual and environment, the psychological processes of perception and cognition, and mental construct - image. A conceptual framework is then formulated as an outline of consumer decision-making process, by highlighting the interrelation- ships between retailing environment, information, perception and overt behaviour.
Part B is concerned with the construction of the empirical study, and the analysis of data and the discussion of results. Chapter 3 discusses the design of the study, its limitations, the general picture of the retail facilities in the study area and the socio-economic characteristics of the area. In order to understand how consumers derive their information from the environment and build up their knowledge, Chapter 4 focuses on the level and sources of information about the facilities that consumers have in their living area, and their reasons for not patronising certain centres.
Chapter 5 is an analysis of the subjective impressions of shopping centres. It emphasizes how individuals feel about the centres, comprising what may be termed as image, which summarizes the individual's knowledge, evaluation and preferences towards the centres. Chapter 6 deals with the relationship between centre's image and consumers' actual behaviour. It compares the individual's subjective measures and the objective measures of physical attributes of the
13 centres and analyses the relative importance of relevant attributes in consumers' decision-making process.
The final chapter includes a summary of theory and empirical results, and a critique of results with an emphasis on the correlation between image and behaviour. It also discusses the significance of this study and the implications for planning and indicates the future directions for research,
14 CHAPTER 1 PAST RESEARCH
Traditionally, the study of retailing has been more concerned with the locational characteristics of shops and shopping centres rather than the behavioural patronage pattern of consumers. In the 1970s there was a shift in emphasis away from central place theory and general interaction theory for describing and explaining the broad aspects of consumer behaviour towards a series of micro- theories handling perception and preferences of the individuals. In order to indicate the approach this thesis adopts, it is necessary to take an evolutionary look at these previous studies. The main concern of this chapter is to review the past literature, the development of different approaches, and their applications and limitations.
This review is structured according to the basic distinction between normative models and behavioural approaches, which are further subdivided into the categories as shown in Figure 1.1. The main differences between these two categories are that the former is concerned with the aggregate patterns of shoppers and are predictive in nature, whereas the latter mainly deals with human factors underlying the behaviour of individual shoppers and is more explanatory in character.
The sources are drawn from various disciplines including geography, planning, psychology and, to a certain
E tent, marketing. Since the literature relevant to consumer behaviour is extensive, the emphasis of this review is on
15
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image image
learning learning
of of
and and
attitudes attitudes
Preferences Preferences
Nature Nature
Search Search
search) search)
theory theory
studies studies literature literature
analysis analysis
consumer consumer
models models
place place
area area
studies studies
(Souree: (Souree:
Gravity Gravity
behaviour behaviour
Trade Trade
Aggregate Aggregate
Central Central
Cognitive-behavioural Cognitive-behavioural
studies studies
-
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behaviour behaviour
consumer consumer
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models models
Normative Normative
Behavioural Behavioural
Categories Categories
1.1 1.1
Fig Fig
behaviour behaviour
Consumer Consumer
~ ~
......
0) 0) ...... those empirical studies associated with the behavioural
patterns and the variability of consumer behaviour, and those
of practical planning significance,
This chapter starts with normative models which include
central place theory and gravity models, The second section
discusses the behavioural studies which comprise trade area
analysis, aggregate consumer behaviour studies and cognitive
behavioural studies.
1,1 Normative Models
1,1,1 Central place theory
The early emphasis on the spatial form of retailing
was central place theory, It was classically developed by
Christaller (1933) as a framework for analysing and
describing the size, number and distribution of towns as
service centres. The concept was later extended to explain
the location of service centres within urban areas, It had
been concerned with the derivation of a deductive theoretical
basis for the development of hierarchical systems of service
centres, The high-order central places, which were large and
relatively widely spaced centres, provided specialised goods
and services to large complementary regions, The more
closely located low order central places provided less
specialised goods and services to more localised populations,
A consumer was expected to use the nearest centre offering
the goods or services required, Human behaviour had been
assumed to conform to the concept of 'economic man' in which
both suppliers and consumers had perfect information about
17 the environment and therefore they could make economically rational decisions (Pred 1967).
In fact, the theory deals solely with the size, spacing and compositional regularities of towns providing goods and service in a rural context. Despite the abstract nature of central place theory, it has generated numerous empirical attempts to identify similar hierarchical arrangements of interurban settlement patterns and intraurban business centres.
Berry and Garrison (1958) modified and reinterpreted the theory in the form of tertiary activity. They introduced two concepts : the notion of threshold which was the minimum level of demand necessary to support a business activity, and the range of a good which was the minimum distance consumers were ready to travel. By relating the number and type of establishments to the population, they identified a stepped hierarchy of retail centres, a five-tier structure in Iowa, u.s.A.
The theory has several deviations from real-world situations. i) Central place theory assumes an unrealistic equilibrium between the supply and demand. But in practice, the usual state of market will be one of disequilibrium caused by time lags involved in taking and implementing locational decisions. It also omits the influence of government intervention. Therefore the concept provides only a partial explanation of patronising behaviour in the intraurban
18 context, especially in situations where a number of variables are subject to some degree of government control (National
Economic Development Office 1970, p.28). ii) The increased mobility and specialisation in a modern city tend to reduce the differences in accessibility and give rise to a more dispersed location of retail activities
(Shepherd and Thomas 1980 p.113). Schiller (1979) suggested the need to modify conventional central place theory when it had lost its traditional application, accessibility, because of the increased mobility of the shoppers. iii) The theory is based on the concept of 'economic man' and assumes that consumers have a perfect knowledge of urban retailing systems. Instead, consumers are more likely to be
'bounded rational satisficers 1 , and they would for many reasons be satisfied by undertaking journeys which would not necessarily result in an economic optimization of potential opportunities,
A considerable amount of information demonstrates that the 'nearest centre assumption' is a serious overstatement of behaviour realities. Clark and Rushton (1970) studied the shopping behaviour of a sample of households in Christchurch and compared it with the classical postulate of central place theory. The result indicated that only 50-60 per cent of convenience shopping trips conformed to the distance minimisation hypothesis. They concluded that the central place behaviour required modification, with the use of the attractiveness index in the analysis of intraurban consumer behaviour. Similarly, Day's (1973) study of a London new
19 town indicated that consumers did not always use the nearest neighbourhood centre. iv) The theory failed to accommodate the behavioural variations such as multi-purpose trips, whereby a consumer might obtain both low and high order goods at a high-order centre which was far more distant than the closest low-order centre. That means, consumers may not visit the nearest centre offering a particular good when the shopping trip involves the purchase of several orders or types of good on one journey, or when it is combined purpose trip, where shopping is associated with work, recreation, entertainment or social function.
Lentnek, Lieber and Sheskin (1975), when investigating interurban food shopping behaviour, had found the operation of a 'dual assignment rule'. Households living relatively close to a limited range of shopping opportunities typically used the nearest centre, whilst those living some distance from the nearest centre preferred shopping in larger, more distant places. He concluded that the shopping behaviour was associated with the consumers' income and personal mobility.
It was observed that a higher proportion of single purpose trips tended to be short distance than multi-purpose ones
(Garrison 1959, Hanson 1972, Hanson 1980). When examining the out-of-town shopping trips in Blacksburg, Virginia, it was found that long trips were frequently linked with socialising or entertainment activities (Brooker-Cross 1981).
Clearly, economic factors alone cannot explain the shopping pattern. Consumer behaviour is complex, and is an
20 unexplained tradeoff of the attractiveness of increasing centre size and disincentives associated with long shopping journeys,
Nevertheless, the research generated by central place theory has provided much of conceptual value in the under standing of spatial structure of service systems, and many techniques have been developed to illustrate the functional interrelationships of urban centres. Consequently, it has been used primarily as a rationale for determining the size and spacing standards of new shopping centres at both urban and regional scale, as well as for evaluating the existing arrangements. Despite its limitations, central place theory stimulates interest in the empirical ordering of consumer spatial behaviour. It has been fruitful in the sense that it has led to many other attempts to explain and model patterns of consumer behaviour.
1.1.2 Gravity Models
An alternative formulation, the gravity model which is embodied in spatial interaction theory, seeks to model patterns of consumer behaviour. Originating from Reilly's
(1931) law of retail gravitation, gravity models are based on the concept that consumer behaviour is the result of a tradeoff between distance and the attractiveness of shopping centre.
Huff (1963) adopted this principle in the planning context of urban areas by extending the gravity model to a
21 more realistic situation. He proposed a scene of probabili- ties of consumers choosing to visit one centre from a set of competing centres, by assuming that the drawing power of a centre was proportional to its number of stores or retail selling space and inversely proportional to the relative distance or travel time to competing establishments of varying sizes. The model was further operationalised by
Lakshmanan and Hansen (1965) to estimate the shopping ex penditure flows between any residential area and shopping centre in a system. It was then applied to existing shopping trips to higher order centres in metropolitan Baltimore and it was found to provide a reasonable description of behavioural interaction.
The main objective of gravity models is to forecast the potential market areas of proposed retail development.
Therefore, they are widely used in planning to predict travel patterns and their impact on retail trade areas. Although they are more flexible than central place theory and can trace the impact of the changes within the retailing system and test the consequences of alternative future strategy designs, they do not provide a mechanism for explaining consumer behaviour (Jensen-Butler, 1972). Gravity models propose a theory of aggregate consumer behaviour without a firm basis on behavioural investigations and regard the size of centres as the basic determinant of their attractiveness.
The potential pratical value of these models still remains high, in spite of many unresolved technical problems.
22 Central place theory and general interaction models are essentially macro theories for describing and explaining the broad relationships between a system of centres and their trade areas. There are two shortcomings. They lack corn- plete generality because they refer to only part of the total interplay of market forces. At the same time, the normative assumptions may be important determinants of behaviour, but they are considered to be intuitively derived rather than theoretically developed. Therefore they provide few guidelines for more micro-scale studies of the internal structure of business centres or of the detailed decomposi tion of consumer trips (Davies, 1976),
1,2 Behavioural Approaches
Despite the attractiveness of these highly aggregated approaches to modelling shopping patterns, particularly for planners, it is obvious that these normative models do not provide a comprehensive description or explanation of consumer behaviour (Jensen-Butler 1972, Davies 1976, Shepherd and Thomas 1980). The notion of rational 'economic man' leaves much to be desired and the normative theory is inconsistent with much overt behaviour in the real world
(Garner 1970). Alternative approaches have been generated with an emphasis on the inductive research method and on an individual scale of analysis. On the basis of their nature and purpose, these behavioural studies can be categorised into three broad groups : trade area studies, aggregate consumer-behaviour studies and cognitive-behavioural studies.
23 1.2.1 Trade Area Studies
Trade area studies focus on the analysis of the func tioning and commercial viability of a store or a shopping centre. They are concerned with the aggregate patterns of consumer movement such as trip frequencies, distances and direction of trips, trip origin and termination, travel mode, money spent and goods sought. These studies, which are usually centre-based surveys, seek information to estimate the sphere of influence or catchment area of a shopping centre and to assess the potential for improvement or development within the wider retailing hierarchy,
These studies are required to discover how the new facilities will serve the prospective market. The market evaluation is suggested by population data such as age, income level and family size, purchasing power, competitive facilities, shopping habits as well as preferences (Urban
Land Institute 1977 p.24), Particular attention is paid to the continually changing demographic economic and social forces. The trade area information, in conjunction with other data such as traffic system and flows, relationship of the centre to other land use functions, employment distribution, are also useful for impact assessments in planning new centres (National Capital Development Commission
1982).
Many findings tend to suggest that consumer behaviour is consistent with the intraurban version of the gravity model, that is, there is a high tendency for shopping centres of all hierarchical levels to draw the greatest trade from
24 the nearby area (Shepherd and Thomas 1981). Although a number of recurrent behaviour generalisations have emerged, these survey materials have been used only in limited ways to derive theories of behaviour,
1.2.2 Aggregate Consumer-Behaviour Studies
Aggregate consumer-behaviour studies mainly concentrate on household-based surveys of shopping behaviour. Emphasis is put on the descriptive behavioural variations in relation to different socio-economic characteristics of consumers such as age, sex, household size, income, occupation and car ownership, to mode of travel, to type of trip undertaken, to available shopping opportunities or to a complex combination of factors. They have focussed on the combined influence of variables on consumer behaviour and the relationship between the variables. In essence, a great deal of empirical effort has been devoted to study of variations in consumer behaviour, with the hope of seeking aggregate regularities.
Research has indicated that variations in consumer behaviour are closely associated with individual shopper characteristics. A study in Leeds, England showed that for convenience-goods shopping a significantly greater proportion of higher-status groups travelled to a number of middle order centres outside their immediate residential areas than their lower-status counterparts (Davies 1968). Nader (1968) had found that great differences in consumer behaviour were related to the type of home occupied by household in Durham,
England. Similarly, Gayler (1980) attempted to relate the
25 distance of shopping trips for five products to various social and economic measures (occupation, education and income) in metropolitan Vancouver, British Columbia.
Although no consistent pattern could be traced for different social classes, it did reflect variations in store and shopping centre preferences.
Many studies have shown that behavioural variations were closely linked to social class and levels of personal mobility (Grimshaw, Shepherd and Willmort 1970, Parker 1976,
Thomas 1974, Lloyd and Jennings 1978). The two disadvantaged groups, the unemployed and the retired in Cardiff, Wales, who were distinguished by their low level of expenditure and low mobility, made substantial use of supermarkets (Guy
1985). The general perspective of these studies is that the shopping behaviour of particular sub-groups in the community such as lower income people, ethnic or other minority groups, is restricted in access to some retail facilities.
However, in a case study in Ipswich City in Queensland by Fraser (1980), a socio-economic differentiation of consumers could not provide conclusive evidence for the variability in shopping frequency. He further suggested' that consumer behaviour was very much conditioned by the nature of shopping trips, which were related to consumer preferences, motivations, searching and learning activities. Similarly, in tracing retail changes in Armidale, New South Wales, Tse
(1987) found that residents had fairly homogeneous attitudes and behavioural pattern within different groups.
26 There appears little consensus concerning the influence of age and family size of shopping centre patronage, but some studies do reveal that there are strong constraints on the shopping behaviour of old consumers and consumers with large families (Potter 1977, Fingleton 1975).
There are a number of conflicting claims as to which of these variables is the most important one, particularly in determining the variability in frequency of trips. Such discrepancies may arise because of differences in the sample of consumers, the type of areas from which they are drawn
(that is, the relative location to the shopping centre), and the way in which the trips are classified (high-order good trip or low-order good trip) (Davies 1976).
Both trade area analysis and studies of aggregate patterns of consumer behaviour provide useful insights into the understanding of individual shopping patterns and offer short-term practical value for planning purposes. As they are largely discriptive and cross-sectional in nature, they tell little about how the patterns change over time and are not able to isolate independent effects of specific factors as determinants of behaviour (Herbert 1982).
1.2.3 Cognitive-Behavioural Studies
An important conceptual outcome of the various studies and changes in consumer behaviour is the emphasis given to perception and preferences of the individual. The aggregate approaches to shopping patterns contribute only marginally to the understanding of consumer spatial behaviour.
27 Consideration should be given to how the objective retail landscape is interpreted subjectively, by adopting a micro- analytical viewpoint. The so-called cognitive-behavioural approach is focussed on the individual decision-making process. With the view that individuals are making decisions within the framework of their perceptions, or images of the environment, the importance of mechanisms underlying individual decision-making such as goals, motivations and the stimuli has been stressed. The subjective aspects of the decision-making process involved in shopping become the main concern of consumer behaviour studies.
Garner (1970) suggested four broad areas for research: the nature of images of the urban retail structure; the relationship between different images and different types of consumers; the relationship between images and the nature of urban retailing structure; and how images arise and change with experience. In this study, three aspects of cognitive behavioural studies are emphasised, involving preferences and attitudes, the nature of images, and search and learning.
Although these few research foci can be recognised, there are strong interrelationships between the categories.
i) Preferences and attitudes
The first focus of research is the preferences and atti- tudes of consumers. Rushton (1969, 1976) attempted to model consumer behaviour in a way that enabled consumer choice to be generalised beyond a specific situation by the revealed
28 space preference method. He proposed that consumers ranked all alternative shopping centres on a scale of preference that consumers patronised, and since consumers patronized the most preferred centre, the overt behaviour could be predicted from their preferences.
This approach is mainly a pairwise comparison of a large number of 'locational types' on the basis of size/attractiveness and distance. It can only be applied to known and experienced situations and hence the findings cannot be extrapolated to the hypothetical situation encountered in planning. It also makes assertions about individuals on the basis of groups by looking at the average preference of the respondent group, so that little account is taken of differential behaviour of various sets of consumers.
But more fundamentally, space and distance are not a dimen- sion of choice but rather a constraint on choice (Eyles 1971,
Pirie 1975, Shepherd and Thomas 1980). Timmermans (1981) had refined the space preference model by showing how preferences could be transferred from one context to another and had suggested that size and accessibility were the two aspects which individuals considered most often.
It is generally inferred that there is a positive relationship between preference and behaviour (Pacione 1975,
Walmsley 1976). Individuals' preference structure for a set of alternatives will in part be determined by their goals, attitudes, and motivations. They will attempt to maximise the satisfaction derived from shopping activity, not simply in economic terms but gauged by the degree to which their
29 general desires or specific goals are satisfied. Thus, in respect of consumer behaviour, individuals' preference structure for shopping centres is considered partly dependent upon their shopping goals and their attitudes towards the centres, and the weighting that consumers place on their shopping goals will help to determine the weighting they give to particular shopping centre attributes. For instance, a consumer might consider convenience and efficiency the most important things in shopping, and this will in turn affect his or her weighting of distance and parking facilities of a particular centre.
Consequently, this type of study proposes that there are links between preferences, images and overt behaviour and imply a positive relationship between image and preference.
Pacione (1975 p.91) concluded that preference formed an important component in the value system of consumers, upon which the cognitive process of selection strategy and eventually shopping behaviour was based.
This line of research has led to the suggestion that distinct consumer groups or shopper types can be recognised.
Stone (1954) classified consumers into 'attitude types' economic, personalising, ethical and apathetic, each displaying different purchasing behaviour. Williams (1981) developed a more explicitly behaviourist typology of consumers in a case study of S.W. Birmingham (England), He identified four basic attitude types : economic, convenience, localised/personal and social types and concluded that shoppers' attitudes were shown to be significantly related to
30 consumer behaviour. In an empirical study of shopping motivation in Tucson, Arizona, female shoppers of department stores were categorised in a five-fold typology dependent, compulsive, individualistic, indecisive and independent
(Westbrook and Black 1985).
This classificatory technique provides a way of linking micro- and macro- scale studies, by grouping those individuals who share similar behaviour. However, sometimes it is hard to relate such behavioural types to particular purchasing patterns and the conceptual problem in the use of attitudes as explanatory variables still exists (Coshall
1985, p.345). There may be inconsistencies between preference, or attitude, and behaviour. Identifying what shopping centres people prefer does not necessarily correspond to what they actually do (Hudson 1981 p.214,
Pipkin 1981 p,153).
ii) Nature of images
Most of the attention has been directed to the second aspect of cognitive-behavioural studies - the nature of image of the retail environment and its relationship to shopping behaviour. It is increasingly considered that consumer perception of characteristics of shopping centres influences the choice of centre and the way in which shoppers use a centre. In these studies, the image can be thought of as a variable mediating between the individual and the environment, and as a pervasive influence on behaviour.
31 In an attempt to study the image of the internal characteristics of the downtown shopping centre of Broadmead in Bristol, England, Downs (1970) identified eight sets of criteria of the image of the centre. Retail establishment factors (service, price, shopping hours, shop range and quality) were more important than those relating to the structure and function of the shopping centre (structure and design, internal pedestrian movement, visual appearance and traffic conditions). In a case study of shoe purchase in
Maidstone, Kent, price, quality and range of merchandize offered by a shop were of prime importance (Coshall 1985) and
congruence consumers' shop there was between• the discrimination and their behavioural intention.
Bloomestein, Nijkamp and Van Veenendal (1980) adopted an integrated framework for a joint analysis of consumers' and retailers' perceptions and preferences in the
Netherlands, in order to predict the spatial flow of goods and behaviour of consumers and entrepreneurs. Similarly, in a Dutch case study, Timmermans (1982) developed behavioural models which related overt shopping behaviour to consumers' cognition of retailing structure.
Particular types of shopping centres may have favourable or unfavourable images but it is a different problem to explain how image of the retail environment as a whole may influence the way consumers choose between competing centres.
In other words there is still a lack of strong evidence to indicate that consumers' perception and evaluations are systematically related to physical attributes of shopping
32 centres and that these perceptions and evaluations are linked to the subsequent choice behaviour. Although it is possible to show that consumer behaviour is related more closely to a cognitive map than to a 'physical map' at an aggregate level
(Mackay, Olshavsky, Sentell 1975), it is hard to translate this into prediction about individual behaviour because of the difficulty inherent in the measurement of complex images
(Hudson 1974).
Nevertheless, much research has been done on how different images of retail centres are related to different types of consumers. The emphasis is on socio-psychological characteristics. Huff (1960) stressed the importance of consumer characteristics such as ethnic affiliation, income, personality, sex, occupation, age and education, on their value system which in turn affected consumer cognition and behaviour. A study in Dublin by Parker (1976) indicated that the relative importance of different motivating factors
(accessibilty, cleanliness, range of foods and prices) varied by social status and car ownership. Consumers in professional occupations considered the range of goods more important than accessibility, cleanliness and price levels.
When examining individuals' cognitive maps of supermarket locations, Mackay, Olshavsky and Sentell (1975) found that the variations in the cognitive maps were systematically associated with socio-economic and locational characteristics of consumers. In Stockport (England), marked differences in consumers' information fields for different social classes were also recognised (Potter 1979). Low-income consumers tended to stress distance and price factors more than high-
33 income consumers in their perception of grocery stores in
Reading (England). Furthermore, there were certain similarities in cognition of these stores among the inner city groups (Opacic and Potter 1986).
In contrast, Davies' study in Coventry (1973) and
Hudson's study in Sydney (1981) on the relationship between image and consumers' characteristics proved rather inconclusive. Timmermans (1982) pointed out that perception and decision-making of consumers were relatively independent of social class variables and there was a substantial body of empirical evidence showing that the choice of shopping centres was not systematically related to socio-economic characteristics and, even if such a relationship existed, the problem of whether a spurious relationship had been identified still remained.
These studies have sought to examine the roles of motivations, attitudes and evaluation, personality in consumer's cognitive process, to look at the social stratification and characteristics of the consumer as a decision-maker and, to a certain extent, to identify group images of the retailing environment. They reflect the socio- psychological forces of the highly complex process of consumer behaviour. Although these empirical findings provide a fruitful source of knowledge about the consumer, it is difficult to assimilate them into models and there are also the inherent problems in quantifying the variables
(Pipkin 1981). More importantly, inconsistencies in the results emphasize the complexity of the research problem.
34 iii) Search and learning
The final focus of cognitive-behavoural approach is concerned with search and learning It looks at the 1 relationship between the 'known' (behavioural) and the 2 objective environments , and examines how images change in the light of increasing experience and the provision of new opportunities. The main task is to distinguish those aspects of retail structure familiar to consumers from the actual distribution of facilities. Each consumer has a different level of information of retailing opportunities because he/she may not have perfect knowledge about the system, so that information on certain viable shopping alternatives may be missing, or sometimes may be biased and inaccurate. Much of the information consumers possess is a subjective interpretation of what actually exists, and it is suggested that this subjective impression or image of shopping centre forms the basis of many spatial choices.
Most research of this category is inspired by the work of Horton and Reynolds (1971). They made the distinction between 'action space' which referred to those facilities that a consumer knew about and with which he or she would potentially interact, whereas activity space was defined as those facilities that an individual visited on a day-to-day basis. They attempted to measure action space in two socially
1 Behavioural environment is the world of the mind and refers to the environment as it is perceived.
2 Objective environment is the actual world, which can be guaged by direct means.
35 contrasting areas in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, with the result showing that the pattern tended to be sectoral, centering on the home area and focusing on the CBD, while the overall familiarity levels of the middle-income groups were significantly higher than those of the lower-income group.
People living close together seemed to develop similar action spaces and their search and learning activities were constrained to approximately the same area. The four factors: the objective spatial structure of the urban environment, residential location, length of residence, and socio-economic status were considered important in influencing the use of information in the search and learning process.
Their ideas were supported by Smith (1976). In his study of Hamilton, Ontario, he examined the 'spatial information field', which was the mental information that an individual had about the distribution of grocery shops within the city, and suggested that both length of residence and social status were important variables in shaping spatial information fields. When analysing the consumers' cognitive maps of location of eight supermarkets in Bloomington,
Indiana, Mackay (1975) found that residential location was a dominant influence and familiarity with the urban area was likely to decline with distance from home. Similar findings of sectoral bias around home and towards the city centre were noted in Uppsala by Hanson (1976) and in Stockport by Potter
(1977). Moreover, Smith, Shaw and Huckle (1979) demonstrated how awareness space and activity space increased consistently with age for Bristol school-children in England.
36 A major determinant of the amount of information available to consumers may be the degree of search that has been undertaken. Thus, this type of research is also a cross-sectional study of shopping patterns, and is concerned with the question of how consumer images of retail environment are built up by experience. It is based on the assumption that consumers are engaging in a spatial search process in order to identify opportunities open to them, and a change in the urban retailing system may cause the individual to start a new search phase. The individual may shift attention from simple factual knowledge to what he or she considers to be positive features of shopping centres, for example, price, and service. Such continual changes taking place in consumer behaviour may be viewed as a learning process (Reynolds and Horton 1971).
Learning itself can be conceptualised as either a change in behaviour or a change in cognitive structure. The application of learning theories contributes much to the understanding of the way in which shopping patterns develop and change. Consumers at any given moment in time will be in different stages of the learning process and this is probably reflected in their particular shopping pattern (Golledge
1969).
But much of the attention has been given to mathematical learning models. Burnett (1973), in her study of women's clothing in Sydney, demonstrated that verifiable mathematical relationships exist between the probability of choosing each alternative centre and consumers' subjective assessments of that centre in terms of the dimensions used to
37 discriminate between centres. Similar work was done by
Wrigley (1980) who developed a stochastic model for predicting shopping centre choice in Bradford. He later extended these conventional logistic models to deal with
shopping patterns that involved recurrent choice and movement
(Wrigley 1985).
Although the application of such linear learning models
to consumer shopping behaviour offers some potential,
considerable doubt has been cast upon the methodology of such
studies (Crouchley, Pickles and Davies 1982, p.27). This
type of modelling of consumer learning is being criticized
for its applicability in real world situations. It is
difficult to infer learning from cross-sectional data, and in
fact, consumers do not behave in the way as specified by the
mathematics (Louviere 1973 p.322).
1,3 An Overview
There is still considerable confusion over the degree to
which central place theory can explain the modern pattern of
shopping trips because in some countries, particularly
Britain, the bulk of the population still behaves in a
rigidly routine and deterministic way (Davies 1976). The
strict planning controls over the retailing system may have
virtually eliminated any real choice in opportunities for
shopping and result in a systematic use of the hierarchies of
centres. Consequently, a combination of the relevant parts
of central place theory, gravity models and trade area
studies appropriate to the type of issue or stage in the
38 planning process still provides a systematic means of planning and reviewing retail developments (National Capital
Development Commission 1982).
By focusing attention on the demand in the trade area and the minimum threshold size for centres, central place theory offers a general framework for planning the location and size of retail centres. Gravity type models give
insights into the relative attractiveness of major centres and their relationship to the distance consumers will travel
to a centre. Simultaneously, trade area studies provide
information about consumers' characteristics and their
expenditure patterns which form a basis for explaining past
development and forecasting future requirements.
While varying degrees of empirical success have been
reported for these normative models, a serious limitation
common to all is the absence of underlying theory to explain
the variablility in consumer behaviour amongst small groups
or individuals, particularly in terms of the way they
themselves perceive their opportunities.
Although the diffuse range of behavioural studies has
not yet been synthesized into a comprehensive alternative
theoretical formulation, the studies do furnish a
considerable amount of information relevant to the evaluation
and improvement of the existing theories of consumer
behaviour (Herbert 1982 p.252). Study of consumers' mental
images of the retailing environment has been integral to the
cognitive-behavioural approach. These cognitive-behavioural
studies take into consideration a large number of highly
39 varied factors influencing consumer behaviour and cognition in an explanatory manner (Downs 1970, Pacione 1975, MacKay and Olshavsky 1975, Hudson 1976, Potter 1982, Timmermans
1983), They search for disaggregate, psychological groundings for predictive consumer decision-making models.
More or less explicitly, behavioural assumptions arise in attempts to find conditions on individual preferences and space utilities that are necessary and sufficient for gravity-like interactions.
The accomplishments and the overall applicability of cognitive-behavioural studies have been questioned from many perspectives (Cadwallader 1975, Bunting and Guelke 1979).
One criticism of individual behavioural approach is that since the fundamental premise is the result of a problem solving process in which the consumer trades-off the cost of travel against the attractiveness of a shopping centre, how- ever, this kind of problem solving is rare and habit and inertia, sometimes, are more dominant influences on consumer behaviour (National Economic Development Office 1970 p.50).
Moreover, this approach has failed to provide original and incisive accounts of overt behaviour, because of the purported failure to achieve verification or replication
(Pipkin 1981 pl47). In essence, these studies tend to ignore or show little direct relationship between images, preferences or attitudes in respect of consumer behaviour and there has been little empirical signs of the degree of congruence between preferred imagery and behaviour.
