Volume 15 Spring 2019 djim.management.dal.ca |

Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations: Are We Heading Towards a Universal Genetic Database?

Emily Plemel

School of Information Management, Dalhousie University

Abstract

In April 2018, Joseph DeAngelo also known as The Golden State Killer was caught and convicted. This was made possible by 40-year-old DNA evidence, genetic genealogy, and current information systems technology. This paper will discuss the history of genetic information such as DNA testing used in forensics, and consider information technologies effect on the future of criminal investigations. The main focus is genetic databases and their management. How will the management of these databases affect the public and law enforcement? Could a universal genetic database create solutions to the current criminal database systems, often critiqued for being discriminatory? How can we use genetic genealogy more efficiently to solve crimes? The sources used for this exploration include companies such as GEDmatch, 23andME, and Ancestry; key players of the field such as Barbara Rae Venter and CeCe Moore; newspaper articles, statistics, and academic journals.

Keywords: DNA, genetic genealogy, cold-case, crime solving, forensic investigation, genetic database, information management, universal database

1 Lately, a small industry has been gaining and investigation process should be attention in the fields of criminal understood as follows. investigation and information management, The Procedure as it Currently that is, solving cold cases using genetic Stands genealogy and genetic information To explain the current process I will be databases. Already, there have been a few consulting information from Parabon key players identified in this growing field Nanolabs Inc., the company from which in North America; Cece Moore, Parabon CeCe Moore operates. This is a summary of Nanolabs Inc., Barbara Rae-Venter, Curtis the processes that labs or databases such Rogers (GEDMatch), Ancestry.ca, 23andMe, as Parabon Nanolabs use. The first process and Paul Holes. You may be wondering, involved with genetic investigation is hasn’t Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) genetic genealogy (GG). This entails a profiling been used in crime investigations combination of traditional genealogical since the 1980s? Yes, it has. However, the research and genetic analysis. Traditional processes and results have evolved with the genealogy research is conducted by using rise of big data and the public’s evidential documents such as vital statistics, participation in DNA genealogy services. To church records, obituaries, immigration explore this topic, the focus of this paper records, land records, biographies, and will be placed on the changing process in much more to research family history and criminal investigations via genetic map family trees. Genetic analysis is genealogical evidence, starting with early conducted by using DNA information to cases and practices then moving into compare how closely related two present procedures and the predictions for individuals are. To break this down, the the future. I will discuss how the history of exact process is done by examining the genetic information has led to future aDNA, which is different from other genetic predictions for a universal genetic database, markers such as X or Y chromosome DNA and how this might function. I will explain because “aDNA is inherited from all how information managers could see the ancestral lines and passed on by both landscape of genetic information and its males and females and thus can be used to storage change because of the added value compare any two individuals, regardless of as evidence and its use in the criminal how they are related” (Parabon Nanolabs, investigation process. I will explore 2018). By examining long stretches of DNA questions such as; what are the benefits genealogists can infer if there is a common and the concerns of considering a universal ancestor because it is highly unlikely for database for this type of information? But unrelated individuals to share a long first, to understand how this industry has stretch of aDNA. So, how can a stretch of changed, the current genetic genealogy an unknown individual’s DNA be compared to other known individual’s DNA on a large 2 Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations enough scale that these comparisons can Typically, when DNA and investigation are be representative our current population? thought of in tandem, what comes to mind The answer to that lies in the development is fingerprinting or bodily fluid samples. of public and private genetic genealogy This type of DNA profiling is different than databases. By using databases such as the genetic genealogy profiling done today GEDmatch, Ancestry.ca, or 23andMe, the because it can only trace the parentage unknown DNA can be compared to DNA. This means that the DNA can only be numbers in the millions at a time to check traced as far back as the parents, or for common relations (Parabon Nanolabs, another sample of that specific person’s 2018). This process can help to identify DNA. For example, one of the first cases in perpetrators as well as unidentified or North America where DNA evidence of this “Jane/John Doe” murder victims. Currently, kind was used in a court of law resulted in this is the process and applications of a conviction of a serial rapist in 1987. genetic genealogical investigation. In the Tommy Lee Andrews was sentenced to past, this practice was very different. twenty-two years in prison for rape, The History of Genetics in aggravated battery, and burglary primarily Criminal Investigations based on DNA match evidence. The blood taken from a fingerprint proven to be In 1999 the International Journal of Andrew’s at one crime scene and was Offender Therapy and Comparative matched to the semen taken from another Criminology published an article outlining crime scene. However, predictions for forensic DNA profiling in the 21st century. This article takes us back to the lab couldn't match Andrews' entire the first classification system developed for genetic code to the rapist's--that would be DNA evidence in 1982 called Galton’s technically impossible. But technicians Fingerprints. This fingerprinting system is could compare representative pieces of the important to recognize because Galton was two DNA samples that scientists know are able to collect a large sample of prints, highly variable in the human population essentially creating the first system to (Crenson, 1997). manage the collection of unique identifying Unlike the present method of genetic evidence which we can compare to the genealogy, Andrew’s separate DNA databases of today (Friedman, 1999). samples were matched to each other to Advancing on from fingerprinting, DNA determine that he was present at both the testing became increasingly common in crime scenes because there was a long criminal investigations particularly after the enough run of matching genetic coding. court gave DNA information evidential From this evidence Andrews was “convicted value with early convictions such as that of of breaking into the home of a 27-year-old Tommy Lee Andrews, which will be Orlando woman, raping and stabbing her discussed shortly. Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations 3 on May 9, 1986” (NYT Staff, 1988). This was By 1992 the ability to test DNA was a a break in the crime solving industry as well trusted procedure and the DNA from the as the world of genetics – it meant that Maryland case was tested, ultimately DNA could show us information that had proving Bloodsworth’s innocence and evidential value. So, how did DNA evidence staying his execution. and profiling procedures evolve from this In the early1990s scientists made another breakthrough? breakthrough in DNA testing technologies. The process of DNA testing that was used The process of Polymerase Chain Reaction in the 1970s-1980s is called Restriction (PCR) replaced RFLP analysis. This meant Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP). To that less DNA was required and the results simplify, RFLP analysis is the process of were available much quicker as the test “cutting a particular region of DNA with examines the Short Tandem Repeats (SRP) known variability, with restriction enzymes, of the DNA which are highly variable then separating the DNA fragments by making matches more exact and lowers the agarose gel electrophoresis and risk of misidentification. determining the number of fragments and By the early 2000s PCR technology was relative sizes” (Philips, 2018). The drawback improved by combining genetic markers to this method is that the process is time into a singular test. This cut test times even consuming and expensive. Once the further and created an array of other process is completed the information from options for what the DNA could reveal, the RFLP tests are compared in an attempt including “AIMs (Ancestry Informative to match the unique information. In cases Markers), Y-Chromosome markers, like Tommy Lee Andrews this confirmed his mitochondrial markers, ancient DNA guilt as the unknown DNA matched his markers, and other markers useful for own. On the other hand, it allows for the establishing more distant biological opposite result like the case of Kirk relationships like 4th or 5th cousins” (DNA Bloodsworth, who in 1993 was the first Diagnostic Centre, 2018). person on death row to be exonerated by DNA evidence. In this case In 2015 an article published in the Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Bloodsworth was a 22-year-old former Society: Biological Sciences made some Marine when he was wrongfully convicted predictions of where the field of DNA in 1984 of the rape and murder of a nine- testing was to go next. The article year-old girl, and was sentenced to death anticipated that, “DNA protocols can be in Maryland… Bloodsworth was convicted expected to become more rapid and largely based on misidentifications made sensitive and provide stronger investigative by several eyewitnesses (Innocent staff, potential” (Butler, 2015). Butler was right in 2018). his predictions, particularly for stronger 4 Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations investigative potential. The article also find DNA matches when their own addressed the growing need and use for databases only hold information for DNA databases noting “the number of previous offenders and suspects, or DNA samples (both known references and crime information from previous crime scenes? scene specimens) involved in DNA With the use of NGS analysis, investigators databases means that genetic markers used look to outside databases to run their DNA to generate the DNA profiles in those data against, searching for relativeness in databases will drive the future of DNA the DNA. These outside databases contain testing” (Butler, 2018). These predictions DNA information submitted by the public, lead us to present day investigation big players include: GEDmatch, Ancestry.ca, practices, as DNA testing processes and 23andME, and Genbank. Science News genetic genealogy begin to play a larger Magazine calculates that “more than 12 investigative role, all made possible by the million Americans have jumped on the utilization of the information stored in consumer genetic testing bandwagon, genetic databases. sending spit samples to companies like Present Use of Genetic Evidence 23andMe or Ancestry DNA to learn about In 2010 a new DNA testing process was health risks and to explore family origins” developed called Next Generation (Saey, 2018). Comparing the DNA Sequencing (NGS) or Massive Parallel information submitted to these databases Sequencing. The implications and can lead to a direct match, an ancestral, or applications of this process are what make familial relation. This leads investigators to the current state of criminal investigation the perpetrator. This process can be further so advanced: explained by examining the example of Joseph DeAngelo, also known as The this procedure generates a DNA sequence Golden State Killer. that is the linear arrangement of letters (A, T, C, and G) that occur in a DNA sample. During April of 2018 investigators were Because the technique allows one to able to solve the cold case of the Golden simultaneously start the sequencing at State Killer, a serial killer and rapist who thousands of locations in the DNA that was active from 1974-1986 using genetic overlap, massive amounts of data can be genealogy. Investigators used a generated and put back together with combination of publicly available DNA appropriate bioinformatics programs (DNA databases, prominently GEDmatch, to Diagnostics Center, 2018). discover potential matches for the DNA left at the crime scene over 30 years ago. The With the amount of data, an ever-growing matches that investigators found led population, and the rate that this data is investigators to DeAngelo’s third cousins. produced how can investigators possibly (Saey, 2018). After discovering the familial

Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations 5 matches Barbara Rae-Venter, a genetic The Implications of Using Genetic Genealogy in Criminal genealogist consultant built the unknown Investigations suspect’s family tree using documents and other evidence dating back to the 1800s. Forensic Science International published an From this, police were able to follow article titled “Damned by DNA – Balancing branches of the family tree down to the personal privacy with public safety”, which family that was living near to California explores the ways that investigations are during the perpetrators active period. Now conducted using genetic genealogy can be their list of suspects was significantly problematic. To discuss this it is important narrowed. They collected DNA of the to acknowledge that databases such as suspects, some without their knowledge, 23andMe work by having members of the until they found their match with a 72-year- public give consent to their most personal old former police officer Joseph DeAngelo. data (DNA) under the knowledge they will In the wake of this case “over 100 crime of receive a service in return. This often scene samples have been uploaded to becomes a part of tangible output, such as GEDMatch alone [for criminal investigation a DNA profile. These profiles then become purposes], and law enforcement have used a sort of a tool to connect family members, the same methods to make arrests in conduct studies, and as previously similarly serious cold cases, and in at least discussed, solve cold-cases or even current one active investigation” (Murphy, 2018). crimes. All these aspects are typically Since the arrest and conviction of viewed as beneficial. However, “below the DeAngelo “suspects in 16 other cases have surface are questions concerning consent, been arrested after genetic genealogy inclusion of the non-convicted in criminal searches” (Saey, 2018). searches, and the dangers of contamination” (Moran, 2018). Because the crimes being This significant spike in the amount of cold solved using genetic genealogy are most cases solved has led to much media commonly cold-cases, the question of attention, producing headlines such as “The contamination is a high concern. The DNA Coming Wave of Murders Solved by being used is often twenty or more years Genealogy” (Zhang, 2018) and “This is just old. Cases that happened before 1990 are the beginning: Using DNA and genealogy at a higher risk of contamination, leaving to crack years-old cold cases” (Snow, K., & the chance for a misidentified piece of DNA Schuppe, J. 2018). There have also been evidence, or even DNA that has become a discussions during many podcasts, on “mix” because of contamination from past social media platforms, and various journals investigators handling the DNA. Moran discussing this rising trend. However, these explains, discussions are not always positive. mixture interpretation is left to the DNA analyst who must parse out which peaks in

