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Cultural Expressions of Tokugawa Japan and Chosŏn Korea: an Analysis of the Korean Embassies in the Eighteenth Century

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Cultural Expressions of Tokugawa Japan and Chosŏn Korea: an Analysis of the Korean Embassies in the Eighteenth Century Cultural Expressions of Tokugawa Japan and Chosŏn Korea: an Analysis of the Korean Embassies in the Eighteenth Century by Jeong Mi Lee A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of East Asian Studies University of Toronto © Copyright by Jeong Mi Lee 2008 Abstract Cultural Expressions of Tokugawa Japan and Chosŏn Korea: an Analysis of the Korean Embassies in the Eighteenth Century Doctor of Philosophy, November 2008 Jeong Mi Lee Department of East Asian Studies University of Toronto, Canada This doctoral thesis presents a historical study of the diplomatic exchanges between the Japanese and the Korean embassy in the eighteenth century. Neighbourly relationships (J: kōrin, K: kyorin) were maintained between Tokugawa Japan (1603-1868) and Chosŏn Korea (1392-1910) for more than 250 years. The visitations of the Korean embassy, dispatched to congratulate a new Tokugawa shogun, were often seen as the symbol of their amicable and friendly relationship, and it is well known that the Koreans were cordially welcomed by the Tokugawa bakufu. Despite these neighbourly relations, the visitations of the embassy had a more pragmatic purpose. More complex political conditions and nature were immanent within and between the both states. In the diplomatic interaction, the officials in the two states had traditional and obstinately-held perceptions towards the counterpart hidden behind the pleasant gesture. In this thesis, I attempt to uncover what is associated with these neighbourly relations, by revealing the cultural awareness and consciousness of these two states in East Asia through detailed examinations of the historical sources. To find the notions behind the exchange, my thesis illustrates Japanese and Korean hua-yi awareness that came to light through the ii interactions between the Japanese and the Koreans. The Chinese hua-yi order, the concept of looking at the Chinese dynasties as the center, was said to dominate the East Asian order. From the Chinese point of view, Tokugawa Japan and Chosŏn Korea were barbaric and on the margins, but from the perspectives of the two countries, they certainly recognized themselves as the centers. On the basis of the dynamism of historical events, thoughts, and notions between Tokugawa Japan and Chosŏn Korea in the eighteenth century, this research will examine multi-layered perspectives of the individual Japanese and Koreans who played essential roles in diplomacy. How were those officials representing the two states aware of their peers, and how did these notions affect the modern history of the two countries? This question is consistently engaged in this thesis, and to answer it the research will be further explored. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this doctoral thesis would not have been possible if I had not received any assistance from institutions, financial supports, and individuals. Without them, my study and thesis would never be completed. First of all, the supervisors of my thesis, Professor Shuzo Uyenaka and Professor Andre Schmid, have always encouraged me to continue to research and write the thesis. Their numerous critical yet valuable comments have guided my focus to deepen the analysis of the thesis over the past years. They have also provided me with enough time to do research in Tokyo that expanded my further knowledge on the early-modern relations of Japan and Korea. Their constant encouragement also provided me with my own motivation to extend and deepen my research. I also thank Professor Kazui Tashiro at Keio University, Tokyo, who has constantly directed the analysis and details of my study. Her vital comments were always invaluable in keeping my thesis right on track. She has always been very cooperative and encouraging. Professor Kenneth R. Robinson at International Christian University, Tokyo, has always provided me with effective advice on my research, and advised me to read a number of useful books and articles. I would also like to express my cordial gratitude to my friends in Japan, Canada, Korea, and the United States: Emi Ooka, Ikuko Komuro-Lee, Sun Cho, Myong-suk Lee, Hyang-suk Kwon, Misu Lee, Merose Hwang, Yukiko and Akira Hinata, Chikako Nagayama, Manami Hirayama, Naoko Hirose, Caitilin Griffiths, Adam Bohnet, Kayoko Fujita, Julia Yoo, Miho Nasu-Kapila, Michifumi Isoda, Takashi Kuramochi, Junichirō Hara, Maki Shigeta, and Masayo Hasegawa. They have always supported me towards the completion of my thesis. And iv my gratitude also goes to Martine Johnson, who kindly proofread my thesis several times. Without her assistance, I could not write this thesis. I express my deepest gratefulness to my mother, Myong-suk Kim, for her moral and financial support. Without her, I could not do anything and could never complete the writing. Thank you for your incredible patience waiting until the completion of my thesis! I felt very