A Guide to the Identification of Seahorses Sara A. Lourie, Sarah J. Foster, Ernest W. T. Cooper, and Amanda C. J. Vincent A Guide to the Identification of Seahorses

Sara A. Lourie, Sarah J. Foster, Ernest W. T. Cooper, and Amanda C. J. Vincent

March 2004

Project Seahorse and TRAFFIC North America © 2004 University of British Columbia and World Wildlife Fund. All rights reserved. © Laurence Richardson for all drawings produced by Laurence Richardson.

ISBN 0-89164-169-6

Reproduction and distribution for resale by any means Ñ photogr aphic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage and retrieval systems Ñ of any parts of this book, illustrations or texts is prohibited without prior written consent from University of British Columbia (UBC), World Wildlife Fund (WWF), and Laurence Richardson. Reproduction for CITES enforcement or educational and other noncommercial purposes by CITES Authorities and the CITES Secretariat is authorized without prior written permission, provided the source is fully acknowledged. Any reproduction, in full or in part, of this publication must credit Project Seahorse and TRAFFIC North America.

The views of the authors expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of Project Seahorse, UBC, the TRAFFIC network, WWF, or IUCN-The World Conservation Union.

This publication was prepared in part under award number NA03NMF4630332 from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Department of Commerce. The statements, findings, conclusions, and recommendations are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration or the Department of Commerce.

The designation of geographical entities in this publication and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Project Seahorse, TRAFFIC, or their supporting organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The TRAFFIC symbol copyright and Registered Trademark ownership are held by WWF.

TRAFFIC is a joint program of WWF and IUCN.

Suggested citation:

Lourie, S. A. et al. 2004. A Guide to the Identification of Seahorses. Project Seahorse and TRAFFIC North America. Washington D.C.: University of British Columbia and World Wildlife Fund.

Cover photo of Hippocampus ingens by Wolcott Henry.

Back cover photo of dried seahorses for sale as traditional Chinese medicine. Right tray holds bleached H. barbouri. Left tray holds a mix of H. comes, H. spinosissimus, H. trimaculatus and H. ingens. Photo by Ernest W. T. Cooper, TRAFFIC North America. Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 2.0 METHODS 1 3.0 SEAHORSE CONSERVATION AND BIOLOGY 3 3.1 Conservation 3 3.2 Biology 5 4.0 SEAHORSE MORPHOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION 7 4.1 Morphology 7 4.2 Identification 7 5.0 SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS 20

REFERENCES 88 APPENDIX A. SEAHORSE IDENTIFICATION DATA SHEET 94 APPENDIX B. HOW TO USE THE SPECIES CHECKLIST 95 APPENDIX C. PHOTOGRAPHIC ATLAS OF DRIED SEAHORSES 97 APPENDIX D. TAXONOMY OF H. histrix AND H. kuda 103 APPENDIX E. DISTRIBUTION OF SEAHORSE SPECIES BY COUNTRY 104 APPENDIX F. COLOUR PLATES OF SEAHORSE SPECIES 109

LIST OF FIGURES 1 External Morphology of a Seahorse 9 2 Rings Supporting the Dorsal Fin 11 3 Example of a Dried Seahorse Specimen with Morphological Data 95

LIST OF TABLES 1 Maximum Heights Recorded for Species of Hippocampus 13 2 Ratio of Head Length to Snout Length (HL/SnL) for species of Hippocampus 14 3 Number of Tail Rings per Species of Hippocampus 15 4 Number of Dorsal Fin Rays per Species of Hippocampus 17 5 Number of Pectoral Fin Rays per Species of Hippocampus 18 6 Numbers of Trunk Rings, Rings Supporting the Dorsal Fin, Cheek Spines and Eye Spines per Species of Hippocampus 19 7 Completed Species Checklist for Seahorse Specimen Illustrated in Figure 3 96

i Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people made important contributions to this guide. James Hrynyshyn of Project Seahorse revised the maps in the guide and provided invaluable assistance in the preparation of the graphical elements for review drafts. Adriana Suarez Blanch, Maylynn Engler and Andrew Short assisted by reviewing and testing the identification methodology in Section 4.0.

Rhema Bjorkland, Sheila Einsweiler, Boris Kwan, Richard Labossiere, Samuel Lee, Stephen Nash, Steven Price, Adrianne Sinclair and Chris Woods all provided insight and helpful comments on draft texts of the guide. Kimberly Davis, Craig Hoover and Tina Leonard of TRAFFIC North America contributed greatly to the development and oversight of the project.

Section 5.0 of this guide could not have been completed without the information produced by the many researchers referenced therein.

The colour illustrations and all of the line drawings used in Section 5.0 – except for H. denise – are the work of Laurence Richardson. The line drawings of H. denise were provided by Sara A. Lourie. The line drawings used in Section 4.0 and the photographs in Appendix C were prepared by Ernest W. T. Cooper.

We are particularly appreciative of the support and encouragement provided by the CITES Secretariat, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries during the development and completion of this guide.

This project was made possible thanks to generous funding support from the Donner Canadian Foundation, the Curtis and Edith Munson Foundation and the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Grant Program. It draws on research undertaken with generous support from Project Seahorse partners, the John G. Shedd Aquarium (USA) and Guylian Chocolates (Belgium), as well as a William Dawson Scholarship (to Amanda Vincent). The first identification guide for seahorses, on which this manual is based, was supported by the Rufford Foundation, Maurice Laing Foundation, United Kingdom Natural Environment Research Council, Royal Society and British Airways Communities and Conservation.

ii Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The 12th meeting of the Conference of Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) took place in Santiago, Chile, from November 3 to November 15, 2002. During this meeting the Parties (signatories to CITES) voted to include all seahorses (genus Hippocampus) in Appendix II of the Convention, effective May 15, 20041.

Effective implementation of the CITES listing will require that government authorities and other stakeholders be able to identify seahorse species that are utilized in international trade. This guide has been developed to help meet this need.

The goal of the guide is to provide technically accurate information that is useful to specialists and non-specialists alike. This is no simple task as many species are similar in appearance and their identification can be challenging.

The trade in seahorses involves both live and dead specimens. In some regions the live trade is the dominant pressure on seahorse populations, but the great majority of the seahorses in international trade are dried and destined for use in traditional medicine (see Section 3.0). This guide therefore has been designed with a bias towards the identification of dead specimens.

2.0 METHODS

The species descriptions provided here are based on a 1999 publication by Lourie et al entitled Seahorses: An Identification Guide to the World’s Species and their Conservation 2. Materials from this earlier publication have been revised and reformatted and new content has been added to produce this guide.Lourie et al2 describe 32 species of Hippocampus. Recent work, notably by Horne3 and Kuiter4, 5, 6, has led to the description of other seahorse species. Further morphometric and genetic research is likely to prove at least some of these species designations valid, and there is every indication that seahorse taxonomy will continue to evolve and that new species will be described. The practicalities of management and enforcement of the CITES listing, however, necessitate that the seahorse taxonomy be held to a clearly defined list. The taxonomy used in this guide is therefore based on the 1999 Project Seahorse listing, with the addition of H. denise. This guide is limited to these 33 species.

The original maps in Lourie et al showed only confirmed location data2. These maps have been modified to show the approximate ranges for each species based on both the confirmed and suspected distribution. The countries of occurrence in the species descriptions have similarly been separated according to whether the occurrence is confirmed or suspected.

Twenty-five of the line drawings of seahorse species used in Lourie et al2, have been reprinted in this publication. The original drawings of H. angustus and H. erectus have been replaced and those of H. abdominalis, H. barbouri, H. comes and H. zebra have been revised; new drawings of a male H. camelopardalis and a female H. zebra have been added. Colour illustrations of the 33 species have been added. All drawings and revisions were made from preserved specimens or from photographs supplied by Project Seahorse.

1 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Section 4.0 and Appendices A and B were developed from the information provided by Lourie et al2 and Lourie and Randall, 20038, and through examination of dried specimens. Tables 2–5 show the range of values for each characteristic. The values highlighted in black represent the modal (most common) values for counts such as the number of tail rings, and the average value for measurements such as the ratio of head length to snout length (HL/SnL).

The biological information included in Section 5.0 has been updated from Lourie et al2, based on an extensive literature search and on contributions from members of the networks of syngnathid researchers and aquarium professionals, co-ordinated by Project Seahorse.

The photographs in Appendix C are of specimens in the collections of the Redpath Museum of McGill University (Montreal), the Vancouver Aquarium Marine Science Centre (Vancouver), and TRAFFIC North America – Canada (Vancouver).

The spelling of country names is based on the list of member states of the United Nations9.

Throughout the text the abbreviation of H. is used in place of the genus name Hippocampus.

2 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

3.0 SEAHORSE CONSERVATION AND BIOLOGY

3.1 Conservation

Much of the information presented here on trade and conservation is based on the trade report that first raised awareness of large scale trade in seahorses: The International Trade in Seahorses10. Additional supporting references are given in endnotes.

A clear understanding of species identification is important to the effort to advance international seahorse conservation and management. Effective implementation of the CITES listing of seahorses will depend on the ability of the CITES signatory nations (the Parties) to ensure that trade is not detrimental to wild populations of seahorse. The success of this effort will depend heavily on accurate species identification.

Threats to seahorses Seahorses are threatened by direct exploitation, accidental capture in non-selective fishing gear (bycatch), and degradation of their habitats. Some of the world’s poorest fishers make their living specifically targeting seahorses. Bycatch from trawlers, however, appears to be the largest source of seahorses in international trade, and the trawl gear also damages their coastal habitats11. More research needs to be done to assess loss of seahorse habitat, especially seagrasses, and its impact on wild populations.

Seahorses are sold dried for traditional medicines, tonic foods and curiosities, and live for ornamental display. Traditional medicines (TM), particularly traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and its derivatives, account for the largest consumption of seahorses. Large, pale and smooth seahorses are believed by some to have a higher medicinal value in TCM10. Pre-packaged pharmaceuticals are also popular in TM, and offer industry a chance to absorb animals previously thought undesirable for use in conventional (whole) form, including juvenile seahorses10, 12.

The available evidence showed that in 1995 at least 32 countries traded syngnathids (seahorses and their immediate relatives), and that trade in Asia alone exceeded 45 tonnes of dried seahorses10. Further research showed that nearly 80 countries had traded syngnathids by 2000, with many new sources in Africa and Latin America11. Moreover, the few official data, trade surveys, and qualitative evidence all indicated that the Asian trade in dried seahorses exceeded 50 tonnes in 2000. Hundreds of thousands of live seahorses were traded internationally in both 1995 and 2000, with small specimens finding a ready market11.

Conservation impacts The impacts on seahorse populations of this trade are considerable, especially when combined with the damage that is being inflicted on their vulnerable inshore marine habitats. It is impossible to determine exactly how many seahorses live in the wild and it is difficult to assess how individual species are coping with the exploitation that is taking place, but a combination of customs records, quantitative research and qualitative information indicates that seahorse catches and/or trades have declined markedly. This reflects a loss of population rather than a drawdown of the trade: estimated population declines of between 15 and 50 percent over five-year periods are common11. The 2003 World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List now recognises one seahorse species as Endangered, nine as Vulnerable, and all other species as Data Deficient (denoting the need for more research)13.

3 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Many countries additionally have established their own domestic conservation assessments or have drawn up regulations that recognise the threat to seahorse populations.

Seahorses and CITES As of February 2004, CITES included 164 Parties14. The main aim of the Convention is to ensure that cross-border trade in wild animals and plants does not threaten survival of the population or species. Species may be brought under CITES management if they are, or may become, threatened by international trade. The species covered by CITES are listed in three Appendices, according to the degree of protection they need. These Appendices are updated at the meeting of the Conference of the Parties, held approximately every two years, and are legally binding to member states that have signed the treaty. CITES is directly concerned only with threats that arise through trade in a species, and only if such trades are international.

In November 2002 the CITES Conference of the Parties decided to add all known species of seahorses to Appendix II1, effective May 2004. The 18-month deferral of the listing was intended to give governments time to develop implementation strategies that respect the needs of fishers and traders. The effective management of the trade in both dried and live animals demands that information gathering be improved to provide accurate, long-term data for analysis.

Species listed in CITES Appendix II are those for which the wild populations are threatened, or might become threatened, by international trade. Listing in Appendix II is intended to ensure that future use of the species is undertaken in a sustainable manner. Trade is allowed, but exporting Parties are required to ensure that their exports do not damage and are not detrimental to wild populations of the species. Such “non-detriment findings” are central to the function of the Convention. CITES export and/or re-export permits are mandatory for trade, with some countries imposing further domestic regulations.

An Appendix II listing puts the onus on the exporting Party to determine what level of trade is sustainable. The Party must accordingly obtain the necessary biological, fisheries and trade information to permit an accurate sustainability assessment. The emphasis that the listing places on the delivery of non-detriment findings means that species identification is critical.