40 The cognitive-behavioural studies have particular rele- vance to planning. The analysis of an individual's decision behaviour contributes to the development of discrete choice models by emphasising the study on spatial choice, user preferences, and intra-location choices. Unlike the gravity model which relies on the actual outcomes of groups of decision-makers, discrete choice models are based on indivi- dual's perceptions and preferences to measure attractiveness of a destination. These models of shopping behaviour are considered to have widespread implementation capability in the planning of retail facilities. They may form an extremely rich base for predicting the probability of visiting a particular shopping centre (Hensher 1985),
Conclusion
The preceding review has illustrated the variability in consumer behaviour. A comprehensive theory capable of describing present patterns and of predicting future situations has yet to be developed. Central place theory and gravity models provided early normative approaches and have contributed to planning decisions, However, the behavioural limitations of these models has stimulated a more micro approach to the study of consumer behaviour which focused on activities of the individual consumer in an attempt to describe and explain recurrent patterns of behaviour. The cognitive-behavioural studies have become a focus of research and, in spite of the trade area studies and aggregate consumer behaviour studies, provide empirical information with significant practical implications.
41 The cognitive-behavioural studies emphasize the individual's image of the shopping environment. They are derived from the suggestion that individuals are likely to have varying subjective impressions of the realities of the environment, and their decision-making depends on the pertinent dimensions of individuals' image of shopping centres, Although the degree to which perception affects behaviour or vice versa still presents a methodological difficulty, the literature review has shown that this contention is generally accepted by most researchers.
After recognising the applicability and deficiencies of different approaches, this study adopts a cognitive behavioural method integrating environmental information, perception and cognition of centres, shopping motivation and possible constraints.
The origin of many cognitive-behavioural studies can be traced back to aspects of environmental psychology. Chapter 2 outlines the main theoretical considerations in that discipline which underly this research.
42 CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Behavioural studies of consumer behaviour draw heavily from psychological theory and method, and the aim of this chapter is to briefly review relevant concepts that are highly useful in building an understanding of individual environment relationship, and to formulate a conceptual framework which will serve as a basis for the empirical study to follow.
The first section of the chapter analyses the development of environmental psychology from an historical standpoint. The next section discusses people-environment relations with the focus on the psychological processes perception, cognition, image - involved in handling information and the ways in which these processes influence overt behaviour. It is followed by a discussion of variability in consumer behaviour. The final section of the chapter will be a conceptual framework proposed for the empirical study in Part B.
2,1 Environmental Psychology
Traditionally, psychology is concerned with both mind and behaviour. It can be viewed as a subject that studies the 'relationships between antecedent event and condition and the behaviour of organisms' (Marx and Hillix 1973, p.44). A series of systematic schools of thought represent historical watersheds for the development nf psychology,
43 The earliest school of structuralism, which was concerned with human consciousness, had established an experimental tradition of psychological thought and stimulated vigorous responses from others. Drawing upon the evolutionary theories of Charles Darwin and the pragmatic philosophy of William James, the school of functionalism sought to study the mind in terms of its function in the adaptation of individuals to their environment. Behaviour was being conceived as a flow of stimulus and response.
Behaviourism deviated from the previous two schools by replacing the simple, mechanistic conceptions that previously characterised individual-environment theory with the stimulus-response (S-R) relationships that explicitly recognised the enormous complexity of behaviour (Ittelson
1974, p. 65). It adopted a reductionist and mechanist approach in which complex environmental situations were explained in terms of simple stimulus-response bonds.
Similar to the concept of 'environmental determinism', behaviourism conceived behaviour as an individual's adaptation and passive response to the dictates of forces in his or her external envionment, and the operation of free will and the social and cultural influences received little attention (Gold 1980),
A fruitful source of inspiration has been Gestalt psychology, This was a reaction to the oversimplication and reductionist analysis advocated by behaviourism (Gold 1980 p,67). Gestaltists argued that each person has a behaviourial environment, which was the environment as perceived. They viewed human behaviour as a function of the
44 interaction of personal factors such as needs, values, feelings and disposition with external factors as perceived in a given behavioural setting (Ittelson 1974 p.69). The central theme of this school was perception, that constituted a variable intervening between stimulus and response. The significance of this school rested upon its role as a source of humane insights into psychological processes. Laboratory experimentation later led to the emergence of environmental psychology,
Environmental psychology is an evolving area of applied psychology with the focus on the people-environment relationship as interpreted through human perception of environment. It has emerged from conceptual developments within traditional areas of psychology that placed increasing emphasis on individuals in and of the environment, and all aspects of individual behaviour in relation to that environment. It widens the scope of psychology by explicitly studying behavioural processes in real-world settings (Gold
1980, p.15).
There is no generally accepted definition, but in a broad sense, environmental psychology is concerned with the relationship between human behaviour, and experience and the physical environment (Ittelson 1974 p.4). It mainly deals with the basic psychological processes - such as perception, cognition, personality, development and social learning - in mediating the relationship between human behaviour and the environment (Proshansky et al 1970). In other words, environmental psychologists are interested in the ways in
45 which mental and social processes interact with the physical environment to yield varying patterns of behaviour.
2.2 Individual-Environment Interaction
The concept of individual-environment interaction has long been attracting a number of researchers from various fields, for example, sociologists who have examined images of cities and urban behavioural environments, anthropologists who have looked at physical settings in order to understand the sociocultural characteristics of the people, geographers who study the aggregate spatial pattern to seek the relation between form and process, and psychologists who investigate the mental processes of individual-environment relations.
The previous section shows that historically, the experimental psychologists interpreted environment as a set of stimuli to which individuals responded in a more or less deterministic manner. Such an approach failed to explain real-world behaviour, and it ignored concepts like 'need' or
'feeling' by overlooking the fact that individuals had different attributes and motivations and responded in varying ways to different environmental characteristics (Porteous
1977 p.138). Environmental psychologists attempt to fill the gap by refuting the simple interactional perspective and encouraged the view that an individual and environment are inseparable and are linked in an indivisible and dynamic relationship (Ittelson 1974).
The environment is seen as the total milieu in which an
individual lives, an environment with both physical and
46 socio-cultural attributes. It is also a source of information - a complex and organised stimulus field that provides the context for human behaviour. Although in some circumstances, an individual has only a limited choice of action and adapts as best he or she may, it is more helpful to view an individual as a goal-directed being who acts upon his or her environment and in turn is influenced by it
(Ittelson 1974 p.5). The key intervening variables in individual-environment transactions are perception and cognition - the internal mental processes in which individuals sense, perceive, interpret and make decisions about their environment. Besides personal and cultural characteristics including motivation, emotion and attitudes also exert a strong influence over cognitive process (Gold
1980 p.21). Consequently, each person tends to have a behavioural environment, that is the environment as perceived, as a result of different perceived possibilities, criteria, and choice. He/she will then make his/her decision on the basis of his/her perceived realities. In fact, 'it is the interplay between all events, objective and perceived, in a total environmental context that explains the particular behaviour and experiences of the person' (Ittelson 1974 p.94).
The basic interrelationship between individuals and environment is simplified in the diagram (Fig 2.1). The transaction between an individual and the environment is mediated by mental processes and cognitive representations of the external environment. Image is the point of contact
47 PEOPLE
1------~BEHAVIOUR
ENVIRONMENT
Fig 2.1 A simplified concept of individual-environment cognitive relationship between people and their environment. The diagram also
illustrates that a link between the real world and behaviour
is image, which helps to simplify the complexities of the world,
In order to examine the significance of the environment and the way in which the nature of perceived environment
influences an individual's action, it is necessary to look at the psychological processes of perception and cognition, and the links between elements in individual-environment
transactions.
2.2.1 Perception and Cognition
The psychological processes, perception and cognition, are mediates between individual and environment.
Traditionally, perception can be defined as the way in which
people perceive the environment through the senses. The
psychologists usually relate it to the stimulus situation and
its properties, that is, perception involves the awareness of
48 stimuli through the physiological excitation of sensory receptors. However, to many geographers, perception refers to the sum total of perception, memories, attitudes, preferences and other psychological factors (Downs and Stea
1973 p.13). In general, it can be defined as the process of sensory awareness in response to a stimulus. It is the psychological function that enables an individual to convert sensory stimulation into organised and coherent experience.
Therefore, it is closely related to the immediate surroundings and is linked with immediate behaviour. In short, perception is the awareness or interaction with the environment through visual and/or audio sense experience.
Cognition has been used to describe the way in which people understand, structure and learn the environment
(Rapoport 1977 p.31). It relates to the mental processes in which individuals obtain, store, use, and operate upon information. It includes sensing, perceiving, remembering, judging, deciding and virtually every type of mental process and is intimately linked to experience and behaviour. Both perception and cognition refer to inferred processes responsible for the organisation and interpretation of information, The standard criteria for perception are immediacy and stimulus. Cognition involves the substages of sensation, perception, imagery, retention and recall, reasoning and problem-solving as well as judgement and evaluation (Gold 1980 p.20). Moreover, perception can be used to describe the direct sensory experience of environment whereas cognition is based on inferences, less immediate
49 experience, indirect knowledge, messages and information from the media (Gould and White 1968).
These two processes are considered as part of a larger psychological system dealing with the processing of information and they contribute to the knowledge of the environment. Perception provides figurative knowledge which is information resulting from direct contact and cognition provides operative knowledge which is that information that has been structured through a variety of mental operations
(Moore and Golledge 1976). For instance, perceived distance is different from cognitive distance in the sense that the former is the interval between points seen simultaneously in a specific environment whilst the latter is the distance estimate made in the absence of objects, relying more on memory and stored impression. This leads to the suggestion that the notion of distance that people hold in mind is different from objective distance, for a number of studies have found that the cognitive distance is overestimated relative to real world distance (Thompson 1963, Pocock and
Hudson 1978 p.53).
Perception, cognition and evaluation are also conceptualised as three aspects of constructing a perceived environment. They represent different phases of one process and in fact they form a continuum: i) perception is the immediate response to a stimulus in
the environment; ii) cognition is the encoding process stressing memory,
learning, imagery and some values;
50 iii) evaluation is the affective process of preference which
is based on values and images, and will lead to
decision and action (Rapoport 1977 p.31, 33.).
Above all, environmental information is gained through the senses and stored in some way in the memory. The perceptual data would then go through a process of filtering until a construct results. It is the image which is the perceived world within which an individual operates,
2.2.2 The Concept Of Image
The end product of perception and cognition has given rise to a number of mental concepts : mental map, image and schemata. Mental maps usually refer to an individual's cognitive mapping of the physical environment, while an image represents the mental picture that may be called to mind when the object, person or place is not part of current sensory information (Gold 1980). Schemata are the subjective knowledge structure of an individual - a sum of his or her knowledge, value and meanings, organised according to certain rules, therefore they form a framework for coding and structuring environmental information (Rapoport 1977 p.41),
Images may include those places that have seldom or never been visited whereas schemata are more readily associated with the everyday environment (Gold 1980 p.41). Although there are differences between these concepts, in many cases, the terms 'image' and 'schemata' are used interchangeably.
In this research, image would be used in a broad sense and
51 represents an individual's organised subjective knowledge of the environment.
An understanding of individual-environment interaction requires an understanding of images. An image is a product of the intervening filtering process between an individual and the environment. As it is the information stored in the mind to form the mental impression of a given environment, it can be defined as an individual's learned mental representation that summarizes an individual's environmental knowledge, evaluations and preferences (Pocock and Hudson
1978 p.3). Lynch (1960 p.6) described images as the result of a two-way process between an individual and environment.
The individual selected, organised and interpreted the environment in the light of his/her goals. The image so developed limits and emphasised what was seen. It has also been described as 'point of contact between people and their environment', then relating it to behaviour (Downs 1970 p. 87). In short, an image is a partial, simplified and possibly distorted representation of the real world.
Images can also be considered as 'filters' because environmental information is being funnelled by an individual's culture, socio-economic and personal characteristics. A group may have shared images as a result of their common views, beliefs and values which may create a system of rules and habits (Rapoport 1977 p.20). Although each individual creates and bears his/her own image, there is substantial agreement among members of the same group.
Socially shared images are sometimes reflected in the
52 lifestyle of groups. Moreover, personal factors such as age, education, goals, motivations, emotions and attitudes also play a vital role in the cognitive process.
The work of Boulding aroused an interest in the concept of image. He proposed that all behaviour is dependent on an image built up of information derived from social and physical milieu, and an image can be thought of as part of the culture in which it develops. There are ten features of an image : i) spatial image accounts for an individual's location in
space; ii) temporal image is concerned with flow of time; iii) personal image is relating the individual to other
people or organisations; iv) relational image which is the individual's picture of
the universe as a system of regularities; v) value image is the ordering of various parts according
to whether they are good or bad; vi) affective image which is the emotional component imbued
with feeling; vii) a blend of certainty and uncertainty; viii) conscious, subconscious and unconscious elements; ix) a dimension of reality and unreality; x) a public and private component expressing the degree to
which an image is shared. (Boulding 1956 p.47-48)
Thus, an image is both an individual conception and a cultural conception in the sense that similar people in similar environment are likely to have similar images in
53 their minds and hence to exhibit similar forms of behaviour
(Walmsley and Lewis 1984, p.64).
The study of the nature of an image is very much stimulated by Lynch (1960). He conducted extensive studies in three cities : Boston, Jersey City and Los Angeles, concentrating on the images that people held of these cities.
According to Lynch, an image of a city was based on five elements: paths which were the channels along which individuals move; edges that normally act as barriers or boundaries (e.g. rivers, roads); districts which were areas of the city with an identifiable character; nodes that formed strategic foci in a city and landmarks which were points of reference. He proposed that these five basic elements composing the image served as a basis for interpreting information, as a guide to action, as a frame of reference for organising activity, as a basis for individual growth and as a provider of a sense of emotional security.
Generally speaking, an image comprises two categories of knowledge. The locational component provides knowledge about the position or orientation and distance of a place, and the attributive component supplies assessment of the attributes of places and areas, along with information about various locations compared with one another (Downs and Stea
1973 p.16-17). This conforms to Boulding's notion that images are composed of both facts and values and Rapoport's classification of ideals and knowledge of the world. Later
Pocock and Hudson (1978) conceptualised an image into designative and appraisive aspects.
54 i) Designative image
The designative component of an image is informational in nature and involves the basic 'whatness' and 'whereness' of environmental objects. It is concerned with basic properties such as distance, orientation, location and spatial variation. These types of mental maps are built on the basis of interaction with th~ environment, imagery, and symbolisation with environment (Appleyard 1973). It is also a way of simplifying environment that are too big and complex to know through a process of acquiring, coding, storing, recalling and manipulating information. Thus, cognitive mapping of an individual tends to be highly selective with a focus on the physical characteristics of a place or an area, and in the form of generalised representations.
ii) Appraisive images
The appraisive aspect of the image of an environment is one of assessment, and it consists of both evaluative and affective responses. The former usually relates to the expression of an opinion, including some general or external standards. The latter is a more personal type of appraisal and it is the emotional response associated with the realm of attitudes, feelings and value, that is, the specification of a preference. Appraisive images are usually related to the analysis of preference for different parts of the environment, evaluation of environmental quality as well as residential desirability. What emotions individuals feel
55 towards the attributes of different locations are considered important in the understanding of behaviour.
Obviously, an image can be considered as the mental construct at a point of time in the process of cognition.
Individuals filter out the totality of the environment based on stored information. The images, incorporating designative and appraisive attributes, play a major role in structuring information and in the evaluation and preference of the environment (Rapoport 1977 p,20). These images, in turn, affect people's activities, life style, migration and habitat selection. Consequently, image is proposed to be an important component in influencing people's behaviour,
2.2.3 Image and Behaviour
As image is the cognitive map individuals have of their environment and this subjective knowledge is stored, organised in mind and accumulated over time, it is hypothesised that image is related to spatial behaviour. In considering the role of image in explaining behaviour,
Boulding (1956 p.6) concludes that 'it is this image that largely governs my behaviour'. Garner (1970) also agrees that individuals are making decisions within the framework of the images of physical space. Similarly, Downs and Stea (1973 p,86) suggested that spatial behaviour is a function of the image, where the image represents man's link with the environment, Golledge and Rushton (1976) suggest that the unravelling of the process of cognition would contribute to the understanding of spatial behaviour, if one understands
56 how human minds process information from external environments and investigates how and why choices concerning
those environments are made'. The relationship between image and behaviour is well illustrated by Gold's model (1980 p.42)
in Figure 2.2 which includes:
i) The individual is part of the objective and behavioural
environments, receiving information from the
behavioural environment but affecting both of them by
his or her action.
ii) The cognitive processes - sensation, perception, and learning are an interaction between the group, socio-
cultural factors, and personality factors including
Behavioural PERSONALITY environment VARIABLES GROUP & personality------' CULTURAL motivation FACTORS Objective emotion environment
Relationship COGNITIVE PROCESSES sensation Feedback perception learning
INFORMATION DECISION FILTER FILTER ...•, . COGNITIVE REPRESENTATIONS I --- .. ·.---- images 1----1~---IBEHAVIOUR I spatial schemata I ·.-:: 1 I I I I I '------______J I I 1 I ------~ I ------______J
Fig 2,2 A paradigm of individual spatial cognition and behaviour. (Source: Gold 1980, p.42)
57 motivation, emotion, attitudes and the objective
environment. A combination of these factors acts as
filters of environmental information. iii) Images/schemata are shaped by extracting information
from the behavioural environment, in other words, the
individual is operating within the perceived world. iv) The presence of the decision filter represents a stage
where the individual makes his/her decision : take no
action, or seek more information or undertake a course
of action. v) The people-environment relationship is dynamic in the
sense that there is continuous feedback to the
environment, and the individual will keep on modifying
his cognition, assigning values to the experience and
rectifying his/her future behavioural strategies.
Consequently, it is considered that behaviour is influenced by image through a process of selecting relevant facts from the behavioural environment. The image may govern daily activities. For instance, journey-to-work, shopping or recreational trips, and the selection of destination or routes is usually made on the basis of what is believed to be the best from among alternatives that are known. That is to say, spatial behaviour is to be interpreted, not on the basis of objective information, but rather from the subjective evaluation of the environment.
However, the assumption that there is a strong relationship between revealed images or preferences and
58 actual, real-world behaviour remains unfounded. Host of the behavioural studies have emphasised the measurment of image but such numerical precision is unrelated or unrelatable to any real situations (Bunting and Guelke 1979 p,455),
Individuals have bounded rational behaviour and many decision makers are satisficers rather than optimisers because they are operating under a number of constraints.
Their personalities and attitudes may be very restricted by the amount of information and the information available is sometimes severely constrained by social class, technology, culture and the political system (Walmsley and Lewis 1984).
In fact, much research has tended to treat environmental behaviour as one-dimensional phenomena and overlook the economic, social, and political considerations that act concomitantly with environmental influences (Thrift 1981).
Individuals undoubtedly have preferences for different behaviour patterns, but whether these preferences are revealed in behaviour, or simply repressed, depends on a range of spatial opportunities that are available, given the constraints such as time and cost that are operating. For example, the position of an individual in the social structure may affect his/ her access to society's resources, and his/her position in spatial structure (suburb or residence) may also affect both the image of the environment he/she holds and his/her access to spatial resources.
Therefore, only when the whole range of influences is assessed and analysed will a full understanding of real world behaviour be possible (Bunting and Guelke 1979 p.461).
59 2.3 Consumer Behaviour
There have been many attempts to apply the general understanding of individual-environment interaction to the examination of specific types of behaviour. These involve the study of journey-to-work, shopping behaviour, leisure and recreation, migration and residential mobility, Although shopping accounts on average for less than one per cent of an individual's time ( Chapin and Brail 1969), it attracts a lot of attention from many professionals like physical planners, urban designers and transportation planners. Shopping behaviour is generally more or less obligatory, frequent, and dynamic in nature. This is particularly true for both high- order goods, that is, goods usually found in large shopping centres, and low-order goods which are goods directly related to the day-to-day subsistence of individuals such as grocery shopping.
There are normally far more places in the city at which goods, entertainment, or services can be obtained than an individual would ever need. Consumer behaviour is generally aimed at finding places where particular needs may be catered for in a satisfactory manner. An individual will rarely search further when this has been achieved. Consequently, consumer flows are traditionally treated as mass-behavioual phenomena, with behavioural patterns that are assumed to be rational and optimising. The application of the theoretical ideal of 'rational economic man' to shopping trips has led to the proposition that consumers minimise travel and therefore
60 patronise the nearest shopping centre. Such an assumption implies that : i) Shoppers move towards the dominant trading centre ii) Shoppers will not go through one trading centre to get
to another with equal facilities iii) Shoppers will patronise the closest centre with equal
facilities (Nelson 1958 p.185).
This tends to ignore the fact that 'rational economic man' is sensitive to price and so may choose a centre which offers low priced goods. Moreover, consumers may vary their shopping behaviour when factors like quality of goods, service and friendliness can outweigh economic considerations. A great deal of shopping is undertaken on multipurpose trips, or to fit in with the management of a consumer's other travel commitments.
Furthermore, each individual consumer is characterised by different motives, values, and desires, along with different cost and time budgets, levels of mobility and propensities to travel. Consumer behaviour can be viewed as a process of satisficing under conditions of bounded rationality because people attempt to maximize the outcome or choices within the context of their given knowledge. It is salient that consumers are likely to have different subjective impressions of the realities of urban shopping facilities, which constitute their cognitive images of the retailing environment.
One attempt to model consumer behaviour was made by
Huff (1960). By extending Isard's (1956) concept of space
61 preference, he developed a topographical model of the consumer decision-making process. His model consists of three major sets of factors : a value system, behaviour-space perception and movement imagery. The value system was a composite of the consumers' geographical position and a broad range of personal characteristics. Behaviour-space perception was related to the structural attributes of the available facilities, which included reputation, amenities, breadth of merchandise, services and price level. Movement imagery had a strong perceived element and was related to travel factors such as transport mode, travel time, travel cost and parking cost. It was composed of the travel factors such as transport mode, travel time, travel cost and parking cost. He proposed that the interaction of these three components led to a response in overt behaviour, which gave rise to a learning or restructuring process, and it also determined how an individual's values operated as a filter between his/her objectives and his/her eventual decision.
Such a model implies that variations in shopping behaviour are the direct outcome of the interplay of different consumer characteristics and inherent differences between retail centres. It emphasises a large number of highly varied factors that influence consumer cognition. However, such connectivity analysis depends on the researchers' identification of interrelations and ignores the possibility that the precise nature of links is likely to differ from one consumer to another. Besides, the unspecified factors and links may play a significant role in shaping consumer behaviour (Potter 1983).
62 It was Hudson (1976) who first attempted to investigate the links between learning, cognition and shopping behaviour.
His model of consumer behaviour revealed the manner in which individuals learnt about and chose shopping opportunities.
He looked at the cognitive aspect of the decision-making process by bringing out the relationship between the objective retailing environment, the knowledge and evaluation that an individual had and the actual choice. Although this model has wider applicability, it fails to link choice and satisfaction levels by defining decision-making within the context of aspiration and satisfaction levels (Jarvis and
Mann 1977).
Potter (1979) further refined the decision-making process of the consumer by focusing on the concept of
'information field' which was the knowledge of retailing environment an individual had built up. When the consumer became dissatisfied with his or her existing shopping activities, he might embark on a new search phase. That means, an individual would undergo a continuous search and evaluation process in which different strategies were tested until a satisfactory behaviour was reached. Such re- evaluation and readjustment in consumer behaviour would subsequently lead to the development of a 'usage field', that is, the centres that were actually visited.
Undoubtedly, there is a large number of factors influencing consumer behaviour, such as income, sex, age, occupation, ethnic affiliation, geographical location, mobility, culture attitude and personality (Gayler 1980;
63 Shepherd and Thomas 1980; Williams 1981). But the overt behaviour patterns are so varied that it is hard to make generalisations and predictions. Moreover, most behavioural models (e.g. Hudson 1976; Williams 1981) have adopted the standpoint of consumer sovereignty, which is implicit in the sense that individuals make free choices and that they go to whatever centre they wish. In reality, there are sometimes numerous contraints, for example, poor shopping facilities, restricted shopping hours, availability of public transport and consumers' immobility, poverty and age that affect their decisions (Shepherd and Thomas 1980, Guy 1985).
Therefore any attempt to research consumer behaviour should take these constraints into consideration.
2.4 Conceptual Framework
The previous section has exemplified the complex links between learning, cognition and shopping behaviour, and it is important to examine the learning process that underpinned the development of the schema. Various factors influencing the complex pattern of shopping decisions of a consumer are shown in the illustrative representation (Figure 2.3), with the aim to link individual-environment interaction, psycho logical processes, constraints and behaviour.
The environment is taken as the starting point. It acts as a complex of exogenous stimuli and is represented as a source of information. In this framework, it refers to the retailing environment, that is, the structural arrangement of the shopping facilities in the city. The individual will
64 ENVIRONMENT r------exogenous ------, stimuli
INFORMATION locational knowledge attributive knowledge
VALUE SYSTEM
PREFERENCE : PERCEPTION ------4 CONSTRAINTS : utility, status COGNITION cost, time, mobility
IMAGFJ SCHEMATA
DECISION
CHOICE
I I CONSUMER ______J I BEHAVIOUR
Fig 2.3 An illustrative representation of consumer decision-making process.
65 face a finite array of locations at which he/she can satisfy his/her needs and wants.
Information here includes all knowledge that plays a role in constructing, reinforcing, expanding, modifying or changing the image/schemata around which an individual organises his or her environmental experience. It is also the stimulus from which knowledge is extracted. It has both designative and appraisive components. The designative component includes all knowledge about the location, areal extent, distance and direction of the retail facilities.
Appraisive information represents the consumers' emotional reactions to physical or structural, and functional characteristics of the shopping centres, for instance, parking facilities, price levels, and the range of goods,
Information may come from two sources: a primary source of information derived from direct sensory experience, such as work trips, recreational and socialising activities, and a secondary source which is either 'inter-personal communication or the mass media, including press, radio, television, pamphlets and so on.
Information then enters the individual through perceptual receptors and the processes of perception and cognition act as an informaton - processing system in which the information inputs are converted into cognitive maps.
Perception deals with how information is gathered and obtained, and cognition with how it is organised, coded, decoded and stored. At this stage, the individual will build up his/her knowledge of the retailing environment,
66 Information should be taken to imply utility and the individual will pursue the knowledge that is useful in relation to his/her goal. It starts the learning process as a result of interaction with the environment and a cognitive representation of the retailing environment is built up over time. The mind, consciously or unconsciously, scans the environment to extract those cues that are useful in the light of particular goals.
Environmental information enters the value system where information is evaluated and assessed according to an individual's needs, motivation, aspirations and self-imposed goals. Such a process of evaluation leads to the formation of the image through subjective filtering by personal and socio-cultural factors including values, attitudes, personality and culture. Personal characteristics can be viewed as a 'psychological filter' of environmental information because a consumer's social class, age, income, family size and car ownership will possibly influence propensities to consume, tastes, space preference, and mobility level. The value system tends to define a set of decision criteria which condition perception of the objective environment. Time, cost and mobility act as constraints to perception and the evaluation process of the consumer.
An image will affect the consumer's preference, whether he/she likes, dislikes or is indifferent to particular retail centres, until an 'ideal centre' has emerged. The individual is assumed to make his/her decision on the basis of his/her preference or image. Preference is related to the
67 individual's satisfaction or achievement of goals. It can be conceived as a composite of the subjectively weighted or ranked attributes. It may involve an ordering of alternatives according to their utilities and status in satisfying his/her particular needs. Finally, the individual may reach a decision : to take no action (not to stop) search for further information from the environment, or to take a course of action. A decision is then made that may be expressed as a pattern of behaviour. The selected centre should be similar to that 'ideal centre'. Finally, his/her behaviour in terms of centre choice, shopping frequency will represent a feedback loop to the environment which then undergoes a change, and fresh information may result and the whole process can continue.
In this framework, there are several basic assumptions: i) A consumer is an individual decision-maker and choice
behaviour is considered to be the outcome of an
individual decision-making process. ii) The individual has built up a personal information
system about the retailing environment, stored in
cognitive constructs. This information has been
gathered through search and learning processes and is
related to the individual's value system, motivation,
and possibly other personal characteristics. iii) Consumer behaviour is a function of the image of the
retailing environment. In the complex information
processing system, the image forms as the interface or
point of contact between the individual and the
68 environment. Different perceived environments are the
result of a set of filters, which help to simplify the
complexities of the real world. Consequently, the
individual is making his decision within the perceived
environment. iv) The individual is postulated as a satisficer. When the
outcome of a decision falls short of his/her level of
aspiration, he/she either searches for new alternatives
or adjusts his/her level of aspiration downwards, or
both.
Above all, this framework attempts to embody the various factors influencing the complex pattern of shopping decisions, with the aim to highlight the interrelationship between environment, perception and image, preferences, constraints and behaviour.
Conclusion
To sum up, a better understanding of people-environment relationships requires the investigation of how an individual derives information from the real world, and processes it in such a way as to provide a basis for decision-making.
Environmental information is sought and collected in a subjective and purposeful way that reflects the needs and values of the individual, The key intervening variables in people-environment transactions are perception and cognition.
69 However, the processing of environmental information through perception and cognition may not influence behaviour directly, but rather affects how the mind construes the environment. It influences the image that is held of an environment. Images are seen as mental representations of those parts of reality known through direct or indirect experience, grouping various environmental attributes, and categorising, evaluating and storing them in the mind.
Therefore, image acts as a link between the real world, the mediating elements, and the perceived world. This mental construct affects individual behaviour and choices between spatial alternatives.
This chapter has built up a general understanding of how individuals interact with their environment and the proposed conceptual framework leads to the basic contenton that there are close linkages between environmental information, perception, personal/cultural factors, motiva tions and shopping behaviour. Each of these linkages is examined in a study of residents living on the North Shore in
Sydney.
70 CHAPTER 3 THE EMPIRICAL STUDY
The prinicpal aim of this empirical study is to explore the extent to which consumers' shopping behaviour is related to their cognitive images of shopping centres. Thus, a focus of the case study is on the way in which information contributes to the development of images, the nature of images, and the relationship between image and behaviour.
Specifically, the study aims to : i) describe and explain the level and sources of
information for the respondents; ii) analyse the cognitive structuring of centre images; iii) seek the linkage between image and shopping
behaviour.
The chapter starts with an outline of the design of the case study, which is followed by a discussion of the questionnaire design and the results of pilot surveys. The second section of the chapter focuses on sampling method, data collection and the general response rate. The final section deals with the choice of study areas, a description of the two regional centres -Chatswood and Macquarie Centre, and the socio-economic background of the chosen area.