6 Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations the electropherogram (the chart produced) court said that such records violated the belong to which person. It is then up to the individual’s presumption of innocence and investigators to decide whether one’s that governments should not be able to inclusion in a profile makes one just a indiscriminately retain data (Moran, 2018). contributor or a potential suspect. The court made this decision so criminally Contamination complicates the ability [of convicted and innocent profiles would not the analyst and investigators] to determine have the same levels of access to which profiles are of relevance and which circumvent the potential for discrimination. are not (Moran, 2018). Transparency also plays into issues of In recent conversation around these consent. As mentioned, the Terms of investigations critics have also brought up Service are not always clear enough for concerns about transparency. Benjamin users to understand the full usage of their Berkman a member of the Department of DNA information. Bioethics in the United States explains that Since investigators are now using the public often doesn’t understand “the databases not specifically made for criminal idea that they upload their data for justice purposes, questions are raised genealogy purposes and it’s used in such a about consent. Have users, in fact, different way” (Berkman quoted by Crist, consented to the investigators using their 2018). Berkman states that the reason for DNA information? Is consent a gray area this is “the terms of service agreements when it comes to security and justice for don’t explain this clearly, and even if they the victims of cold-cases such as April did, people wouldn’t read it or find it in the Tinsley, whose killer John D. Miller was dense legalese” (Berkman quoted by Crist, convicted with genetic genealogy evidence 2018). This explanation from Berkman from a DNA database service in July of this summarizes why critics question if these year (2018). April Tinsley was abducted, companies are really operating with raped, and murdered at the age of 8 in transparency. Yes, all the information is April 1988. After, the killer taunted police available, but these companies must know and residents of Fort Wayne with that their users are not necessarily aware of mysterious messages, often threatening to the way their DNA information is being act again (Levenson & Watts, 2018). used which includes its use in criminal Horrifyingly, this case went cold. More investigations. This issue has reached the than 30 years later in 2018 European Court of Human Rights in 2008 when the court Police connected him [John D. Miller] to the homicide by using DNA from the scene of ordered the expungement of hundreds of the murder and from the taunting thousands of DNA records that belonged messages, and inputting them into a to people with no criminal conviction. The genealogical database. That led Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations 7 investigators to two men: Miller and his The Future of Genetic Genealogy as Criminal Evidence brother, according to a probable cause affidavit. (Levenson & Watts, 2018). Genetic testing processes have advanced rapidly since the first use of DNA evidence Notice that it was not only the perpetrator in the early 1980s. These technologies have whose information was retrieved by the taken huge leaps, from placing a suspect at DNA search, but also his brother’s. This the scene of a crime (1980s) to convicting demonstrates the way in which genetic a killer using DNA evidence from 40+ years genealogy identifies a “pool” of suspects. ago using familial genetic and genealogical Even if an individual did not provide their mapping (2018). So, where can genetic information to a genealogy service they can genealogy and its applications go from be connected to a crime via familial DNA here? The first thing that comes to mind is information using genetic genealogy regulation. As of now, there is not sufficient practices. Berkman claims many people regulation around genetic genealogy send in DNA for genealogy with the databases services. Law enforcement expectation of it being a novel idea or for databases such as the Combined DNA “entertainment purpose” and “people may Index System (CODIS), the FBI’s genetic not realize uploading their DNA could be database, has many regulations in regards responsible for a cousin’s arrest as well” to how law enforcement can use and (Berkman quoted by Crist, 2018). This same access the information. The regulations genetic information could also be include rules such as responsible for a misidentification as previously highlighted when discussing the A sample labeled a “crime scene sample” is possibility of contamination. Essentially, the limited to biological evidence from a concerns around consent are that people “putative perpetrator”; police cannot using these genealogical services are not upload profiles derived from evidence that entirely aware of what they have consented may have a remote connection to the crime, to; therefore, have they really consented? or from a mere witness or bystander Legally the answer may be yes, but ethically (Murphy, 2018). there are concerns and unknown Only DNA collected as a crime scene consequences to the investigators gaining sample and from someone considered to access to information obtained this way be a perpetrator can be collected and and using it in this context. In the future, stored in CODIS. Now, keeping this in mind these questions will continue to arise as it can be seen that genetic genealogy genetic genealogy is used more heavily to databases differ greatly in regulation and solve cases. can allow