Importance of this listing Seahorses are among the first marine fish species of commercial importance to be listed on the Convention, with basking and whale sharks. These fishes will also be among the largest wildlife trade issues under CITES, in terms of number of animals traded per annum. Implementation of the seahorse listing will be a challenge to CITES, but one that must be met if pressures on seahorse populations are to be reduced.

The CITES listing provides an important means of improving monitoring and management procedures for seahorse populations affected by international trade. Those nations affected by the listing must assess the population status of their seahorses and, if necessary, adjust seahorse takes in both their targeted and non-selective fisheries. In order to secure the future for these populations (and their trade), nations will also need to restore seagrass, coral, mangrove and estuarine habitats to their full ecological function. Parties striving to adjust exploitation of seahorse populations to sustainable levels will need to employ a broad array of management options in order to meet the needs of wild populations and dependent fishing communities alike.

4 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II 3.2 Biology

The following section is drawn from a new review of the biology and ecology of seahorses (Foster and Vincent, in press)15. Primary references to all statements can be found therein.

Taxonomy Seahorses are grouped with pipefishes, pipehorses and seadragons as members of the family Syngnathidae16. They are of the same order (Gasterosteiformes) as cornetfishes, pegasids (sea moths), snipefishes, sticklebacks and trumpetfishes17, 18. Pipefishes look like seahorses that have been straightened and stretched until they are long and narrow. The tail is not prehensile. In general, the pipehorse’s head is angled slightly towards its trunk, and it has an elongated body with a grasping or coiling tail. Seadragons have deep, laterally flattened bodies, and have elaborate, permanent leaf-like appendages that camouflage them among floating seaweed. Only 33 species of seahorse (genus Hippocampus) are recognised in this guide, but it is likely that more species will emerge from further taxonomic research. Most seahorse species have not been studied in the wild.

Distribution and movement Seahorses occupy both temperate and tropical coastal waters, with a distribution from about 50 degrees north to 50 degrees south. They may usually be found among corals, macro algae, mangrove roots and seagrasses, but some live on open sandy or muddy bottoms. Certain species may be found in estuaries or lagoons. Seahorses tend to be patchily distributed at low densities. They are particularly susceptible to habitat degradation from human activities. Most seahorse species studied exhibit high site-fidelity and small home range sizes, at least during the breeding season.

The young of some species are planktonic, entering the water column immediately after birth. The extent of juvenile dispersal by passive means is unknown, but may provide some gene flow among populations.

Survival The lifespans of seahorses are estimated, generally from laboratory observation, to range from about one year in the very small species to about three to five years in the larger species. Mortality rates for all life history stages are generally unknown. Predation is probably greatest in juveniles, which are eaten by many fish and invertebrates. Adult seahorses are presumed to have few predators as a result of excellent camouflage and their unappetizing bony plates and spines. Seahorses have been found in the stomachs of large pelagic fishes such as tuna and dorado and are eaten by skates and rays19, 20, 21, penguins, and other water birds4.

Reproduction The female seahorse produces the eggs and the male the sperm, and then the male seahorse becomes pregnant. Sexual maturity in males can be recognised by the presence of a fully developed brood pouch, except in the pygmy seahorses H. bargibanti and H. denise, which lack externally obvious pouches8. Seahorses mature at about four months to one year, depending on the species. The height at first maturity similarly varies by species.

The breeding season differs with the location of the population, and appears to be influenced by environmental parameters such as light, temperature and monsoon season. The breeding season generally lasts longer in tropical than in temperate waters, although at least one temperate species breeds year round. 5 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

All species of seahorses studied in the wild appear to be monogamous within a single breeding cycle, the male accepting eggs from only one female. Many species also form pair bonds that last at least throughout the breeding season, although some have shown variation in mating patterns, switching partners between cycles. Pair bonds in monogamous species are commonly reinforced by daily greetings that extend into courtships once the male gives birth.

The female deposits eggs into the male’s brood pouch, where he fertilises them, protects them, nourishes them, and regulates their environment. Pregnancy lasts about nine to 30 days, depending on the species, the length increasing with latitude and decreasing water temperature. Males of all species studied go through more than one pregnancy in a breeding season.

Males release about 100 –300 young per pregnancy, but brood size can range from as few as five, for the small species H. zosterae22, to approximately 2000 young by one H. ingens male23. Brood size increases with male height across species. Small brood size may be somewhat offset by the presumed greater survival of the well developed young at release from the pouch. Young seahorses look like miniature adult seahorses, are fully independent after birth, and receive no further parental care. Newborn seahorses range on average from 2–12 mm in length.

Conservation consequences Seahorse natural history and population dynamics may make the animal particularly susceptible to over-fishing, for the following reasons:

• Production of few young per breeding cycle limits the potential reproductive rate, although this may be offset by advanced development of the young when they leave the pouch • Male pregnancy means that young seahorses depend on parental survival for far longer than is the case among most fish • Monogamy in most species studied means that widowed animals stop reproducing until they find a new partner • Low population density means that lost partners are not quickly replaced • Monitoring of known individuals suggests that natural rates of adult mortality may be low, making fishing a new pressure • Low adult mobility and small home ranges in many species may restrict the recolonisation of depleted areas, although juveniles may be the primary dispersers

Seahorse research has made great advances, but much more needs to be learned about key life history parameters such as natural mortality, growth rates and juvenile dispersal.

6 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

4.0 SEAHORSE MORPHOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION

4.1 Morphology

Seahorses have heads positioned at right angles to their bodies, curved trunks, and a grasping, finless tail. Their skin is stretched over a series of bony plates that are visible as rings around the trunk and tail. Some species also have bony bumps or skin filaments protruding from these bony rings2. The plates are jointed on the tail, but are interlaced to form a complete outer skeleton on the trunk24.

Seahorses may change colour and grow skin filaments over time to blend in with their surroundings. Short-term colour changes may also occur during courtship and other intra-species interactions15.

Adult seahorse heights (Figure 1) vary among species and range from less than 2 cm (H. denise)8 to 35 cm (H. abdominalis)25. Seahorse weights vary with reproductive stage, increasing considerably for females that are carrying eggs and for males that are pregnant. Some species are sexually dimorphic in length, with males longer than females, and many are sexually dimorphic in proportions, with males having longer tails and females longer trunks15.

The body proportions of a seahorse change over a lifetime. Compared to adults of the same species, juveniles have larger heads relative to their bodies, are slimmer and spinier in form, and have relatively higher coronets2. These differences must be considered when identifying juvenile specimens. The fin ray and tail ring counts are believed to be constant through life, however, and therefore may be the most reliable characters by which to identify juvenile specimens2.

4.2 Identification

The ease by which a seahorse specimen may be identified varies from species to species. Very few species (e.g., H. bargibanti and H. minotaur) are morphologically distinctive enough from other species to be immediately identifiable, but many species, such as H. abdominalis and H. trimaculatus, have distinguishing characteristics that allow them to be readily identified. Others, including H. kelloggi and H. kuda, can be difficult to identify due to their variable or less distinctive characters and morphological similarity to one another (see also Appendix D). Some of these problematic species are also common in trade.

It may be tempting to identify a seahorse simply by comparing a specimen to the drawings, descriptions and photographs in Section 5.0 and Appendix C of this guide. This approach may be effective for a few distinctive species, or for an investigator who is experienced with seahorse identification. In most cases, however, species are so similar that this will often result in an incorrect identification. Seahorse identification is a matter of eliminating possible species until the characters on a specimen are found to match only one species. It is recommended that an investigator follow the procedure outlined in Steps A, B, C and D below as an aid to identification. Once this procedure is completed it is important finally to compare all of the characters of the specimen to the description of the suspected species, to ensure that the identification is correct.

Identifying live specimens The identification of live specimens presents special problems. The handling of live seahorses should be avoided, given the likelihood that it will result in injury to or death of the specimen, but the

7 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II plastic bags in which these animals typically are transported often obscure close examination. One possible solution is to carefully transfer the contents of the bag into a clear glass or hard plastic container for easier observation. Alternatively, specimens in trade may be allowed to reach their final destination, where they can be observed and identified once they have been released into an aquarium.

Box 1. Important Morphological Terms

Cheek spines (CS) Spines at the bottom of the operculum on each side of the animal’s head Cleithral ring Bony ring immediately behind the operculum Coronet Enlarged structure found on the top of the head of some species Dorsal fin rays Bones that support the dorsal fin Eye spines (ES) Spines directly above the eye Head length (HL) Distance from the mid-point of the cleithral ring to the tip of the snout. The mid-point of the cleithral ring is visible as the point where the ring intersects with a ridge running from the dorsal spine on the first trunk ring Height (Ht) Distance between the tip of the coronet to the tip of the uncurled tail Keel Sharp median ridge running down the ventral side of the trunk in some species Nose spine Single spine located in front of the eyes on the upper side of the snout in some species Operculum Bony flap that covers the gill slits Pectoral fin rays Bones that support the pectoral fin Snout length (SnL)Distance between the bump immediately in front of the eye (not the nose spine) to the tip of the snout Tail length Distance between the lateral mid-point of the last trunk ring to the tip of the uncurled tail Tail rings (TaR) Raised bony ridges that encircle the tail of the seahorse Trunk length Distance from the mid-point of the cleithral ring to the lateral mid-point of the last trunk ring Trunk rings (TrR) Raised bony ridges that encircle the body of the seahorse Tubercles Raised rounded nodules located at the intersections of rings and ridges (some species only)

Source: Lourie et al2

8 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

(1a) Whole Seahorse: Lateral

coronet eye spine pectoral fin

nose spine

snout

trunk trunk cheek spine dorsal fin anterior

anal fin

first tail ring last trunk ring lateral lateral height height

brood pouch (males) tail ventral ventral dorsal

posterior

cleithral ring

ridge hea d l eng th

first trunk ring sn out l eng th operculum

(1b) Head: Dorsal View (1c) Head: Lateral View

Figure 1. External Morphology of a Seahorse

9 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Step A: Preparation

Equipment and supplies The following equipment and supplies will be useful when identifying a seahorse specimen:

• Ruler and/or callipers • Magnifying glass or loupe • String, ribbon or flexible wire (minimum length 40 cm) • Forceps • Calculator • Dissecting microscope (optional, but can be valuable) • Pencil and a photocopy of the seahorse identification data sheet provided in Appendix A of this guide. Blank paper can also be used to record data about the specimen; however, identification will be easier to accomplish using the checklist

Characters used An examination of the following characters (see Figure 1) is used in Steps B and C to assist in identifying a seahorse specimen:

• Length of the snout in relation to the length of the head (HL/SnL) • Numbers of tail and trunk rings • Height of the specimen • Numbers of cheek and eye spines • Numbers of trunk and tail rings that support the dorsal fin • Numbers of dorsal and pectoral fin rays

Note: The characters used to identify seahorses tend to vary among and within species (see Tables 1–6). It is possible that a specimen will exhibit characters that do not precisely fit the description for any species, and it may therefore be necessary to make an identification based on the closest match to a species description, rather than a perfect match.

Step B: Record Data about the Unidentified Specimen

B1. Using a ruler and a piece of string, wire, or ribbon, measure and record the height (Ht) of the specimen (see Figure 1a).

Note: The maximum height can be useful for identification, especially for larger specimens, by eliminating some species as possibilities. For example, an unidentified seahorse specimen measuring 20 cm could not be H. mohnikei, which has a maximum adult height of 8 cm (see Table 1). It should be remembered that most specimens will be smaller than the maximum size for a species, however.

B2. Measure and record the head length (HL) and snout length (SnL) of the specimen.

B3. Calculate and record the HL/SnL ratio for the specimen.

B4. Count and record the number of tail rings (TaR) on the specimen.

10 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Notes: A magnifying glass, loupe or dissecting microscope will be required.

Towards the tip of the tail the rings tend to become indistinct and cracks appear between the ridges on the ventral surface. These cracks may be easier to count than the ridges themselves2.

It is common for inexperienced observers to miss some of the rings at the tip of the tail, resulting in an inaccurate count and often an incorrect identification. If an investigator is not confident that the number of tail rings has been accurately counted, this character should not be used.

B5. Count and record the number of trunk rings (TrR) on the specimen.

Note: The first trunk ring may be identified as the base of the triangle of ridges of the dorsal surface, just behind the head (see Figure 1b). The last trunk ring is the last ring to extend as far as the belly of the animal2 (it can be identified in Figure 1a as positioned just above the anal fin).

B6. Count and record the number of cheek spines (CS) and eye spines (ES) (both counts will range from 0 to 2) (see Figure 1a).

B7. Count and record the number of tail rings (TaR) and trunk rings (TrR) that support the dorsal fin (see Figure 2).

TrR

TrR

TrR

TaR

Figure 2. Rings Supporting the Dorsal Fin TaR = tail ring; TrR = trunk ring In this example the dorsal fin is supported by 1 tail ring and 3 trunk rings

B8. Count and record the number of dorsal fin rays and pectoral fin rays. Notes: A magnifying glass, loupe or dissecting microscope will be required. With dried specimens it may be difficult or even impossible to accurately count the fin rays. An inaccurate count may result in an incorrect identification. If the investigator is not entirely confident that the count of fin rays is accurate, then this step should be omitted.