3,1 Design Of the Study
In many circumstances, the decision about where to shop is straightforward because no alternatives exist. The North
71 Shore area between Chatswood and Macquarie Centre was selected for study because it provides real choice in shopping opportunities. As shoppers' behaviour is related to cognitive images and evaluations of shopping centres, alternatives become an essential part of consumers' choice considerations which have been referred as the 'evoked set'
(Coshall 1985 p.347). The evoked set comprises the spatial opportunities towards which the consumer has behavioural intentions in the form of varying degrees of search and comparison behaviour. Besides the two regional centres
(Chatswood and Macquarie Centre), the area also includes alternatives - the subregional/community centres of Gordon,
Lindfield, Lane Cove and Top Ryde.
The study focused on clothing because the pilot survey showed that there were significant differences between convenience and comparison goods shopping patterns (Appendix
I) . The sampled respondents tended to shop for their daily goods in the nearest centre or neighbourhood shops, and their non-daily shopping in the regional centres. In other words, the convenience goods shopping was more distance affected and presumably involved little search and evaluation behaviour.
In this study, the emphasis is on a specific shopping demand
- comparison goods clothes shopping - since this type of purchase usually generates an intensive search for the
'right' item (Hudson 1981 p.86).
Shopping for durable goods is sometimes highly varied, that is, the choice of centre depends very much on the type of good the consumer wishes to purchase. Clothing was
72 selected as the relevant good for this study because it is particularly prone to comparison shopping. Furthermore, it has a greater frequency of purchase than other comparison goods. In this survey, for each of the sample households, only the female member was invited to participate because it was assumed that they were inclined to spend more time on clothes shopping.
Consumers perceive a centre according to a number of attributes which collectively make up the image of a centre, and identifying characteristics of the centre that are salient or important to consumers is an important part of the study. The selection of the attributes is problematic as the shopping centres might possess a number of components which are of varying importance for different consumers.
Generally, there are two types of techniques
'personal construct' and 'semantic differentials' often used in this type of research. The former is a flexible method that allows the consumer the opportunity to express his or her own cognition structure and the study objects or contructs may be either freely elicited from the respondents or given by the researcher. The latter involves the use of a number of bipolar rating scales and is associated with the use of principal components or factor analysis. A criticism of this method is the prespecification of factors by the researcher (Burnett 1973 p.183, Timmermans et al 1982 p.3).
People might be encouraged to respond to the characteristics that do not necessarily comprise the image they have of the centre being studied. Nevertheless, the semantic differential technique retains major advantages such as its
73 ease of administration, the provision of quantifiable data, the requirement of minimal verbal skill and, to a certain extent, its reasonably high reliability (McDougall and Fry
1975 p.54). It is also effective in eliciting reaction to objects and experiences that are non-verbal in nature.
In this study, the selection of attributes for semantic differential items was based on results of the pilot surveys and past research (Downs 1970 p.17, Patricios 1979 p.529,
Timmermans et al 1982 p.7, Nevin and Houston 1980 p.85).
Pilot surveys provided data for a set of prespecified variables. It sought to derive relevant and meaningful attributes of consumers' cognitive imagery for detailed analysis at the latter stage. A plan to analyse consumers' images of all shopping centres in the study area was abandoned in the actual survey (see Appendix II). The pilot survey revealed that most respondents could only rate one or two centres out of a total of six centres. They were either relatively unfamiliar with other centres or did not really know about them at all. As a result, the final survey concentrated on the centres that people used most often.
Respondents were asked to rate both physical and functional characteristics of the centres they used most often in Part B of the questionnaire, which included both the designative and evaluative aspects of their images. The questions were:
1 For each of the following characteristics, please tick
the appropriate box to indicate how your most frequently
used centre for clothing may be described', and
74 'How would you rate your most frequently used centre for
clothing?' (See Appendix III Part B.)
Their subjective impressions of the centre, that is, the perceived ratings of the physical variables, can be compared to objective data (Chapter 6 Section 6 . 1 ) .
Respondents were asked to state the three most important factors when choosing a centre in an open-ended question. The question was:
'Would you write down, in order of importance, the
things that are most important to you when choosing a
shopping centre for clothing.' (See Appendix III
Question 7.)
On the one hand, it could obtain the respondents' own subjective attributes that they considered most important, and on the other hand, it could help to identify those attributes which were not covered by the list of specified factors.
The image of a centre usually pertains to the type and amount of information an individual possesses. The respondents were asked:
'On the map please mark an 'x' in the box next to each
of the shopping centres you have visited at least once
for any reason at all.' (See Appendix III Part A,)
This would indicate the information level or the awareness of the shopping alternatives in their living area.
The relationship between the information level and length of
75 residence can be tested, Besides, the source of information would indicate why the consumers first visited the centre that they used most often for their clothing.
There were two measures of actual shopping behaviour, the choice of centre for clothing and the frequency of patronage of that centre. The questions were:
'Which of the shopping centres (as shown on the map)
would you use most often for your clothes shopping?' and
'How often do you visit the following list of shopping
centres for your clothes?' (See Appendix III Questions 3
and 5.)
The aim was to investigate the congruence between centre image and consumer behaviour, Information on the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents including their age, occupation, car ownership, family size, income and length of residence was also collected (Appendix III Part D).
Finally, three groups of variables : the image of the centre, reasons for patronage and the socio-economic attributes of consumers are analysed in relation to shopping behaviour.
3.2 Methodology
Based on the census collectors districts (CDs), data were collected by a cluster sampling technique, CDs are small areal units of approximately 500 households.
(Demographic and socio-economic information are collected and published by the Australian Bureau of Census and Statistics for CDs.) The study area was divided into three strata
76 Chatswood (15 CDs), Central (40 CDs) and Macquarie (20 CDs)
(Figure 3.1). Sixty per cent of the samples were picked from the Central stratum whereas twenty per cent from Chatswood portion ~nd twenty from Macquarie. The desire to reduce the field costs led to the use of a cluster sampling design.
Each CD represented a cluster; 15 clusters were drawn from
Chatswood and Macquarie strata separately, and 20 from the central overlapping catchment zone of the two regional centres, making up a total of 50 clusters. A sample of about
200 respondents was expected for the analysis. In the actual survey six households were picked from each cluster in
Chatswood and Macquarie strata, and 14 from the Central stratum. A total of 460 letters were sent to potential respondents informing them about the survey. The sample size was about three per cent of the total population in the study area.
Three pilot surveys were carried out in different parts of the study area, with the aim of testing the questionnaire design and to choose an appropriate method of survey. It was decided to use hand delivery of 'self-administered questionnaires', a data-gathering technique that incorporates some of the advantages of both personal interviews and self administered questionnaires (Storer and Stone 1974 p.285,
Gentry and Burns 1978 p.75). A callback procedure was needed to obtain the responses. The interviewer distributed questionnaires to the selected respondents at their homes.
After obtaining their verbal commitment, the interviewer returned within an hour or so to pick up the completed questionnaire. If they were unable to fill in the forms in
77 FIG 3.1 THE STUDY AREA ON NORTH SHORE
Chatswood Stratum
- study area +" ---- subdivision
0 1 2 km
78 the set time, they were asked to mail them back in stamped self-addressed envelopes.
This method of collecting data worked well. It reduced the cost of data collection compared to face to face interview and had the likely advantage of higher response rates compared to mail questionnaires. Besides, if needed direct verbal instructions could be made to respondents, and more reliable results could be obtained because the interviewer could check the completed forms immediately during the pick-up procedure. After examining the completed questionnaires, 257 responses were suitable for analysis.
Owing to failure to complete the major sections in the form, ten additional responses were considered unsuitable and excluded from computation. The survey had a response rate of 56 per cent (Appendix IV).
3.3 The Study Area
3.3.1 Choice of Study Areas
The selected study area is the zone between Chatswood and Macquarie Centre on the North Shore (Figure 3.1). It includes the two regional centres - Chatswood and Macquarie
Centre, and four sub-regional or community centres - Gordon,
Lindfield, Lane Cove and Top Ryde, covering the suburbs of
Gordon, Killara, Lindfield, Roseville, Chatswood, Lane Cove,
North Ryde, East Ryde and Ryde. The major difference between the regional centres and sub-regional or community centres is that the former are based on a department store and a supermarket whilst the latter consists a discount department
79 store or a supermarket (Appendix V). The regional centres provide comparison goods, such as clothing, hardware, and furniture. A comparison of the size of these centres in terms of total net selling space is illustrated in Figure 3.2.
To recapitulate, the selection of study area was based on: i) The inclusion of large comparison-good centres. Since
the present study emphasises clothing as an example of
the provision of a large range of comparison goods. ii) The presence of centres with different
characteristics. The image of centres can be compared
when there are retail outlets of varying physical or
structural and functional characteristics. The chosen
area is suitable for study because it consists of both
new and old centres, ribbon development and nucleated
centres, as well as self-growth centres like Chatswood,
Lindfield, Gordon and Lane Cove, and planned centres
like Macquarie Centre and Top Ryde. They are different
in terms of their location, morphology (shape), size
and specialisation of functions. iii) The consumers should be facing a choice situation where
they are more or less equidistant from the two
competing centres. The catchment area between
Chatswood and Macquarie Centre, in that sense, is an
appropriate focus for study. iv) The measurement of perception of a centre requires the
consumers to possess some knowledge and familiarity
80 FIG 3.2 TOTAL NET SELLING AREA OF CENTRES IN THE STUDY AREA
00 ..N 40 Jo
0 1 2 km I L...,, Source Plant Location Intematiana1(1983) P!eldvork (1987) 81 with that centre. The continual expansion of Chatswood
reflects its popularity as a shopping area. It is felt
that such a popularity might itself constitute an
important element of an image. Therefore, the North
Shore area where Chatswood and Macquarie Centre stand
appears to be suitable for a case study.
3.3.2 Chatswood and Macquarie Centre
The study area is dominated by two competitive regional centres, Chatswood and Macquarie Centre. In order to grasp a better understanding of the spatial attractiveness of these two centres, it is worth examining their background including location, historical development, general catchment area and present planning strategies.
Historically, Chatswood has been the major retail and commercial centre on the North Shore and its dominance was recognised in Sydney Region Outline Plan (1970-2000). Under the Centres Policy for Sydney Region (1985), Chatswood will be strengthened as a regional centre (after the CBD) where commercial and retail activities, community and transport facilities are concentrated. It is a focus for public transport routes. In addition to being a major railway station on the North Shore railway line, it is the terminus for a network of public and private bus systems which serve the lower and middle North Shore and western portion of
Warringah Shire. Chatswood enjoys numerous advantages
including the physical attractive environment of North Shore suburbs, its relative accessibility to CBD and to the major
82 recreational areas. Therefore, it has attracted many middle and high income residents and has a high overall status or preference as a living area (Plant Location International
1975 p.5).
The dominant position of Chatwood Centre has been reflected in successive planning strategies prepared for the
Sydney metropolitan area, including the creation of a safe and pleasant shopping environment, the improvement of traffic conditions and the development of an attractive and convenient pedestrian network (Willoughby Municipal Council
1985). Moreover, the recent project of 'Dougherty Community
Centre' which is located adjacent to Chatswood Oval, represents the first stage of a development which will house over 100 people in a retirement village. Another project is the creation of a pedestrian mall in Victoria Avenue, planned as the main element of the Chatswood Centre's pedestrian system. The series of planning strategies to improve the centre indicates the continual expansion of the centre and the trend for Chatswood to evolve towards a full community activity centre, including not only retailing, but also entertainment, services and community facilities. (For details, see Appendix VI.)
Chatswood Centre comprises five main precincts, with an estimated total net retail floor space of some 100,000 square metres (Willoughby Municipal Council 1983), an amount which has increased significantly by approximately 24 per cent since that study was undertaken. Its dominance and specialisation are highlighted by numerous department stores,
83 discount stores, supermarkets and a wide range of specialty shops, all spread out along Victoria Avenue. The Centre derives its trade all over the study area, largely in higher- order goods. Undoubtedly, Chatswood is the largest regional centre in the study area and has exerted a strong influence on North Shore residents' shopping patterns.
Macquarie Centre, which has a total area of 12.3 1 hectares , is located in North Ryde, directly to the east of
Macquarie University. It was developed by Grace Bros and commenced trading in 1981. In addition to a department store, a discount store, 2 supermarkets and over 100 specialty shops, it consists of a wide range of non-retailing service functions such as a skating rink, restaurants, health studio and medical centre. Its net retail floor space is 2 approximately 40,000 square metres , roughly 2/5 the size of the Chatswood Centre. Being well-designed with total integrated parking and shopping areas, it is described as a community centre, a social place and a centre with a sophisticated and relaxed atmosphere (Macquarie University
1979).
The construction of Macquarie Centre was in fact one of the market strategies and expansion programs of Grace Bros to consolidate the area between Chatwood and Parramatta, because there was a lack of centres in that part of the metropolitan area, except Top Ryde (Macquarie University p.23). The
Centre was seen as filling a 'hole' in the Sydney market.
This special centre enjoyed the advantages of proximity to
1,2 Source: Macquarie Centre
84 the University and the nearby industrial areas, and good accessibility by Castlereagh Freeway and Lane Cove Valley
Freeway. Its attractiveness also lies in its adequate parking spaces (3750 on site car spaces)*, its peculiar physical design - a thriving indoor rainforest, and a good site free from the problems of traffic congestion. The
Centre is well served by both public and private bus services. As a whole, Macquarie is a different type of retail and community centre in the northern part of Sydney, providing individuality and uniqueness, as well as an improved shopping environment. Most of its trade is drawn from the north-western suburbs such as Epping, Eastwood,
Carlingford and Pennant Hills and the Centre's strength lies particularly in clothing and household goods (Plant Location
International 1984 p.54).
3.3.3 Socio-economic Characteristics of the Study Area
The selected North Shore zone, covering an area of about 442 square kilometres, has a total population of 48441 people (ABS Census 1981). Chatswood stratum (including
Lindfield, Roseville, Chatswood, and part of Lane Cove) and
Central stratum (including Killara, East Ryde and part of
North Ryde) are characterised by single family dwellings, and medium density housing which is particularly found in Lane
Cove Valley, and along the Pacific Highway from Gordon to St.
Leonards. The Macquarie portion (covering Ryde and North
Ryde) is a more recent developed residential zone, as a
*Source: Macquarie Centre (1987)
85 result of the population dispersal to the inner suburbs. It comprises predominantly medium density housing and flats for the younger middle income or upper middle income groups (see
Table 3.1 and 3.2).
The survey has illustrated a cross-section of the respondents in the study area. On the whole, the characteristics of the population were relatively homogeneous. They belonged to well-educated high income and high status occupational group. A high proportion of the main income earners of the selected households (58.0 per cent) fell within the categories of professional and technical occupation, whereas only 5.4 per cent were clerical and sales workers, and 5.1 per cent were tradesmen (Table
3 . 3a) . The data contrast with census figures in which administrative workers accounted for 8.1 per cent and clerical workers 42,4 per cent (Table 3.2), however this is mainly because the survey data only represent the occupations of the primary income earners in households. Table 3.3b reveals that a majority of the respondents were housewives or students, and only 19.8 per cent of the respondents were the main income earner of the households. Among those who were employed, most were either professional, technical workers or clerical workers. The respondents also had a high level of car ownership; only 3.5 per cent did not possess a car (Table
3. 4 ) .
The study area has a relatively high income structure for it covers some of the affluent residential areas in the
Sydney metropolitan area. In the survey 89 per cent of the respondents answered the income item and Table 3.4 shows that
86 Table 3. 1 A summary of population and housing in the study area ( Source: ABS Census 1981)
Area Hale Female No. of No. of House Strata (sq m) persons h/h types
Chats wood 448 5436 5429 10865 3806 medium density houses and flats
Macquarie 451 4998 5878 10876 4362 medium density houses and flats
Central 1866 12798 13902 26700 8792 medium density houses
Total 2765 23232 25209 48441 16960 medium density houses and flats
Table 3. 2 A summary of occupational groups in the study area ( Source: ABS Census 1981)
strata Chatswood Macquarie Central Total occupation No. % No. % No. % No. %
Professional/ 1483(28.3) 1103(17.6) 2889(19.5) 5475(20.8) technical
Administrative 531(10.1) 247( 3.9) 1348( 9. 1) 2126( 8. 1)
Clerical workers 1386(26.5) 1708(27.2) 5939(40.1) 9033(34.3)
Sales workers 574(11.0) 583( 9. 3) 1175( 7. 9) 2332( 8.9)
Farmers, fishermen 41( 0. 8) 62( 1.0) 99( 0.7) 202( 0.8)
Miners, quarrymen 12 2( 0. 0) 4( 0.0)
Transport/ communication 137( 2.6) 283( 4. 5) 369( 2.6) 789( 3.0)
Tradesmen 601(11.5) 1599(25.5) 1534(10.4) 3734(14.2)
Service, sport etc. 293( 5.6) 432( 6. 9) 857( 5.8) 1582( 6.0)
Armed forces 11( 0.2) 56( 0.9) 53( 0.4) 120( 0.4)
Inadequately described 181( 3. 4) 198( 3. 2) 541( 3. 6) 920( 3. 5)
Total 5238 6273 14806 26317
87 Table 3,3a Occupation of the main income earner in the study area
strata Chatswood Macquarie Central Total
Occupation No. % No. % No. % No. %
Professional/ 20 (38.4) 20 (37.7) 53 (34.9) 93 (36.2) technical Administrative 17 ( 32. 7) 7 ( 1 3 • 2 ) 32 ( 21. 1) 56 ( 21. 8) Clerical workers 1 ( 1. 9) 3 ( 5 • 7 ) 4 ( 2.6) 8 ( 3 . 1 ) Sales workers 1 ( 1. 9) 5 ( 3. 3) 6 ( 2.3) Transport/ communication 6 ( 11. 3) 5 ( 3. 3) 11 ( 0. 8) Tradesmen 4 ( 7. 5) 9 ( 5. 9) 13 ( 5 . 1 ) Service, sport etc. 1 1. 9) 3 ( 5. 7) 6 ( 3. 9) 10 ( 3.9) Armed forces 5 9.6) 2 ( 3.8) 1 ( 0.6) 8 ( 3.0) Pensioners 4 7. 7) 7 (13.2) 29 (19.1) 40 (16.0) Others 2 ( 1. 3) 2 ( 0. 1) Not ascertained 3 ( 5.8) 1 ( 1.9) 6 ( 3,9) 10 ( 3.9)
Total 52 53 152 257
Table 3. 3b Occupation of the respondents in the study area
strata Chatswood Macquarie Central Total
Occupation No. % No. % No. % No. %
Not applicable* 6 ( 11. 5) 16 (30.2) 29 (19.1) 51 (19.8) Professional/ 6 ( 11. 5) 8 (15.1) 14 ( 9. 2) 28 (10.9) technical Administrative 2 ( 3.8) 1 ( 1.9) 4 ( 2. 6) 7 ( 2 • 7 ) Clerical workers 3 ( 5. 8) 8 (15.1) 14 ( 9. 2) 25 ( 9. 7) Sales workers 3 ( 5 . 8 ) 6 ( 3. 9) 9 ( 3. 5) Transport/ communication 1 ( 0. 6) 1 ( 0. 4) Tradesmen 1 1.9) 1 ( 0. 4) Service, sport etc. 3 2.0) 3 ( 1. 2) Armed forces Pensioners 6 (11.5) 4 ( 2. 6) 10 ( 3 . 9 ) Home duties/student 20 ( 38. 5) 17 (32.1) 69 (45.4) 106 (41. 2) Not ascertained 5 ( 9. 6) 3 ( 5 • 6 ) 8 ( 5. 3) 16 ( 6. 2)
Total 52 53 152 257
*The respondent is the main income earner
88 Table 3.3 Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents in the study area (Source: survey) Chatswood Macquarie Central Total No. % No. % No. % No. % ge Under 25 6 11.5) 2 ( 3.8) 14 ( 9.2) 22 ( 8.6) 25 - 34 15 28.8) 18 36 69 (26.8) 35 - 44 10 19.2) 16 {34.0130.2 33 i23.7121. 7 59 45 - 54 9 1. 3) 9 17.0 18 (11. 8 36 !23.0~14.0 55 - 64 6 11.5) 5 ( 9.4! 27 (17.8) 38 14.8) Over 64 6 ( 11. 5) 3 ( 5.7 24 (15.8) 33 (12.8) 52 53 152 257
o. 0 Children None 20 (38.5l 28 (52.8) 64 (42.1) 112 ( 43. 6) 1 6 (11. 5 12 (22.6) 26 i17.1~ 44 (17.1) 2 13 (25.0) 10 (18.9) 42 27.6 65 (25.3) 3 10 i19.2! 3 ( 5.7) 15 9.9) 28 4 3 5.8 4 I 2.6! 7 {10.912.7 Over 4 1 0.7 1 0.4 52 53 152 257 ar Ownership Own a car(s) 51 51 145 247 No car 1 i98.l~1. 9 2 i96.2J3.8 7 ~96.lJ3.9 10 i96.5~3.5 52 53 152 257 Gross Annual Income ($1,000) less than 10 3 1 8 12 10-20 4 5.7}7.7 12 22.69 23 15.15.21 39 I15.2 4.7~ 20-30 5 9.6 20 I37.7 1. 1 31 !20.4 56 30-40 10 19.2) 11 (20.8! 29 19.1 50 (19.421.Sl Over 40 23 44.2J 6 i11.3 44 73 (28.4 Not 7 13.4 3 5.7 17 i29.0~11.2 27 (10.5 ascertained 52 53 152 25 7 Length of Residence 0 - 5 yrs 19 (36.5) 26 (49.ll 50 (32.9) 95 (37 .01 6 - 10 yrs 10 19.2) 7 {13.2 22 i14.5! 39 (15.2 11 - 15 yrs 5 9.6! 3 5.7 16 10.5 24 ( 9.3 16 - 20 yrs 5 9.6 3 5.7 19 (12.5) 27 (10.5) Over 20 yrs 11 21.2i 14 (26.4) 44 69 (26.8) Not 2 3.8 1 ~28.9~0.6 3 ( 1.2) ascertained 52 53 152 257
89 nearly 28.4 per cent had a gross income of over $40,000 per annum. Only 4.7 per cent, mainly pensioners, had an income of less than $10,000. Nevertheless, there were some variations in income level and occupational status between
Chatswood and Macquarie strata. The gross annual income tended to decrease with increasing distance towards the west, indicating the changes in the social status of the households from upper middle to middle income. Nearly half of Macquarie respondents were new residents of less than 5 years, illustrating that Ryde and North Ryde are recently developed residential areas.
The average household size throughout the study area was three persons per family, which coincided with census figures. Approximately 43.6 per cent of the households had no children living with them and 42.4 per cent had one or two children. This is mainly due to the fact that almost 1/3 of the respondents were aged over 45, The Macquarie zone, with a majority of households aged between 25-44, appeared to have a younger population than the other two zones. On the whole, the socio-economic characteristics correspond to those of census data, indicating that the selected samples adequately represent the population in the study area.
Conclusion
To sum up, the features of the study design are as follows: i) The study aims to investigate the relationship between
consumers' cognition and their decision-making in the
choice of a shopping centre.
90 ii) In this case study, the analysis of peoples' perception required some standardisation on the type of shopping
trips for the sake of measurement and comparison
purposes. The emphasis on a specific comparison good,
clothing, was done to focus the unravelling of the
forces underlying consumer behaviour more easily.
iii) Given the existing retailing hierarchy, the delineat-
ion of a study area where consumers have a choice of
centre was of prime importance. The overlapping trade
area between Chatswood and Macquarie Centre offered
such a choice situation. In order to control for the
effect of physical distance, the study area was
subdivided into three strata for analysis and
comparison purposes.
iv) The operationalising of the concept of image was made
possible by means of semantic differentials. An
appropriate set of relevant attributes was selected on
the basis of past research and a pilot survey.
v) The use of hand delivery of self-administered question
naires proved to be an effective and economical
technique of data collection.
The above methodology and study design generated a
wealth of information about the perception of shopping
centres and behaviour. Data are analysed and discussed in
the following chapters under the headings of level and
sources of information, cognitive images of shopping centres,
and image and shopping behaviour.
91 CHAPTER 4 LEVEL AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION
As indicated in Chapter 2, an interpretation of how individuals interact with their environment requires one to look at the manner in which information is derived from the environment. In this thesis, it is proposed that people acquire information from the environment and arrive at, in this case, a decision about shopping centre choice by making use of the available information. Based on the survey data, this chapter aims to examine the knowledge that the consumers possessed about the retail facilities in the study area and its relation to sources of information, length of residence and socio-economic characteristics of the consumers.
In order to analyse the respondents' knowledge about the available opportunities for shopping, the level of information was measured by the number of centres that the households had visited at least once in the study area and the results were compared across the three strata. Consumers' knowledge was then related to the respondents' direct experience, for example, close to residence or workplace, or to indirect experience such as interpersonal communication or mass media, by tracing the source of information. Finally, their level of information was assessed against the length of residence and socio-economic characteristics.
This chapter begins with the analysis of the nature of consumers' familiarity with retail facilities in the study area, followed by an investigation of the sources of
92 information and its association with the centres that consumers used most often. The final section deals with the effect of length of residence and consumers' socio-economic attributes on respondents' knowledge of shopping facilities.
4. 1 Information Level of the Respondents
In this study, an indication of consumers information
levels is the number of centres households had visited at
least once in the study area (Table 4.1). On that basis,
respondents had a mean information level of about four
centres. Residents in the Chatswood stratum appeared to have
a higher level of information than those living in the
Macquarie stratum. Over 67 per cent of the Chatswood
Table 4. 1 Number of centres visited once of the respondents
No, of Centres Chatswood Macquarie Central Total Visited Once Stratum Stratum Stratum No, % No, % No. % No. %
1 4 7. 7) 2 3. 8) 6 2,3)
2 5 ( 9.6) 5 9. 4) 5 3.3) 15 5. 8)
3 8 ( 1 5 . 4 ) 23 (43.4) 40 (26.3) 71 (27.6)
4 16 (30.8) 13 (24.5) 55 ( 36. 2) 84 (32.7)
5 9 (17.3) 5 9.4) 28 ( 18. 4) 42 (16.3)
6 10 (19.2) 5 9. 4) 24 (15.8) 39 (15.2)
Total 52 53 152 257 Mean 3.98 3.54 4.17 3,89
93 households had visited four or more centres compared to
43.3 per cent of Macquarie households, The respondents
living in the Central portion held a similar level of
information as those in Chatswood. Both, on average, knew
about four centres and the majority of them (60.3 per cent)
knew about three to five centres, out of a total of six
centres. The contrast with the Macquarie stratum residents
may be due to the fact that Ryde and North Ryde are more
recently developed residential zones, and many residents were
new movers to the area (nearly 50 per cent were residents of
less than five years).
When looking at the centres that had never been visited
(Table 4.2), it is found that respondents had a relatively
good knowledge of the regional centres, for only two per cent
had never visited Chatswood and nine per cent Macquarie
Centre. Most respondents knew less about the community
centres: 51 per cent had never patronised Lane Cove and 49
per cent Lindfield. As shown in Figure 4.la to Figure 4.lc,
Table 4,2 Centres not visited
Centres not visited No. of % of total respondents respondents
Chatswood 4 2
Macquarie 23 9
Gordon 106 41
Lane Cove 131 51
Lindfield 126 49
Top Ryde 100 39
94 I I I I I. I I , I I I I I I , I ,, I I
FIG 4.1a Centres visited and centres used, Chatswood stratum respondents
Lindt ield
study area sample strata boundary . I Macquarie, stratum / I -----· ,, I Chatswood ,, respondents % , ~ /00 I centres visited at---~------least one centres usea------So
FIG 4.1 b Centres visited and centres used, Macquarie stratum respondents 95' I ,, I ,,. ,, Central ,, stratrum I I , I ,, ,, I I
Laneo Cove
FIG 4.1c Centres visited and centres used, Central stratum respondents
which relate the centres visited to the location of the households, those living in the suburbs of Chatswood,
Roseville, and Lane Cove knew little about Top Ryde whereas those in Ryde, North Ryde and East Ryde had little information about those centres located in the north-eastern portion, particularly Lindfield. The households in the central portion, because of their mid-location, had a fair awareness of retail facilities in the study area. The
96 figures also show that nearly all Chatswood respondents were
using Chatswood Centre for their clothing. In the
Macquarie stratum there were some escape expenditures to
Chatswood and Top Ryde. In the central stratum, households
were choosing between the two regional centres.
It is also worth noting the actual distance of the
sampled clusters from the two regional centres. Table 4.3a
and 4.3b illustrate the location of the respondents relative
to Chatswood and Macquarie Centre. On average, the
respondents had more or less equal access in terms of
physical distance to both Chatswood and Macquarie Centre.
Nearly 39.3 per cent of the households were located at 6.1 -
8.0 kilometres from Chatswood, as compared to 29.2 per cent
from Macquarie Centre. The households in the Central stratum
mainly fell between 2 - 8 kilometres from either Chatswood or
Macquarie Centre. (For details, see Chapter 6 Section 6.2.)
Table 4.3a Distance of sampled clusters from Chatswood
Chatwood Macquarie Central Distance* Stratum Stratum Stratum Total ( Km) No. % No. % No. % No. % o.o - 2.0 26 (50.0) 26 (10.1)
2.1 - 4.0 24 (46.2) 26 (17.1) 50 (19.5)
4.1 - 6.0 61 (40.1) 61 (23.9)
6,1 - 8.0 38 (71.7) 63 (41.4) 101 (39.3)
8,1 - 10.0 13 (24.5) 13 ( 5.1) Not Ascertained 2 ( 3.8) 2 ( 3.8) 2 1. 3) 6 ( 2.3)
Total 52 53 152 257 Mean 1. 9 7.2 5.4 4.8 * Physical distance measured along main roads
97 Table 4,3b Distance of sampled clusters from Macquarie Centre
Chatswood Macquarie Central Distance* Stratum Stratum Stratum Total ( Km) No. % No, % No. % No, %
0. 0 - 2.0 14 (26,4) 14 ( 5. 4)
2. 1 - 4.0 37 (69.8) 39 (25,7) 76 (29.6)
4. 1 - 6.0 69 (45.4) 69 (26.8)
6. 1 - 8,0 33 (63.5) 42 (26.6) 75 (29,2)
8 .1 - 10.0 17 (32,7) 17 6. 6)
Not 2 ( 3. 8) 2 3. 8) 2 ( 1.3) 6 ( 2, 3) ascertained
Total 52 53 152 257 Mean 7.4 2.3 4,8 4.8
* Physical distance measured along main roads
These findings reveal that consumers' awareness of
retail facilities in terms of visiting was directly related
to their location of residence relative to the centres.