guilty when I decided to study in Canada and left her alone in Japan after my brother and father’s death in 1991 and 1998. I have not yet done any particular things for her, but there are so many things I can give back to her from now on. Finally, Takeshi Hashimoto, my husband, has been unconditionally supportive at any time. How could I finish writing this thesis without him? When I once tried to give up my study, he persuaded me to continue research and emphasized the importance of endeavoring to carry out and complete it. Thank you for your love and everything. v Cultural Expressions of Tokugawa Japan and Chosŏn Korea: an Analysis of the Korean Embassies in the Eighteenth Century Ph.D. Thesis Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Introduction: Beyond the Chinese-Centered Perspective 1 Chapter Two: Reestablishing a Neighbourly Relationship Japanese and Korean relations before the Japanese invasions of Chosŏn Korea 25 Hideyoshi’s invasions of the Korean peninsula 30 Emergence of Tokugawa Ieyasu 35 Forgery on the sovereign’s message 42 Sō vs Yanagawa: the aftermath 49 Chapter Three: Chosŏn Korea as sochunghwa: through the sadae kyorin policy Relationship between Chosŏn Korea and the Tsushima domain 58 Sadae kyorin based on the Confucian principle 61 Chosŏn Korea’s dilemma: between the two neighbouring states 64 Chosŏn Korea as sochunghwa 68 Chapter Four: Arai Hakuseki: His Reform and the 1711 Korean Embassy Arai Hakuseki’s background 77 Dispute between Arai Hakuseki and Amenomori Hōshū 80 Dispute in the Chosŏn court in 1711 89 Hakuseki’s conversation with the 1711 Korean embassy 93 Hakuseki’s views on Korea 100 vi Chapter Five: Amenomori Hōshū: Life for a Better Relationship with Chosŏn Korea Amenomori Hōshū’s background 108 Hōshū’s days of studies and struggles 111 Hōshū’s principles and endeavors for a better relationship with Chosŏn Korea 116 Chapter Six: Shin Yuhan’s “Haeyurok”: the 1719 Korean Embassy Shin Yuhan’s travelogue 132 Background of the 1719 embassy 133 Selection of the 1719 ambassadorial members 135 The 1719 embassy’s journey of Japan 138 Conversations between Hōshū and Shin 167 Chapter Seven: Views of the Counterparts: the Japanese and Korean Scholars Sentiments of the Tokugawa scholars towards the Chosŏn Korean scholars 176 Gradual change of view in Korean evaluation among the Japanese scholars 186 The Perspective of the sirhak scholars towards Japan 194 Conclusion: Towards the Modern Era The reasons of the termination of the Korean embassy 213 Were Chosŏn Korea and the Korean embassy submissive to Japan? 216 The imperial court and Korean diplomacy 225 The end of the neighbourly relationship 230 Bibliography 242 Glossary 255 vii 1 Chapter One Introduction: Beyond the Chinese-Centered Perspective A peer relationship was the key to diplomatic relations between Tokugawa Japan (1603-1868) and Chosŏn Korea (1392-1910), which lasted more than two hundred fifty years. In most academic descriptions of the early modern relations between the two countries, the visitations of the Korean embassy (J: Chōsen tsūshinshi; K: Chosŏn t’ongshinsa), dispatched to congratulate a new Tokugawa shogun, were often seen as the symbol of their amicable, friendly relationship. It is well known that the Koreans were cordially welcomed by the Tokugawa bakufu. For the Korean 1711 embassy, the bakufu’s orders to the people in the Edo were announced as follows: 1. Those streets where the Koreans walk must be thoroughly cleaned. Pails of water should also be ready in accordance with the house blocks, and the streets must be watered before the Koreans come. 2. When the Koreans pass the streets, the front gates of the samurai houses must be opened; the golden screen be unfolded and face the outside; the textiles be silk, the outer screen be purple silk, and firearms and swords be decorated; Guards must wear hemp robes, and be gorgeously prepared [to welcome the Koreans.] 3. When they arrive in Edo in the evening, the lanterns must be lit their size be described as in the illustration.1 Following these orders, the neatly dressed townspeople watched the foreigners passing along the streets. They stayed calmly in their places even when the Koreans came closer. 1 Tsūkō ichiran. vol.1., Tokyo: Kokusho Kankōkai, 1912. pp.476-477. 2 However, we need to move beyond the discourse of the ‘neighbourly friendship,’ in order to perceive it as more than a simple friendly relationship in a peaceful environment. It is too simplistic to draw the premature conclusion that their amicable relations, lasting until the beginning of Meiji period (1868-1912), had no complexities after the period of the disastrous Japanese invasions of Chosŏn Korea (1592-1598) by Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598). The relationship between the two countries was rehabilitated by the Kiyū yakujō (articles; K: yakjo),2 or Articles of 1609, the thirteen commercial conditions3 agreed upon by Chosŏn Korea and the Tsushima domain, which took on full responsibility for Korean issues on behalf of the Tokugawa bakufu.4 After concluding the yakujō, a neighbourly relationship between Tokugawa Japan and Chosŏn Korea was maintained.
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