11 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Step C: Use Tables 1–6 to Determine Possible Species

C1. Compare the height recorded for the unidentified specimen with the information in Table 1. Using a photocopy of the species checklist provided on the seahorse identification data sheet (Appendix A), mark those species that have a maximum height that is equal to or greater than the height of the specimen.

C2. Compare the value for HL/SnL recorded for the unidentified specimen with the information in Table 2. On the species checklist, mark which of the species selected in step C1 could have that value.

C3. Compare the number of tail rings recorded for the unidentified specimen with the information in Table 3. On the species checklist, mark which of the species selected in step C2 could have that number.

C4. Compare the number of dorsal fin rays and pectoral fin rays for the unidentified specimen with the information in Tables 4 and 5. On the species checklist, mark which of the species selected in step C3 could have that number.

C5. Compare the remaining data recorded for the unidentified specimen with the information in Table 6. On the species checklist, mark which of the species selected in Step C4 have characteristics that match the unidentified specimen.

Step D: Identify the Specimen

D1. See Section 5.0. Compare the specimen with the descriptions of those species that are remaining after elimination to step C5.

The following characters should be considered:

• The height and shape of the coronet • The number, distribution, and size of spines on the body • Patterns or markings such as stripes or spots

Note: The body colour of seahorses and the presence of skin filaments vary from specimen to specimen and therefore are not characteristics that should be relied upon for a species identification. Some specimens used in traditional Chinese medicine may also be bleached, and as a result will not show any colour or patterns. These specimens usually also appear damaged or incomplete (see Appendix C).

12 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Table 1. Maximum Heights Recorded for Species of Hippocampus (Scientific names in bold face indicate species common in trade for traditional Chinese medicine)

Species Maximum height H. denise 2.1 cm H. bargibanti 2.4 cm H. zosterae 2.5 cm H. lichtensteinii 4.0 cm H. minotaur 5.0 cm H. fisheri 8.0 cm H. mohnikei 8.0 cm H. sindonis 8.0 cm H. zebra 9.4 cm H. breviceps 10.0 cm H. camelopardalis 10.0 cm H. capensis 12.0 cm H. coronatus 12.7 cm H. whitei 13.0 cm H. jayakari 14.0 cm H. borboniensis 14.0 cm H. fuscus 14.4 cm H. barbouri 15.0 cm H. hippocampus 15.0 cm H. angustus 16.0 cm H. histrix 17.0 cm H. kuda 17.0 cm H. trimaculatus 17.0 cm H. spinosissimus 17.2 cm H. reidi 17.5 cm H. guttulatus 18.0 cm H. comes 18.7 cm H. algiricus 19.0 cm H. erectus 19.0 cm H. subelongatus 20.0 cm H. kelloggi 28.0 cm H. ingens 31.0 cm H. abdominalis 35.0 cm Sources: As noted for individual species in Section 5.0 Note: heights correspond to those recorded in the literature. Exceptional specimens may have heights that exceed these values

13 Order /Syngnathidae Gasterosteiformes Family

Table 2. Ratio of Head Length to Snout Length (HL/SnL) for Species of Hippocampus (Shaded cells indicate the range of HL/SnL values that is possible for each species. Black cells indicate the most common values. Scientific names in bold face indicate species common in trade for traditional Chinese medicine) HL/SnL 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 H. abdominalis(a) H. algiricus H. angustus H. barbouri H. bargibanti(b) H. borboniensis H. breviceps H. camelopardalis H. capensis H. comes H. coronatus H. denise H. erectus H. fisheri H. fuscus H. guttulatus 14 H. hippocampus H. histrix H. ingens H. jayakari H. kelloggi H. kuda H. lichtensteinii H. minotaur(c)

H. mohnikei H. reidi H. sindonis H. spinosissimus CITES Appendix II Appendix CITES H. subelongatus H. trimaculatus H. whitei H. zebra H. zosterae (a) The HL/SnL value for H. abdominalis may be as high as 5.1 (b) The HL/SnL value for H. bargibanti may be as high as 5.4 (c) The HL/SnL value for H. minotaur is greater than 6 Source: Lourie et al2 Note: Exceptional specimens should have an HL/SnL that falls outside of the given range.

14

Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Table 3. Number of Tail Rings per Species of Hippocampus (Shaded cells indicate the range of numbers of tail rings possible for each species. Black cells indicate the most common values. Scientific names in bold face indicate species common in trade for traditional Chinese medicine) Number of tail rings 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 H. abdominalis H. algiricus H. angustus H. barbouri H. bargibanti H. borboniensis H. breviceps H. camelopardalis H. capensis H. comes H. coronatus H. denise H. erectus H. fisheri H. fuscus H. guttulatus H. hippocampus H. histrix H. ingens H. jayakari H. kelloggi H. kuda H. lichtensteinii H. minotaur H. mohnikei H. reidi H. sindonis H. spinosissimus H. subelongatus H. trimaculatus H. whitei H. zebra H. zosterae Source: H. abdominalis – C. Woods 34; all other species – Lourie et al2 Note: Exceptional specimens could have a greater or lesser number of tail rings

15

Order Gasterosteiformes Order /Syngnathidae Gasterosteiformes Family

This page intentionally left blank 16 CITES Appendix II Appendix CITES

16

Order Gasterosteiformes Order / Gasterosteiformes Family Syngnathidae

Table 4. Number of Dorsal Fin Rays per Species of Hippocampus (Shaded cells indicate the range of numbers of dorsal fin rays possible for each species. Black cells indicate the most common numbers. Scientific names in bold face indicate species common in trade for traditional Chinese medicine) Dorsal fin rays 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 H. abdominalis H. algiricus H. angustus H. barbouri H. bargibanti H. borboniensis H. breviceps H. camelopardalis H. capensis H. comes H. coronatus H. denise H. erectus H. fisheri H. fuscus

17 H. guttulatus H. hippocampus H. histrix H. ingens H. jayakari H. kelloggi H. kuda H. lichtensteinii II Appendix CITES H. minotaur H. mohnikei H. reidi H. sindonis H. spinosissimus H. subelongatus H. trimaculatus H. whitei H. zebra H. zosterae Source: Lourie et al2 Note: Exceptional specimens could have a greater or lesser number of dorsal fin rays

17

Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Table 5. Number of Pectoral Fin Rays per Species of Hippocampus (Shaded cells show the range of numbers of pectoral fin rays possible for each species. Black cells indicate the most common numbers. Scientific names in bold face indicate species common in trade for traditional Chinese medicine) Pectoral fin rays 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 H. abdominalis H. algiricus H. angustus H. barbouri H. bargibanti H. borboniensis H. breviceps H. camelopardalis H. capensis H. comes H. coronatus H. denise H. erectus H. fisheri H. fuscus H. guttulatus H. hippocampus H. histrix H. ingens H. jayakari H. kelloggi H. kuda H. lichtensteinii H. minotaur H. mohnikei H. reidi H. sindonis H. spinosissimus H. subelongatus H. trimaculatus H. whitei H. zebra H. zosterae Source: Lourie et al2 Note: Exceptional specimens could have a greater or lesser number of pectoral fin ray

18

Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Table 6. Numbers of Trunk Rings, Rings Supporting the Dorsal Fin, Cheek Spines and Eye Spines per Species of Hippocampus (Scientific names in bold face indicate species common in trade for traditional Chinese medicine)

Trunk Rings supporting dorsal fin Cheek Eye Characters rings Trunk rings Tail rings spines spines H. abdominalis 12 or 13 4 1 1 1 H. algiricus 11 2 1 1 or 2 1 or 2 H. angustus 11 2 1 2 1 H. barbouri 11 2 1 2 1 H. bargibanti 11 or 12 3 0 1 1 H. borboniensis 11 2 1 1 1 H. breviceps 11 3 1 1 1 H. camelopardalis 11 2 1 0 1 H. capensis 11 2 1 0 0 H. comes 11 2 1 2 1 or 2 H. coronatus 10 2 0 1 1 H. denise 12 3 0 0 0 H. erectus 11 2 1 1 or 2 1 H. fisheri 11 2 or 3 1 or 2 1 1 or 2 H. fuscus 11 2 1 0 0 H. guttulatus 11 2 1 1 1 H. hippocampus 11 2 1 0 or 1 or 2 0 or 1 or 2 H. histrix 11 2 1 1 1 H. ingens 11 2 1 1 1 or 2 H. jayakari 11 2 1 2 2 H. kelloggi 11 2 1 1 1 H. kuda 11 2 1 1 or 2 0 or 1 H. lichtensteinii 10 2 0 0 0 H. minotaur 8 1 1 0 0 H. mohnikei 11 2 1 2 0 H. reidi 11 2 1 1 or 2 1 or 2 H. sindonis 10 2 1 1 2 H. spinosissimus 11 2 1 1 or 2 1 H. subelongatus 11 2 1 2 1 H. trimaculatus 11 2 1 1 1 H. whitei 11 2 1 1 or 2 1 H. zebra 11 2 1 0 1 H. zosterae 9 or 10 2 0 0 0 Source: Lourie et al2 Note: Exceptional specimens could have values for these characters that fall outside a given range

19

Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

5.0 SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS

5.1 Explanation of species pages

Drawings Detailed drawings with captions highlight the diagnostic characteristics of each species.

• The drawings have been made from preserved or dried specimens. Apparent differences in size or pattern between the sexes reflect the individual characteristics of the specimens depicted and may not represent actual sexual dimorphism (consistent and distinct differences between the sexes). • Scales differ among drawings, so a scale bar (cm) is provided on each image. • The view from the back of the female (dorsal) gives an impression of the development of the body spines and coronet.

Common names Common names are given only when there is certainty that the name refers to the particular species, rather than being simply a translation of the generic term “seahorse”. In general it is advisable to avoid common names. The language of the common name is given in brackets, followed by the location of use, where known.

Synonyms Only primary synonyms (that is, cases where the type specimens are members of the same species) are listed.

Description (See Box 1 for definitions of morphological terms. “Deep” is measured dorsal to ventral; “wide” is measured lateral to lateral.) Maximum recorded adult height: Height (see Figure 1) rather than length is used in this guide because it is more easily deduced. Rings: The number of trunk and tail rings. The numbers in brackets provide the numbers of rings in more than 95 percent of the specimens examined. HL/SnL: The average number of times the snout length (SnL) fits into the head length (HL). The numbers in brackets provide the HL/SnL ratios in more than 95 percent of the specimens examined. Rings supporting dorsal fin: The number of trunk and tail rings spanned by the dorsal fin. Dorsal fin rays: The most common number of rays in the dorsal fin. The numbers in brackets provide the numbers of rays in more than 95 percent of the specimens examined. Pectoral fin rays: The most common number of rays in the pectoral fin. The numbers in brackets provide the numbers of rays in more than 95 percent of the specimens examined. Coronet: Description of height and characteristics. Spines: Description of height and characteristics. Other distinctive characteristics: This includes the development of cheek and eye spines, the presence of a keel, and/or other characteristics of the species that may be used for identification. Colour/pattern: This refers to the appearance of the species in life, unless otherwise specified. Dead animals tend to be much more uniformly pale brown. This information should be treated as supplementary to the diagnosis given above because seahorses change colour easily and patterns are not always apparent.

20 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Distribution The distribution is listed as confirmed if specimens or photographs of that species have been seen by the senior author. The distribution is identified as “suspected” if (a) confirmed sightings occur on either side of the country in question, such that the species could also occur in the intervening country, or (b) there is some question as to the identification, or precise location of origin, of specimens that have been seen. This guide is less conservative in its assessment of seahorse distributions than were Lourie et al2. Species additional to those identified as present might be found in any country in geographic proximity to the confirmed distribution as outlined in this guide (that is, from the same ocean basin). Confirmed and suspected distributions are both indicated by hatch- marks on the maps.

Habitat The depth of habitat is indicated in metres. Where it is known, additional information about habitat is also provided.

Life history Data on the size of seahorses at the onset of sexual maturity are patchy and imprecise. Where studies differ in their results, this guide takes the largest value. The height at first sexual maturity given in the species descriptions is therefore the maximum recorded height at the onset of sexual maturity that is cited in any report on the species.

The breeding season is the months during which pregnant males have been observed in the wild.

Gestation duration is the length of time from the fertilisation of the eggs in the male pouch to birth of the young. Birth refers to the release from the pouch of the young.

Brood size is the number of young released by a male in any one cycle. Brood sizes are for a mixture of wild- and captive-mated males.

Species are considered planktonic immediately after birth only in cases where juveniles have been found in plankton tows.

Trade Information on the trade-related use of the species.

Conservation status The conservation status and other information about trade and threats to the species.

Similar species The main distinguishing features of species that are similar in appearance.

Other notes Additional information, such as explanations of taxonomic confusions and genetic data.