Households were more familiar with the shopping facilities in
their immediate vicinity.
Table 4,4 gives the reasons for non-patronage of
centres in study area. Most respondents considered the
unvisited centres, especially Lane Cove, Gordon and
Lindfield, as too far, inconvenient and out of their way,
There was also a lack of specific need for visiting such
distant centres beyond the area of the respondents' daily
activities such as work, social and recreational trips.
98 9.1
9.1 9.1
9.1
9.1
\
18.2
4.3 4.3
4.3
4.3
\
18.2
18.2
17.4
17.4
47.8
2
2
2
1 1 1
1
1
4
1
1 1
1
4
11
23 No.
11
No.
Macquarie
Macquarie
6.4
3.2
6.4
\
6.5
2.0
5.1 7.1 4.1 7.1 4.1 4.1
\
12.9
19.3 12.9 19.3
12.9
14.3
52.0
Ryde
Ryde
2
2
2
4 6
1 6 4 4
2
5
7 4 4
7 4
31
No.
98
14
51
No.
Top
Top
-
5.1
5.1
5.1
2.5
7.7
3.1 ' 5.3
6.9
4.6 7.6
7.6
'
33.3 12.8
10.3
17.9
Cove
16.0
48.8
Cove
5
2
2 2
4
1
7 3
-
7
4 9
6
39
13
No.
21
64
10 10
No.
131 Lane
Lane
-
- - -
-
-
-
- - -
-
-
28.6 '
'
50.0
50.0
14.3
57.1
2
-
- -
- 1 - -- 1
7
-
- -
2 -
- -
-
1
4
No.
No.
Chatswood
Chatswood
5.9
5.9
5.9 5.9 5.9
8.8
2.4
2.4 '
4.0 4.0
8.1 0.8
8.1
'
32.3
17.6
11.7
20.9
49.2
2
6 2 2
3 2
2
4
3
5 3
5
1
34
11
No.
26
10 10
61
No.
Lindfield
124
Lindfield
centres
the
6.7
6.7
6.7 6.7 3.3
6.7
2.8 3.7
0.9 '
6.5 1.8
0.9
7.4
'
33.3
16.6
13.3
57.4
18.5
5 2 2
2 4 2
2
1
2
3
1 4 1 7
8
30
10
Gordon
No.
20
62
Gordon
No.
108
visiting
not
transport
for
Centres
transport
Centres
existence
existence
appeal
appeal
need
other
need
other
its
no public
non-use
no public
its
non-use
Reasons
in
inconvenient
in
inconvenient
problem
problem
for
mentioned
for
mentioned
4.4
know
know
met
met
far, ascertained
small,
ascertained
small, far,
2nd
specific
1st
specific
Table
Total
Inadequate
Not
a)
Others
Parking
Don't
Reason No Too Inadequate Need
Too b)
Reason Too Not Parking
Don't Total
Need
Others
No
Too
ID
\0 Moreover, some households were unfamiliar with the area and did not know about the existence of these centre.
Surprisingly, two respondents said that they were not aware of Chatswood and four were not aware of Macquarie Centre.
Many of those who cited 'don't know its existence' were new residents and had been living there for less than five years.
Since they still possessed a limited amount of information about retail outlets in their living area, they tended to patronise the nearest centre, and would not start a new search for alternative centres. Lane Cove and Lindfield appeared to be the most unattractive amongst the less unpatronised centres, whereas Top Ryde and Lane Cove were also considered inaccessible by public transport and had problems of inadequate parking spaces and traffic congestion.
The second group of reasons has shown that the needs and wants of the households could be catered for in nearer and larger centres. Over 30 per cent of Gordon, Lindfield and Lane Cove non-shoppers gave the reason that their 'need can be met in other centres'. In other words, they were satisfied with the big centres, particularly Chatswood and
Macquarie Centre, and consequently, they lacked initiative to explore for new centres. A comparison of the attractiveness in terms of selling space, presence of department stores, total number of specialty shops, provision of professional services and parking facilities of the six centres in the study area is shown in Table 4.5. The predominant influence of the size of centre and provision of professional service of Chatswood can be envisaged. Those
100 Table 4, 5 A comparison of the attractiveness of the six centres in the study area
Lane Top Chats Macq Gordon Cove Lind Ryde
Net selling space (sq m) 100,000 40,000 14,000 10,000 6,000 18,000
No, of stores department, supermarkets. 8 4 2 3 3 2
No, of speciality shops 405 129 89 137 72 98
Other professional services! 32 9 10 12 6 7
No. of parking space 11247 3750 1509 * 973 947
1 Number of banks and clinics * Information not available
Source: Fieldwork 1987 Willoughby Municipal Council 1987 Ku-ring-gai Municipal Council 1987 Macquarie Centre 1987 Top Ryde Centre 1987
smaller and more distant suburban centres were considered
inconveniently located, had no department store, or had
insufficient specialty shops which could provide a wide
selection of products as well as competitive prices. From
the 'other reasons', Gordon, Lindfield and Lane Cove were
perceived as overpriced, old and conservative centres with
inadequate parking facilities and few good shops that were
comparable to those in the big centres. Consequently, these
smaller sub-regional centres could only fulfill the role of
daily-goods shopping.
101 4.2 Centres Used Most Often and Sources of Information
The findings in Table 4.6 show that the majority of the
respondents were choosing between the two regional centres -
Chatswood (56.4 per cent) and Macquarie Centre (31.1 per
cent) for their clothing, with only 5,4 per cent using
Gordon, Lane Cove, Lindfield and Top Ryde most often. The
centres used most often other than those in the study area
were mainly the city and Eastwood.
Table 4.6 Centres used most often and respondents' location C~ntres used most often
Respondents' Chatswood Macquarie Gordon Lane Cove Lindfield Top Ryde Others* Location No. % No. % No. % No. , No. % No. % No. %
Gordon 18 12.4 4 5.0 1 25 1 16.7 3 16.7 Killara 17 11.7 7 8.7 1 25 Lindfield 24 16.5 1 1.3 1 100 1 25 2 11.1 Roseville 19 13.1 1 1.3 1 25 3 16.7 Chatswood 24 16.5 1 33.3 Lane Cove 7 4.8 3 3.7 1 33.3 1 16.7 North Ryde 21 14.5 41 51.3 1 16.7 7 38.9 East Ryde 11 7.6 13 16.2 1 33.3 1 5.5 Ryde 4 2.7 10 12.5 3 50.0 2 11.1 Total 145 80 1 3 4 6 18
* Other centres used most often Centres No. City 9 Eastwood 4 North Sydney 2 St. Ives 2 Turramurra 1 18
102 Chatswood attracts trade from all over the study area.
Its dominance was felt in all suburbs except North Ryde and
Ryde, On the other hand, Macquarie Centre attracted its
customers mainly from the western portion of the study area,
including North Ryde, East Ryde and Ryde. Gordon, Lane Cove,
Lindfield and Top Ryde shoppers were derived from their
immediate suburbs, that is, the trade area of these smaller
centres was highly localised.
The primary source of information of the centres mainly
came from the households' familiarity with the area of
residence, for 67,7 per cent of the samples knew about them
by just living in that area (Table 4.7). The second
Table 4. 7 Centres used most often and sources of information
Lane Top !ource of Chats Macq Gordon Cove Lind Ryde Others Total information No. ,. No. ,. No. ,. No. ,. No. ,. No. ,. No. ,. Ho. ,.
Through advertisement 14( 9.7) 13(16.2) 2(11.1) 29(11.3)
Friends' accommendation 12( 8.3) 3 ( 3. 7) 2(50.0) 1(16.7) 3(16.7) 21 ( 8. 2)
Just living in the area 102(70.3) 57(71.2) 3(100) 2(50.0) 5(83 .. 3) 5 (27 .8)_ l14 l67.1)
Just working in the area 7 ( 4.8) 4( 5.0) 1(100) 5(27.8) 17( 6.6) On the way to work 1( 0.7) 1 ( 1.3) 2(11.1) 4( 1.6)
By chance 5( 3.4) 1( 1.3) 6( 2.3)
Other sources 4( 2.8) 1 ( 1.3) 1( 5.6) 6( 2.3)
Total 145 80 1 3 4 6 18 257
103 important source was through advertisement (11.3 per cent), which was followed by friend or relative recommendations (8.2 per cent). This indicated that information about the centres was primarily home-based and through direct experience, and familiarity tended to decrease with increasing distance from residence. In contrast, the knowledge of those centres located outside the study area was chiefly work-based; 27.8 per cent of 'other centres' users worked near the centres, and 11.1 per cent visited them on their way to or from work.
The empirical evidence corresponds to the notion that nodes near residences and workplaces are learned first, then those at increasing distances (Horton and Reynolds 1971, Parker
1976, Harvey 1981), Only 2.3 per cent of the respondents said that they knew about the centre purely by chance. 'Other sources of information' were mainly related to habits developed in the respondents' previous living area. These households had got used to shopping there and developed a loyalty towards the centre.
Although a high proportion of households had 'living in the area' as their source of information, many of them, in fact, were living at a great distance from the centre. Table
4.6 shows that Chatswood attracted a number of consumers outside its immediate suburbs, for example, 12,4 per cent of shoppers from Gordon and 14.5 per cent from North Ryde. In many circumstances, these shoppers held the view that
Chatswood or Macquarie Centre was the nearest centre in their living locality that satisfied their needs and wants.
104 The secondary source of information, advertising, did exert an influence on consumers' knowledge of centres.
Chatswood and Macquarie Centre had greater trade areas than other centres in part because of their publicity.
Undoubtedly, they had greater competitive power than those sub-regional or community centres and could attract shoppers from suburbs further away. This also explains why only a small proportion of the total households never patronised these two centres. Chatswood enjoys the reputation of a big centre with a wide range of merchandise. It is still * expanding and is recognised as a retail and commercial centre, with numerous community and recreational facilities such as an aged people housing complex, child care centre, community theatre, skating rink and park. (Many of these are recent development approvals.) Macquarie Centre is also publicised as a new, modern, one-stop shopping complex, integrated with recreational and entertainment services.
Hence, households in the study area had better access to information of regional retail complexes than of the smaller community centres. In addition, of course, mass media and interpersonal contacts can perform complementary functions in the flow of environmental information. In fact, the relative importance of the mass media as a source of information in this study has demonstrated that it is playing a significant role in disseminating information.
* The opening of Westfield shopping town in November 1987 increased the total net selling space in Chatswood by 24,000 sq metres.
105 4,3 Information Level, Length of Residence and Socio
economic Characteristics
It is proposed that the variation of a consumer's
knowledge of shopping centres is closely related to the
length of residence because the longer the period the indivi
dual lives in that location, the more he/she will become
acquainted with the retailing facilities in the vicinity
(Horton and Reynolds 1971, Smith 1976, Potter 1982).
However, the correlation between the period of residing in
the present dwelling and the total number of visited centres
in the study area is relatively weak (r=0.08 at p=0,093
significance level). Table 4.8 illustrates the relationship
between number of centres visited and length of residence. It
is found that the households living between 11 -15 years in
Table 4. 8 Number of centres visited by length of residence
No. of centres visited
No. of 1 2 3 4 5 6 years No. \ No. \ No. \ No. \ No. \ No. ' Tot. Mean 0- 5 2 33.3 9 60.0 27 38.0 30 35.7 16 38.1 11 28.2 95 3.86 6-10 1 16.6 - 15 21.1 12 14.3 7 16.6 4 10.2 39 3.92 11-15 4 5.6 10 11.9 3 7.1 7 17.9 24 4.54 16-20 2 13.3 8 11.3 7 8.3 6 14.3 4 10.2 27 4.07 over 20 2 33.3 4 26.6 16 22.5 25 29.7 10 23.8 12 30.7 69 4.05 Not ascer- tained 1 16.6 - 1 1.4 1 2.5 3
Total 6 15 71 84 42 39 257
Correlation coefficient = 0.08 ( P=0.093)
106 their present dwellings had the highest information level, 41 per cent of them knew four centres and 41.7 per cent, five or six centres. When focusing on those households who had visited all centres in the area, their knowledge about retail facilities appeared to decrease with increasing length of residence. It also indicates that consumers' average number of centres visited varied with the period they lived in the area.
The absence of a significant linear relationship might be due to the fact that once the households settled in their living area, they would be satisfied with the shopping facilities and consumer behaviour might be developed from initial search to habitual responses. It is suggested that search and learning may have a significant impact on consumers' knowledge level up to a certain period, for example, five years of residence, after which a degree of saturation may occur (Shepherd and Thomas 1980 p.64),
Firstly, a stable pattern of consumer behaviour may result when households are satisfied with their existing shopping activities, and consequently, their shopping behaviour becomes routinised and they cease their search for new centres. Secondly, at a certain time, consumers have more or less sorted out their preferences and will exhibit a stable pattern of shopping behaviour. In general, these
findings conform to Horton and Reynolds' (1971 p.39) concept of 'spatial equilibrium', and are consistent with Smith's
(1976) contention that the length of residence was a
significant variable in explaining the variations in the
107 Table 4.9 Number of centres visited and socio-economic variables of the respondents
Variables Correlation coefficient
Age 0.07
Family size 0.09
Car ownership -0.03
Car availability for shopping -0.09
Income 0.14 ( P=0,02)*
* statistically significant
the number of grocery stores known by urban consumers in
Hamilton, Ontario.
It is also proposed that information level varies with
the socio-economic characteristics of consumers because the
aged, low-income groups, families with more children and
families which do not possess a car are sometimes
disadvantaged and their access to retail facilities may be
constrained by low mobility. However, data in Table 4.9 show
that the socio-economic attributes, except income, are not
significantly related to the total number of centres that
households visited. The slight correlation with income (r =
0.14 at 0.02 significance level) indicates that the more
affluent group, who had greater propensity to spend, tended
to know more centres than the lower income group in the study
area. The income group of over $40,000 per annum had a
higher information level than other income groups (see Table
4 • 1 0 ) • The inhibiting cost of distance might restrict the
108 Table 4.10 Number of centres visited by household income
No. of Centres Visited
Income 1 2 3 4 5 6 ( I 000) No. ' No. ' No. ' No. ' No. ' No. ' Total Mean less than 10 3 4.2 5 6.0 3 7.1 1 2.5 12 4.1 10-20 2 33.0 3 20.0 9 12.7 13 15.5 8 19.9 4 10.2 39 3.8 20-30 2 13.0 2"3 32.4 20 23.8 7 16.7 4 10.2 56 3.8 30-40 6 40.0 13 18.3 16 19.0 7 16.7 8 20.5 50 3.9
Over 40 3 50.0 3 20.-0 11 15.5 21 25.0 16 38.0 19 48.7 73 4.1 Not ascert- tained 1 17.0 1 6.7 12 16.9 9 10.7 1 2.4 3 7.7 27
Total 6 15 71 84 42 36 257
the less well- off group's pattern of search to facilities
close to home and work. This result is similar to Potter's
findings (1977), in which the overall familiarity levels of
the middle-income group were significantly higher than those
of the lower income group in Stockport, England.
On the other hand, the relationship between information
field and age of the respondents might not be a linear one.
Table 4.11 shows that the respondents' mean information level
increases with age but begins to drop after 45 years of age.
The 35 - 44 age group has the highest mean information level
and those under 25 have the lowest. The aged people usually
have less information about shopping facilities because they
109 Table 4.11 Number of centres visited by respondents' age
No. of Centres Visited
Age 1 2 3 4 5 6 No. " No. " No. " No. " No. " No. " Total Mean Under 25 1 16.7 2 13.3 5 7.0 8 9.5 3 7.1 3 7.7 22 3.8 25-34 1 16.7 5 33.3 23 32.4 25 29.8 8 19.0 7 17.9 69 3.8 35-44 1 16.7 3 20.0 17 23.9 16 19.0 9 21.4 13 33.3 59 4.2 45-54 1 16.7 1 6.7 11 15.5 10 11.9 7 16.7 6 15.4 36 4.1
55-64 1 16.7 2 13.3 7 9.9 16 19.0 5 11.9 7 17.9 38 4.1 Over 64 1 16.7 2 13.3 8 11.3 9 10.7 10 23.8 3 7.7 33 4.0
Total 6 15 71 84 42 39 257
are the less mobile group, particularly those who are
inclined to rely heavily on public transport. That is to
say, the information level of a consumer may stabilise at a
certain age, where the process of 'search and learning' slows
down. Family size also shows little significance. It might
not be a constraint to households because average household
size in the study area was relatively low. Moreover, the
selected households were rather homogeneous in their economic
characteristics, and the level of car ownership was quite
high (96,5 per cent). Therefore the respondents' mobility
would not be severely restricted in their access to retail
facilities,
110 Although the associations between consumers' knowledge of the available centres, length of residence and households' characteristics are not pronounced, the familiarity level of these centres is affected by the interplay of the various forces including consumers' location, their activity space, period of living in the area, socio-economic attributes as well as sources of information available to consumers,
Conclusion
The focus of this chapter is on consumers' derivation of their spatial knowledge from the environment, the level and sources of information. Although respondents possessed incomplete knowledge about all shopping alternatives in the study area, most of them did know about the two regional shopping centres,
The familiarity with retail facilities declined with increasing distance from the residence, It also varied with the respondents' location as well as their activity space, demonstrating that the process through which knowledge was gained was intricately linked to the place of residence, as well as the individuals' daily travel pattern.
Consumers' knowledge was directly acquired through day to day experience and socialising activities, but the influence of an indirect source - the mass media - was also significant. The active promotion held by the retailers in
Chatswood and Macquarie Centre had a great impact on shoppers' knowledge, which in turn would affect the images they held of the centres,
111 Statistically, there was no significant effect of length of residence and consumers' socio-economic characteristics (except income) on their level of information. Knowledge of retail facilities was more related to the location of residence. In addition, social class cannot be viewed as a psychological filter of environmental information in this study because of the relative homogeneity of the respondents.
The empirical results in this chapter do support the notion that the fundamental parameter affecting an individuals' perception of the retailing environment is the type and amount of information available to the individual.
The information is then stored as mental representation and contributes to the development of images, discussed in the next chapter.
112 CHAPTER 5 COGNITIVE IMAGES OF SHOPPING CENTRES
The derivation and processing of information from the environment serve as a basis for overt behaviour, and in the context of this thesis it is important to look at how such information affects the image that is held of a centre. What is the nature of the consumers' image of specific centres?
What are the basic dimensions of a centre's image? What are the most important aspects of the image?
The aims of this chapter are to examine the nature of the images of different centres in the study area, as well as to identify the general cognitive representation of these centres and the most important aspects of a centre's image.
Shoppers' cognition of different centres in the study area is assessed and compared by the mean rating score on each of the characteristics of the centres. But the mean values can only give a general picture of how a consumer feels about a centre. They cannot tell what the underlying components are that comprised the overall image of a centre, for example, whether individual characteristics such as
'physical layout', 'atmosphere' and 'parking facilities' are viewed separately in consumers' minds, or whether they are all interrelated and viewed in terms of one overall composite dimension. Therefore, the operationalisation of the concept of a centre's image requires the measurement of the interaction among centres' characteristics.
113 The multivariate statistical technique , factor analysis, is employed to assess the interrelationship among the centres' attributes. Its primary function is to aggregate the perceived ratings into dimensions and help interpret the results by reducing redundancy in the group of variables that possessed high intercorrelation. Simultaneously, it can identify the most important characteristics that constituted consumers' images of the centres.
In this chapter, consumers' cognition of the six specific centres in the study area will be compared in the first section. The analysis and results of underlying dimensions of an overall centre image are discussed in the later section of the chapter.
5.1 Shoppers' Cognition of Specific Centres
The respondents were asked to rate the centre that they used most often for clothing purchases on a seven-point semantic differential scale across 15 evaluative criteria.
Table 5.1 summarises the mean values and the overall rank order of these attributes, with the objective of building up an aggregate picture of the relative importance of the attributes. Looking at the means in the Total column, for example, it can be seen that location, size, shopping hours, appearance and variety of goods emerge as the five attributes with the highest rankings. Surprisingly, price, traffic safety and environment rank relatively low in terms of the mean values. The mean of all the fifteen attribute ratings combined was higher for the Macquarie Centre (mean=5.8) than
114 Table 5,1 Mean values of the attributes of the centres that are used most often
Attributes Chatswood Macquarie Gordon Lane Cove Lindfield Top Ryde Others Total m s.d. m s.d. m s.d m s.d. m s.d. m s.d. m s.d. m s.d.
Location 6. 1 1.3 6.6 0.9 7.0 0 5.6 2.3 6.0 2.0 7.0 0 6.4 0.7 6.3 1.2 ( inconvenient -convenient) Size 6.4 1.0 6.0 1.4 3.0 0 2.3 1.5 3.5 2. 1 4.1 2.5 5.3 2.0 6.0 1.4 (small-big) Shopping 6.0 1.1 6. 1 1.1 5.0 0 5.6 1. 5 5.2 1.2 5.8 1.1 5.6 1.1 6.0 1.1 hour (poor- excellent) Appearance 5.6 1. 2 6.3 0.9 6.0 0 5.3 0.6 6.0 0.8 6.0 1.5 5.3 1.5 5.8 1.2 (poor- excellent) Variety of 6.0 1.0 5.5 1.4 6.0 0 5.0 2.0 5.7 0.9 5.6 1.3 5.5 1.1 5.8 1.2 goods (poor- excellent) Age (old-new) 5.4 1. 3 6 .1 1.1 2.0 0 4.0 2.6 4,2 0.9 5.5 2.3 4.4 2.3 5.5 1. 5
Compactness 5.3 1. 5 5.8 1.4 2.0 0 5.6 2.3 3.7 3.2 6.8 0.4 5.1 2.0 5.5 1. 6 I dispersed- compact) Physical 5.3 1.4 6.2 1.1 5.0 0 4.0 1.7 4.2 0.5 5.6 1.5 4.7 1.9 5.5 1. 4 design ( poor- excellent) Parking 5.2 1.7 6.3 1.0 6.0 0 6.0 1.0 4.7 0.9 6.3 1.2 4.4 2.3 5.5 1.6 facilities (poor- excellent Function 5.6 1. 4 5.3 1. 7 7.0 0 6.6 0.6 5.7 1.2 3.6 2.5 4.7 2 .1 5.4 1. 6 (poor- excellent) Service 5. 1 1. 4 5.2 1.4 6.0 0 6.3 0.6 6.2 0.9 5.5 1.2 4.9 1.2 5.2 1. 4 (poor- excellent) Atmosphere 4.9 1.5 5.6 1.2 6.0 0 6.6 0.6 6.2 0.9 6.0 1. 5 4.5 1.5 5. 1 1. 5 (poor- excellent) Price (poor- 5.1 1.3 5.3 1.3 5.0 0 5.0 2.0 5.2 0.9 4.5 1.2 4.6 1.4 5. 1 1. 3 excellent)
Traffic 4.7 1.8 5.8 1.4 4.0 0 5.6 1.1 4.7 0.9 6.0 1.5 4.7 1. 9 5. 1 1. 7 safety (poor -excellent) Environment 4.7 1.6 5.8 1.3 6.0 0 5.6 0.5 4.5 1.0 5.6 1.7 4.3 1.6 5.0 1. 6 poor- excellent)
Total mean 5.4 5.8 5.0 5.3 5.0 5.6 4.9
N 145 80 1 3 4 6 18 257
m = mean s.d. = standard derviation N = total number of respondents
115 for Chatswood (mean=5.4). The attributes with the highest average ratings for the Macquarie Centre were location
(mean=6.6), appearance (6.3), and parking facilities (6.3).
For Chatswood, the most positive ratings were size (6.4) and location (6.1).
Figure 5.la to Figure 5.lc compare the profiles of the mean scores of the seven centres on each attribute. In plotting the bipolar rating scales, it should be noted that
'specialised function', 'compactness', 'newness' and 'big size' of centres have been placed at the positive end of the scale (that is, corresponding to 'excellent' for other characteristics). This has been done as a result of the positive value placed on these aspects by the respondents.
When comparing the two most often used centres,
Macquarie Centre had a more favourable image than Chatswood; particularly in the aspects of physical layout such as internal design, protection from weather, visual appearance, shopping environment, atmosphere, traffic safety and parking facilities. Macquarie Centre was viewed as a convenient, modern, compact, physically well-designed and relaxed centre.
On the other hand, Chatswood had a less favourable image in terms of accessibility and physical morphology. The centre was also perceived to be not so compact as Macquarie for the shops are, in fact, spread all along the sides of Victoria
Avenue. To some customers, Chatswood had an unpleasant shopping environment and busy atmosphere because of the traffic congestion, traffic noise, inadequate parking
116 excellent
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Si:ze Si:ze Lcx:ation Lcx:ation
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'° facilities and traffic safety, overcrowding, and absence of greeneries and seatings for shoppers. But Chatswood enjoys the good reputation of being a big and specialised centre, with a wide range of specialty shops and a full line of clothing and household goods. Both Chatswood and Macquarie
Centre shoppers had similar perceived ratings for service, shopping hours and price level.
As for the other centres in the study area, they were viewed as relatively small, old, conservative centres
(especially Gordon) with a limited range of goods and functions. These centres are dwarfed by modern regional centres because most of them cannot fulfil! a comparable comparison shopping role. Their competitive power is reduced because of the absence of department stores which provide clothing and large household goods lines as well as professional services. Although these small suburban centres had less favourable images than Chatswood and Macquarie
Centre, they also had strong points in the respondents' eyes.
They were viewed as highly convenient, easily accessible centres with good atmosphere and adequate parking facilities
(except Lindfield and other centres outside the study area), as well as friendly and personalised service.
The ranking of all the centre images in terms of their total mean scores indicates that the two planned centres
Macquarie and Top Ryde possess the best images in the study area, and Chatswood ranks the first among the remainder (see
Table 5.1), The table displays some distinctive differences in image between the planned centres and unplanned centres.
Morphologically, planned centres (Macquarie and Top Ryde)
120 have a wide range of shops in one building, designed to minimise shopping effort by one-stop shopping, and the shopping precincts are completely divorced from all vehicular traffic. The focal points of these centres are the large department stores. There may be less specialisation in the sense that fewer stores of each business type can be found.
Furthermore, these centres incorporate a great amount of non retailing space such as off-street parking facilities, and restaurants. Therefore, the attraction of the planned centres mainly lies in spatial attractions including convenient location, compactness of shops and good parking facilities, whereas the older unplanned centres may be stronger in specialised functions, wider range of goods, price level, and quality of service.
These images reflected how consumers interpreted the value of a centre and their preferences. Different consumers would attach different weightings to each of the centres' characteristics. One consumer might choose a centre on the basis of its personal service and good atmosphere, for example, Lindfield, while the other chose Chatswood because of its wide range of stores and specialised functions.
After examining the nature of the images of specific centres, it is necessary to look at the general components constituting those images.
5.2 Components of Centre Image
In this study, the technique of factor analysis was used to assess the components of shopping centre images.
121 Factor analysis is useful when there is a large number of variables and the correlations among them are distributed from high to low levels, and when their relationships are complex, The basic purpose is to discover unities among many variables and thus to reduce them to fewer underlying dimensions or factors (Kerlinger F, N, and Pedhazur 1973 p.363, McDougall and Fry 1975 p,54, Marks 1976 p.38, Wells and Sheth 1971 p.213), The respondents were asked to rate a list of physical and functional characteristics of the centre which they used most often for their clothing, In order to avoid the problem of interdependence of the fifteen characteristics of the centres, which would mean some undesired and possibly confounding double-counting of contribution to the overall image, the semantic differential scores were subject to the analysis of a correlation matrix,
The ratings on the different attributes were intercorrelated producing a 15 x 15 matrix of characteristic intercorrelations (Table 5.2), Ths correlation matrix helped to sort out all the variables measuring the same category, which should be significantly interrelated with each other,
Out of 15 variables, visual appearance, shopping environment, atmosphere, physical design, traffic safety and parking facilities show a salient pattern of intercorrelations at
0.001 significance level, However, it does not mean that the rest of the variables are independent of each other, The components of image were then extracted by a factor analysis.
The four attributes shopping environment, atmosphere, visual appearance and traffic safety were excluded from the
122 Table 5.2 Correlation matrix of shopping cenLres' atttributes
Loca- Size Age Compact- Fune- Physical Visual Shopping Atmos- Variety Service Shopping Price Traffic Parkin{ tion ness tion layout appear- environ- phere hours level safety facili ies ance ment
Location 1.00 0. 10 0.24 0.16 0.06 0.18 0. 19 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.13 0.22 0.11 0.20 0.28
Size 1.00 0.33 0 .16 0.31 0.15 0.05 0.05 -0.05 0.37* 0.07 0.20 0 .12 0.05 0.02
Age 1.00 0.27 0 .16 0.38* 0.27 0.31 0.18 0 .14 0.11 0 .16 0.06 0;24 0.24
Compact- 1.00 0 .18 0.45* 0.24 0.35 0.28 0.15 0.20 0.19 0.13 0.37 0.22 ness Function 1.00 0.06 0 .11 0.08 0.17 0.27 0 .14 0 .11 0.14 o.oo 0.00
Physical 1.00 0.59* 0.56* 0.47* 0 .14 0.24 0.34 0.29 0.54* 0.47* design Visual 1.00 0.54* 0.57* 0.25 0.31 0.37 0.28 0.43* 0.39* appearance .... N) Shopping 1.00 0.59* 0.02 0.22 0.25 0 .18 0.43* 0.36 w environment Atmosphere 1.00 0.21 0,44* 0.33 0.37 0.42* 0.37*
Variety 1.00 0.50* 0.39 0.35 0.09 0.10
Service 1.00 0.29 0.39 0.25 0.23
Shopping 1.00 0.36 0.25 0.18 hours Price 1.00 0.26 0,26 level Traffic 1.00 0.53* safety Parking 1.00 facilities * statistical significant at 0,001 level analysis, so that the overall picture of the components would not be overrepresented by the redundancy of the variables.