law enforcement … to turn to genealogical databases not just to find matches in cold

8 Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations cases that fail to return any hits in the It may be asked: Can regulation help forensic databases, but also in situations provide a crime-solving tool while being where federal or state laws expressly forbid transparent about it? The authors of such searches for quality control or privacy Genealogy databases and the future of reasons (Murphy, 2018). criminal investigation suggest that a Stored Genetics Act will be necessary in the future What this means is that genetic data stored because of the concerns already present. in under regulated databases provide law They see this conceptualized act as enforcement with a greater pool of genetic legislature that information, they are not restrained from using this data by regulations such as those would likely render law enforcement in CODIS. It both provides law enforcement searches of nonforensic genetic databases with a bigger resource to use when solving unlawful for crime-detection purposes, as crimes, but also allows for the publicly there can be no “specific and articulable” submitted DNA to be used in crime solving connection between particular database without proper awareness from the public. records and a particular crime when This is can be seen as a justice tool but also investigators seek to use such a search to as non-transparent. generate leads, not investigate them. (Ram, N., Guerrini, C. J., & McGuire, A. L., 2018). The variety of issues with genetic genealogy services regarding privacy, However, these regulations may lead to consent, and transparency might be fewer crimes being solved for the sake of mitigated with regulations heavier than the public’s privacy. simply Terms of Use statements. One article From the opposite viewpoint, in the article from a critic states that lawmakers may “Is it time for a universal forensic database?” need to consider creating more regulation the authors speculate that the time for because universal genetic databases is approaching. enacting… protection for genetic data The universal database is a concept that stored in nonforensic databases would this article describes as a “DNA database, ensure that the government cannot subject populated with data from every individual ordinary individuals to suspicionless in society, obviating the need for any other genetic searches, while allowing DNA source” (Hazel, J. W., Clayton, E. W., investigators to access genetic data where Malin, B. A., & Slobogin, C., 2018). The there is reason to believe a particular benefits of this proposed database are as individual may be tied to a particular crime follows. The databases of today are split (Ram, N., Guerrini, C. J., & McGuire, A. L., into sectors such as private, public, medical, 2018). criminal, and others. If properly implemented, the universal database may be more productive and less discriminatory Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations 9 than the current systems in place because databases. Shadow databases are created of these divisions. With all genetic by authorities and are compiled of information in one database not separated not only of people arrested for any crime by public or private services and not but also of people who are merely stopped separated into guilty and innocent, the on suspicion of having committed a crime information is not as divisive. In regards to without being arrested (the so-called “stop- crime, this collective resource of DNA could and-spit” and “swab-and-go” practices). As speed up the process of generating a result, arrest-based DNA databases suspects and convicting felons because contain a huge proportion of the young investigators would no longer have to first nonwhite male population and a much check their own database of known smaller representation of other groups criminals, then check results against a (Hazel, J. W., Clayton, E. W., Malin, B. A., & publicly accessible database, and if that Slobogin, C., 2018). fails, check the private databases where issues around privacy become more The universal database could be a way to evident. The same can also be said for the combat discriminatory problems in theory, identification of bodies and remains. Hazel but still remaining is the issue of privacy. et al., also speculates that a database such Hazel and the other authors of this article as this would believe that a universal database could still virtually erase the government's incentive be private, given proper regulations or to conduct long-range familial DNA legislation surround it. Hazel et al., notes searches of the type used in the Golden that this legislation would have to include State Killer case. It would thus markedly statements saying that alleviate the impact on innocent people genetic data [should] not only be who happen to be related to criminals and uncoupled from any personal identifiers whom police are likely to treat as suspects within the system, as it is in CODIS, but also unless and until countervailing evidence establish a more robust “unmasking” surfaces (Hazel, J. W., Clayton, E. W., Malin, process that limits law enforcement access B. A., & Slobogin, C., 2018). to any personal information until an This higher productivity would be beneficial association has been made and confirmed for security as well as reducing the chance (Hazel, J. W., Clayton, E. W., Malin, B. A., & of misidentifying suspects because of the Slobogin, C., 2018). inconsistencies caused by the present This “unmasking process” both protects the process of multi database searching. A private information of the DNA but also universal database has the potential to protects suspects from being found based eliminate the need for and use of “shadow” on bias – only a match or “association” would have its identifying information