21 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus abdominalis Lesson 1827

Common names Big-belly seahorse; pot-bellied seahorse; manaia (Maori; New Zealand)

Synonyms H. agnesæ Fowler 1908; H. bleekeri Fowler 1908; H. graciliformis McCulloch 1911

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 35 cm25 Trunk rings: 12–13 Tail rings: 47 (45–48) HL/SnL: 2.6 (2.2–5.0) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 4 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 27–28 (25–33) Pectoral fin rays: 15 (15–17) Coronet: Low, triangular wedge Spines: Low, rounded bumps only Other distinctive characters: Prominent, rounded eye spines; thick fronds often attached to head region; deep body with keel (especially females); extremely prominent (usually white) brood pouch in mature males

22 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Pale, near-white to mottled yellow to variable brown; dark spots and splotches on head and trunk; tail with alternating dark and light bands; mottled dorsal fin. Males have more dark blotches than females and commonly have a yellow slash near the top of the pouch26

Confirmed distribution Australia; New Zealand

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Typically found < 50 m depth4; maximum reported depth 104 m27; among algae, seagrasses and rocky reefs in shallow water28; sandy bottom29; macro algae stands30; attached to sponges and colonial hydroids in deeper water and to jetty piles and other man-made objects31, 32; estuaries33

Life history Maximum reported height at onset of sexual maturity 8.7 cm34; breeding season year round, peaking in spring to summer35; found in groups in wild33; sexually polygamous in captivity30; egg diameter averages 1.8 mm15; gestation duration averages 30 days15; length at birth averages 16 mm15; brood size usually 30036; maximum reported brood size 111637; planktonic immediately after birth38

Trade Dried for curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use. Not seen in traditional Chinese medicine, but some from New Zealand are sold for traditional Korean medicine (hanyak)

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. abdominalis is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN13. Environment Australia lists the conservation status of H. abdominalis as Data Deficient39; Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 then placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001

Similar species • None. H. abdominalis is immediately distinguishable from all other seahorses by its deeper trunk (adult only) and larger number of trunk and tail rings and dorsal fin rays

Other notes • H. abdominalis is one of the most sexually dimorphic seahorse species: in comparison to females, males are heavier, have proportionally longer tails; shorter, thicker snouts; and are more heavily marked. Females usually have a deeper keel than males26

23 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus algiricus Kaup 1856

Common names West African seahorse

Synonyms H. punctulatus Kaup 1856; H. deanei Duméril 1857; H. kaupii Duméril 1870

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 19 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 36 (35–37) HL/SnL: 2.4 (2.1–2.6) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 17–18 Pectoral fin rays: 16–17 (15–17) Coronet: Relatively low, rounded and overhanging at the back; flat-topped or with a slight depression Spines: Low, rounded bumps only Other distinctive characteristics: Body rings chunky; eye and cheek spines broad or almost double Colour/pattern: May be covered with tiny white dots and/or larger brown spots

24 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Confirmed distribution Angola; Benin; Côte D’Ivoire; Gambia; Ghana; Guinea; Liberia; Nigeria; São Tomé and Principe; Senegal; Sierra Leone

Suspected distribution Algeria; Cameroon; Congo; Democratic Republic of the Congo; Equatorial Guinea; Gabon; Guinea- Bissau; Togo

Habitat Unknown

Life history Unknown

Trade Not yet seen in international trade. This region is, however, believed to be a source of imports, and H. algiricus is the only species in the region

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. algiricus is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13

Similar species • H. ingens has more tail rings, a single cheek spine, and usually more dorsal fin rays; it is found only off the west coast of the Americas • H. kelloggi has more tail rings and single eye and cheek spines; it is found only in the Indo- Pacific basin • H. kuda has single eye and cheek spines and is found only in the Indo-Pacific basin • H. reidi has fewer tail rings and a larger coronet; it is found only in the Caribbean

Other notes • Genetic research suggests that this species is part of the H. kuda complex (see Appendix D) and is closely related to both H. kuda and H. reidi40 • Specimens seen from Nigeria and Angola have more developed spines than those from further north and west • The type specimen apparently comes from Algeria, but no further specimens from the Mediterranean have been seen. Probable distribution is restricted to West Africa

25 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus angustus Günther 1870

Common names Narrow-bellied seahorse

Synonyms H. erinaceus Günther 1870

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 16 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 33–34 (32–35) HL/SnL: 2.2 (2.0–2.5) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 18 (17–19) Pectoral fin rays: 16–17 (15–19) Coronet: Medium height, with 5 well-developed sharp spines Spines: Well-developed with blunt or sharp tips; usually low in neck region Other distinctive characteristics: Double, sharp cheek spines; double spine below eye; prominent, sharp eye spine

26 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Body often covered in a net-like pattern of brown markings; snout has fine stripes; spines have a brown band towards their tip

Confirmed distribution Australia

Suspected distribution No other locations are suspected

Habitat Trawled from depths of 3–63 m2; algal reef4

Life history Unknown

Trade Live for aquarium or hobbyist use; however the specimens in trade may actually be misidentified H. subelongatus

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. angustus is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Environment Australia lists the conservation status of H. angustus as Data Deficient39; Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998, and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001

Similar species • H. barbouri has a higher coronet, more dorsal and pectoral fin rays, and better-developed spines in the neck region • H. histrix has a longer snout and a single cheek spine • H. subelongatus has a higher coronet with a rounded or fluted top, no spines (except in young specimens) and thicker body rings. The body rings junctions do not have spines

Other notes • This species has often been misidentified as H. histrix, but H. histrix is not known from Australia • The name H. angustus has in the past been used to encompass H. subelongatus. The two are now recognised as separate species • Specimens from the western end of the range tend to have longer snouts and blunter spines than those from further east

27 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus barbouri Jordan and Richardson 1908

Common names Barbour’s seahorse

Synonyms H. aimei (arnei) Roulé 1916 (but only one of the specimens he described)

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 15 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 34–35 (33–36) HL/SnL: 2.2 (2.0–2.6) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 19 (16–22) Pectoral fin rays: 17–18 (15–20) Coronet: Medium-high; five sharp spines Spines: Well-developed, usually sharp eye spine; first dorsal trunk spine much longer than others and curved backwards; tail spines of different lengths in a regular series (e.g., long, short, long, short) Other distinctive characteristics: Double cheek spines, double spines below eye

28 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: White to pale yellow to pale brown; reddish-brown spots and lines on body; snout often striped; fine lines radiating from eye

Confirmed distribution Indonesia; Malaysia; Philippines

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Maximum reported depth 10 m4; shallow seagrass beds2; clinging to hard corals41

Life history Maximum reported height at onset of sexual maturity 8 cm42; gestation duration 12–14 days43; length at birth averages 5 mm43; brood size 10–250 in captivity43

Trade Dried for traditional medicine and curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. barbouri is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN13. This is among the most commonly traded species, with reports of declining availability in many areas10. In addition to the substantial demand for the species, its seagrass habitats are also threatened44

Similar species • H. angustus, found in Australia, has a lower coronet, fewer dorsal and pectoral fin rays, and less- developed spines in the neck region • H. histrix has a longer snout, fewer fin rays, sharper spines, and a single cheek spine • H. spinosissimus has a deeper body, more tail rings, fewer dorsal fin rays, and a lower coronet. Its cheek spines usually are single and nose spine and pre-coronet spine are less prominent

Other notes • Males have proportionally longer tails than do females26 • This species has often been misidentified as H. histrix •H. barbouri probably encompasses several distinct forms. There is some genetic support for taxonomic subdivision of the species40

29 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus bargibanti Whitley 1970

Common names Bargibant’s seahorse (U.S.A.); pygmy seahorse (Australia)

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 2.4 cm45 Trunk rings: 11–12 Tail rings: 31–32 (31–33) HL/SnL: 4.6 (4.3–5.4) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 3 trunk rings (no tail rings) Dorsal fin rays: 14 (13–15) Pectoral fin rays: 10 (10–11) Coronet: Rounded knob Spines: Irregular bulbous tubercles scattered over body and tail; single, prominent rounded eye spine; single, low rounded cheek spine Other distinctive characteristics: Head and body fleshy, mostly without recognisable body rings; ventral portion of trunk segments incomplete; snout extremely short

30 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Two colour morphs are known: (a) pale grey or purple with pink or red tubercles (found on gorgonian coral Muricella plectana); and (b) yellow with orange tubercles (found on gorgonian coral Muricella paraplectana)

Confirmed distribution Australia; France (New Caledonia); Indonesia; Japan; Papua New Guinea; Philippines

Suspected distribution Federated States of Micronesia; Malaysia; Palau; Solomon Islands; Vanuatu

Habitat Typically found at 16–40 m depth46; only known to occur on gorgonian corals of the genus Muricella45, 46

Life history Breeding season year round47; adults usually found in pairs or clusters of pairs in the wild (up to 28 on a single gorgonian)47; gestation duration averages 2 weeks48; length at birth averages 2 mm48; brood size 34 from one male47

Trade Not known in international trade

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. bargibanti is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Environment Australia lists the conservation status of H. bargibanti as Data Deficient39; Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001

Similar species • H. denise has few or no tubercles, no coronet, no cheek or eye spines, and a longer snout • H. minotaur, found in southeast Australia, has no obvious tubercles on body and has a thicker neck and flatter body

31 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus borboniensis Duméril 1870

Common names Réunion seahorse

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 14 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 35–36 (34–38) HL/SnL: 2.4 (2.1–2.8) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 17 (16–18) Pectoral fin rays: 15–16 Coronet: Low, with five rounded knobs Spines: Well-developed rounded knobs Other distinctive characteristics: Usually has prominent rounded eye spine Colour/pattern: Dusty green-brown with dusty yellow dots and marbling and broken lines on head49; or dark and uniform

32 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Confirmed distribution France (Réunion); Madagascar; Mauritius; Mozambique; South Africa; United Republic of Tanzania

Suspected distribution Comoros

Habitat Typically found at 5–60 m depth31; soft- bottom, sponge31; seagrass beds50

Life history Unknown

Trade Dried for traditional medicine and curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. borboniensis is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13

Similar species • H. fuscus has a smaller body and smoother body surface, fewer tail rings, and a coronet that is not significantly raised above the arch of the neck • H. kuda has a deeper head; a coronet that is curled backwards and rounded; cheek spines are more prominent and other spines less developed

Other notes • Genetic research suggests that this species may be part of the H. kuda complex (see Appendix D)40

33 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus breviceps Peters 1869

Common names Short-snouted seahorse (Australia); short-headed seahorse (Australia); knobby seahorse (U.S.A.)

Synonyms H. tuberculatus Castelnau 1875

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 10 cm31 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 40 (39–43) HL/SnL: 3.0 (2.4–3.5) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 3 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 20–21 (19–23) Pectoral fin rays: 14–15 (13–15) Coronet: Tall, columnar or knob-like Spines: Irregularly developed; some spines are low; others are very prominent, rounded tubercles Other distinctive characteristics: With or without mane of thick skin fronds on the head and neck region. Mature males have prominent brood pouch

34 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Purplish brown, yellowish, reddish; numerous dark margined occelli (white spots); often with dark spots or patches, especially on head; ventral surface of tail has paler transverse stripes

Confirmed distribution Australia

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Maximum reported depth 15 m; weedy, in Sargassum; sponge reef in deeper water31; rocky reef covered in macro algae51

Life history Maximum reported height at onset of sexual maturity 4.6 cm51; found in groups51; egg diameter averages 1.6 mm26; length at birth averages 8.9 mm26; brood size usually 1004

Trade Live trade for aquaria

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. breviceps is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Environment Australia lists the conservation status of H. breviceps as Data Deficient39; Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001

Similar species Young H. breviceps are similar to young specimens of H. abdominalis but are easily distinguishable by the 12–13 trunk rings of H. abdominalis

Other notes • Males have proportionally longer tails than do females51 • Some specimens seen from Western Australia have significantly longer, narrower snouts and may represent a separate species52, 53. The slender-snout form has only been recorded from the northern part of the species range

35 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus camelopardalis Bianconi 1854

Common names Giraffe seahorse; kameel-seeperdjie and kroon-seeperdjie (Afrikaans; South Africa)

Synonyms H. subcoronatus Günther 1866

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 10 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 38 HL/SnL: 2.8 (2.7–2.9) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 19–22 Pectoral fin rays: 17–18 Coronet: Very high, inclined backwards, with a rounded top Spines: Variable Other distinctive characteristics: Prominent eye spine and short snout (less than one-half head length). Some specimens show prominent spine in front of coronet Colour/pattern: Variable. Dark spot on top of coronet and dark spots on the dorso-lateral surface of the first, fourth and seventh trunk rings (not always visible)

36 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Confirmed distribution Mozambique; South Africa; United Republic of Tanzania

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Maximum reported depth 45 m54; seagrass, algal beds, shallow reef4

Life history Unknown

Trade Dried for traditional medicine and curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. camelopardalis is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13