The semantic differential scores were the input data for the principal components analysis, which was then subject to a varimax rotation to allow an easier interpretation of the principal components. Similar attribute rating profiles will cause strong positive associations and in turn, point to a single underlying basic dimension. A decision was made to take 0,35 as the level at * which factor loadings would be used to interpret a factor.
The results of the analysis indicated that there were three basic cognitive dimensions a consumer used to map the shopping centres. The factors met the commonly used criterion of having eigenvalues greater than one (except the third factor is 0,70, see Appendix VII),
Table 5.3 shows that a centre image is comprising three cognitive groups. Factor 1 shows high positive loadings on four attributes: variety of goods, quality of service, shopping hours and price level, This factor can be interpreted as being related to an overall dimension of
'assortment' in consumers' minds. The second factor is the dimension of physical layout or morphology and facilities of
the centre, Associated with this dimension are variables
including age of centre, compactness of shops, physical
design and parking facilities, This dimension was perceived
* When the factor score is correlated with the observed score on each variable, the resultant correlation is called a factor loading.
124 Table 5.3 Factor analysis of centre attributes ( all centres) 1 Factor loading matrix Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
Location 0.05 0.34 0.06
Size of centre 0. 10 0.12 0.69
Age of centre -0.03 0.51 0.38
Compactness of centre 0. 13 0.50 0 .19
Function of centre 0.18 0.06 0.39
Physical design 0.22 0.75 0.06
Variety of goods 0.70 -0.05 0.45
Quality of service 0.64 0. 16 0.07
Shopping hours 0.50 0.19 0.16
Price level 0.55 0. 19 0.03
Parking facilities 0.24 0.58 -0 .14
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
Variety of goods Age of centre Size of centre
Quality of service Compactness of Function of centre centre Shopping hours Physical layout
Price level Parking facilities
1 Factor loading matrix is a matrix of correlation among observed variables and factors. It is also a matrix of a varimax rotation.
quite independently of the functional and locational aspects
of the centres. Although Factor 3 shows moderate positive
loadings, it indicates the dimension of 1 character of centre'
which is an amalgam of aspects of size and specialisation of
functions. It implies that the physical size and areal
extent of the centre are strongly associated with its
functions such as the presence of department stores and
125 specialty stores, and the availability of non-daily goods and non-retailing facilities. The location variable did not load highly on any of the three factors, suggesting that this
'convenience' variable is independent of the three factors.
The predominance of the first component reveals that the chosen good - clothing - is more strongly tied to qualitative factors such as variety and service than spatial aspects such as parking facilities and layout of the centre.
Factor 1 attributes bear resemblance to the favourable characteristics of cognition of Chatswood and Factor 2 attributes correspond more or less to the good image of
Macquarie Centre (see Figure 5.la).
The significance of the three sets of factors, to a certain extent, is in accord with the existing fingings.
Gentry and Burns (1978) found that 'variety of products',
'variety of stores' and 'prices' were the major criteria of the evaluation of three shopping centres in a midwestern college town in U.S.A., and the variable of 'location' had a relatively low importance. Similarly, when examining the importance of retail image in attracting consumers to competitive intra-urban shopping areas, Nevin and Houston
(1980) concluded that three factors, namely 'assortment',
'facilities' and 'market posture' constituted the image of five major shopping areas in Madison, Wisconsin. But there
is quite a different picture in a Dutch setting. Timmermans
(1982) identified that the dimension of centre size and accessibility as the most important aspects of a shopping centre image in Eindhoven, Netherlands.
126 In this study, three underlying dimensions of the respondents' shopping centre image are revealed. The three factors explained about 39 per cent of the total variance.
The first factor has accounted for 24 per cent of the total variance, whilst the second factor nine per cent and the third factor six per cent ( see Appendix VII),
The validity of the results can be assessed by cross checking against the ranking of the three most important factors given by the respondent when choosing a centre (Table
5,4), The attributes of 'wide selection of goods', 'price',
'parking facilities', in general, align with the results of factor analysis, although the relative importance of 'wide range of shops' and 'convenience' is not consistent with that in the factor analysis. In the first place, the respondents might define the 'size' of the centre in terms of its areal extent rather than the number or variety of shops,
Secondly, the respondents' interpretation of 'convenience' as an important factor might involve the consideration of the location of centre, parking facilities, free from traffic jams, and presence of suitable goods, That is, the centre was handy in the sense that they could easily obtain what they desired, But in this study, the attribute of 'location' was specified in terms of distance in relation to home or work. When rating the centre, the respondents might consider physical accessibility was not so important as other aspects of the centre.
127 7.4
6.3 2.3
0.8 0.4 8.6
6.6 5.0 ' 7.0 2.3
6.6
8.6
0.4 0.4
'
22.9
33.6 19.8 10.2 10.9
16.0
10.5
13.3
2
1
6
1
1 1
6
26 28 59 51 86 41
Total
27 22 34 19
16 No.
17 13 18
22
17 No.
Total
257
257
5.5 5.5 5.6
5.6 5.5
5.5 '
5.5
'
22.2 22.2 5.6 22.2
22.2 16.7 11.1
11.1 11.l
-
-
16.7 -
2
1
1
3 2
4 3 1 4 4 2 4
1
1
1
1
1
18
Others
18 Others
16.7
33.3 R{de
16.7 33.3 R{de
16.7
33.3 33.3
- 1
- --
- -
-
16.7 - -
2 2
6
2 1
1
2
1
6
No. No.
Top Top
No. No.
Ill Ill
25.0
25.0
25.0 25.0 25,0
25.0
50.0
- --
-- - - -
-- - -
---
-
---
4
1
1 1 1 1
2
1
4
Lindfield Lindfield
No. No.
Ill Ill
Cove
Cove
33.3 33.3
33.3
33.3
33.3
- 33.3 -
- -
-
- ---
-- -
-
--
-
3
1
1
1
1 1 j
1
Lane
No.
No.
Lane
centre
Ill
Ill
a
100
100 -
- -
------
-
- - - -
-
------
•
1
1
1
1
Gordon
No
No.
Gordon
2
choosing
Ill
7.5 5.0
Ill 6.2
6.2
3.8 3.8
1.2
8.7
3.8 3.8
3.8
1.2
33.7
12.5
11.3
-
31.3
16.
11.3
12.5
----- 16.3
--
•
3
9 3
3
6
5 9 1 4
5
3 3 7
1
when
Macquarie
13 25
No 10
80
27 No.
Macquarie 13
10
80
Ill
6.9 6.9 0.7
7.6
6.2
Ill
5.5
4.8
2.1 0.7
6.2
8.3
37.2
11.0 11.0
19.3
24.1
10.3 13.1
17.2
factors
-
1
9 - 1
7 8
- 3 9
1
Chatswood
No.
16
54 35 10
28
16 25
10
11 15 No.
19
Chatswood
12
145
145
important
factor
factor
goods
goods
most
shops
of
of
shops
facilities
facilities
of
important
important
Three
goods
goods
of
design
design
service
of
of
service
most
transport
most
transport
5.4
range
parking
selection
parking
range selection
ascertained
ascertained
1st
2nd
Table
a)
Price
Wide Convenience Good
Helpful Wide
b) Quality Total
Multi-function Public Not Physical Convenience
Wide
Good Others
Price
Helpful Wide Quality Multi-function Public Physical
Not
Others
Total
t.)
00 ,... J.1
S.8
3.9 4.7
1.6 0.8
0.7
4.3
7.8 JS.8
12.1
'
12.8
2
8
4
JJ 20
31
11 19 92 12 15
10
No.
Total
257
S.6 S.6
S.6
'
22.2
16.7 JJ.J 11.1
- - -
-
2
J 4
1 1
1
6
No.
18
Others
16.7
16.7
66.6 R{de
- -
------
1
1 4
6
No.
Top
\
25.0
25.0
50.0
------
--
1
2 1
4
Lindfield
No.
\
Cove
33.J
33.J
JJ.J
important
- --
- -
-
-
facilities
1
1
1
No.
Lane
most
\
3rd factor
Parking
Price Convenience
25.0
- - -
-
-
--
------
-
1
1 J
No.
Gordon
goods
7
6.2
S.0 2.S
\ 7.S
3.8 2.S
6.2
1.2
of
18.
15.0 31.J
-
s 2
4
J 6 2
s
1
goods
15
No.
25
12 Macquarie
80
important
of
9.7
\
J.4
2.7 1.4
7.6
1.4
6.9
4.1
1.4
selection
11.7
12.4 37.2
most
2
s
2 2
6 '
17
No.
Chatswood
14
11
10 54 18
2nd
factor
Price Wide
Quality
145
results
goods
factor
the
of
shops
goods
of
of
of
shops
important
facilities
important
order
goods
of
selection
range
design
most
of
service
most
transport
rank
selection parking
range
factor
1st
Wide
Wide
Convenience
ascertained
3rd
The
cl
Wide Convenience Good
Price
Wide
Public Physical
Others
Helpful Quality Multi-function Not
Total
d)
ID
....
tJ Conclusion
When analysing and comparing the nature of shoppers' cognition of the six centres, it was found that the planned centres (Macquarie Centre and Top Ryde) were viewed as centres with good physical design, compactness of shops, adequate parking facilities and relaxing atmosphere. On the other hand, Chatswood was strong in its size and wide selection of products. The smaller sub-regional centres enjoyed a good image as convenient centres with pleasant and personalised service, even though they had the disadvantages of dispersed shops and limited range of goods.
The findings have also revealed three basic underlying cognitive dimensions constituting a centre's overall image, namely, 'assortment', 'physical layout and facilities' and
'functional character' of the centre. The dimension of
'assortment' has emerged as the most important aspect of the image, and its predominace is in accord with the three most important factors stated by the respondents when choosing a centre.
In sum, the empirical evidence suggests that consumers' behaviour is influenced indirectly through subjective images of centres, and not simply by the objective attributes of centres. Their information on the centre is gained through individuals' daily experience, categorised and evaluated according to the individuals' value system.
Once the components underlying consumers' image of shopping centres have been identified, it is necessary to
130 investigate the relationship between image and actual behaviour, that is, the extent to which consumers' perception and evaluation of centres are related to their subsequent choice behaviour.
131 CHAPTER 6 IMAGE AND SHOPPING BEHAVIOUR
In the previous two chapters, the focus was on how consumers derived their information from the retailing environment and built up their knowledge and on the images developed of shopping centres. As it is hypothesised that consumers' shopping behaviour is closely related to the acquisition of environmental information and the mental construction of the environment, this chapter aims to examine whether consumers' view of centres and the resultant image form a basis for their choice of centres, as well as other forces underlying their actual behaviour.
The decision where to shop involves the trade-offs between the perceived advantages and disadvantages of centres. People are evaluating centres on a set of differentially weighted attributes. In addition, people have to consider their aspirations, motivations and possible constraints such as mobility and spending power. Therefore, the main concern of this chapter is to investigate the relationship between centre image, motivations, constraints, and consumers' shopping behaviour, and to seek out the most important variables governing their behaviour.
In this study, the discrepancies between objective and subjective measures of physical (quantitative) attributes of a centre can be identified in correlation analyses, There are two measures of consumers' actual behaviour (dependent variables): the centre that they used most often (this is
132 referred to as choice of centre) and the frequency of patronising the centre. These two aspects of consumer behaviour are emphasised because they can be more accurately measured and have a direct relevance to planning.
The two measures are then analysed against three groups of factors (independent variables): i) centre image which will be represented by the ratings
of 15 physical and functional characteristics of the
centre; ii) motivation of shopping which is assessed by the scores
of the perceived importance of a list of reasons; and iii) consumers' constraints which include the socio-
economic attributes of the respondents.
The analyses are then carried out in three stages.
Firstly, relationships are tested by means of Pearson correlation coefficient and multiple regressions. Secondly, the results are compared to the respondents' stated reasons for using the centre and the ranking of the three most important reasons in choosing a centre. Finally, there will be an overall stepwise regression analysis, with the aim of identifying the most important factors that accounted for the choice of centres and frequency of patronage.
The first part of the chapter compares the objective and subjective measures of shopping centres. It then examines the pattern of consumers' actual behaviour, which
includes the choice of centres that they used most often, and
133 the frequency of patronising the centre, This is followed by a discussion of results and implications of the relationship between shopping behaviour and centre image, motivation and constraints. The final section attempts to identify the most important forces underlying shoppers' actual behaviour.
6.1 Cognitive and Actual Measures of Physical Attributes
What is at issue here is how well consumers perceived the centre attributes, that is, the accuracy of images. This section sets out to seek the relationship between the respondents' subjective rating of centre attributes and the objective measures of such attributes. The characteristics selected for analysis were location, size, age, compactness, and function of centre which, to a certain extent, could be measured subjectively. Location was measured in terms of physical distance along main roads; size was determined by the total net selling space in the centre; age was defined as the year of opening for business or the year in which the centre was recognised as the retail or commercial centre by planning authorities; compactness was estimated by the total number of shops in proportion to the site area of the centre; function was compiled by adding up the total number of clothing and footwear shops, and department stores in proportion to total number of shops. (This index was chosen because the emphasis of this study was on clothing.) (See
Appendix VIII.) Table 6.1 summarises these objective data of the six centres in the study area.
134 Table 6. 1 Objective measures of some physical attributes of six centres in the study area Lane Top Chats wood Macquarie Gordon Lindfield Cove Ryde
Size 100,000 46,000 14,000 6,000 10,000 18,000 ( sq m)
Age 1951 1981 1956 1956 1951 1957
Compact- ness 0.07 0.09 0.09 0. 13 0.11 0.03
Function 0.40 0.40 0.23 0.17 0.21 0.30
Figures 6.1 to 6.5 illustrate the relationship between
the mean perceived ratings of the physical attributes of the
centre that the respondents used most often and the
objective data. In order to assess the discrepancies between
these perceived and actual measures, Pearson correlations and
regressions are computed for each attribute.
In these figures, the values of centres' size, age,
compactness and function are transformed into logarithms. The
scatter of raw data points can hardly be portrayed accurately
by a regression line because of the absence of a straight
line trend. Therefore, a better visual representation of the
perceived and actual measures can be made possible by
transforming the trend into a linear form, that is, replacing
the scattered data by log values.
Among the five characteristics, centre size and
distance show the marked agreement between two types of
measures. Centre size and distance have the strongest correlation coefficient, with r = 0.91 and r = -0.77 respectively at 0.01 significance level.
135 =~ 7
6
t/J c., :z; 1--1 ~ 5 * ra1 u t!i 1--1 t!i 4 au
&4 > 3 ~ u ~ ra1 Q,
2
10 0 DISTANCE(ICm)
INTERCEPT= 7.12 SLOPEa -.146 r= -.7725 r squared= .5967 • aggregate location of respondents from the specific centres (centres used moat often )
Fig 6.1 Perceived and actual measures of location
The attributes of age and compactness exhibit a moderate
correlation whilst function shows the least degree of
correspondence (r = -0.41).
There is a high correspondence between actual location
and perceived convenience of centres (Figure 6. 1 ) ,
Respondents tend to rate the nearby centres as highly
convenient. In this Figure the sample respondents have been
categorised to the nearest kilometres in terms of how far
they lived from the centre they used most often. It is clear
136 7
Macquarie *
5 o:n C, z... ~ 4 r:il ...r,,J Lindfield rr. * ffi > ... 3 Gordon r:il * t) ffi Lane* Cove Cl.
2
..:I ~ ffi 1L------~8 LOG CENTRE SIZE 12
INTERCEPT= -9.38 SLOPE= 1.38 r= .9100 r squared• .8281
Fig 6.2 Perceived and actual measures of size
that those living closest to the most used centre are more
likely to rate it especially convenient.
These findings are similar to Hudson's work (1974), in
which the student migrants in Bristol were found to have
accurate judgement as to physical distance (straight line
measures) to shops.
It seems that the consumers were very familiar with the
size of the centre (Figure. 6. 2). In their minds, Chatswood
and Macquarie were the first two largest centres, although
137 1
6 Top B.7'de Chatswood* * 5 en Lane Cove * (!J :z; H E-< * Lindfield ~ 4 i:il (!J <
A Gil > H i:il 3 c.> =i:il ,:i..
2 * Gordon
o~ 1~------~~LOO 7 .55 CENTRE AGE 7 .6
INTERCEPT= -774-57 SLOPE= 102.80 r= • 3975 r squared= • 1 580
Fig 6 .3 Perceived and actual measures of age
Lane Cove (rather than Lindfield) was perceived as the
smallest centre in the area. The result indicates that the
respondents had the greatest accuracy in perception of centre
size, which means their mental pictures of the shopping
facilities conform closely to the retail hierarchy in the
study area.
The evaluation of the centre age has shown some
deviations between perceived and actual age. This is partly
due to the discrepancy in perception of Chatswood (see Figure
6 • 3 ) . Some consumers considered it a very old centre, some
138 7 ~ < * Top ~de
~c., lane Cove 6 Macquarie * * Chatswood rn c., 5 :z: H ~ rn Ul r.:i 4 :z: E, < Lindf'ield Cl.. s: 0 c., 3 tJ > H r.:i c., c:: r.:i Cl.. 2 * Gordon
~ (/) f!i 1 Cl.. ------~ -3.5 LOG CENTRE CCJ,ll)ACTNESS -2
INTERCEPT= .458 SLOPE= -1.78 r-=- .5183 r squared= .2686
Fig 6.4 Perceived and actual measures of compactness
thought that it consisted of both old and new retail
facilities, while others viewed it as a modern centre. In
fact, Chatswood is a continuously expanding retail and
commercial centre.
The index of compactness of the centres indicates that
the lower the value, the nearer the shops are to each other
in the centre. An inverse relationship is observed in Figure
6.4. The compactness of a centre is closely related to its
morphology. A nucleated centre is more compact than a linear
one because the former will be less disrupted by non-retail
139 units. There are some divergences between the perceived and objective measures because the respondents are inclined to hold images of compact centres. The planned centres and
Chatswood have the greatest density of shops. Top Ryde and
Macquarie Centre are nucleated in shape whilst Chatswood is a mixture of both linear and nucleated form. On the other hand, the old suburban centres - Gordon, Lindfield and Lane
Cove - tend to be less compact because of the linear arrangement of shops.
A comparison of the respondents' perception of the centres' function to the objective measure also displays a negative relationship (Figure 6.5). The great deviation from the specialisation index reveals that many consumers perceived the smaller, suburban centres (especially Gordon) as highly specialised shopping complexes. It also indicates that consumers overestimated the specialised function of centres. Except for the attributes of 'size' and 'location', consumers possessed very subjective information of the physical character of the centres. What the respondents actually knew was often possibly incomplete, distorted and subjective, and they seemed to have perceptions that were not always very related to actual measures. Consumers interpret the centre in a subjective manner,in other words, in a simplified schema or cognitive image.
6.2 Consumers' Actual Behaviour
Attention in this section is turned to the major
characteristics of their actual shopping behaviour. A summary
140 ~ Gordon cn 7 1-4 ..:! < Lane Cove* 1-4 c.> * rs1 p.. cn 6 *Macquarie Lindfield Chatswood* * cn c., :z: 5 1-4 ~
~ 1-4 t; 4 * Top Hyde ~
A rs1 > 1-4 3 rs1 c.>
~p.,
2 en~ 1-4 ..:! < 1-1 c.> rs1 p., en 1 ~ :z: -1.8 CENTRE FUNCTION LOG --9 INTERCEPT= 3.a4 SLOPE=- -1 .409 r=- .4179 r squared= .1746
Fig 6.5 Perceived and actual measures of function
of consumers' choice of centres in three strata is shown in
Table 6.2.
Chatswood and Macquarie Centre were the two most
frequently patronised centres for the selected comparison
good, clothing, and Gordon was the least. The overwhelming
dominance of Chatswood was evident in the study area for it
captured its trade even from the Macquarie stratum.
141 Table 6.2 Choice of centre by three strata
Chatswood Macquarie Central stratum stratum stratum Total Centres No. % No. % No. % No. %
Chats wood 45 86.5 12 22.6 88 57.9 145 56.4
Macquarie 1 1. 9 3 58.5 48 31. 6 80 31.1
Top Ryde 3 5.7 3 2.0 6 2.3
Lind field 2 3.8 2 1. 3 4 1. 6
Lane Cove 1 1. 9 2 1.3 3 1.2
Gordon 1 0.6 1 0.4
Others 3 5.8 7 13.2 8 5.3 18 7.0
52 53 152 257
Chatswood served as both a community and regional
centre for a majority of Chatswood residents (86.5 per cent)
chose to shop at Chatswood, and only one visited Macquarie
and other smaller suburban centres. Comparatively, Macquarie
Centre had less competitive power. It could only retain 58.5
per cent of trade in its locality and lost about 1/5 of
customers to Chatswood and 1/5 to the other local centres.
In order to have a deeper look at the respondents' choice
behaviour, it is necessary to relate their choice of centre
to the accessibility of shopping facilities. The travelled
distance of consumers is shown in Table 6.3.
Shopping facilities for comparison goods are in general
accessible for households in the area and half were
travelling less than four kilometres. Although some
respondents who lived in northern and southern parts of the
study area (Lane Cove, Killara) were distant from the nearest
142 Table 6.3 Physical travelled distance of the consumers
Centres used most often
Distance Chatswood Macquarie Top Ryde Lindfield Lane Cove Gordon Total ( ICm ) * No. ' No. ' No. ' No. ' Bo. ' Bo. ' No. ' 0.0-2.0 23 15.9 11 13.7 1 16.7 4 100 37 15.5 2.1-4.0 39 26.9 39 48.7 3 50.0 1 25 1 100 85 35.5 4.1-6.0 43 29.7 18 22.5 1 16.7 2 75 64 26.8 6.1-8.0 36 24.8 10 12.5 1 16.7 47 19.7 8.1-10.0 2 1.4 2 0.8 Not ascer- tained 2 1.4 2 2.5 4 1.7
Total 145 80 6 4 3 1 239 mean 4.5 3.7
*Physical distance measured along main roads [ Note: Those who patronised the centres outside the study area most often were excluded from analysis]
regional centre and tended to travel a greater distance, less than one per cent of the respondents used a centre more than eight kilometres away.
Among the six centres there were considerable differences in the distances (physical distance measured along main roads) travelled by the customers. Chatswood and
Macquarie Centre drew over 87 per cent of the shoppers from a
catchment area of more than eight kilometres. The smaller
suburban centres got 5.4 per cent of the trade, mainly within
four kilometres. Many of the shopping trips outside the
study area (seven per cent), particularly to the city and
North Sydney, were work-based or associated with social
143 activities. A significant proportion of the respondents (35.5
per cent) were travelling between 2.1 - 4.0 kilometres, while
only 15.5 per cent travelled less than two kilometres and 0.8
per cent travelled over eight kilometres. Chatswood and Lane
Cove users had the greatest mean travelled distance (4.5 and
4.8 kilometres). Lindfield users had the shortest mean
travelled distance (1.7 kilometres), suggesting a relatively
high component of local shoppers.
The two reasons mentioned most often for the choice of
a centre are summarised in Table 6.4. A majority of both
Chatswood and Macquarie Centre shoppers cited convenience,
big range of shops and wide selection of goods as important
reasons for choosing a centre (for details see Appendix
IX). Other factors such as multi-purpose function of the
centres, availability of public transport, good quality
Table 6.4 Stated reasons for using the centres
Most frequent mentioned reasons for choice
Percentage of Centre respondents First reason Second reason
Chatswood 56.4 Big range of shops Variety of goods
Macquarie 31.1 Convenience Big range of shops
Top Ryde 2.3 Convenience
Lindfield 1. 6 Others Others
Lane Cove 1.2 Variety of goods Quality of goods
Gordon 0.4 Others Price
Others 7.0 Convenience Variety of goods
144 products, helpful and personalised service, good physical design of centres were mentioned less frequently as reasons for patronising particular centres. Among the second mentioned reasons, importance was also attached to 'other reasons', which included habit, familiarity with particular stores, and previous living area. The respondents chose the smaller centres mainly on the basis of convenience and other reasons, such as fashion, style, suitability of goods and habit. Unexpectedly, price and parking facilities were relatively insignificant, possibly because of the fact that most of the respondents belonged to the well-off group and the availability of parking space in the centres did not really pose a problem to consumers. The results are similar to those in an American study, where the residents of new communities considered convenience of a centre's location, variety of goods and attractiveness of its stores in their choice of a centre (Burby and Weiss 1976 p.310).
As far as the frequency of patronage is concerned, a general picture of the respondents visiting all centres for clothing in the study area is given in Table 6.5a. At an aggregate level, there is a great proportion of consumers visiting these centres irregularly and once a month, illustrating the nature of the high variability in comparison-good shopping behaviour. Chatswood and Macquarie
Centre were the two most frequently visited centres, whereas
Lane Cove and Lindfield were the least, for over 77 per cent of respondents had never used these centres for their clothing. A closer look at the shopping behaviour is shown
in Table 6.5b which summarises the frequency of patronising
145 Table 6. 5a Frequency of shopping in all centres
Chatswood Macquarie Gordon Lane Cove Lindfield Top Ryde frequency No. ' No. ' No. ' No. ' No. ' No. ' Never 13 5.1 50 19.5 184 71. 6 200 77.8 193 75.1 153 59.5 Irregularly 90 35.0 77 30.0 53 20.6 47 18.3 47 19.1 50 19.5
1 in 2 months 31 12.1 22 8.6 5 1.9 1 0.4 4 1.6 14 5.4
1 in a month 51 19.8 41 16.0 10 3.9 3 1.2 6 2.3 21 8.2
2-3 times/month 41 16.0 31 12.1 2 0.8 2 0.8 2 0.8 13 5.1
4-5 times/month 31 12.1 35 13.6 2 0.8 2 0.8 2 0.8 5 1.9 Not ascertained - 1 0.4 1 0.4 2 0.8 1 0.4 1 0.4
Total 257 257 257 257 257 257
Table 6. Sb Frequency of shopping in specific centres ( centres used most often)
Chatswood Macquarie Gordon Lane Cove Lindfield Top Ryde Others Frequency No. ' No. ' No. ' No. ' No. ' No. " No. " Irregularly 26 17.9 10 12.5 2 33.3 4 22.2 1 in 2 months 20 13.8 6 7.5 1 100 1 25.0 1 16.7 4 22.2
1 in a month 36 24.8 18 22.5 2 66.7 2 50.0 1 16.7 5 27.8 2-3 times/month 33 22.8 18 22.5 2 11.1 4-5 times/month 30 20.7 28 35.0 1 33.3 1 25.0 2 33.3 3 16.7 Not ascertained -
Total 145 80 1 3 4 6 18
146 specific centres, that is, the centres that respondents used most often. It is found that no specific pattern can be observed. The frequency varies from once a month to 4 - 5 times a month. The frequent weekly visits (20.7 per cent in
Chatswood and 35 per cent in Macquarie Centre) might be associated with multi-purpose trips since in many circumstances, the two regional centres served as both convenience and comparison shopping purpose.
6.3 Centre Image and Shopping Behaviour
After examining the general pattern of the shopping behaviour, it is now necessary to relate this pattern to image of centres. In this section, the few respondents who were users of small suburban centres were excluded from analysis. Tables 6.6a and 6.6b portray a general picture of the association between the attributes of the centres and consumer behaviour measured in terms of the centre that they choose for clothing and the frequency with which they visit the centre. Only the ratings of variety of goods in
Chatswood and the age of centre, function and parking facilities in Macquarie Centre are correlated with shopping frequency (Table 6.6b). However, ratings of centre attributes are more associated with consumers' choice of centres (Table 6 • 6a) • It is found that ratings of the physical characteristics of Chatswood - location, compactness, physical design, appearance, environment, atmosphere, traffic safety and parking facilities are negatively correlated with the choice of centre.
147 Table 6. 6a Correlation and multiple regression: Ratings of attributes of centre and centre choice1
Chatswood Macquarie Centre Attributes R Attributes R R2
Size of centre 0.28*(P=0.001) 0.09 Parking facilities 0.33*(P=0.001) 0.12 Traffic safety -0.25*(P=0.001) 0.17 Environment 0,32*(P=0.001) 0.16 Environment -0.26*(P=0.001) 0.20 Variety of goods -0.17*(P=0.003) 0.20 Location -0,20*(P=0.001) 0.22 Age of centre 0.27*(P=0.00ll 0.22 Variety of goods 0.22*(P=0.001) 0.23 Appearance 0.27*(P=0.001) 0.23 ~rking facilities -0.23*(P=0,001) 0,23 Traffic safety 0.09 0,24 Shopping hours 0.04 0.24 Specialised function -0.05 0,24 Age of centre -0.07 0.24 Price level 0.09 0.24 Service -0.06 0,24 Location 0.19 0,24 Specialised function 0.13*(P=0.02) 0.24 Atmosphere 0,2l*(P=0,001) 0,24 Compactness -0.l0*(P=0.05) 0.24 Compactness 0.15 0.24 Appearance -0.19*(P=0,001) 0.24 Shopping hours 0.40 0.24 Physical design -0.16*(P=0.005) 0.25 Physical design 0.3l*(P=0.001) 0.24 Atmosphere -0.20*(P=0.001) 0.25 Service 0.03 0.24 Price level -0.00 0.25
Centre choice= centre used most often R= correlation coefficient Choice of Chatswood, Macquarie Centre was coded 1, *significant Choice of other centres was coded 0. R2= coefficients of multiple determination
Table 6. 6b Correlation and multiple regression: Ratings of attributes of centre and shopping frequency2
Chats wood Macquarie Centre Attributes R Attributes R R2
Variety of goods 0.18*(P=0,018) 0,03 Age of centre 0.25*(P=0.014) 0.06 Compactness of centre 0.13 0.04 Specialised function -0.2l*(P=0.034) 0.15 Parking facilities -0.07 0.05 Traffic safety -0.06 0.17 Service 0.13 0.06 Parking facilities 0.18*(P=0.058) 0.19 Appearance 0.01 0.06 Price level -0.15 0.20 Physical design 0.06 0.07 Service 0.07 0.21 Price level 0.02 0.08 Physical design 0.15 0.22 Shopping hours 0.07 0.08 Environment 0.06 0.24 Specialised function 0.03 0.08 Size of centre 0.04 0,24 Location -0.02 0.08 Variety of goods 0.20 0.25 Traffic safety -0.08 0.09 Atmosphere 0.06 0.25 Environment 0.02 0.09 Location -0. 115 0.26 Atmosphere 0.08 0.09
2 Coding of shopping frequency: never=0 irregularly=l once in 2 months=2 once in a month=3 2-3 times a month=4 4-5 times a month=5 2 R= correlation coefficient R = coefficients of multiple determination *significant
148 This implies that people prefer to shop there even though the centre has a less favourable image in these aspects. In contrast, these physical attributes are positively associated with the choice of Macquarie Centre.