10 Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations revealed. The authors also propose that the family trees, to information managers database must not be used without a helping navigate the rising concerns with proper warrant and that the database may regulation and privacy of information with only be used by authorities in serious these databases. The concerns and crimes such as murder or missing persons predictions for the future that are explored investigations. The authors then turn to the in the above section pose implications for question of ownership, they recommend the information management field. These that implications are broader than creating new jobs or information rolls within an industry. universal database legislation should also require that the DNA database be housed With the prediction that genetic in an independent agency… [And] the law information and its storing method needs should require that the physical samples to be regulated, the current discussions analyzed to create the database be that information professionals are having destroyed after obtaining the relevant explore questions like; what is private genetic information, to mitigate the risk information anymore? Do we even have that the sample will be subjected to further privacy in the age of technology and big analysis or used for purposes other than data? In the article “The power of forensic populating the database (Hazel, J. W., DNA data bases in solving crime cases” the Clayton, E. W., Malin, B. A., & Slobogin, C., authors examine different cases of crime 2018). solving via DNA databases to weigh in on the conversation around regulation. The With these different views of the future that authors conclude “some safeguards are genetic genealogy is either a problem implemented at the national or regional starting to snowball or that it should be level, but there is a lack of global standards embraced and compiled into a universal and a need for more societal engagement database for society’s benefit, information and debate” (Jakovski, Z., Ajanovska, R. J., managers have their work cut out for them. Stankov, A., Poposka, V., Bitoljanu, N., & Here’s why. Belakaposka, V., 2017). The need for What Does it all Mean for regulations are demonstrated by genetic Information Managers? genealogy database companies that use The advances of DNA testing from participant’s DNA in applications that the forensics to genetic genealogy and its participants did not explicitly sign up for. accompanying databases have started to However, the benefits of these databases create an industry that information are substantial especially, as this paper has managers must be involved in. This demonstrated, in regards to criminal involvement ranges from being the investigations and justice for victims of consulting genealogist such as CeCe Moore crimes previously believed to be unsolvable. consulting with police departments to map

Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations 11 With databases growing and with their are able to help reduce the staggering potential to become one of the main ways amount of unsolved cases, aid in the that investigators solve crimes, it raises the investigations of major crimes, and help question of how such data must be identify “Jane/John Doe” murder victims. managed in a way that can be useful. However, the way genetic searches are conducted can be problematic because of As earlier noted using the article “Is it time how the genetic information is managed for a universal database?” there are and stored. This management and storage discussions beginning to happen regarding is what forces investigators to perform a universal genetic database. Previously, I some “gray area” searches. These searches explored the benefits and some concerns will become more frequent with a universal database. The authors of this article concluded that a universal given the increasing value of genetic data database would help investigations and to law enforcement, the low level of society because crime solving and other justification required for a subpoena, and functions of the databases would become the tremendous amount of effort that can less discriminatory, stating that “putting the be associated with long-range familial idea of a universal forensic database on the searching by using a resource such as table would spur a long overdue debate GEDmatch, which might generate dozens about the deficiencies of the current or hundreds of possible leads in a given system and, more broadly, our societal case (Hazel, J. W., Clayton, E. W., Malin, B. commitment to privacy, fairness, and equal A., & Slobogin, C., 2018). protection under the law” (Hazel, J. W., As this potential pool of genetic Clayton, E. W., Malin, B. A., & Slobogin, C., information grows, law enforcement will 2018). For information managers this could continue to access and search the data. raise the question of one universal database, why not more? It could lead to Under the current system the databases universal databases for other types of that law enforcement have initial access to identifying information, or set a precedent are comprised of data from convicted for how private information should be criminals and other DNA information used organized, controlled, and used in such during investigations, or “shadow” profiles. mass quantities. These databases and profiles are inherently discriminatory because of the nature of Conclusion police profiling, consisting of a mostly non- Genetic genealogy as an investigative tool white constituency. When police decide to is invaluable considering every year in the outside the internal database system other United States alone there are 5000 cases issues can arise regarding whose genetic that go cold or remain unsolved (Holes & information they actually access. This is Jensen, 2019). Genetic genealogy practices because when police get a degree of 12 Genetic Genealogy and its Use in Criminal Investigations matches, the matches are often comprised out a way to give them this service safely of innocent relatives as seen in the John D. and in a non-discriminate way? Exploring Miller case. Overall, the biggest issue with this trend it seems so. The public is the use of genetic genealogy in police work interested in these services and is comes from inconsistencies in information increasingly contributing more genetic management, and regulation, causing information to these databases. However, privacy concerns of the public as a result of as Andrea Roth a professor of law at the these inconsistencies. University of California recognizes, “innocent people looking for long-lost You may have caught onto the direction in family may be surprised to find that putting which this is heading; the concept their DNA on a public website opens them previously discussed of a universal and their relatives to police scrutiny” (Roth database. Consider that Ancestry, only one quoted by Saey, 2018). of the companies that will store genetic information in its databases, has sold over It seems that if the universal database six million DNA tests in Canada alone functioned as described by Hazel e al., it (Ancestry, 2018). 23andMe, another would be a way to provide less company, has collected one billion discrimination in the system, and a more phenotype data points and has over two efficient crime-solving tool. However, for all million genotyped customers (23andMe, the predictions into this concept there 2017). Yet another company GEDmatch, hasn’t been much commentary on the has seen an increase after the capture of “how.” It seems that we should embrace DeAngelo in April 2018 from 1500 uploads the use of genetic genealogy in criminal per day to 5000 uploads (Wikipedia, 2018). investigations based on the success stories This does not include the amount of so far. This trend should be kept on the genetic information stored in other minds of information managers as we try databases such as in law enforcement, to navigate the landscape of genetic medicine, scientific research, and similar databases moving forward. Particularly operations. As information managers the information managers need to consider unique thing about these companies is the how to implement regulation and policy public choosing to contribute their genetic around genetic information willingly information. The public is voluntarily provided by the public. Even if the sending their genetic information to these information is willingly provided, companies, contributing to their genetic information managers should be involved collection and databases. Does this mean in finding ways to keep that information that ancestry and the use of genetic safe as well as useful; as Roth notes, information to solve crimes is something “genetic genealogy searches put too many that the public wants? Do we need to figure people under police scrutiny and should be

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