Similar species • H. trimaculatus has three spots on dorsal surface but a very low coronet; not known further west than India • H. whitei, found in southeast Australia, has a longer snout, fewer dorsal fin rays, and better- developed spines

Other notes • References to H. whitei off the east coast of Africa should be H. camelopardalis, genetic data indicate that this is distinct from H. whitei in Australia40

37 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus capensis Boulenger 1900

Common names Knysna seahorse; Cape seahorse; Knysna-seeperdjie (Afrikaans; South Africa)

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 12 cm55 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 34 (32–37) HL/SnL: 3.0 Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 17 (16–18) Pectoral fin rays: 15 (14–17) Coronet: None: arch of neck is a smooth curve. Juveniles may have a small coronet but this disappears as they mature Spines: None on body; short and blunt on tail Other distinctive characteristics: Short snout; male has slight keel Colour/pattern: Usually mottled greenish or brownish; can have scattered dark spots on body

38 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Confirmed distribution South Africa

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Typically found at 0.5–20 m depth55; estuarine, submerged vegetation, tolerates salinity from 1–59 parts per thousand56

Life history Maximum reported height at onset of sexual maturity 5 cm56; breeding season September to April55; found in pairs in the wild57; sexually monogamous57; gestation duration averages 4 weeks15; length at birth averages 11 mm15; maximum reported brood size 12056; planktonic immediately after birth56

Trade Not known in international trade

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. capensis is listed as Endangered by IUCN13. H. capensis is protected by the Cape Nature Conservation Ordnance 19 (1974) and the CNC Proclamation 109 (1988), which prohibits harvesting without a permit; the species is listed in the South African Red Book of Fishes. It has the smallest known range of any seahorse; development and tourism are putting heavy pressure on the Knysna Estuary and freshwater floods have caused heavy seahorse mortality56, 58

Similar species • H. hippocampus, found in the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic, has more tail rings, a higher, ridge-like or wedge-shaped coronet, ad prominent eye spine

Other notes • Males are longer and heavier than females and have proportionally longer tails55, 58 • Genetic data suggest that H. capensis is closely related to species in the H. kuda complex (see Appendix D)40

39 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus comes Cantor 1850

Common names Tiger tail seahorse (U.S.A.)

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 18.7 cm59 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 35–36 (34–37) HL/SnL: 2.2 (1.9–2.5) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 18 (17–19) Pectoral fin rays: 17 (16–19) Coronet: Small and low, with five distinct rounded knobs or spines Spines: Range from knob-like and blunt to well-developed and sharp; often with dark band near tip Other distinctive characteristics: Cheek spines are double; double spines below and sometimes also above eye; prominent, sharp nose spine; long, slender snout

40 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Commonly hues of yellow and black, sometimes alternating; striped tail (although this may not be visible in dark specimens); mottled or blotched pattern on body; may have fine white lines radiating from eye

Confirmed distribution Indonesia; Malaysia; Philippines; Singapore; Thailand; Viet Nam

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Typically found at <10 m depth60; maximum reported depth 20 m4; coral reef, sponge gardens, kelp, floating Sargassum61; thought to prefer Sargassum as juveniles, moving to corals and sponges when older62

Life history Maximum reported height at onset of sexual maturity 8 cm62; breeding season year round in central Philippines62; found in pairs in the wild61; egg diameter averages 1.4 mm26; gestation duration 2–3 weeks62; length at birth averages 9 mm26; brood size 200–35063; planktonic immediately after birth64

Trade Dried for traditional medicine and curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. comes is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN13. The species is targeted by fishers supplying a substantial trade in seahorses for medicinal and aquarium uses; it is also incidentally caught (bycatch) in other fisheries and is affected by habitat degradation65. Fishers in the central Philippines estimate that populations declined by up to 70 percent over the 10 years prior to 199566

Similar species • H. kuda has a deeper head and thicker snout, low rounded spines or a smooth body, and a single rounded cheek spine. It lacks the distinctive markings of H. comes • H. spinosissimus has a thicker snout, more tail rings, and a higher coronet with longer spines. Its spines are more pronounced and lack the dark band of H. comes, and cheek spines usually single

Other notes • H. comes has commonly been synonymised with H. kuda but this is not supported by genetic and morphometric data40

41 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus coronatus Temminck and Schlegel 1850

Common names Crowned seahorse; tatsu-no-otoshigo (Japanese; Japan) (this may refer to H. sindonis. See Other notes)

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 12.7 cm67 Trunk rings: 10 Tail rings: 39 (38–40) HL/SnL: 2.4 (2.3–2.5) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings (no tail rings) Dorsal fin rays: 14 Pectoral fin rays: 12 Coronet: Extremely tall, turned backwards with a fluted tip Spines: Irregular. Most body angles lack spines; where they are present they are often long, thin and blunt-tipped

42 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Other distinctive characteristics: Short dorsal fin base, bordered by expanded wing-like projecting spines; prominent eye spine Colour/pattern: Yellowish, marbled with dark brown; black dorsal surface49

Confirmed distribution Japan

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Among Sargassum close to shore68

Life history Breeding season June to July68; length at birth approximately 9 mm68; brood size “several hundred”68 (reference may be to H. sindonis)

Trade Not known in international trade

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. coronatus is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13

Similar species • H. sindonis has fewer tail rings, a lower, angular coronet, a longer dorsal fin base and lacks the wing-like projections on either side of the dorsal fin base

Other notes • The name H. coronatus has in the past been applied to H. sindonis. Morphometric data indicates that these are different species2

43 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus denise Lourie and Randall 2003

Common names Denise’s pygmy seahorse

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 2.14 cm8 Trunk rings: 12 Tail rings: 28–29 HL/SnL: 3.3 (2.8–3.7) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 3 trunk rings (no tail rings) Dorsal fin rays: 14 Pectoral fin rays: 10 (10–11) Coronet: No raised coronet Spines: None Other distinctive characteristics: Limited number of tubercles on the body Colour/pattern: Plain orange with slightly darker rings around tail

44 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Confirmed distribution Indonesia; Malaysia; Federated States of Micronesia; Palau; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Solomon Islands; Vanuatu

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Typically found at 13–90 m depth8; in association with gorgonian seafans identified as Annella reticulata (Ellis and Solander 1786), Muricella sp. Verrill 1869, and Echinogorgia sp. Kölliker 18658

Life history Pregnant males have been found in February, May and October, suggesting a year-round breeding season8

Trade Not known in international trade

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. denise is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13

Similar species • H. bargibanti differs in head and body shape and has a number of additional tubercles on its ventral trunk region; it also may be differentiated by the number of tail rings. There is also no significant external shape difference between the two sexes • H. minotaur has a different tail ring and fin ray count and larger head and neck

45 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus erectus Perry 1810

Common names Lined seahorse; northern seahorse (U.S.A.); hippocampe rayé (French); caballito de mar (Spanish; Mexico)

Synonyms H. tetragonous Mitchill 1814; H. hudsonius DeKay 1842; H. punctulatus Guichenot 1853; H. fascicularis Kaup 1856; H. marginalis Kaup 1856; H. laevicaudatus Kaup 1856; H. villosus Günther 1880; H. stylifer Jordan and Gilbert 1882; H. kincaidi Townsend and Barbour 1906; H. brunneus Bean 1906

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 19 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 36 (34–39) HL/SnL: 2.6 (2.2–3.5) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 18–19 (16–20) Pectoral fin rays: 15–16 (14–18) Coronet: Variable, low, triangular wedge; ridge-like or raised with sharp edges; or with relatively sharp spines Spines: Variable from none to well-developed with blunt or sharp tips Other distinctive characters: Deep-bodied; may have enlarged first, third, fifth, seventh and eleventh trunk rings (in most other species the enlarged rings are the first, fourth, seventh and eleventh); snout is usually less than one-half head length; cheek spine may be single or double 46 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Base colour is variable, ranging from ash grey, orange, brown, yellow, and red to black (brown specimens tend to be paler on the ventral side); often with a characteristic pattern of white lines following the contour of the neck and tiny white dots on the tail. May have darker or paler saddles across the dorsal surface, often in line with the more enlarged body rings

Confirmed distribution Bahamas; Belize; Canada; Cuba; Guatemala; Haiti; Honduras; Mexico; Nicaragua; Panama; Saint Kitts and Nevis; United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Caribbean territories); United States of America; Venezuela

Suspected distribution Antigua and Barbuda; Argentina; Barbados; Brazil; Columbia; Costa Rica; Dominica; Dominican Republic; France (Caribbean territories); France (French Guiana); Grenada; Guyana; Jamaica; Netherlands (Caribbean territories); Saint Lucia; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Suriname; Trinidad and Tobago; Uruguay; United States of America (Caribbean territories)

Habitat Maximum reported depth 73 m18; seagrass, sponges, floating Sargassum69

Life history Maximum reported height at onset of sexual maturity 5.6 cm70 ; breeding season May to October71; egg diameter averages 1.5mm26; gestation duration 20–21 days72; length at birth averages 11 mm15; brood size usually 250–30072; maximum reported brood size 155271

Trade Dried for traditional medicine and curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. erectus is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN13. Mexican populations are listed in the NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 as species subject to special protection; Mexico prohibits the intentional capture and trade of wild seahorses, permitting only the commercialisation of cultured and incidentally caught seahorses. The species is caught in shrimp trawling and by other fisheries, and is affected by habitat degradation due to coastal development and pollution73

Similar species • H. hippocampus is smaller; has a shorter snout and is restricted to the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic • H. reidi has a narrower body, a rounded coronet, and a head that is less deep

Other notes • Males have proportionally longer tails than do females70 • Known to develop elaborate skin fronds • H. erectus has variable forms and may represent more than one species • Specimens from Argentina and Brazil appear to be genetically distinct from north Atlantic specimens, and may prove to be a separate species40 47 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus fisheri Jordan and Evermann

Common names Fisher’s seahorse

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 8 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 37–38 (36–39) HL/SnL: 2.2 (2.2–2.3) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2–3 trunk rings and 1–2 tail rings Dorsal fin rays: 17–18 Pectoral fin rays: 15 (13–16) Coronet: Slightly raised, with five tiny sharp points Spines: Small but sharp; a few spines expanded and flattened Other distinctive characters: Small, sharp, slightly hooked double eye and cheek spines; prominent, sharp, hook-like spine in front of coronet; two spines behind coronet

48 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Golden orange, red or pink; enlarged knobs are brighter in colour; head, crown and snout are orange-brown; male pouch is paler than rest of body; some specimens have blackish mottling74

Confirmed distribution United States of America (Hawaii)

Suspected distribution Australia; France (New Caledonia)

Habitat Unknown

Life history Unknown

Trade Not known in international trade

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. fisheri is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13

Similar species • H. trimaculatus, found in Southeast Asia and northern Australia, has more tail rings and more dorsal and pectoral fin rays; a lower coronet; single eye and cheek spines; no nose spine; and often has three black spots on the dorso-lateral surface

Other notes • Specimens from Lord Howe Island in Australia and New Caledonia have tentatively been assigned to H. fisheri, but further research is needed to confirm the species occurrence in these areas

49 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus fuscus Rüppell 1838

Common names Sea pony

Synonyms H. brachyrhynchus Duncker 1914; H. natalensis von Bonde 1924

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 14.4 cm75 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 34 (33–37) HL/SnL: 2.7 (2.4–3.0) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 16 (14–17) Pectoral fin rays: 15 (14–16) Coronet: Low; arch of neck is a smooth curve or is slightly raised and rough Spines: Low, smooth or slightly developed Other distinctive characteristics: Head large compared to body; deep head Colour/pattern: Usually dark but can be bright yellow; specimens from Suez are pale with marbled pattern of brown lines on trunk and head 50 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Confirmed distribution Djibouti; India; Saudi Arabia; Sri Lanka

Suspected distribution Bahrain; Comoros; Cyprus; Egypt; Eritrea; France (Réunion); Islamic Republic of Iran; Israel; Kenya; Kuwait; Lebanon; Madagascar; Mauritius; Mozambique; Oman; Pakistan; Qatar; Seychelles; Somalia; South Africa; Sudan; Syria; Turkey; United Arab Emirates; United Republic of Tanzania; Yemen

Habitat Maximum reported depth 10 m75; artificial structures, stones, gravel, harbours and bays with calm water75; shallow, protected waters on the edges of algal reefs or seagrass beds4

Life history Found in pairs in captivity26; sexually monogamous in captivity26; egg diameter averages 1.7 mm26; gestation duration averages 14 days26; length at birth averages 7.5 mm15; maximum reported brood size 15075

Trade Dried for traditional medicine and curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. fuscus is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Indian populations were moved under Schedule-I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) in 2001 which bans any collection or trade

Similar species • H. borboniensis has more tail rings, enlarged, knob-like spines, and a better-developed coronet with five rounded knobs • H. hippocampus, found in the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic, has more tail rings, more dorsal fin rays, and fewer pectoral fin rays • H. kuda has a larger body and deeper head, usually more tail rings, and a more pronounced but rounded coronet