Obviously, Chatswood has an advantage over other centres in terms of its size, specialised function, presence of a large number of shops and its range of merchandize. The attraction of Macquarie Centre lies in its physical morphology (all shops are located under one roof), pleasant shopping environment and relaxing atmosphere. Although
Chatswood is not perceived as an ideal centre (see the image profiles of Chatswood and Macquarie Centre in Chapter 5
Figure 5.la), it draws the largest number of shoppers in the study area.
The next concern is to sort out what attributes are most salient to the customers. Stepwise regression analysis
(Appendix X) was applied to determine which variables were most related to consumer behaviour. The order in which the variables entered the multiple regression indicated their relative importance. The result shows that attribute ratings of centre explain 25 per cent of the variance in choosing
Chatswood and 24 per cent in choosing Macquarie Centre.
Size of centre is the most significant among Chatswood attributes, whilst parking facilities and environment alone account for 16 per cent of the variance in Macquarie Centre.
With respect to the second measure of consumer behaviour, the attribute ratings for Macquarie Centre have a better explanatory power for shopping frequency than those of
149 Chatswood (26 per cent variance explained as compared to nine per cent). Among them, age of centre, function, traffic safety, parking facilities were the most important. This indicates that shopping frequency for Chatswood is more complicated, and it is also related to other reasons than those included here.
This result is similar to Nevin and Houston's findings
(1980). Centre image, especially the assortment dimension
(quality and variety of stores, merchandise quality and product selection) was found to exhibit a strong influence on consumers' behaviour in intraurban shopping areas in Madison,
Wisconsin. Consideration of image was important in the development of an integrated marketing strategy for a shopping area. Moreover, the variable of 'special store' was important in predicting consumer affect (like or dislike a centre), behavioural intentions (likely to shop in next two weeks) and actual behaviour (frequency of shopping), It was suggested that consumers were drawn to a particular centre because of a special store that appealed to them.
Hudson (1981) also unravelled some similar criteria which were pertinent to behaviour in Sydney. In Bexley, where there was greatest diversity of types of shopping centres, the correspondence between image and behaviour was the highest. In constrast, the relationship between image and behaviour was not very strong in Randwick and Caringbah. The shopping behaviour of Randwick and Bexley residents was related to the main dimension of their respective image
(variety, range of shops, reputation) whereas the behaviour
150 of Caringbah residents corresponded to the attributes of secondary dimension (parking, location of centre, prices).
Although centre image has shown some significance on choice of centre, the consistency and reliability of the statistical results have to be checked by comparing the ranked importance of the variables of centre image to the stated reason for using the centre and three most important factors given by the respondents when choosing a centre. In
Chatswood, except for the variable 'location' which has a negative relationship with choice of centre, the variables
'size' and 'variety of goods' bear resemblance to those given by the consumers (Table 6.7). But a different picture can be observed in Macquarie Centre. The significance of parking facilities, shopping environment, age of centre, appearance overrides that of range of shops, convenience and price.
Obviously, consumers were drawn to the centre because of its good parking facilities and excellent physical design as well as the promotion of the centre as an 'indoor city', 'the most up-to-date retail complex' and 'one-stop family spot' which facilitated community leisure and activity (Appendix
XI).
Similar to the result of the components of centre image
(Chapter 5 Section 5.2), the attribute 'convenience' is insi gnificant in consumers' choice of centre. When stating their reason for patronage, some respondents had defined
'convenience' in a broad sense, which involved physical accessibility, ease of parking, suitability of the goods, and the presence of certain shopping facilities such as parcel
151 Table 6.7 A comparison of the rank order of stated reasons, three most important factors and centre image for choice of centre.
1 Stated reason for using the centre
Chatswood Macquarie Centre
Big range of shops Convenience Wide selection of goods Big range of shops Convenience Wide selection of goods
2 Three most important factors when choosing a centre
Chats wood Macquarie Centre
Wide selection of goods Wide selection of goods Big range of shops Convenience/wide range of shops Convenience Price 3 Attributes of centres (Image of centre)
Chatswood Macquarie Centre
Size Parking facilities Traffic safety* Shopping environment Environment* Variety of goods* Location* Age of centre Variety of goods Appearance
1 Table 6.4 2 Table 5.4 (Chapter 5) 3 Tables 6.6a and 6.6b
* negative relationship
pick-ups. However, in this research, convenience was limited
to the location of the centre, that is, the perceived
proximity of the centre in relation to home or workplace.
The empirical evidence, to a certain extent, resembles
Fraser's (1980) findings in Brisbane, Queensland. He found
152 that the main reasons for shopping at the more distant higher order Brisbane centres (Brisbane CBD and Indooroopilly
Shoppingtown) were of a perceptual nature - variety, range of shops/goods, quality of goods and multi-shopping purchases.
On the other hand, the planned Inala Civic Centre was attractive because of parking ease and low or special prices.
He concluded that convenience was most important for minor trips and the attractiveness of stores was considered most important for major trips.
In fact, centre image is not a complete indicator of how often the consumers shop. Unlike grocery shopping, shopping for clothes is usually highly varied, Since comparison-good shopping is less habitual than convenience good shopping, it is worth looking at other forces behind the variability of shopping behaviour.
6.4 Motivation, Constraints and Shopping behaviour
This section aims to sum up the forces other than centre image influencing consumers' actual behaviour. Table
6.8 is a general picture showing the perceived importance of a list of reasons for shopping and the rank order of ratings.
The importance of more perceptual or qualitative factors variety and quality goods, ease of parking - overrides that of close to home/work and inexpensive goods. But their significance might vary with consumers' actual behaviour, therefore, it needs to investigate motivations in relation to
153 Table 6.8 Perceived importance of reasons of shopping
Percentage of total respondents*
Mean Very Fairly Reasons rating important Important important Unimportant
Variety of goods 3.5 61.1 32.7 5.4 0.8 Quality of goods 3. 5 57.0 37.5 5.5 Ease of parking 3.4 60.7 26.1 7.8 5.0 Pleasant service 3. 2 46.3 35.8 15.6 2.3 Close to home/work 3 . 1 42.7 31. 0 20.4 5.8 Traffic condition 3.0 39.3 31. 5 20.6 8.6 Familiarity with shops 2.9 32.7 38.5 19.8 8.9 Inexpensive goods 2.8 28.5 31. 6 32.0 7.8 Pleasant environment 2.5 20.2 33.1 29.6 1 7. 1 Reputation 2.2 16.3 27.6 22.6 33.5 Public transport 2. 1 22.9 15.6 10.3 51. 0 Advertising 1.8 9.3 13.2 28.8 48.6 Non-shopping facilities 1. 6 7.8 10.9 20.3 60.9 Social reasons 1. 5 5.9 10.2 15.2 68.8
*Total respondents=257
the choice of particular centres and the shopping habits
(Table 6.9a and 6.9b),
Unlike centre image, shopping motivation has less
explanatory power for choice of centre (Table 6.9a). Slight
positive relationships with the factors of variety of goods
in Chatswood and ease of parking, traffic conditions,
supporting facilities and social reasons in Macquarie can be
observed. But this list of shopping reasons are more
correlated to shopping frequency (Table 6.9b). For Chatswood,
the ease of parking, reputation of centre, advertising,
familiarity with the shops and social reasons, all play a
significant role in influencing shoppers' frequency of
154 Table 6, 9a Correlation and multiple regression: Reasons for shopping and choice of centre
Chats wood Macquarie Centre Reasons R R2 Reasons R R2
Variety of goods 0.17*(P=0.018) 0.02 Non-shopping facilities 0,19*(P=0,001) 0.05 lnexpens i ve goods -0.05 0.04 Advertising 0.06 0.06 Advertising -0.30 0.07 Ease of parking 0,ll*(P=0,03) 0.07 Pleasant environment -0.06 0.09 Pleasant environment 0.05 0.08 Ease of parking 0.03 0.11 Social reasons 0.14*(P=0.0l) 0,09 Traffic conditions 0.15 0.12 Reputation 0.03 0,09 Reputation -0.00 0.13 Quality of goods -0.03 0.09 Quality of goods 0.06 0.14 Variety of goods -0.09 0.09 Familiarity -0.00 0.15 Traffic conditions 0.17*(P=0.003) 0.09 Social reasons -0.l0*(P=0,05) 0.15 Public transport 0.08 0. 10 Public transport -0.ll*(P=0.04) 0.16 Familiarity 0.00 0 .10 Close to home/work -0.l0*(P=0.05) 0.16 Close to home/work 0.15 0 .10 Non-shopping facilities -0.08 0.16 Helpful service 0.06 0.10 Helpful service -0.02 0.16 2 R= correlation coefficient R = coefficients of multiple determination *significant
Table 6. 9b Correlation and multiple regression: Reasons for shopping and shopping frequency
Chatswood Macquarie Centre Reasons R R2 Reasons R R2
Ease of parking 0.18 0.04 Non-shopping facilities 0.33*(P=0.001) 0.12 Heasant environment -0.16*(P=0.030) 0.08 Inexpensive goods -0.12 0.15 Social reasons 0.19*(P=0.010) 0. 13 Ease of parking -0.15 0.19 Advertising 0.02*(P=0.020) 0. 17 Variety of goods 0.20*(P=0.036) 0.22 Public transport 0.10 0.20 Social reasons 0.28 0.23 Inexpensive goods 0 .10 0.22 Pleasant environment 0.03 0.25 Variety of goods 0.07 0.23 Public transport 0.24*(P=0.018) 0.27 Familiarity 0.16*(P=0.028) 0.24 Traffic conditions -0.08 0.28 Reputation 0.18*(P=0.021) 0.25 Reputation 0,15 0.28 Helpful service 0.03 0,25 Quality of goods 0.12 0.28 Traffic conditions 0.23 0.26 Familiarity 0.06 0.28 Quality of goods -0.03 0.26 Close to home/work -0.07 0.28 Close to home/work 0.10 0.26 Advertising 0.22*(P=0.025) 0.28 Non-shopping facilities 0.08 0.27 2 R= correlation coefficient R = coefficients of multiple determination *significant
155 patronage, These shopping reasons have accounted for 27 per cent of total variance, Macquarie shoppers have demonstrated some differences in their shopping motivation. The visits to
Macquarie Centre tend to vary with the factors such as non- shopping facilities, ease of parking, variety of goods, and shopping environment (total variance is 28 per cent},
Obviously, ease of parking also appears to be an influencial factor.
The findings also suggest that the respondents may visit the centres more than just for shopping, Many of these trips are multi-purpose in nature, including seeking professional services such as banks, Medicare, and meeting friends. Statistically, the locational factor of centre, close to home/work, is correlated significantly with consumer behaviour,
Since neither centre image nor the consumers' motivation gives a full explanation for shopping behaviour, the next focus is on the possible constraints on consumers such as those in Tables 6,10a and 6,10b,
It is found that age of consumers, car availability for shopping trips, household income, and travel distance to the centres exhibit some influence on their choice of centre and their shopping frequency, The aged and the households who did not have a car available for shopping, especially those using the Macquarie Centre, were very much constrained.
Moreover, the better-off group tended to patronise Chatswood and, conversely, the less well-off households preferred
156 Table 6.10a Correlation between centre choice and consumer's socio-economic variables and travel distance
Chatswood shopping Macquarie Centre Socio-economic Variables frequency shopping frequency
Age 0.009 -0.007 No, of children 0.02 -0.003 Car ownership 0.04 -0.08 Car for shopping 0.10* (P=0.05) -0.12* (P=0.02) Household income 0.12* (P=0.04) -0.15* (P=0.01)
Travelled distance -0.44* {P=0.001) -0.45* {P=0.001)
* Significant
Table 6.10b Correlation between shopping frequency and consumer's socio-economic variables and travel distance
Chatswood shopping Macquarie Centre Socio-economic Variables frequency shopping frequency
Age -0.04 -0.20* (P=0.034) No. of children 0.05 0.06 Car ownership -0.09 0.33 Car for shopping 0.16* {P=0.02) 0.10 Household income 0.13 0.10
Travelled distance -0.11 -0.08
* significant
Macquarie Centre. Undoubtedly, the consumer behaviour was
influenced by a combination of the underlying forces
including the image of centre, their motivation and the
households' socio-economic characteristics.
6.5 Image, Motivation, Contraints and Shopping behaviour
The final stage is to integrate three groups of
attributes - image of centre, reasons for shopping and socio
economic characteristics of consumers in stepwise regressions
157 in an attempt to seek the most important variables
influencing shopping behaviour (Appendices XII to XIV).
Table 6.lla indicates the ranking of the first six most
significant factors. Similar to the previous analyses
results, size of centre and variety of goods displayed the
strongest influence on Chatswood shoppers' choice behaviour,
even though the centre had the negative effects of travel
distance, unpleasant environment, inconvenient location and
inadequate traffic safety. Macquarie Centre also attracted
distant shoppers. Its appeal lies in the good centre design,
good image as a modern centre and pleasant environment rather
than its range of merchandize. Unlike Chatswood, it is less
accessible by public transport. Therefore, car availability
for shopping trips also exerted an influence on Macquarie
Centre shoppers.
Table 6.lla Multiple regression: centre choice and all variables
Chatswood Macquarie Centre 2 2 Variables R Variables R
Travel distance 0.20* Travel distance 0.20* Size of centre 0.28 Parking facilities 0.28 Shopping environment 0.32* Age of centre 0.32
Convenience 0.35* Variety of goods 0.36* Traffic safety 0.36* Car for shopping 0.38 Variety of goods 0.37 Shopping environment 0.40 * negative relationship
158 Table 6.llb Multiple regression: shopping frequency and all variables
Chatswood Macquarie Centre 2 2 Variables R Variables R
Reputation of Non-shopping centre 0.08 facilities 0. 14 Household income 0.12 Age of centre 0.23 Social reasons 0.16 Inexpensive goods 0.30* Compactness 0.20 Pleasant service 0.36* Advertising 0.22 Function of centre 0.40* Shopping environment 0.25* Traffic safety 0.43*
* negative relationship
When focusing on the patronage behaviour in Chatswood
(Table 6.llb), it is found that reputation of centre ranked
first among the whole list of 31 variables, which was then
followed by household income, social reasons, compactness of
centre, advertising and shopping environment. These six
variables explain about 25 per cent of the variance,
Chatswood consumer behaviour appeared to be more related to
the publicity and promotion of the centre such as special
sales, as well as consumers' propensity to spend. On the
other hand, non-shopping facilities and centre's age are the
most prominent factors affecting the shopping frequency of
Macquarie Centre consumers.
On the whole, the results show that Macquarie had a
better centre image that Chatswood, especially in its
physical design and non-shopping facilities. However,
Chatswood attracted more shoppers than Macquarie Centre.
Although Chatswood did not have a favourable physical image
in terms of its parking facilities, accessibility and
shopping environment, it is an established centre on the
159 North Shore and enjoys a good reputation. Many consumers might have developed a habit of patronising the centre.
Moreover, the centre is regenerating all the time through continual expansion of retailing facilities and attractions of commercial activities. Consequently, the catchment area of Chatswood is penetrating to the north-eastern suburbs of
the study area.
The empirical findings further suggest that consumer behaviour is not solely guided by the concept of 'distance minimization' because physical travel distance is relatively unimportant for comparison-good shopping. Centre image in
terms of centre size or the range of shops, full line of merchandise, parking facilities, physical design of centre, and centre's supporting facilities and services exert strong
influences on consumers' choice of centres.
The behaviour of shopping frequency is more
complicated. Centre image might affect a consumer's
preference, but why he/she likes the centre does not
necessarily correspond to why he/she patronises the centre.
Therefore, this shopping behaviour is more closely related to
consumer motivations such as social reasons, multi-purpose
trips (for recreation or professional services), centre
publicity (special sales) and to consumer constraints such as
income.
Conclusion
This chapter endeavours to seek the congruence between
subjective and objective measures of centres and the
160 relationship between image and behaviour, There were significant differences between the perceived images and the objective measures of the centres' physical characteristics,
The attributes of 'size' and 'location' of centre showed the greatest correspondence to the actual data whereas 'function' showed the least (negative relationship). These discrepancies reinforce the notion that consumers are behaving on the basis of perceived environment, that is, they interact with the real world by creating a mental image of the retailing environment, which in turn, may affect their preference towards a specific centre,
In relation to actual behaviour, the analyses provide evidence that a centre's image has greater explanatory power for consumers' choice of centres than the motivations of shopping, But the motivations of shopping are correlated to the frequency of patronage. Moreover, the socio-economic characteristics of the consumers (except household income) only had slight effects on actual behaviour,
The findings also reveal consistencies when they are compared to the respondents' stated reasons for using the centre and the three most important factors when choosing a centre. The dimension of 'assortment', which includes wide range of shops or size of centre, and large selection of goods, has the greatest influence on the choice behaviour of
Chatswood shoppers. But the effect of the dimension of
'centres physical design and facilities' is more pronounced on the Macquarie Centre users. As both Chatswood and
Macquarie Centre had captured their trade from a wide
161 distance zone, the attribute of 'convenience' in terms of physical distance relative to home or work-place has proved insignificant for the comparison good. Furthermore, the findings have highlighted the different characteristics of the two regional centres which appealed to different consumers.
Undoubtedly, the nature of shopping behaviour is highly complex. Its variability is due to the interplay of various factors including information level of shopping alternatives, consumers' image of centres, their motivation of shopping, and to a lesser extent, the socio-economic constraints.
Although the empirical data do reveal that a centre's image is related to shoppers' behaviour, they do not specifically tell how consumers use this mental information to choose a centre. Individual consumers may have different weighting systems for the attributes which determine their final choice of centre.
The empirical study undertaken in this thesis provides evidence of the linkage between image and behaviour. Even so, however, some unresolved questions remain. These will be noted in the concluding chapter.
162 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION
Continuing changes in the retailing industry and in the characteristics and distribution of the population have made planning for retail services one of the most challenging activities for planners today. The literature review in
Chapter 1 indicated that central place theory and gravity models traditionally employed by planners can only analyse people's behaviour at an aggregate level and cannot account for the complex variability in consumers' choice of centres.
In view of the limitations of the macro-models, this thesis attempted to uncover the forces underlying consumer decision making from a cognitive-behavioural perspective.
7.1 Theory and Results
The basic hypothesis of this thesis is that the image of a centre, which summarises an individual's knowledge of retail environment, evaluation and preferences, influences his or her shopping behaviour. The retailing environment acts as a source of stimuli and provides two types of information that are relevant to consumers' choice of centres
(Chapter 2 Section 2.3). Designative information is concerned with the location, size, function and morphology of centres, whilst appraisive information pertains to other attributes of a centre, for example, its physical layout, the
line of goods it carries, the level of service, the approximate prices of the goods and parking facilities. An
individual's shopping behaviour is then assumed to depend
163 - very much on the availability of information about potential alternatives and decisions are inevitably made on the basis of selected information.
The information level of an individual varies from person to person. Some consumers possess more information about retail facilities than others in as much as the cognitive image of the environment is postulated to be developed through a complex learning process, which is very much influenced by the location of home and workplace and the length of time that the individual lives in a location.
Information is mainly gathered through direct personal experience, complemented by indirect sources such as friends, newspapers or other forms of mass media.
Consumers with different wants and needs exhibit varying shopping behaviour. Therefore in this study, the need of consumers was standardised by focusing on clothes shopping. Comparison-good shopping was selected for study because it is more likely to involve consumers in searching, comparison, evaluation and choice behaviour.
It was found that most of the respondents possessed a fair knowledge of the retailing hierarchy in the study area - the North Shore of Sydney. On average, they knew about three to four centres in the area. This supports the idea that consumers are satisficers and not 'economic men' because most of them were not aware of all shopping alternatives. The information about the centres was distance-biased and centred on the immediate home environment and the area known
164 through journey-to-work or daily activities. The findings coincide with the notion that 'the nodes near the residences and workplaces were learnt first, rather than those at increasing distances' (Horton & Reynolds 1971 p.39).
Nevertheless, the number of centres known did not significantly relate to the respondents' length of residence.
This suggests that once the shopping behaviour of the individual becomes routinised and habitual, the 'search and learning' process slows down after a certain period of residence. Simultaneously, the socio-cultural factors represented filters which affected the flow of information from the environment. These variables, except income, had little effect on the consumers' information level. The relative homogeneity of the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents may be reflected in part in the lack of great differences in their knowledge of the retailing environment.
During the next stage of individual-environment interaction, the consumer creates an image of centres via the processes of perception and cognition. The environmental information influences what the individual comes to know about the real world while the individual's socio-cultural characteristics and personal factors determine how that knowledge is converted to an image.
The image represents a consumer's stored information which is the product of the process of collecting and coding information about the environment. A shopping centre image can be thought of as an individual's cognitive representation of a centre, partly in terms of its physical attributes and
165 partly of its functional qualities. After gathering inform- ation through perception of an actual retailing environment, each individual will learn about the environment over time and the knowledge of and emotional reactions to constituent elements will be represented in the form of a 'cognitive image', Within the context of individuals' differing aims, aspirations, and levels of mobility, they will interpret the sensations they receive from the environment in a diverse manner.
The findings in this study uncovered three basic cognitive dimensions of a shopping centre perceptions, The dimension of 'assortment' which involved the variety of goods, quality of service, shopping hours and price level appeared to be the most important aspect of image, The dimension of 'physical layout and facilities' comprised the age of centre, compactness of shops, physical design and parking facilities. The functional attributes such as centre's size and specialisation constituted the third dimension. The role of the attribute 'location', defined as the distance relative to home or work, was relatively insignificant in a centre's image.
The planned centres which were characterised by good physical design, greater closeness of shops and sufficient parking facilities, enjoyed more favourable images than the unplanned ones. Being associated with personalised service and a pleasant atmosphere, the smaller suburban centres were perceived as highly convenient centres. Conversely,
Chatswood had a good reputation because of its size (total
166 number of shops) and its wide base of comparison goods, in spite of its unattractiveness in terms of accessibility and physical layout.
Except for the attributes of 'size' and 'location', there was great variation in consumers' subjective evaluations of their most used centre from the actual measures. The respondents tended to overestimate the compactness and specialisation of the functions of the centres.
The results support the proposition that image was pertinent to a consumer's decision-making. The image of
Chatswood was related to size, presence of department stores and specialty shops, and a full line of comparison goods and thereby to consumer choice of centre. Conversely, people chose Macquarie Centre on the basis of a different type of image related to physical design, appearance, shopping environment and atmosphere, good traffic safety and parking facilities.
Shopping frequency is moderately associated with social reasons, familiarity with the centre, advertising, reputation and ease of parking in Chatswood, and with the presence of non-shopping facilities, variety of goods, advertising, and public transport in Macquarie Centre. The results exemplify the significance of 'advertising' on the shoppers of both centres. Among various possible constraints, consumers' age, income, and car availability for shopping have some influence on their shopping behaviour.
167 The perceptual variables, including the wide range of shops, broad selection of products, adequate parking facilities, physical layout and pleasant environment, were the salient factors in deciding where to shop. The traditional concept of 'least effort strategy' was rather unimportant in comparison-goods shopping, as reflected in the great distance that the consumers were willing to travel.
Most respondents bypassed smaller suburban centres and patronised larger regional centres.
However, the variability of shopping behaviour could not be adequately explained by consumers' image of centre.
Statistically, it could explain less than 30 per cent of variance in choice of centre and less than 10 per cent (in
Chatswood) in shopping frequency. There is still a considerable discrepancy between what people think and like and what they actually do. The choice of a particular centre may not be simply because of attributes such as good shopping facilities or low-priced products. Their behaviour is guided by different needs, wants and motivations.
7.2 Critique of Results
Perception of centres helps to identify the relevant criteria for explaining why people prefer a particular centre rather than others, yet it does not tell how environmental information is translated into evaluation of specific centres and the subsequent actual choice of centre. The main reasons for the lack of congruence between image and behaviour are: the discrepancies between verbalised attitudes and overt
168 behaviour, the reliability of the measurement of perception and the significance of decision rules.
One explanation for the divergence between act and attitude is simply that people are inconsistent in their behaviour. Individual action is sometimes irrational and beyond the range of theory that many models have proposed.
People may not attempt to rationalise their shopping behaviour because of habit or emotional decisions. The simple attitude-behaviour correspondence overlooks the intentionality in human behaviour (Ley 1981, Walmsley and
Lewis 1984). In other words, individuals are 'intendedly rational men'. In many instances, regardless of intentions, some actions may not be based upon a well-structured behavioural strategy, and a consumer may be impulsive, uncertain, indifferent or even unaware of the reasons behind the decisions. An attitude is predispositional, but not prescriptive. The individual may carry the attitude with him or her to a situation, but it does not necessarily result in overt behaviour. Obviously, 'to expect a correspondence between verbal behaviour (attitude) and overt behaviour is to make an inferential leap of some magnitude' (Porteous 1977 p.235).
In addition, the questionnaire techniques are sometimes unable to elicit complete perception data. 'The fundamental question remains whether it is possible to obtain subjects who are prepared and able to reveal their actual thoughts to investigators ' ( Pipkin 1981 p,156 ), In this study, there was some evidence that people believed distance
169 to be more significant a determinant of their centre choice than it actually was. Although a great percentage of consumers considered proximity an important factor in choosing a centre, many of them were travelling great distances (negative relationship between choice of centre and distance). Moreover, the actual behaviour could not be revealed when the respondents might use more than one centre or they did not patronise any specific centre for their clothing.
The measurability of the constructs - 'perception' or
'cognition' themselves remains questionable. It was emphasised early in this thesis that perception and cognition have no physical dimensions which can be measured. As
Porteous pointed out 'they are invented constructs, necessary as intervening mental variables to explain the relationship between the two sets of observable, measurable variables known as environment and behaviour' (Porteous 1977 p.233). Despite the ease of administration and capacity for standardisation, the choice of semantic ratings employed in this study may have conditioned the responses. The same word sometimes means different things to different individuals and also to the same individual in different contexts. For example, a respondent might perceive the noise and congestion in Chatswood as a good shopping atmosphere.
The formation of an image theoretically involves internal processes such as representation, coding, and recoding. There is a profound difference in the processes
involved in responding to questionnaire and those arising in
170 actual behaviour. The difference is akin to that between recall and memory. Questionnaire responses about shopping behaviour require recall and evoke thought processes such as preference ranking and rating judgement that may be quite alien to some peoples' daily thought ( Pipkin 1981 p.166 ).
As a result, eliciting verbal behaviour using semantic differential items may be untrue to actual behaviour.
Unstructured open-ended questions also have the shortcoming of requiring greater verbal skills from the respondents.
When the respondents were asked to list three most important factors for choosing a centre, a great proportion of them did not give the third reason. A deficiency of a self- administered questionnaire is the absence of interviewers to prompt the respondents. Therefore, the respondents may not discuss what is relevant to the image of the centre.
'Convenience' of a centre might be interpreted as good accessibility by one respondent but meant the ease of finding a parking space or the presence of department stores by another.
Finally, it is difficult to link images and actual behaviour to discover how action results from the images held because there may be a gap between image and action (Rapoport
1977 p.45). In other words, while schemata intervene between environment and behaviour, there is another component - the decision-rule - which leads from image to behaviour. These decision strategies are a set of criteria which guide the decision-making process. Rational decision-makers would seek to maximise satisfaction by evaluating alternative locations
( Timmermans 1982 p.172 ). The findings in this study show
171 that consumers' choice behaviour is related to the attributes of the centres, yet they do not demonstrate conclusively how these attributes are actually used in the decision-making process, that is, how the consumers combine the values of various attributes which produce actual behaviour.
Although several studies have suggested that there is strong congruence between image and behaviour (Parker 1976,
Patricios 1979, Timmermans 1982), it is still not possible to make any accurate predictions of consumer behaviour because of the above theoretical and methodological problems. In reality,' the relationship between what is perceived and the nature of the environment is so complex that any simple predictable relationship becomes difficult to establish'
(Porteous 1977 p.129).
7.3 Implications for Planning
In considering the provision of shopping facilities, planners must be concerned with the objectives and satisfaction of developers, retailers and consumers.
Simultaneously, they have to consider such factors as efficiency of the transportation system, environmental impact, and the competing interests likely to be located in shopping centres such as banks, offices and restaurants. This section aims to summarise some of the implications of the theory and results of this thesis.
The basic claims in this thesis are that
information from the environment influences what individuals
172 come to know about the real world, and that the way in which they organise and interpret the retailing environment is a fundamental factor affecting their shopping behaviour. The results show that consumers are not aware of all shopping alternatives, and their level of information varies with their daily experience and home location. They tend to have subjective impressions of the centres which do exert an influence on the consumers' overt behaviour, even though the correlations are not particularly high.
Firstly, planners emphasise tangible and quantitative factors such as total floorspace, total number or mix of establishments, and the total sales or turnover. This study suggests that qualitative aspects of centre image are also important. In reality, the components of an image include both spatial attractiveness - convenience, parking facilities, morphology and age of centre, and qualitative attractiveness - variety of goods, range of shops, service, shopping hours and price level, atmosphere and shopping environment. Planners may pay attention to local trends in consumer expenditure and trading patterns, but tend to neglect the subtle aspects of consumer behaviour. In fact, a qualitative assessment should form an integral part of overall retail planning, It can help determine the local retailing structure, consumer requirements, and the need for improvement or development, which in turn enable the retailing system to function with greater flexibility.
Secondly, planners should acknowledge the significant role played by large retailers and property developers in
173 determining the location, as well as the nature and physical design of centres. The retailing companies enter the development field to invest in strategically located regional shopping centres, to expand the existing trade, and to consolidate their power. Their strategies are important to the scale, location and viability of centres and hence influence the spatial pattern of retailing. More importantly, such incremental decision-making may run contrary to such subtle behavioural concerns as shopping amenity, the provision of non-retailing facilities catering for multi-purpose trip behaviour, and consumer benefits through choice, price and convenience. The dictating influence of big retailers may result in retailing decisions at variance with the needs and preference of consumers, in both economic and social terms. Greater public involvement in shopping centre development becomes increasingly important.
Previous research has established that residents favour the location of public facilities such as post offices, municipal offices, and community services in centres and multi functional centres have been sucessful in many American cities (Burby and Weiss 1976). The significance of non- retailing facilities is further verified in this study.
Public participation in the planning of new centres, in which consumer interests are expressed, would undoubtedly improve the qualities of shopping experience and ensure a more equitable system.
Thirdly, the empirical findings provide insights into consumer behaviour for environmental planning. The viability of the smaller suburban centres is threatened by the regional
174 centres. In fact, these small centres can also be rejuvenated and redeveloped as integrated office/ retail/commercial centres. These centres are highly accessible and pose less parking problems but lack a competitive base of goods. Well-planned and attractive centres, with a full line of better quality and competitively priced goods are highly desirable in meeting the objectives in retail planning*, and they can reduce the congestion in the overcrowded large regional centres.
Finally, the strict adherence to the distance/size hypothesis in conventional models has proved to be inadequate for planning, other salient behavioural variables should not be overlooked. The understanding and predicting of consumer behaviour have become an increasingly important components in both developing and operating activities of shopping centres.
The incorporation of a set of explanatory variables, for example, presence of non-retailing facilities, variety, quality of goods and parking facilities, would definitely improve the traditional measures of the attractiveness of a centre.
In sum, image studies can contribute to the planning of location of retail facilities, environmental design, aesthetic improvement and to a certain extent, prediction of behaviour. They are obviously of great value, in both physical and social planning, 'from the laying out of
*The Ku-ring-gai Council is intending to retain the escape expenditure by increasing the retail floor space to 10,000 sq metres. (Source: Ku-ring-gai Business Centres Study, July 1987)
175 transport lines to the location of new facilities and amenities which will be perpetually, as well as physically, accessible to the target population' (Porteous 1977 p.125).
Individuals' views of the environment or group's image is a potential input into planning. Hence, image studies may result in a more human, individually-oriented planning, with a better resource allocation by providing a wider range of opportunity choices. Yet, a limitation of this scientific approach is the problem of prediction because of the non- congruence between image and behaviour. In addition, all these phenomena change over time and the collected information may become redundant before it can be used.
Nevertheless, planners should not give up the job of qualitative appraisal of the centres, because a better understanding of consumer image and preference is of prime importance in building up an efficient, equitable and flexible retailing system.
7.4 Future Research
This thesis supports the contention that there is a close relationship between consumer's perception and shopping behaviour in the Australian context. By stressing the cognitive aspect of consumer decision-making, this study can be viewed as a step towards increasing the understanding of consumers' image of shopping centres and consequent behaviour. The empirical results can assist in explaining consumer choices from a number of retail centres.
The lack of congruence between image and behaviour
leads to a number of foci which are worthy of further
176 research. The inconsistencies between attitude and behaviour require an extension of research on decision rules or combination rules of consumers that ultimately lead to actual behaviour, that is, how individuals combine the weighting of the various attributes in their evaluative strategies, which results in the subsequent choice of a centre.
The issue of measurability of the concept of perception requires a re-examination of the relevance of the rational- scientific approach to the study of behaviour. The scientific method based on cognitive-behavioural approach in many ways simplifies the world into easily represented structures, models or variables, but ignores much of the subtlety and significance of everyday experience. A more humanistic approach which emphasises distinctly human characteristics and breaks away from a positivistic, scientific view of man may be another focus of research,
This 'humanistic' perspective provides insights into individual-environment relationship by looking at how people experience the world around them (Walmsley and Lewis 1984 p.153).
The refinement of questionnaire techniques for measuring perception is another area for further study. An alternative technique - the 'Personal Construct' - in conjunction with semantic differential items can be employed to allow individuals' evaluation criteria to emerge more inductively, Certainly, there is great need for research methods before meaningful, explanatory models can be derived
for planning.
177 To conclude, the above research foci can lead to a deeper and more adequate understanding of individual- environment relationship, which is crucial to sensible planning in general, not only of shopping centres.
178 APPENDIX I Pilot survey (a)
Out of a total 15 respondents in the first pilot survey in Lane Cove and Killara, nearly 80 per cent shopped for their daily goods in the nearest suburban centre or neighbourhood shops, and their comparison goods in the larger regional centres. This difference in shopping behaviour is due to the fact that convenience goods which the consumers usually purchased usually involve minimum effort in selection and buying. On the other hand,since consumers buy comparison goods for a longer term basis, they are inclined to look more widely for suitability, price, style, and quality of goods,
179 APPENDIX ll Pilot survey (b) Below is a list of shopping centres and their characteristics, For this question, would you rate each centre you have visited for clothing. Don't answer for centres you have never visited and if you use a centre other than those listed (see Q.5), please rate it in the final column.
To complete the table, consider location first and rate the centres in terms of their convenience by placing 'X' in the appropriate box, e.g. Chatswood. 111 j PJ I ~ 3 • When you have done this, go to rate all centres on all characteristics.
,::n the scale, 1 represents nei;-ative resnonse Sllch a.s poor, inconvenient, 5 reuresents positive response such as excellent, convenient etc.)
OTHER CENTRE LANE TOP ( SPECI F'Y IN Q.. 5) CHATS'tlOOD GORDON COVE MACQUARIE RYDE s (1) LOC,-.:'IOO inconvenient 1 II 1 1 I I I I I I I I I II I II I I I I 1 I I I I I II I II convenient (relative to l:&1 ♦ 5' 12J4,5 /JJ.f-6 ta.)+~ ,a,.s 1.ia+s home lwork) (2) srz;,; small 111111111111!11111111111111111111111 big (n,:,. of snaps) 12.1+, 1:i.J ♦ 5' 1.1.! ♦ s 11J,t.1' 1:a,+1 ,ai•:t
lD CLOSE~2SS O? dispersed 111111111111!11111111111111111111111 compact SiiCPS ,~,4~ 1:&l ♦ S l:ZJ ♦ !J 1 :i.J ♦ s /25AS ,~1+r
I (4) FlI'.'!CTION not 1111111111111111ll illlll ll1l11 llllll specialised i (e.~. lots of specialised 1 l,J,f.$ , 2. 34C' I 2.a ♦ s t 2,345 r 2.14$ I 2.1•s s pecialt y shops) (5) IJ.':'OcT & DESI-~ ooor 1111111111!11ll111111111111111111111 excellent (e.~. urotection 12.5.J/ I.Z.;3 ♦ 5 l:&J4S' /2.J,f.$ l:t),4.5 ,,.34-~ fro:n wea t ~.er) (•) 'IIS:',-L unattractive 11 1 I 11 I I I I I I I I I 1 11 I t 11 1 I I I I I ii I I 11 I 1 at tracti ·,e APP.::,,.R~J,.;E l2J ♦ S 1:aJ4S l:Z145 l:Z14~ l:l.JJI.S l2fJ,J.~' (e,iz, clean, tidy) (1) SHOPPV:; unple ... s=t II I I I I 1 1 1 I 11 ! 1 1 1 I 1 I 1 1 1 1 l I 1 1 1 I I I I 1 1 I I pleasant ~NirlO,,!'IZYT l;z.J,t.5 l:J,14-5 l:&J.f.S IZ~+s 11.:$,f,S 12.345 (trees, seating) (,) C!1CSP'iSRB tense 11 I 1 1I 11 I 1 11 I I I I I I relaxing /Jl4:t tZ.1.C.5 1l345
:-) VARIE':'Y CF SLO:'l<•:s: poor 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 11 II I I l I 1 1 1 I I I I 1 1 I I 1 excellent I :Z. j ♦ S I 2 J ♦ S I J. fJ ,t. 5 ll.145 l'l.l ♦ fr l~J ♦ $"
(1~) Ql'ALIT':' OF CLOTH;:;s: poor 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I 1 1 11 I 11 I i I I I I I I I I I I I 11 excellent fl,f/1,j l:lJ45 12.JA.S il3,t.S l:Zj4,5 /J.345
") c ~I :E LEVEL :'O~, poor I ii 1 1 1 II 1 1 l I I I I 1 11 I 1 1 1 1 l 11 1 1 I I I I 1 1 1 I excellent :LC:':':;;s ,i:,45 12J45 12)4s 12.J+:t 1:,345 1.1.145
I i 1 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I II I I I I I I I I I I 11 1 I I I I I excellent 12~45 tiJ+5 1:LJ4-S' l.a54'5"' 111:34-S 12,34-5
,, ~) : ~.~?FI c : o~;:..r:-I L 'J s: congest ect 111111111111111111 111111111111 Ii I I I I not IJ.J4-5 12345 12.J45 t::1J4S ''-14-5' l::134$ c::mgested
.1~) .·oN-SEO?PiilS poor excelle:-1t F.'\'.;Il.I·~!:;.) & s::~vrci,;s ianpopwlar 111111111111111111111111111111111r11 p:,pular 1.a1 ♦ 5 ll5 ♦ S /2J"4-5 IJ.J,4$ 1:Z.Jl/1' I.Z.14!, 180 APPENDIX III The questionnaire
UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES SCHOOL OF TOWN PLANNING
CONSUMERS' PERCEPTION AND CHOICE OF SHOPPING CENTRES
(PART A)
1. On the map, please mark an 'X' in the box next to each of the shopping centres you have visited at least once for any reason at all.
If all boxes marked go straight to Q.3
Cove
Top Ryde D
2. Would you write down the name of the centre(s) which you did not mark with an 'X' in Q.l and give the main reason(s) why you have never been to that centre(s).
Name of centre Reasons
181 The questions below are concerned with your choice of shopping centres for CLOTHING, e.g. casual wear, dresses, evening wear, etc. 3. Which of the shopping centres (as shown on map in Q.l) would you use most often for your clothes shopping? Please state reason(s) why you use that centre rather than others. Name of centre Reason(s)
4. Is there any other shopping centre not shown on map in Q.l but you use most often for your clothes shopping? Please give your main reason(s) why you use that centre. a. Yes No D Go to b. □ Go to Q.5 b. Name of centre Reason(s)
5. How often do you visit the following list of shopping centres for your clothes? Please tick the appropriate box.
4-5 times 2-3 times once a once every irregularly never CENTRE a month a month month 2 months CHATS WOOD GORDON LANE COVE LINDFIELD MACQUARIE TOP RYDE OTHERS*
*Other shopping centre that you have listed in Q.4b
6. How did you first come to know about the centre that you use most often for your clothing? Please tick one of the following: (1) Through advertisement or publicity (newspaper, T.V. etc.) CJ (2) Recommended by friends or relatives CJ (3) Just living in that area CJ (4) Just working in that area ( please specify your workplace) D (suburb/street) (5) On the way to work D (6) By chance (know about it when passing by) Cl (7) Other sources (specify) CJ
7. Would you write down, in order of importance, the things that are most important to you when choosing a shopping centre f9r clothing.
( 1)
(2)
( 3) The next two questions have lists of characteristics of shopping centres, we would like to know your level of satisfaction with each of them.
8. For each of the following characteristics, please tick the appropriate box to indicate how your most frequently used centre for clothing may be described.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ( 1) LOCATION Iinconvenient I Iconvenient (relative to home/work) I I I I I I I ( 2) SIZE Ismall ]1arge (e.g. number of shops) I I I I I I ( 3) AGE Iold jnew l ! I I l I (4) CLOSENESS OF SHOPS !dispersed jcompact I I I I I I (5) FUNCTION !not !specialised (lots of specialty shops) :specialised l I I I I I
9. How would you rate your most frequently used centre for clothing? Please tick the appropriate box for each of the following matters.
excellent/ poor~ . ideal Characteristics of centre 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Layout & design (e.g. protection from weather, width of pavements etc.) 2. Visual appearance (well kept shops, clean, tidy, etc.) 3. Shopping environment (e.g. trees, seating, lighting) 4. Atmosphere (relaxed, friendly)
5. Variety of clothes
6. Quality of service for clothes
7. Shopping hours
8. Price level for clothes
9. Traffic safety (ease of crossing the roads etc. ) 10. Parking facilities
ll. Others (specify if any)
183 (PART c)
This part of the questionnaire is concerned with factors that might influence the way you shop and your preference for shopping centres.
10. Could you please tick the appropriate box indicating how important each of the following factors is in your choice of a shopping centre for your clothing?
Very Fairly Not Reasons important important important important Close to home/work
Good quality products
Variety of clothing
Inexpensive goods
Pleasant or helpful service
Reputation (well-known, popular etc.)
Ease of parking/access to shops
Provision of public transport
Traffic conditions (e.g. congested traffic flows near the centre)
Pleasant & attractive environment (e.g. trees, good landscaping) Provision of non-shopping facilities (entertainment, recreational etc.) Influence of advertising/publicity (by newspaper, centre etc.) Familiarity with the shops there
Social reasons (good place for meeting friends)
(PART D)
In order to help us understand why people choose to shop at some centres rather than others, we need to know a bit about your background. For the following questions, please tick the appropriate boxes.
11. Would you indicate your age in one of the age groups below.
Under 25 .D 25-34 □ 45-54 □ 55-640 Over 640
184 12. a. What is the occupation of the main income earner of the household?
b. Is this you? If not, what is your occupation if you are employed?
13. How many children do you have living with you? NoneO Over 4 D.
14. a. Does the household have a car? Yes No Go to b.LJ Go to Q.15 D b. Is it normally available for shopping trips for clothing? Yes CJ No[:=:]
15. How long have you lived at your present address? years
16. It would be helpful if you could indicate the approximate gross annual household income. less than $10,000-20,000 $20,001-30,000 $30,001-40,000 Over $40,000 $10,0000 D D D D
THANK YOU FOR YOUR CO-OPERATION
185 APPENDIX IV A summary of the results of the survey
Chatswood Macquarie Central Total No, % No. % No % No. %
Completed questionnaire 37 41.1 42 46.7 107 38.2 186 40.4
Returned by mail 15 16.7 11 12.2 45 16.1 71 15.4
Not suitable for analysis 4 4.4 3 3.3 3 1.1 10 2.2
Non-response 34 37.8 34 37.8 125 44.6 193 42.0
Total 90 90 280 460
186 stores
store
store
store
stores
stores
supermarkets
discount
supermarket dept
supermarkets
supermarkets
supermarkets hardware supermarket
dept. discount
Supermarket
Dept.
3 3 3
3
3
2 1 1
1 1
1
no.
shops
89
72
98
405
137
129
Total of
24.1
19.5 26.4
16.8
17.0
15.0
of
79
33
No 15
service 22
Pers9nal shops\
19
15
'
goods
3.4
1.2
1.5
1.0
0.8
of
hold
3
5 2
h No shops L'rge study
--1
1
the
in
'
goods
36.0 26.7
28.5
23.6
22.5
26.0
of
hold
32
s,all h No
39
shops centres
29
26
17
108
the
' of
2.2
7.0
4.4
7.7
4.0
of
87)
2
Accessories No shops
6
-- 4
28
10
Footwear
1
com~osition
and
3.4
3.9
1.5 7.0 1.4
5.0
of
Aug.
and
Shoes 3
No shops\
2
1 9
5
16
work
7
shops) Clothing
of
28.4 15.
16.0 24.0 12.5
19.0
Field
9
No shops\
14 22 Clothing
31
19
115
(no.of
Source:
22.5
24.0
13.3
36.1
21.0
27.0
of
(
size
Food
20
No shops\ 54
33
26
27
26
area
The
centre
V
Cove
Ryde
Regional
Centre*
Appendix
Gordon
Chatswood*
* Lane
Lindfield
Top
Macquarie
~
(X)
--J APPENDIX VI Existing and proposed development in Chatsvood Centre (Sources Chatswood Town Centre, Willoughby Municipal Council, 1987) EXISTING & PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT
RETAIL
The major retail core is located to the east of the railway line. The key elements of the retail sector include Grace Brothers. Lemon Grove, Chatswood Ch se and Wallaceway. There are also numerous speciality shops mainly on the eastern side of the Centre.
1. Wallaceway 2. Lemon Grave =. . . . . : . . . 3 .. Grace Brothen .··.·.5-:·: : ...... l 4 . Westfield Oevelopmenr . . . . ~ 5 . Chatswood Chase ~ z
Fig.3 Location Of Major Retail Complexes.
A major new development by Westfield is under construction in Anderson Street. This will add a further 24,000 square metres of floorspace and contain a number of major stores. Combined with other approved developments in the Centre, the overall retail floorspace will incr~ase to over 202.400 gross square metres in the next two years
While there are a number of other sites for potential new retail floorspace there are few opportunities remaining for major developments such as Westfield. Additional retail floorspace is proposed tn the Bus· Rail Interchange and the Chatswood Connection. Other current developments involve redevelopment or refurbishment of existing space. Currently under construction is a redevelopment at 445·-449 Victoria Avenue. This and other proposed developments will update the Victoria Avenue frontage to the future Mall with careful consideration being given to integration with the Mall.
188 APPENDIX VI (continued)
GROSS1112
300,000 -- . 200.000 ------• -1971 fc,,,.-,..,,. •-•- grcwth . -· -
1970/71 1980 1916 1990 2000
Fig.4 Projections And Growth In Retail Floor Space Chatswood Town Centre .
GROSS 1112
500.000
400.000
- 1971 forecosf • growth
100,000
1970/71 197' 1980 1986 1990 1000
Fig.5 Projections And Growth In Office Floor Space Chstswood Town Centre.
189 APPENDIX VI (continued)
Overall, comparatively small redevelopments and refurbishments could add a further 40-50,000 square metres (nett) of retail floorspace to the centre in the long term.
COMMERCIAL
The major office core of the Centre is the area between the Pacific Highway and the railway line.
The late 60's early-mid 70's saw a number of large office developments constructed in this area including the BMA tower and the Railway Plaza Towers. Until 1982 development was slow, but a recent boom in development is changing the face of this area.
At present there is 174,000 square metres gross cotmDercial floorspace including the Zenith and Aetna Centres, with additional commitments for 20,000 square metres. Further developments including the Chatswood Connection have the potential to increase floorspace by a further 192,800 square metres. The overall potential for floorspace including existing developments in the western sector is estimated to be in the order of 390,000 square metres.
Some smaller scale office development is located on the eastern side of the Centre around Spring, Neridah, Bertram and Archer Streets. This area is zoned for lower intensity commercial activity. At present there is approximately 52,800 square metres (gross) in this area, commitments for 32,000 and potential for approximately an additional 17,000 square metres.
Overall therefore the existing and committed developments will increase the gross floorspace to 490,000 square metres and combined with the total existing and potential retail will increase the centre's size to 723,000 square metres.
190 APPENDIX VI {continued)
RECENT DEVELOPMENT APPROVALS
Two major development applications have recently been approved by Council.
The Bus-Rail Interchange Development was approved by Council in October 1986. This development is a joint· venture between Council and Mirvac Pty Ltd. It involves the construction of an undercover bus ·rail interchange, three commerclal office towers of 4. 15 and 19 floors, a retail concourse, a restaurant and community space. The development will link Victoria Avenue and the Bus Interchange directly to Chatswood Station via escalators and stairs. The provision of. this fully undercover pedestrian link will be of major benefit to the community. The total floorspace in this development is 53,900sq metres.
The Chatswood Connection is a major development of size and proportion not previously seen in Chatswood. In size it compares to the major redevelopment of the Anthony Horden site in the city. The total gross floorspace in this development is 152,800sq metres. It comprises two 32 storey office towers, a smaller 9 storey tower and a 230 room international hotel. Included in the development is a cinema complex numerous bars and restaurants and skating rink. The development is located on railway land mainly north of Help Street.
191 APPENDIX VI (Continued)
COMMUNITY FACILITIES
The diversity of the Chatswood Centre is emphasized by the number of existing facilities including schools, churches and the Dougherty Centre. Three major schools are located in the heart of the CBD, St Pius College, Our Lady of Dolours and Chatswood Primary School which attract a large number of students to the Centre daily.
The Christian Church of Christ Scientist, the Uniting Church and the Catholic Church which are also located in the Centre's core, contribute to the complex nature of the centre.
The Dougherty Community Centre and Aged Persons' Housing Development is an_ highly successful initiative of Council. Already existing is a Community Centre and 40 place kindergarten. Under construction is a multi storey aged housing complex containing 97 self care and 40 hostel units. The project is a joint venture between Council, the Department of Housing and the Uniting Church. An Occasional Child Care Centre is soon to be constructed with funds provided by Westfield Developments. This housing development and other high rise residential complexes to the south of the Centre emphasizes that Chatswood will maintain a major residential component as it continues to grow.
In line with the increase in centre size, there has been an increase in the demand for community facilities, to serve the centre. Within the Regional Plan a number of facilities and services have been identified that are required in the Centre.
Council has adopted two approaches to achieving these facilities. First, floorspace bonuses are negotiated with developers who are willing to provide community facilities at no cost to Council. To date a number of pedestrian precincts have been achieved. Recently, Council negotiated the provision of a 250 seat community theatre in the Zenith Centre. This facility is to be fitted out to Council's satisfaction and made available for use by community theatre groups and major productions. The theatre is of benefit to the commercial sector as well, in that, it can be used as a conference centre during the day.
192 APPENDIX VI (continued)
Other facilities currently proposed include community meeting rooms and a park in the Bus Interchange development, and. a cash contribution has been paid by Westfield to provide an Occasional Child Care Centre adjacent to the Dougherty Centre.
Council is ~een to negotiate the provision of facilities with developers as this is a means of ensuring that factlities keep pace with the growing demands of the centre.
A Federal Government Grant was received by Council to construct a 40 place long day Child Care Centre in Devonshire Street. This facility is soon to be open and will be of significant benefit to the Chatswood workforce.
The other means of achieving facilities is through the levying of S94 Contributions~ Contributions are currently levied in the Centre for the provision of:
i) Community and Recreational Facilities ii) Open Space and Pedestrian Area Movements iii) Traffic Measures
With the growth in development in Chatswood these funds are also growing, which will enable Council to provide additional facilities for residents, shoppers and the workforce.
193 1 APPENDIX VII Factor matrix using principal components 2 Attributes Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Communality
Location 0.27 0.22 0.03 0. 12 Size of centre 0.43 -0.21 0.53 0.51 Age of centre 0.45 0.27 0.35 0.41 Compactness 0.48 0.25 0.10 0.31 Function of centre 0.32 -0.18 0.23 0.19 Physical design 0.64 0.45 -0.05 0.61 Variety of clothing 0.62 -0.56 -0.01 0.70 Quality of service 0.56 -0.22 -0.29 0.45 Shopping hours 0.52 -0.16 -0.14 0.31 Price level 0.50 -0.13 -0.27 0.34 Parking facilities 0.46 0.38 -0.23 0.41
3 Eigenvalues 2.65 1.02 0.70 4.37
Variance (eigen- value/no. of variables) 0.24 0.09 0.07 0.40
1 Principal component analysis is an unrotated correlation matrix between each attribute and the factor.
2 Communality is the variance of each variance summarised by the three factors, that is, it shows the degree to which the factors account for or 'explain' each of the attributes.
3 Eigenvalue is the 'sum of squares' of that factor; each eigenvalue summarises a fraction of total variance in all attributes.
194 APPENDIX VIII
Actual measures of centre attributes
1. Distance = approximate road distance (km) from the location of consumer to the centre
2. Size = approximate net selling space ( sq. metres )
3. Age: - Chatswood, Lane Cove 1951
The centres being recognised by the County of
Cumberland Planning Scheme
- Gordon, Lindfield 1956
The centres being recognised by Ku-ring-gai
Planning Scheme
- Macquarie 17th Nov.1981
Date of opening
- Top Ryde 14th Nov.1957
Date of opening
Total no. of shops 4. Compactness= Site area (hectare)
Total no.of clothing+ footwear shops+ department stores 5. Specialisation= Total no.of shops
Sources of information:
The Council of the Municipality of Willoughby (1987)
The Council of the Municipality of Ku-ring-gai (1987)
Macquarie Centre (1987)
Top Ryde Centre (1987)
Fieldwork (1987)
195 APPENDIX IX Stated reasons for using the centres
a) No. of respondents First mentioned Lane Top reasons Chats Macq Gordon Cove Lind Ryde Others Total
Convenience 31 43 1 3 12 90 35 Good parking facilities 4 2 6 2.3 Wide selection of goods 49 7 1 52 20.2 Price 1 2 3 1.2 Good quality products 2 2 0.8 Helpful service 1 1 2 0.8 Wide range of shops 46 17 1 64 24.9 Multi-purpose function 4 1 1 6 2.3 Physical design 2 2 0.8 Public transport 1 1 2 0.8 Others 9 3 1 2 2 1 18 7.0 Not ascertained 4 4 2 10 3.9
Total 145 80 1 3 4 6 18 257 b) No. of respondents Second mentioned Lane Top reasons Chats Macq Gordon Cove Lind Ryde Others Total
Convenience 2 2 4 1.5 Good parking facilities 1 3 4 1.5 Wide selection of goods 18 4 1 4 27 10.5 Price 5 4 1 1 11 4.3 Good quality products 2 2 0.8 Helpful service Wide range of shops 11 6 17 6.6 Multi-purpose function 3 1 1 2 0.8 Physical design 1 Public transport Others 6 6 1 1 14 5.4 Not ascertained 96 54 2 3 6 11 172 66.9
Total 145 80 1 3 4 6 18 257
196 APPENDIX I
Stepwise Multiple Regression
The stepwise regression procedure begins with a simple correlation matrix and initially inserts into the equation the dependent variable most highly correlated with the independent variable. At each step one variable is chosen from among those which are eligible for entry into the regression equation. The variable selected is the one which explains the greatest amount of variance unexplained by other variables in the equation.
The partial correlation coefficient is then used as a measure of the importance of variables not yet in the equation. As each additional variable is entered into the equation (the order is determined by the size of the sample correlation coefficient) the partial F-test value for the variable most recently entered, which shows whether the variable has statistically reduced the amount of variation beyond that already removed by the variable previously entered into the equation, is computed. When it is found that the amount of variance reduction is not statistically significant, the process is terminated. In short, the whole selection process is based solely upon the F ratio which each eligible variable would have if it alone was added to the regression equation at that step.