Other notes • Males have proportionally longer tails and shorter snouts than do females26 • Genetic data suggest specimens from India are part of the H. kuda complex (see Appendix D)40 51 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus guttulatus Cuvier 1829

Common names Long-snouted seahorse

Synonyms H. hippocampus microstephanus Slastenenko 1937; H. hippocampus microcoronatus Slastenenko 1938; H. guttulatus multiannularis Ginsburg 1937; H biscuspis Kaup 1856

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 18 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 37–39 (35–40) HL/SnL: 2.6 (2.3–2.9) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 19–20 (17–20) Pectoral fin rays: 17 (16–18) Coronet: Small but distinct, with 5 rounded knobs or blunt points; horizontal plate in front of coronet, as high as coronet itself and with a more or less prominent spine at its front edge; coronet not joined smoothly to neck Spines: Medium to well-developed, with blunt tips

52 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Other distinctive characteristics: Prominent, rounded eye spines; often has a mane of thick skin fronds on neck and head Colour/pattern: Variable brown; prominent white spots on body, often with a dark ring around them, that tend to coalesce into horizontal wavy lines76; may be variously mottled or with pale saddles across dorso-lateral surface

Confirmed distribution Croatia; Cyprus; France; Greece; Italy; Malta; Morocco; Netherlands; Portugal; Spain; United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Suspected distribution Albania; Algeria; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Egypt; Israel; Lebanon; Libya; Monaco; Serbia and Montenegro; Senegal; Slovenia; Syria; Tunisia; Turkey

Habitat Maximum reported depth 12 m77; shallow inshore waters in seaweeds and algal stands4, 78; deeper depths and rocky areas in winter79

Life history Height at which 50 per cent of the population has reached sexual maturity 10 cm77; breeding season March to October80; found in groups in the wild77; egg diameter averages 2 mm15; gestation duration 3–5 weeks76; length at birth averages 12 mm15; maximum reported brood size 58181; planktonic immediately after birth81

Trade Dried for curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. guttulatus is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. H. guttulatus is listed in the Red Data Books of France and Portugal; the species is protected in Slovenia under the 1993 Protection of Threatened Animal Species Act, which prohibits trade in and bans the keeping of the animal in captivity

Similar species • H. algiricus has thicker body rings and fewer dorsal fin rays • H. hippocampus has a more rounded body, shorter snout, fewer fin rays, and a higher, ridge-like or wedge-shaped coronet attached smoothly to the nape of the neck

Other notes • Males have proportionally longer tails than do females77 • This species has been widely called H. ramulosus, but re-examination of the H. ramulosus type specimen shows that it differs from the species discussed in this guide as H. guttulatus • Specimens from the Black Sea have tiny coronets and less pronounced tubercles on the body. They may represent a separate species 53 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus hippocampus Linnaeus 1758

Common names Short-snouted seahorse

Synonyms H. heptagonus Rafinesque 1810; H. antiquorum Leach 1814; H. vulgaris Cloquet 1821; H. brevirostris Schinz 1822; H. antiquus Risso 1826; H. europaeus Ginsburg 1933

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 15 cm79 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 37 (35–38) HL/SnL: 3.0 (2.8–3.4) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 17 (16–19) Pectoral fin rays: 14 (13–15) Coronet: Narrow, ridge-like and joined smoothly to nape of neck, or wedge-shaped (narrow front and high, broad back); some specimens, especially from West Africa, have large angular coronet Spines: Low (very low in adults) Other characteristics: Short snout, usually less than one-third head length, and prominent eye spine

54 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Brown, orange, purple or black, sometimes with tiny white dots (these do not coalesce into thick horizontal wavy lines as in H. guttulatus)

Confirmed distribution Algeria; France; Greece; Guinea; Italy; Malta; Netherlands; Portugal; Senegal; Spain; United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Suspected distribution Albania; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Belgium; Croatia; Cyprus; Egypt; Gambia; Guinea-Bissau; Israel; Lebanon; Libya; Mauritania; Monaco; Morocco; Serbia and Montenegro; Slovenia; Syria; Tunisia; Turkey; Western Sahara

Habitat Maximum reported depth 60 m82; shallow, muddy waters, estuaries, inshore among algae, rocky areas, may over-winter in deeper water76

Life history Height at which 50 per cent of the population has reached sexual maturity 7.7 cm77; breeding season April to October83; found in pairs in the wild77; egg diameter averages 1.6 mm84; gestation duration averages 3.5 weeks15; length at birth averages 9.3 mm15; maximum reported brood size 86581; planktonic immediately after birth81

Trade Dried for curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. hippocampus is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. H. hippocampus is listed in the Red Data Book of Portugal; the species is protected in Slovenia under the 1993 Protection of Threatened Animals Act, which prohibits trade in and the keeping of the seahorse in captivity

Similar species • H. erectus, found in the western Atlantic, is larger and the young of the species usually have more prominent spines • H. guttulatus is larger and has more fin rays, a small coronet with five rounded points or knobs that is not connected smoothly to the nape of the neck, and a long horizontal plate in front of the coronet. It usually has thick skin filaments on the head and dorsal upper trunk, and often has dark-edged white spots coalescing into wavy horizontal lines on the body

Other notes • Some specimens from West Africa have large, angular coronets and may represent a separate species

55 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus histrix Kaup 1856

Common names Thorny seahorse; ibaratatsu (Japanese; Japan); stekel-seeperdjie (Afrikaans;South Africa)

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 17 cm68 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 35 (34–37) HL/SnL: 1.8 (1.7–2.0) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 17 (15–18) Pectoral fin rays: 18 (17–20) Coronet: Medium, with four or five long, sharp spines Spines: Extremely long and sharp; all spines well-developed Other distinctive characteristics: Long snout (more than one-half head length); single cheek spine; short dorsal fin base; always has at least as many pectoral as dorsal fin rays (most species have more dorsal than pectoral fin rays); sharp ventral keel; prominent spine in front of coronet

56 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Base colour variable, including pale pink, yellow or green; spines often dark-tipped; may have pale saddles, often with small dark spots, across dorso-lateral surfaces; snout not striped

Confirmed distribution China; Federated States of Micronesia; France (New Caledonia, Réunion, and Tahiti); India; Indonesia; Japan; Malaysia; Mauritius; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Samoa; South Africa; Tonga; United Republic of Tanzania; United States of America of America (Hawaii); Viet Nam

Suspected distribution Bangladesh; Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; China (Hong Kong SAR and Province of Taiwan); Comoros; Fiji; Kenya; Kiribati; Madagascar; Mozambique; Myanmar; Nauru; Palau; Seychelles; Singapore; Solomon Islands; Sri Lanka; Thailand; Tuvalu; United States of America (American Samoa); Vanuatu

Habitat Typically found >6 m depth60; maximum reported depth 20 m85; seagrass bed, weedy rocky reefs, sponges85; soft bottom with soft corals and sponges4

Life history Found in pairs in the wild85

Trade Dried for traditional medicine and curios; rarely live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. histrix is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Indian populations were moved under Schedule-I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) in 2001 which bans any collection or trade; H. histrix is listed as Vulnerable in the Viet Nam National Red Data Book

Similar species • H. angustus, occurring off Australia, has a shorter, striped snout, double cheek spines, and blunter spines, especially on the upper dorsal surface of the trunk • H. barbouri has a shorter, striped snout, a higher coronet, double cheek spines, and blunter spines. It often also has poorly developed or undeveloped spines on alternate tail rings • H. jayakari has more tail rings, more dorsal fin rays, a shorter snout, and spines on alternate tail rings only. This species furthermore is not known outside the Red Sea and Persian Gulf • H. spinosissimus has a deeper body; more tail rings; a shorter snout; lower, blunter spines; and a higher coronet with smaller spines

Other notes • The name H. histrix has been used indiscriminately for at least five species of spiny seahorse in the Indo-Pacific basin. The true H. histrix is a distinctive species with one of the largest distributions of any seahorse 57 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus ingens Girard 1859

Common names Pacific seahorse (U.S.A.); caballito del Pacifico (Spanish, Mexico)

Synonyms H. gracilis Gill 1862; H. ecuadorensis Fowler 1921; H. hildebrandi Ginsburg 1933

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 31 cm86 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 39 (38–40) HL/SnL: 2.3 (2.1–2.5) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring. Dorsal fin rays: 19 (18–21) Pectoral fin rays: 16 (15–17) Coronet: Medium-high, tilted backwards with five well-defined points, sharp edges, or flanges at top Spines: Variable, from low, rounded bumps to well-developed, blunt-tipped spines Other distinctive characteristics: Prominent, long (drooping), rounded, single cheek spines; prominent eye spine (may be broad or almost double); males commonly have a prominent keel; sexually mature females often have a dark patch below the anal fin87

58 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Reddish-maroon, grey, yellow and gold; various shades of brown; may have fine white lines and dark markings running vertically down body

Confirmed distribution Columbia; Costa Rica; Ecuador; El Salvador; Guatemala; Mexico; Nicaragua; Panama; Peru; United States of America

Suspected distribution Honduras

Habitat Typically found at 1–20 m depth87; maximum reported depth 60 m87; among gorgonians or black coral88; clinging to reefs on sponges, branches, and corals4; seagrass89; have been found in the stomachs of Pacific yellowfin tuna and bluefin tuna19

Life history Maximum reported height at onset of sexual maturity 5.4 cm89; gestation duration 14–15 days87; length at birth averages 8.5 mm15; brood size usually 40087; maximum reported brood size 200023

Trade Dried for traditional medicine and curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. ingens is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN13. Mexican populations are listed in the NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 as species subject to special protection; Mexico prohibits the intentional capture and trade of wild seahorses, permitting only the commercialisation of cultured and incidentally caught seahorse. H. ingens is subject also to bycatch in shrimp trawling and is affected by habitat degradation90

Similar species • H. algiricus has fewer tail rings; broad, almost double eye and cheek spines; and usually fewer dorsal fin rays. The species is found only in West Africa • H. kelloggi has fewer dorsal fin rays, more pectoral fin rays, and a narrower body. It is found only in the Indo-Pacific basin • H. kuda usually has fewer tail rings and fewer dorsal fin rays, and may have 2 cheek spines and no eye spines. It is found only in the Indo-Pacific basin • H. reidi has fewer tail rings and a lower coronet, but with a broader, more rounded top. The species is found only in the Caribbean

Other notes • Genetic evidence suggests that H. ingens and H. reidi are closely related and are part of the H. kuda complex (see Appendix D)40

59 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus jayakari Boulenger 1900a

Common names Jayakar’s seahorse

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 14 cm4 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 38–39 HL/SnL: 2.1 (1.9–2.4) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 19 (18–19) Pectoral fin rays: 17–18 Coronet: Low-medium with four long sharp spines Spines: Long and sharp; no spines on alternate tail rings Other distinctive characteristics: Double cheek spine (usually); double spine below eye; long, sharp spine in front of coronet and above eye

60 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Pale cream or beige coloured; often with a pattern of large white spots on body and face; spines with a broad dark band near tip; dark midventral line

Confirmed distribution Israel; Oman; Pakistan

Suspected distribution Bahrain; Djibouti; Egypt; Eritrea; Islamic Republic of Iran; Kuwait; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; Somalia; Sudan; United Arab Emirates; Yemen

Habitat Maximum reported depth 20 m4; rubble-algae with sparse seagrass, soft-bottom on sponges4; seagrass beds2

Life history Unknown

Trade Not known in international trade

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. jayakari is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13

Similar species • H. histrix has fewer tail rings, fewer dorsal fin rays, a longer snout, spines on all tail rings, and a single cheek spine

Other notes • Red Sea specimens have much longer snouts than do those from the Arabian Sea • Some specimens have extremely long, thick skin filaments attached to their head and neck; these can be lost and regenerated

61 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus kelloggi Jordan and Snyder 1902

Common names Kellogg’s seahorse; great seahorse (U.S.A.); offshore seahorse (Viet Nam); o-umi-uma (Japanese; Japan)

Synonyms H. suezensis Duncker 1940 (but see Other notes)

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 28 cm4 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 40 (39–41) HL/SnL: 2.1 (2.0–2.3) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 18 (17–19) Pectoral fin rays: 18 (17–19) Coronet: High, with five short spines and high plate in front of coronet Spines: Low and rounded; slightly better developed in younger specimens, but still blunt-tipped Other distinctive characteristics: Long, slightly backwards-pointing, rounded cheek spine; deep head; narrow body; thick body rings; prominent, rounded eye spine; thick snout

62 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Pale, often with tiny white spots running in vertical lines; otherwise uniform in colour

Confirmed distribution China; India; Indonesia; Japan; Malaysia; Pakistan; Philippines; Thailand; United Republic of Tanzania; Viet Nam

Suspected distribution Australia; Bahrain; Bangladesh; Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; China (Hong Kong SAR and Province of Taiwan); Djibouti; Egypt; Eritrea; Iraq; Islamic Republic of Iran; Israel; Kenya; Kuwait; Myanmar; Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; Seychelles; Singapore; Somalia; Sri Lanka; Sudan; United Arab Emirates; Yemen