Source: Nie, Hull, Jenkins (1975)
Kerlinger & Pedhazur (1973)
197
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lea the the level. level. 15,000 15,000 Talavera, Talavera, left left Centre Centre roof roof Main Main Drive-In Drive-In overpass overpass car car only only real real ground ground routes routes Drive-In Drive-In to to built built Roof Roof 6-deck 6-deck for for a a Map). Map). Road Road cars cars the the no no the the is is ramps ramps overpass overpass turn turn Parking. Parking. lower lower Exit Exit ur,(ler ur,(ler the the to to and and large large lower lower Bros Bros Road Road space space the the of of Level Level full, full, from from Centre Centre !:c.•11 !:c.•11 parking. parking. leading leading Road. Road. the the entrance entrance two two Road Road If If to to become become Centre Centre access access roof. roof. Store. Store. parking. parking. Parking. Parking. Level Level Waterloo Waterloo to to the the 15,000 15,000 Grace Grace Park Park Access Access level level Roof Roof the the and and the the Macquarie Macquarie can can Herring Herring parking. parking. take.5 take.5 Stage Stage ramp ramp to to level. level. parking parking to to ramp ramp to to for for Level Level the the from from onto onto fifth fifth the the Herring Herring Roof Roof day day Car Car the the Croft Croft that that exits exits Roof Roof Waterloo Waterloo on on leading leading station. station. level level the the Pedestrian Pedestrian upper upper Centre Centre close close All All via via off off Access Access Access Access Enter Enter Take Take Drive Drive Take Take There's There's Because Because Department Department Pedestrian Pedestrian is is \M:>olworths' \M:>olworths' ramp ramp so so On On the the ramp ramp to to Under Under ramp ramp a a Ground Ground descending descending the the Exit Exit Twin Twin the the decks. decks. 6-level 6-level Lower Lower away. away. deck. deck. are are Centre Centre shopping shopping parking parking Parking Parking Bros Bros overleaf overleaf above above · · and and to to in in for for fully fully Centre Centre young young a a boon boon chairs chairs the the And And one one of of a a and and with with Information Information to to level. level. societies, societies, playground. playground. full full is is V.Joolworths V.Joolworths shopping shopping Department Department Centre Centre The The by by the the in in level. level. a a music. music. Centre Centre (Wheel (Wheel Office Office close close the the setting setting at at every every the the new new levels levels acts. acts. Store, Store, disabled). disabled). mothers mothers In In building building on on and and for for big big Post Post hire hire to to Macquarie Macquarie the the a a areas, areas, strollers. strollers. every every too. too. two two share. share. presents presents complex complex for for competitive competitive disabled disabled for for special special setting setting Bros Bros the the lights lights to to help help sparkling/. sparkling/. surrounded surrounded of of exhibitions exhibitions and and on on shopping shopping levels levels Macquarie Macquarie spectacular spectacular and and the the planned planned agents, agents, stage stage the the all all 3 3 parking parking banks, banks, mix mix Department Department want want of of water. water. light, light, for for Grace Grace the the there's there's are are Franklins Franklins Centre. Centre. stair! stair! special special the the trees trees available available shopping shopping reserved reserved parades. parades. a a of of specialtyshops specialtyshops flickering flickering a a a a strolling strolling will will from from Malls Malls travel travel three three and and over over Stage. Stage. are are exhibitions, exhibitions, Brilliant Brilliant of of special special are are perfect perfect and and for for match match and and natural natural and and a a two two other other Macquarie's Macquarie's Discount Discount find find levels levels view view Medical Medical shrubs, shrubs, connecting connecting and and 3 3 cascading cascading W W no no can can show show youngsters youngsters climb climb ideal ideal find find evergreen evergreen with with Centre Centre Publicity Publicity also also bands, bands, of of children children down down fashion fashion everyone everyone strollers strollers is is and and mall mall - Big Big the the Desk Desk to to Stage! Stage! that that the the entrances entrances entertainment,· entertainment,· entertainments entertainments shopper shopper through through there's there's ,, ,, XI XI Shopping Shopping boutiques boutiques You'll You'll you'll you'll Medibank, Medibank, equipped equipped There's There's and and and and trees trees sound sound dazzling dazzling Supermarket Supermarket for for Flooded Flooded . . Store, Store, the the weeks weeks breathtaking breathtaking /;, /;, 'If/ 'If/ every every need need Then Then family family up up AustraUa AustraUa wander wander Macquarie's Macquarie's experience experience Macquarie Macquarie amongst amongst Centre Centre the the grown grown gentle gentle continuous continuous IW\. IW\. U,, U,, no no to to an an APPENDIX APPENDIX - :::s~ :::s~ Great Great constant constant is is the the And And opening opening Well, Well, Stroll Stroll · · want want ' ' e e lifts lifts with with ) ) • • will will furest furest Rain Rain baskets baskets observation observation everyone everyone hanging hanging beautiful beautiful And And glass glass J""./Y ~OZ-5/i:-~../C--~..Y You will want to talk about Macquarie Centre to friends and The total int~grated parking and shopping areas - this means family, so here are some basic statistics to help you sketch no cac ca11 be parked further than 90 seconds walking time in Lhe picture. from the shops. l h-111er A. M. P. Society Macquarie Centre's symbol is fashioned from a single strip of metal bent in a form to suggest the smooth flow of people and f.ost of Centre Approx. ,$80;000,000.00 activities achieved Ly t~e Centre's use of terraced malls. Size Total area~ 12.3 hectares Construction work concluded nore than 15 years of careful Parking Spac~ for 3,750 cars planning by the developers, to provide a cruununity asset in Major Stores Grace Bros. - 3 floors ter~s of a world class shoppin3 Centre and tl1e creation of Big W Discount nore than 2,500 new jobs. ,; Store I Woolworths Supermarket ' Franklins Supermarket The Ce~tre integrates external landscaping into the three centrAl courts. Specialty Shops There are 120 Specialty Shops spread over 3 levels of shopping malls. The northern promotions well rises spectacularly through three levels rround the Centre Stage, which is adjacent to Gr~ce Bros. Services 6 Banks, .2 Building Societies,.Medibank Department store, There are two glass forming a back 3 Travel Agents, Medical and lifts Office, drop t~ the stage which is surrounded by tiered seating. .... Dental Centre, Post Office,Telecom ~ Business Office, 2 PrintinB Shops, The "Rain of Olympic Ice-Skating Rink, Bus bays Forest'' is the central feature the project. Water falls from the building's top level down slate walls Restaurants/Food Bars 9 Owner-operators, sharing the Garden and planter pots which contain lush trees and abundant planting. Bistro area, which overloo~s the Ice Coffee shops and a children's playground occupy several Rink, plus McDonalds and 4 Coffee terraces of the "Rain Forest". Lounges set in intimate surroundings, as well as others found in Grace Bros. The "Market Place'', in front of the Discount Store and and Big W. Supc~market, is intended for static promotional displays. llnigue Features Macquarie Centre is the only complex built in Australia with three shopping Transport Facilities levels, lin~ed by gently graded ramps, allowing shoppers to stroll through A study of the trading area suggests that the bulk of shoppers this entire Shopping Centre without come from an eight kilometre radius, containing about 250,000 ever needing to climb a stair! people in 85,000 households. Ryde, Eastwood, Carlingford 1be only Centre with a twin observation and Chatswood are well within the area, with Hornsby and Parramatta on the fringes. Although there are large parking lift~ (positioned over Centre-Sta~e). ' areas, a covered bus terminal and taxi rank are an integral An Olympic Ice-Skatin3 Rink, upen part of the complex. Both government and private bus 7 days' a ~eek - 6.00 am - 10.00 pm. operators service the Centre with more.than 300 buses daily. The·only Centre with a thriving indoor rain-for~st: and deliberately jntegrated 111x11rifn:t gn~enery thr, ..111~.l-iout thP. APPENDIXXII Centre image, motivations, constraints and choice 0£ Chatsvood Centre S U M '-1 ~ .~ y T .:. l ... STEP V~~IA9L: F T'" srr- IIF"[r,.1·1c: ;-1IJLTPL:: C' P ';(lUA~::. -~ '.:QUµ :;: _;I ''PL-:_ :, CHA''(.;c ENTE,E0 R:~n ✓:J r"~T~~ 0~ P:."t1Q'/!: travel distance .2G1-j ... - • .:.,q7 ., 1 ./'1~?.47 40. 1?.6,J ➔ C .t+'+-3~: .2111.137 • 0 l,:" • 23!+ •;j ?. vA?206 size 22.,:F: ~23 .531!:.2 .zg2:;2 .ORC7t; shopping environment • ~ ~ VA">212 13.'.?85•)~ • Ji)G .:i73G._. .12~38 ;.:.57:; - • 1 J~ p ~ J A-::,z;::r:: location 7."tc3=a .0!)7 ,3 j392 • .-~~-27-. .J2!.37 - • ! 'j q:; ., .JA~2!.A tra!'fic safety 3.~'5Ed5 • !) :;i .6-J4Su .3654~ .012~~ - •? 371 '? good ~ .... 7'1--Cj ; .JA~21t.. ·variety of .3. ~7 J ;~ ~ • -j ; :.. • S 14 53 • "7 ...... s1222 .2~1:!' 7 vri-:,201 centres' age 1.12):+9 ' • 1, 7 ,4;.101'355 • ..,/3384 • ·J.uE- 2 J -.1·>~!.<'. 1-3 I/Ar>2?.7 ease of parking 1 • s ~ i3t; lj • ; 3~ ,n 23 /j;. .1li916 .oGr-'33 - , C ~1~, q g,J C: .JA::-22° traffic condition 3.101=:..2 • tJ "' ; 1 • 6.H 71 • 3 3'F S .::ij':'~1 - • !. 5 A ~ i) ca:r·-ror shopping 2 ■':922P, 1 .i.cf::g2 .uG7~5 - • 0 ,21 I:, 1 .JA.;:z4~ . - . .&.HSJ 1 1 close to home /vorlc 1 • .;94/J. ~ • 1 ~I:" .~,42G6 .41224 .00533 -.07u.3C? "~~~21 , 7' '• 0 ·-...,,... .Fio+S:=~ ·• '-' 7 ~ .J::u.L.lj - I !. ~q;_; i; N iz ,J! ?1-1 layout 1.~2?6L. . 16 1 .o:.<3i') , 4~ 14'-' 0 1~ !/A"210 environment 1.r:1 :.JO • ,,2 ~s. - .00474 -.H:13" 0 14 ,J~'.:.,45 -household incme 1."7465 • c. , ; ! .6322'> • t..'?542 .003g~ , 12 ~11 15 !/!l~21g parking facilities 1.Jf:>13'\ .~ ~ ;: .i;st..78 • 42 8 7 t.. ,OJ311 -,23552 1.; V~"21~ Atmosphere .:;u.76,i • !+,? .E-=36 C-5 .u3C .. t. .0017G -.2.~1!~ 1~ ,JA0':!1! _visual a~~earance .;..2~s:~ • - ~1 .€1:=7t':, ... 3z3q • a o1 q5 -,i:~,,c 113 _i4:::i~25 pleasant service .4>31]46 .4\g - .658 71 .433gc .OG131 -.u··~~2 • r.;-:-":) 1q 1111~?.22 good quality products • ~ T 8i!,.. .-:159(·2 ,4'.3S1u .-J(,1~? ,Jc:1-::5 - .·, -,,,:. 7 ?.O V"- ~215 service .704_-3,j .c:; a ,66057 • 43fd5 .Jw12c: ...- ..'- ..... C: - - l ,.L..:; .Q ?1 ~ ~- -, ,JQO?~~ closeness of sho-ps • .: 1 t. :1 t...... o~1~2 .437~~ ,OiJ1·:•J C: ~? ,J ·" t'· ? "32 . ·advertising • .., 3'°J5 --l • r, ." 7 • 6 61 P.-:3 , 43131 u .OGCH, - •. ).:?~ ':> 21 ·.i ~--:Z 3'3 tamiliari ty .,..,~1.;71 .~ 32 • 6 ;:,2 45 • 43 d~4 .JOu71+ • 'J:, 71 24 \IA 0 ~21J others respondenta'age ,122-b2 .7~7 , n 62 75 ,43'324 .000·1+0 -.r;1i.:2 ?:: ,JA,?3~ inexpensive goods .1-S1~13 • 7 t~ 41 ,ol)~ QC .z..~~r:6 .JOG33 .J ... 2?.:. 2r:l .JA0?.2-. reputation .1..1-l--'3, .71i .6'732-:; • 43 9g5 .OCG3'3 - • J 720 4 ■ ~ 0 440')~ - • :; -n~ :s 27 I/ Ai=':'?~6 social ranking "JP74 •• -+:.. .~'i338 .JOC1'3 .... :., fJ ■ ,j7.j~2 2, VllP.2~u non-shopping facili t~·es • t..lJ • ~L j .& 3 49 .'..+4021 ,Ot.:.011+ -. ./A~~.51 ~ .... .s.:;3~g .:. ...,:,)~ - 1 -:.77 7 ?9 car ovnership • !~~7.3 .. - . .)0(13 '"? () \/A 0 2i.1 • ~:.:-2 .--, • ~=-7 ,66~67 .4401.+E, .C:OCll -:vi!54 price .:. ,. - 31 .Jf\':,"?.17 •. '.72~ -~ ..~ .; ~ •.,I""'' --! . ., 1 4L.(C:7 .0on11 • iJ Or.:1 0 ~, variety ., - 7 ,. . -, Q.., • 1..L.(;(_)f ,J ll~223 .~2•.;S'l ' . en·),~·,._ .OGO:J•1 ,132)~ -=i . shopping hours 7 ~ "." , L. .. ( ,) . VA,,~1F, • j 22 2 . :) .~-=>3d7 ;'2 .CJJC;~,7 .~7:,3·; ~4 0 JA 2 !..C no. of children • '1221.. • '➔:2 e0')3Q~ .i.uG77 .uiJLj4 ,.Ji.ocr, ~s " (\ .; :! !) -3 centres' function • J L :; c:; • 3~ l ,:_)':.3tl3 • L.&!.q) F,.: ,00Gi.i4 • 115"." r- j 2 0 7 4 '3 7 S 1 a 4 6 7 1 7 5 q q 1 ~ a .,.1 7 ?7 7':.. 41 ~,; q4 7i - ~" 5175 7 13 7-31 1139 :q; 1e,r; l 121.:; J51 664 c;-35 -i 535 .. .J ~~ ~ ;:?8~1 2. !. 1!.47 a ] 7 j ~ 255 ,2;jj10 ,J zzc:H 2) ~ 1255 1~327 1 ;J '.-:l: • • • • • • • I • 1 .~5F>2 • , , • • , .33'J1'\ • • • .'187?9 • I - • -.t -.1~-+ - • J - • -.:-.;1114 - • -. -.'11::,37 -.~!530 '.> ~ 4 u 3 ~ ~2 77 ~ 57 1.,.3 !~ ll 0 a:.. C 1j7g4,) ,.. uGu?.$J 0 nc .z~4n.~ ,Ji.2.'j7 ,:JLQ'.?2 • .C2G~2 ,'h7J~ , .;j;:87>:, • ,JOOb/3 .Juti:is , ,01?73 • ,C1C7~ ,C1152 .tl~034 .ooe2, .003J7 .uiJ1:+5 .au2c..g .)~233 .oc1~~ • .:H!55'3 ,!)1..162 ,IJ,Ji:27 .Qfj1J3!) ,0023') ,J-J02& CH.\i·r;;:: ·:;·1ut-,.,:: . ,,,Ji:02!+ ~ 8 4 511 918 33g t:>10 79R Sf ""5~ 775g 7 43 45177 E 42 4F:: 4 45 4 ~773~ 4 46 3QIJA,;E ,204•]8 .3~b35 .3:;ss7 ,469:u ,28348 ,42038 , ,38719 .L+391u •· ,41162 .4'-617 .40092 ,47145 , • • .t..6401. ,45611 • ,c..61c:1 ,473G7 147520 • .475~2 ,L.71:,&6 .47o3o ,475q? • .47452 • , !.. R 1 ,, p Centre 43 75 35 09 33 85 EiJ 2J i.1 T u 79b q :Jc_;-+? ?2 7127 331~ ~bF!2 ':l ;::;8 d4 7214 ll 85 .:3c 4r:;1 5 ~ 6 6 & r:d , • , , .62224 .,; • 5 • .648~7 ,&iH18 .6626'+ .64158 .& ,E,c;43\j o>:: .Fi7g:!5 .::, .53'1i:;g .6 • , ,F,7536 .~.i241 ,i:;gJQO .1:, .'=>77n3 • .6':3013 ,&d8 ,5'Ji.)q,J .o'=l1Q>i ,53qd:J .&:i71;J y ~ il'JLT!,.JLE Macquarie ~ nf '1 . 11 (: 1 1 1 - ◄ q .:. 1 r• j :>4 ,8 . ~. iG 1 ' :) --~". 7F, ·) 'il J 01) 12r: 0: 3 0 463 IJ --~ 11.2 l?,., !4~~ 471:, 7.,. 45:i "! 7--, I..,, ~-- 71:.., • • I • , • .J~2 1 • .11"' • 0 • .u12 • 3 .1~1 .2~7 • .1r,o • .1;,4 • • . • • • • .01s • • _.,"3 . . choice C' .., and STG:IIFTCA·W: o ➔ G 2 7 4 g q Ci 32 " 3 8 7 .:... BR "'8"2 30 ·1q 5·3 1~£. .. 1 772F, 111 A7 5-312 7 1 Pi~10\/?. 6!+ ~;:- 7 9 , ' 4(J~3g )9]<32 ; -1 ; ~~ ~ 7 7 - 7 541.S .· "..3:...31 constraints I •. ,:)C:17' ,1421.1 • , .~~~zzc; .11211:l , • • .:9Ji?. .~1·372 • • •. , - ,)A3?.7 ,:7~J:; 1, 2.r:54 6.41?515 OR 2, 2.~7lf>u 1.18:~i:.. 4, 1.~1. 1.' 1,)4008 1.:+6-ilo 21, SC, ,.. !.2. ,. 12.~0~78 . - •···· E~HZ~ -- · . - -- motivations, ·· products age rcmment racilities I good.a ::o distance env home/work .·- or shopfing racillties age condition safety parking image, _ children 10v a1>1>earance reasons transport 1 to qua.Tity .=: or or ownership r! respondents good no. car.tor size serwices centres' aerrice ah-oppliig ,;ravel. reputation locat1011 layout parking price close familiarity environment ease car others a.tmosphere runcti011 variety tra!!ic socia ad'V'ertising public income nan-shopping tra!ric viauaf Centre ~fl VA:IAflL.: 7 5 g ~r::; '! "20 2 ,232 ., 0 "l•?.?. XIII !:l~Lf-'3 i=~45 ~~~3~ 1'j?05 !1~23.~ '\ ~~?!.1 A.O?.! ll~2?~ JI:->~ :l J~':J21t... V~'=''?.J7 ~II.IT.-:~ J ✓ V i4P219 JA.,22'3 ✓ 'l\~242 1/!\,~~1 /F227 ,J~~212 ,J1'P231 JQ'?~18 ,~ V ,J v, \Jll">21•J ,JA~"ll Vf!">?_Q&; t/ ·111-"4;1 t/A~Z?~ " ",-:,~!.3 ill'"l~t~ t/ -11~~22 lf!l~·:?.3l.. \J v . .. "3 , 'l !+ .,. ~ .:; q (j :; .? 11 2". 1~ 21 H: j 14 1 zc: 20 25 1? 1 1., ~4 31 1~ 2.,. 2~ 2~ ~2 20 113 ~r:::o APPENDIX N 0 - . . ~ 7 p 4 1. c::. ~ t 3 1 7 ':: ,.. J 1£ 1 ~ ~ 7 +1-a_ ·12 B3 = ~':i ~! ,:; - 4 ➔ 5::a 1 .,.~ ~,, 3:; ~:; (l'Q ~s-s? .. '37'lS ~ ~q3 '14·} --- H St c; 2 i,.c_,7 4 ~ 2 ~ ~ C: 1 ~ ~q101 ' ~ 1 ; 16CI"' t ,j !. 15851 2 1 '1 1 ·) ~ 0 , --~~1? , • ,' , , • .?~':Ji" , • , , • • ,GJE:7'3 ,j~'.F1 , ,']"' • .1,,:;'...t.. • ·,"'14 r.? ... -,JC'·.HI=. -. -.1.-~2;::, -,11ui.ta - • - - • J -,'J'J85q 3T•AOI 7 27 47 1~ 215 ~ C G u J1~'3~ iJ u 0 0 0 JG: ,1)81=" ,i)3t.137 .:J21i.$\ ,ll4518 ,1)3413 ,'l2~tl2 ,1)32)3 ,01891 ,013'31 ,;2~5~ • , ,'J:3461 .011..J~ ,u1'3.:+9 ,':l1133, ,00366 ,oJr:d,. ,G0423 c:rn11~-C" ,OC551\ ,')1~21 , ,0113S ,JCO'::J f.HA~:G~ .0:,1..11& .ccc1=.9 ,l)Ql}.1\3 , .~0'.:)1 , ,,QJfJ1~ ~ 4 ,~ 54 27.b t 3 5 3 3~ 40 43 '::QUC.P.~ ,12676 ,3"37!.2 ,QR1r::B ,25~30 ,37167 .1~3F-3 ,22328 , ,2,q1~3 ,:a:"51.c; , ,19775 .·1.15a4 ,i.1762 , ,4Fi.3"38 ,45810 ,t.8'!1fi ,t.4F-.75 ,4~9:'4 ,47735 ,u ,412!1J ,491C6 ,4q737 ,t..q2L.0 ,L&.9'J37 :;; , Chatswood , -~ "3 3 .. '3 7 ~.'3 28 F-: 70 u 25 R 3 45 25 2':> IS 7:; c;? 1 -i3 6·~ in TA~r_r~ = ·~ t2 8 1 1 J4S1 \:\0 j1 "'2r::2 'JS ..... 35 1111 j 55q2 }1 76 ... -3CI ,JO 9~ d3 ') 1~ J ~ F.>:l-365 6 iii; ':> 7 6 -, 7 7 7 7 - ,5 .3""5603 ,441.£ ,"=:3Gt.i'l ,c;ozoq ,5g~c.n , ,;+ , .5 , .& ,':>-'3072 .6 ,:',21)61 ,ri ,S • , ,;-,goqo • ,n • • .7 • ,6~4AJ • , , ·,2dS · V P,. • MUi..T.,.P 11 frequency I- - .., -~ ~ • 2 '7 1 4 3 -, r: t.. 1 "7• ~s ~ _r.; 3 ➔~ "'3 :-!3 zo ~ 1~ .,. ~1 !. 7 .' C,! ..,c -~ 0 ~ •J ., r: ~ ? o c- 0;, t; 0 1J !) 3 ,.:;~ u 141. i::; ? .3 'I L&'l i"tVF~ • • • • • • • , • ,1-1 • ,17'> ,1,7 .011 , .. • , • 4 .1 • .~45 .7·~~ • • 7 • ,7u5 • . • .i S shopping -:-r.N~~ and ... s ~ ➔ 7 !.. 5 ~ .i ~ F, "." ' !., ~ : "\ ... 1 •;:3 r::1 gi::,r, 4E RE?101/C: qgg (;31:;· 2~ 2 1::- ~3,. ~2R'17 ,,or-.~ :...,'17 '439 v:_'4 ·, ~? }716q ~-CRt..2 .., 1. -;'17'12 ':4150 • 1 1 • • TO , ,-i:.1.q1.. • • •• , •. ,.:.;c.>\,) • , • ,tci:-a•J constraints • • • 4, 4 4. OR. 3',1117£.. 9~~,.81L. 3.~~5t>6 2.~2q6f) ? 3.c:;4~57 2,q3S66 ~ t..~S7qC 2,J4C:;'+ 2, 2,?c1u2 2.~0297 1. J:' :_ENTER _ motivations, centre ap shops £aciliUes goods □ clothes products 0£ 0£ income size age home 0£ 0£ conditions sa£ety- parking size appearance distance reasons transport image, to E 0£ owership availability L :-!:)1()11=:: 4:, service environment centres' actual £amily respondents' car nriety price centre's parking car £amiliarity convenience visual close variety T service auality social t.rai"£1c traf'£ic inexpensive Household Bepu~ation 9loseness ncn~shopping environment ease advertising public· -:- 4 '---Centre ',/ J~ ?34 229 "30 ~21 ?.10 249 2 2?5 ~t7 0 0 0 0 XIV 0 0 A ~ IP "-~215 4o 1~"41 A~ JA:;?.45 J ✓ A J,d~20q IJ!!,':>~26 ,JlP227 .JA,:,22~ ,J iJAr>232 V'P2~1 ,J J.l "1°2?!6 1/1\0~Q~ V Jfl.(")242 -J!!~?.~3 ✓ .J.F~Q6 •/~~~4C -.J '/A-::-212 .p, 111='?21 ./ ,JQ,.,?~-:' V-'\,,-:itt .Jti 1/4~?.19 IJO.?"tu. .::~.rC:R€iJ .,Jll:,222 n 0:: 1 3 7 2 4 '] c; q i; r) I\ 'J\ ~ g c; 11 1 14 1:; 21.. 12 2~ 1 2 1~ 1 ?2 ~ 1:; ?. Jl· :, ?-t+ ?" ?.·l 3G -1., ST APPENDIX 0 I\) I\) I. Q R 1 2 1 1 4 4 3 c; R 3 /.+ 7 t.. • 7 0 i,. 3 3 .,, 7 J t ~ ,) 7 ~3 2'.l ~~ !+? 7 3..; €,::, ""I ,:.. t _; ?3 ~7& '?:=: 21 354 7:J? 33::t l 7--3 .. ~Qi.. I ... 77'3 - ",l:)t ~""~~ J'Ci19 21c;:; ~~I+,: ~Yf,: ~.44:'l ?. 'J t Q ij '? u 1)33'1 ·J 1/\1~q "' ~ 1 1 •,: .j I I • • .113,"' • .1 , ,1-34 . I , • I I~ ,1'3JO I I~ ,-:-3c:!~ , ,!.-'1!.q , I , .:74"":E: , ,1(;'3'3'1 I I - - • -. -,2?00F- -,u1!S7 -,Qc;8~7 - • -.J2 - -,,j:l,]~~ -,"F,~::\~ SlHPLE t ~ 7 ') 4 ... ~') 3'l 'J 1:,q of.. ~•G:: 2 1 1-~ C 1 13 <:lF 0 ..i~-: 0-Q JU ,041•3; ,0277~ ,a5L1~ ,tJ3~,~ , I~ ,J2G~2 ,14!!8 ·"2! ,J23~j ,017-35 ,QQ7jS .00~4'1 .acc3? 5QUt~E CHO .007r;c; ,011~1 .]1'-'47~ • ,QQC.~fl .IJ~fl2'; ,C1 ,QJCd! .ac~37 .0~17'Ci ,IJ051!J ,0·~155 ,0Ut.23 ,F .:JC.C32 ,lJ•J131 ,0Hi"'.""" ,0C1~? .aui:•.37 , .00,:;2,; , I -.o~r.~J -,i.lllG~2 R , .. Centre H 1 !.0 655 1'7'." ]??. 741 74-. 7 1:,f,C: E 57 546 F-2•9'72 64512 Fi2C37? 6~ F.,f:23::i ;~f. ~~5'11. ~ F.,F, r:,~ .31J1q1 ,14138 ,237".'q ,t..0QJ4 ,4352?. .4~2gfj • .4~471.& .c:QRG!+ ,552b~ .~5838 ,c;2~.ar: ,56021 I ,56807 ,5q641 ,r;Rt.,qo ,i:11164 I ,ttR31 ,bE>u7G ,f,3SC:t I I I ,F;40C2 .~1+925 .65532 • ,6513°5 • • I ,coo21 .F.io5:F r-6F-i I I L R·~saUA"\f - B Macquarie .. R A '.~ 1 42 n? 3t 72 7;, R2 5 22 .. T.. G in 5 'j ~7~ ~ 5q LE 272.3 11 ·J 93!:= .:.i:. 1. 1& 5g~ 6 0 7 7 7.:,4 ~1Sq) ~ 7 8 ~ ~ ,3 I ,r,~3L.;; ,3760) ,6327" -~~971 ,F;-3F;23 ,4 ,7"3'346 , .74~41·· ,74-0,47 ,7C:37J I , ,7'\17? ,71277 , .:-~3;:; ,7%34 .7'372J ,'\')1(1 ,77227 .~1001 ,RCJ31-3 , • , ,81;'.),A4 .~1_47!_ I • ,R,jC352 ,R138.~ •. • ,R17(J ,RH,11-4 ,8!.'>~-) · MU'7:TI frequency - .. 2- '-IG::: '"3 C '3 2 7 3 4 7 4 C ·:. 7 1 ~ ,.. 7 8 ') . C, ' - 7 .. ' ~1 '1 -, 2S 47 ., 1:... ., . '") ~~ . •:;,3 7 Ii 1 ~ :._;; '.. '-l c; ~ .., ,, "\'!.' :, ;, :J V-,2 'l 3 0 :) G r, CA 1 /•t "? ! 1 2:-;1 .., ~ 4-} 410 ')"") 3 41..:> •~ •l 6 6 ~ R ..., :~·:?: :... R ,Q. I • • • • • •CJ ,112 • I , l I • I • I . • • 1 I .~i.3 • • ,;:. •. • I I • I • 7 • • • • . • . . .-J;t' c- SUHMARV shopping 'IT G and SI '3 :. , f.. r, .., 4 ·- . ~ ":! 7 ~) :i,; - ':l .. :J 3::; ~5 3415· 461 ~ .. 1 ,.. <.i !!:2 ~c~OV~ i:.,i=:P\ I) 4 •J ,- nc::11 1i:: ➔: 17 ':t .. ~l\~14 •'l4l.&5 7 ";A(l73 : : ,, ._1::-~~ 1 I~ I 1 I I ,,,~H5:~ T1 .-:i~~ct. I ' ,-::!i::""d ,::. ,-:_(!181 ,17?4.,. ,•et:,~ _..,.,~,;1 ,!!..~67 .'-"-~64 • ,i3.3l~ ,·;r:..~o •., . • I• , ,'::F:>3 constraints 7 5,:..f1'.'.!34 2. 2 2. i:;,z.q10:; 0~ '.!.~~?3,'\ '6,!27715 2,,q~g~ 2, 1.~~1".13 1."75 1.7'6?5') 1!'). F ENT~~ · motivations, shops facilities _ goods clothes products pro<1ucts.·, design income of home t7 hours environment size ,erviee runct1011 age or of or facilities satet7 cmditiOO. parlcing appearance size reascn transport diatance and to reason image, ty of ownership ~210/~~ serrice shopping close atmosphere environment social reputation qualit7 shopping ramiliari family aer,ice service visual parking household a.~tual pric•- public car variety qtiali other ease centre'• closeness layout .conv-en.i.ence centre's Yariety =ffi§ advertising centres' inexpenaiv-e trattic pleasant non-shepping . Centre VA-;,T4JL;: 4 '! '-' :l "'!' 2 n t It" 2. 3 ~10 .,41 ~ 0 r,,., XV !\:::, A,::, ~ l!~?t ~r,.,'?1 ,JP~?4· VA~~oa /d'72""~ VA..,231 J!!"'?3:; ,1~:.-2".'6 ~N•~~~D V"-"'222 ,JO~?zq ,JllP?Q7 \/!l..,~.32 V~"?..'?.."" .J,l·:>~')f\ ./~ ,Jo.:--.,4~ -.Jl!?~~2 V:\..,2~5 iJ v'A.,2i'3 V"..,215 '-It...,~ VA"~1.l\ .J V0"2 V ·,J J.'1-:.,?.2 ·Jl''=2t~ ve,~ ✓ .Jll..,23: ,Jl·;-~~:::; Vilt"'?::?:; ,,'/\=~11 ,JA='2?,q -./11::?!.~ ·Jt'i...,.,16 VA-r{). "~"',,,t.j ~ 2 '2; 5 8 q 1 ~ " g - ,C\ .. .. ·'-' 11 H, 1J 1" 1== 1 1 fQ 2•1 ~j 1 14 2 2'? 2 Ji ~? '7t; 2-+ 2t ~ 31. 2"' 15 ?c; 2,; 3" "q ~7 :;TE;, .APP:&WDIX 0 N \.H BIBLIOGRAPHY Alexander, I. and Dawson, J.A. (1979) 'Suburbanisation of retail sales and employment in Australian cities', Australian Geographical Studies, Vol.17, pp.76-83. Ambrose, P.J. (1968) 'An analysis of intraurban shopping patterns', Town Planning Review, Vol.39, pp.327-334. Appleyard, D. (1973) 'Notes on urban perception and know- ledge', in Downs, R.H. and Stea, D. 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