Habitat Maximum reported depth 152 m60; associated with gorgonian corals and sea whips91; soft bottom4

Life history Unknown

Trade Dried for traditional medicine and curios, live for aquarium and hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. kelloggi is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001; the species is listed under wildlife protection laws in China, where it is listed as a Priority Fish Species (Grade B) in a review of China’s biodiversity92; Indian populations were moved under Schedule-I of the wildlife Protection Act (1972) in 2001 which bans any collection or trade; H. kelloggi is listed as Vulnerable in the Viet Nam National Red Data book (although the accompanying picture is of H. trimaculatus)

Similar species • H. algiricus, found only in West Africa, has fewer tail rings and broad (almost double) eye and cheek spines • H. ingens, found only off the west coast of the Americas, has fewer pectoral fin rays and more dorsal fin rays • H. kuda has a deeper body, fewer tail rings, fewer pectoral fin rays, and a lower, more rounded coronet • H. spinosissimus has a deeper body, fewer tail rings, and fewer pectoral fin rays. Young animals, however, look very similar to H. kelloggi

Other notes • The name H. suezensis has been used for large seahorses from the Red Sea. The validity of this name has not yet been assessed 63 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II Hippocampus kuda Bleeker 1852a

Common names Yellow seahorse; spotted seahorse

Synonyms H. moluccensis Bleeker 1852b; H. taeniopterus Bleeker 1852b; H. polytaenia Bleeker 1854b; H. melanospilos Bleeker 1854c; H. chinensis Basilewsky 1855; H. rhynchomacer Duméril 1870; H. tristis Castelnau 1872; H. aterrimus Jordan and Snyder 1902; H. hilonis Jordan and Evermann 1903; H. taeniops Fowler 1904; H. horai Duncker 1926; H. kuda multiannularis Raj 1941; H. novaehebudorum Fowler 1944

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 17 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 36 (34–38) HL/SnL: 2.3 (2.0–2.6) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 17 (17–18) Pectoral fin rays: 16 (15–18) Coronet: Low to medium-height, rounded, overhanging at the back, often with a cup-like depression in the top; sometimes with broad flanges; not spiny Spines: Low, rounded bumps only 64 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Other distinctive characteristics: Deep head; deep body; thick snout Colour/pattern: Often totally black with a grainy texture; alternatively pale yellow or cream with fairly large, dark spots (especially females); may be sandy coloured, blending in with surroundings

Confirmed distribution Australia; Cambodia; China (Hong Kong SAR and Province of Taiwan); Fiji; France (New Caledonia and Tahiti); India; Indonesia; Japan; Malaysia; Pakistan; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Federated States of Micronesia; Singapore; Solomon Islands; Thailand; Tonga; United States of America (Hawaii); Viet Nam

Suspected distribution Bangladesh; Brunei Darussalam; China; Kiribati; Myanmar; Nauru; Palau; Samoa; Sri Lanka; Tuvalu; United States of America (American Samoa); Vanuatu

Habitat Typically found at 0–8 m depth60; maximum reported depth 55 m93; coastal bays and lagoons, in seagrass and in floating weeds85; sandy sediments in rocky littoral zone94; macroalgae and seagrass beds91; branches, muddy bottoms95; mangroves, estuaries, harbours, lower reaches of rivers (can inhabit brackish waters)4

Life history Breeding season year round96; egg diameter averages 1.8 mm97; gestation duration averages 17 days15; length at birth averages 7 mm15; maximum reported brood size 140596

Trade Dried for traditional medicines and curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. kuda is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN13. Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001; Indian populations were moved under Schedule-I of the wildlife Protection Act (1972) in 2001 which bans any collection or trade; the species is listed as Vulnerable in the Viet Nam National Red Data book

Similar species • H. algiricus, found in the eastern Atlantic off the west coast of Africa, has broad, almost double eye and cheek spines • H. ingens, found only off the west coast of the Americas, usually has more tail rings and more dorsal fin rays; never has 2 cheek spines • H. kelloggi has a narrower body, more tail rings, a higher coronet, and more prominent spines • H. reidi, found only in the western Atlantic, has fewer tail rings, a larger coronet, and broad, almost double eye spines • The H. kuda complex (see Appendix D) warrants further research to clarify relationships among the species it encompasses

65 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus lichtensteinii Kaup 1856

Common names Lichtenstein’s seahorse (English)

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 4 cm2 Trunk rings: 10 Tail rings: 31 HL/SnL: 3.9–4.2 Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings (no tail rings) Dorsal fin rays: 11–12 Pectoral fin rays: 11–12 Coronet: High, columnar or knob-like, without spines Spines: Low, rounded bumps only Other distinctive characteristics: Large head in relation to body Colour/pattern: Preserved specimens pale brown without markings

66 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Confirmed distribution Red Sea (countries not known)

Suspected distribution Djibouti; Egypt; Eritrea; Israel; Saudi Arabia; Somalia; Sudan; Yemen

Habitat Unknown

Life history Unknown

Trade Not known in international trade

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. lichtensteinii is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13

Similar species • H. zosterae is found in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and off the coasts of Florida and eastern Mexico

Other notes • The origin of the type specimens is not known, but presumed by Kaup in his original description to be the Red Sea

67 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus minotaur Gomon 1997

Common names Bullneck seahorse (Australia)

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: Less than 5 cm2 Trunk rings: 8 Tail rings: 41 HL/SnL: 6.2 Rings supporting dorsal fin: 1 trunk ring and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 7 Pectoral fin rays: 11 Coronet: Low mound Spines: None — body totally flat Other distinctive characteristics: No significant constriction between head and body; short snout; huge head; head and body extremely fleshy and lacking recognisable body rings, spines or other ornamentation; ventral trunk ridges undeveloped; body laterally flattened

68 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Preserved specimens only have been examined thus far; they are mostly cream, with scattered brown-centred dots

Confirmed distribution Australia

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Trawled from depths of 64–100 m45; fine, sandy or hard bottom, possibly in association with gorgonian coral45

Life history Unknown

Trade Not known in international trade

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. minotaur is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Environment Australia lists the conservation status of H. minotaur as Data Deficient39; Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001

Similar species • H. bargibanti has prominent tubercles on body, is less flattened, and has a larger dorsal fin base, more trunk rings, and fewer tail rings • H. denise is less flattened and has a proportionately larger dorsal fin, a longer dorsal fin base, more trunk rings, and fewer tail rings

Other notes • This species is known only from three type specimens (two females and a juvenile)

69 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus mohnikei Bleeker 1854a

Common names Japanese seahorse; kitano-umi-uma and sangotatsu (Japanese; Japan)

Synonyms H. japonicus Kaup 1856

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 8 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 38 (37–40) HL/SnL: 3.0 (2.8–3.9) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 15–16 Pectoral fin rays: 13 (12–14) Coronet: Low, ridge-like crest Spines: Low, body appears laterally flattened Other distinctive characteristics: Double rounded cheek spines and double rounded spines below eye; tail extremely long in proportion to body; slight enlargement of 4th 7th and sometimes 1st trunk

70 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II rings; slight enlargement of 5th, 10th, 14th and sometimes 9th tail rings Colour/pattern: Usually dark brown all over, but may be mottled

Confirmed distribution Japan

Suspected distribution Cambodia; China; Thailand; Viet Nam

Habitat Zostera seagrass beds in inlet water68; estuaries in Viet Nam98

Life history Maximum reported height at onset of sexual maturity 5.5 cm99

Trade Not known in international trade

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. mohnikei is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN13. H. mohnikei is listed (as H. japonicus) as Vulnerable in the 1994 Viet Nam Red Data Book

Similar species • H. coronatus has a high coronet and greatly expanded spines bordering a short dorsal fin • H. sindonis has fewer tail rings, 10 trunk rings, and a more prominent coronet

Other notes • Specimens from Viet Nam are genetically distinct from those from Japan, but further genetic and morphological research is needed to confirm whether they represent separate species40

71 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II Hippocampus reidi Ginsburg 1933

Common names Slender seahorse; longsnout seahorse (U.S.A.); caballito de hocico (Spanish, Mexico)

Synonyms H. obtusus Ginsburg 1933; H. poeyi Howell Rivero 1934

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 17.5 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 35 (31–39) HL/SnL: 2.2 (2.0–2.5) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 17 (16–19) Pectoral fin rays: 16 (15–17) Coronet: Low to medium-height, rounded; may be large and convoluted (like crumpled paper) Spines: None, or low, rounded tubercles Other distinctive characteristics: Broad, almost double cheek and eye spines; long, thick snout; narrow body; usually no skin appendages Colour/pattern: Often profusely spotted with brown dots and numerous tiny white dots (especially on tail); may have paler saddles across dorso-lateral surfaces 72 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Confirmed distribution Bahamas; Barbados; Belize; Brazil; Columbia; Cuba; Grenada; Haiti; Honduras; Jamaica; Mexico; Nicaragua; Panama; United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Caribbean territories); United States of America; Venezuela

Suspected distribution Antigua and Barbuda; Costa Rica; Dominica; Dominican Republic; France (Caribbean territories); France (French Guiana); Guatemala; Guyana; Netherlands (Caribbean territories); Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Suriname; Trinidad and Tobago; United States of America (Caribbean territories)

Habitat Typically found at 15–55 m depth18; mangrove roots, seagrass, macro algae, oysters, cnidarians, sponges, tunicates, artificial structures in estuaries100; gorgonian coral69; some on stone coral101

Life history Maximum reported height at onset of sexual maturity 8 cm18; found in pairs in the wild101; egg diameter averages 1.2 mm26; length at birth averages 7 mm26; maximum reported brood size 157226

Trade Dried for curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. reidi is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Mexican populations are listed in the NOM-059-SEMARNAT- 2001 as species subject to special protection; Mexico prohibits the intentional capture and trade of wild seahorses, permitting only the commercialisation of cultured and incidentally caught seahorses

Similar species • H. algiricus is found off West Africa • H. erectus has a deeper body; white lines on the head and neck; and a wedge-like or triangular coronet, with sharp edges or spines • H. kuda is found in the Indo-Pacific basin

Other notes • Males have longer tails than do females26 73 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus sindonis Jordan and Snyder 1902

Common names Shiho’s seahorse; enshûtatsu (Japanese; Japan)

Synonyms None known

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 8 cm2 Trunk rings: 10 Tail rings: 37 (36–38) HL/SnL: 3.0 (2.8–3.3) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 12 (11–15) Pectoral fin rays: 12 (12–14) Coronet: Medium height, well-developed, angular Spines: Well-developed, blunt-tipped, irregular Other distinctive characteristics: Angular deep body; slight keel; prominent double eye spine (front spine shorter than back one); prominent, round-tipped single cheek spine Colour/pattern: May be mottled

74 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Confirmed distribution Japan

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Unknown

Life history Unknown

Trade Not known in international trade

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. sindonis is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13

Similar species • H. coronatus has more tail rings; a higher and narrower coronet, turned back at the top; and wing-like projections bordering the dorsal fin base • H. mohnikei has 11 trunk rings and more tail rings; a relatively smooth body; double (low) cheek spines; and a coronet not significantly raised above the arch of the neck

Other notes • This species has often been misidentified as H. coronatus or H. mohnikei

75 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus spinosissimus Weber 1913

Common names Hedgehog seahorse

Synonyms H. aimei (arnei) Roulé 1916 (but only one of the specimens he described)

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 17.2 cm95 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 36 (33–39) HL/SnL: 2.2 (2.0–2.4) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 17–18 (16–20) Pectoral fin rays: 17 (16–19) Coronet: Low to medium-height, with four or five sharp spines Spines: Well-developed, either blunt or sharp, usually longer on first, fourth, seventh and eleventh trunk rings and with a regular series of longer spines on tail Other characteristics: Single or double cheek spines; small or no nose spine; spine in front of coronet rather undeveloped. Males have strongly developed, blunt-tipped spines bordering the pouch

76 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Variable; plain or pale with darker saddles across dorso-lateral surface and with darker cross-bands on tail

Confirmed distribution Australia; Cambodia; China (Province of Taiwan); Indonesia; Malaysia; Myanmar; Philippines; Singapore; Sri Lanka; Thailand; Viet Nam

Suspected distribution Bangladesh; Brunei Darussalam; China; China (Hong Kong SAR); India; Papua New Guinea

Habitat Typically found at >8 m depth60; maximum reported depth 70 m102; octocorals, macro algae, not hard corals, sand but not mud91; near coral reefs on sandy bottoms95

Life history Maximum reported height at onset of sexual maturity 10.4 cm95; breeding season year round, peaking May to October103; maximum reported brood size 68395

Trade Dried for traditional medicine and curios; live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. spinosissimus listed as Vulnerable by IUCN13. Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001. Indian populations were placed under Schedule-I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) in 2001 which bans any collection or trade; commonly caught as bycatch by trawlers in Thailand; conservation of the species is threatened by damage to its habitats104

Similar species • H. barbouri has double cheek spines, a striped snout, more fin rays, and fewer tail rings • H. histrix has a much longer and thinner snout, longer and sharper spines, a shorter dorsal fin base, and fewer tail rings; cheek spine is always single

Other notes • This species has often been misidentified as H. histrix

77 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus subelongatus Castelnau 1873

Common names West Australian seahorse (Australia); tigersnout seahorse (U.S.A.)

Synonyms H. elongatus Castelnau 1873

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 20 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 34 (33–36) HL/SnL: 2.1 (1.9–2.3) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 18 (16–20) Pectoral fin rays: 17 (16–18) Coronet: High to very high, with an expanded rounded top (larger and fluted in females; smaller and more rounded in males) Spines: Low, rounded bumps only Other distinctive characteristics: Thick rings; narrow body; usually double, rounded cheek spines; long snout (about one-half head length); prominent rounded eye spine

78 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Usually pale with netlike pattern of reticulating brown lines over body and tail; may be yellow, orange, black, purple, white, cream or pink; brown ring around spines; striped snout; dark vertical line edging either side of dorsal surface of trunk

Confirmed distribution Australia

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Typically found at 1–25 m depth105; found in deeper waters in winter105; found on edge of rocky areas, muddy bottoms and areas of high sediment load, jetty piles and moorings, often associated with sponges or sea squirts or attached to man-made objects105; rocky reef, seagrass meadow106

Life history Breeding seasonal107; gestation duration 2–3 weeks105; length at birth averages 11 mm15; brood size usually 250–600105; maximum reported brood size 700107

Trade Live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. subelongatus is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Management of the Australian populations of this species was placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001; numbers reportedly declined substantially in the Swan River near Perth, purportedly due to over-collecting for aquaria105

Similar species • H. angustus has a lower coronet with distinct spines and spines on junctions of body ridges; found from Shark Bay northwards

Other notes • Males have longer tails than do females107

79 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus trimaculatus Leach 1814

Common names Three-spot seahorse; takakura-tatsu (Japanese; Japan); low-crowned seahorse and flat-faced seahorse (Australia)

Synonyms H. mannulus Cantor 1850; H. kampylotrachelos Bleeker 1854d; H. manadensis Bleeker 1856; H. planifrons Peters 1877; H. dahli Ogilby 1908; H. takakurae Tanaka 1916

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 17 cm68 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 40–41 (38–43) HL/SnL: 2.2 (1.9–2.4) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 20 (18–22) Pectoral fin rays: 17–18 (16–19) Coronet: Low, in line with arch of neck, visible as five tiny points Spines: Low and small, to slightly raised Other characteristics: Sharp, hook-like cheek, eye spines (appear flat); narrow head; no nose spine

80 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Golden orange, sandy coloured or totally black; may have large dark spots on the dorso-lateral surface of the first, fourth and seventh trunk rings (less visible in dark specimens, and more common in males than females); some specimens zebra-striped in brown and white

Confirmed distribution Australia; Cambodia; China (Hong Kong SAR and Province of Taiwan); France (Tahiti); India; Indonesia; Japan; Malaysia; Myanmar; Philippines; Singapore; Thailand; Viet Nam

Suspected distribution Bangladesh; Brunei Darussalam; China; Papua New Guinea; Sri Lanka

Habitat Typically found at >10 m depth60; maximum reported depth 100 m108; octocorals, macro algae, not hard corals91; gravel, sandy bottoms around shallow reefs68; muddy bottoms in deeper waters95

Life history Breeding season year round, peaking March to May and in October103; egg diameter averages 1 mm109; gestation duration averages 16 days15; length at birth averages 6 mm109; maximum reported brood size 178395

Trade Dried for traditional medicine and curios

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. trimaculatus is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN13. Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001; Indian populations were placed under Schedule-I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) in 2001 which bans any collection or trade; listed as Vulnerable in the Viet Nam National Red Data book

Similar species • H. fisheri, a smaller species found in Hawaii, has double cheek and eye spines, a prominent nose spine, and a hooked spine in front of the coronet; some body spines are greatly enlarged; and it has fewer tail rings and fin rays • H. zebra has no cheek spine, fewer tail rings, fewer dorsal fin rays, and a higher coronet

Other notes • Some specimens from northwest Australia have shorter snouts (HL/SnL ratio of 2.3–2.7), deeper heads and bodies, usually 23 dorsal fin rays, small cheek and eye spines (not hook-like), and characteristic split spots on the first and fourth trunk rings. These may represent a separate species

81 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus whitei Bleeker 1855

Common names White’s seahorse; New Holland seahorse; Sydney seahorse (Australia)

Synonyms H. novaehollandiae Steindachner 1866

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 13 cm2 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 35 (32–36) HL/SnL: 2.3 (2.0–2.7) Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 18 (16–20) Pectoral fin rays: 16–17 (15–18) Coronet: High, inclined backwards, with seven sharp angles or points at top Spines: Variable; ranging from low to moderately developed and from rounded to quite sharp Other distinctive characteristics: Long snout; prominent, sharp eye spines; single or double cheek spines; head quite narrow

82 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Dull greyish brown to yellow; often mottled brown with a net-like pattern of reticulating dark lines; may have saddles of paler colour across dorso-lateral surface

Confirmed distribution Australia; Solomon Islands

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Maximum reported depth 25 m110; weedy inshore areas, seagrass beds, sponges, under jetties on kelp holdfast110; man-made objects such as shark nets111

Life history Breeding season October to April112; found in pairs in the wild111; sexually monogamous in the wild; egg diameter averages 1.8 mm26; gestation duration 21–22 days111; length at birth averages 8.5 mm26; brood size usually 100–25026

Trade Live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. whitei is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Environment Australia lists the conservation status of H. whitei as Data Deficient39; Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001

Similar species • H. camelopardalis, known only from South Africa and east Africa, has more tail rings and a coronet that is rounded at the top and that lacks the seven sharp angles or spines; it also often has a dark spot at the top of the coronet

83 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus zebra Whitley 1964

Common names Zebra seahorse

Synonyms

None known Description Maximum recorded adult height: 9.4 cm113 Trunk rings: 11 Tail rings: 38–39 HL/SnL: 2.1–2.2 Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring Dorsal fin rays: 17 Pectoral fin rays: 15–16 Coronet: Medium, conical, with five tiny points on top (not splayed) Spines: Low, small and sharp, or none Other distinctive characteristics: Prominent sharp eye spine Colour/pattern: Black (or dark brown) and white striped all over

84 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Confirmed distribution Australia

Suspected distribution No other locations suspected

Habitat Maximum reported depth 69 m113; found on coral reefs2

Life history Unknown

Trade Not known in international trade

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. zebra is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Environment Australia lists the conservation status of H. zebra as Data Deficient39; Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001

Similar species • H. trimaculatus (zebra-striped form) has more tail rings, more dorsal fin rays, a lower coronet and a hook-like cheek spine

85 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Hippocampus zosterae Jordan and Gilbert 1882

Common names Dwarf seahorse (U.S.A.); caballito enano (Spanish, Mexico)

Synonyms H. rosamondae Borodin 1928; H. regulus Ginsburg 1933

Description Maximum recorded adult height: 2.5 cm2 Trunk rings: 9–10 Tail rings: 31–32 HL/SnL: 4.2–4.3 Rings supporting dorsal fin: 2 trunk rings (no tail rings) Dorsal fin rays: 12 Pectoral fin rays: 11–12 Coronet: High, columnar or knob-like, without spines or projections Spines: Low or knob-like Other distinctive characteristics: Short snout less than one-third head length; skin often covered in tiny warts 86 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Colour/pattern: Beige, yellow, green, black; mottling variable (distinct to absent); may have white markings like splashes of paint; some specimens have dark spots

Confirmed distribution Bahamas; Mexico, United States of America

Suspected distribution No other locations are suspected

Habitat Seagrass beds in summer, in winter moving deeper or into tide pools with heavy vegetation, may move with tidal currents114; distribution correlated with presence, abundance and length of seagrasses115

Life history Breeding season February to November114; sexually monogamous in captivity22; maximum reported brood size 55114; egg diameter averages 1.3 mm26; gestation duration averages 11 days15; length at birth averages 8 mm15

Trade Live for aquarium or hobbyist use

Conservation status The entire genus Hippocampus is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 20041. H. zosterae is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN13. Mexican populations are listed in the NOM-059-SEMARNAT- 2001 as species subject to special protection; Mexico prohibits the intentional capture and trade of wild seahorses, permitting only the commercialisation of cultured and incidentally caught seahorses

Similar species • H. lichtensteinii, which is known only from the Red Sea and Indian Ocean

Other notes • Males have longer tails and snouts than do females26 • Specimens brought into aquaria usually lose their skin filaments within a couple of days116

87 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

REFERENCES

1 Anon. (2003a). Proposals for amendment of Appendices I and II Results. CITES Secretariat, Geneva. http://www.cites.org/eng/news/world/cop12_prop_results.pdf. Viewed September 2003. 2 Lourie, S. A., Vincent, A. C. J. and Hall, H. J. (1999). Seahorses - An Identification Guide to the World’s Species and their Conservation. Project Seahorse, London, UK. 213 pp. 3 Horne, M. L. (2001). A new seahorse species (Syngnathidae: Hippocampus) from the Great Barrier Reef. Records of the Australian Museum 53: 243-246. 4 Kuiter, R. H. (2000). Seahorses, Pipefishes and their Relatives: A Comprehensive Guide to Syngnathiformes. TMC Publishing: Chorleywood, UK. 240 pp. 5 Kuiter, R. H. (2001). Revision of the Australian seahorses of the genus Hippocampus (Sygnathioformes: Syngnathidae) with a description of nine new species. Records of the Australian Museum 53: 293-340. 6 Kuiter, R. H. (2003). A new pygmy seahorse (Pices: Syngnathidae: Hippocampus) from Lord Howe Island. Records of the Australian Museum 55(2): 113-116. 7 Anon. (2002). Consideration of proposals for amendment of Appendices I and II Prop. 12.37. CITES Secretariat, Geneva. http://www.cites.org/eng/cop/12/prop/E12-P37.pdf. Viewed September 2003. 8 Lourie, S. A. and Randall, J. E. (2003). A new pygmy seahorse, Hippocampus denise (Teleostei: Syngnathidae), from the Indo-Pacific. Zoological Studies 42: 284-291. 9 Anon. (2003b). List of Member States. United Nations, New York. http://www.un.org/Overview/ unmember.html. Viewed December 2003. 10 Vincent, A. C. J. (1996). The International Trade in Seahorses. TRAFFIC International, Cambridge, UK. 11 Vincent, A. C. J. and Perry, A., Project Seahorse, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, personal communication to S. Foster. 12 Lee, S. K. H., TRAFFIC East Asia, Hong Kong, personal communication to A. Vincent. 13 IUCN. (2003). 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland. http://www.redlist.org. Viewed January 2004. 14 Anon. (2004). List of Contracting Parties. CITES Secretariat, Geneva, Switzerland. http:// www.cites.org/eng/parties/index.shtml. Viewed January 2004. 15 Foster, S. J. and Vincent, A. C. J. (in press). The life history and ecology of seahorses, Hippocampus spp.: implications for conservation and management. Journal of Fish Biology. 16 Nelson, J. S. (1994). Fishes of the World, 3rd edn. John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA. 624 pp. 17 Orr, J. W. (1995) Phylogenetic relationships of Gasterosteiform fishes (Teleostei: Acanthomorpha). PhD Thesis. University of Washington, Seattle, USA. 18 Vari, R. P. (1982). Order Gasterosteiformes, Suborder Syngnathoidei (Doryrahmphinae, Syngnathinae, Hippocampinae). In: Fishes of the Western North Atlantic. Sears Foundation for Marine Research, Yale University, New Haven, USA. pp. 178-193. 19 Alverson, F. G. (1963). The food of yellowfin and skipjack tunas in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commision Bulletin 7, 293-396. 20 Herald, E. S. (1949). Pipefishes and seahorses as food for tuna. California Fish and Game 35, 329. 21 Wilson, P. C. and Beckett, J. S. (1970). Atlantic Ocean distribution of the pelagic stingray, Dasyatis vioacea. Copeia 1970, 696-707. 22 Masonjones, H. D. and Lewis, S. M. (1996). Courtship behavior in the dwarf seahorse, Hippocampus zosterae. Copeia 1996, 634-640. 23 Burhans, R., Birch Aquarium, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, USA, in litt. to S. Foster, 21 August 2003. 88 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

24 Norman, J. R. and Greenwood, P. H. (Eds). (1975). A History of Fishes, 3rd edn. Ernest Benn Limited, London, UK. 467 pp. 25 Francis, M. (1988). Coastal Fishes of New Zealand. Heinemann Reid, Auckland, NZ. 130 pp. 26 Vincent, A.C.J. (1990). Reproductive ecology of seahorses. Ph.D. thesis. Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK. 101 pp. 27 Amakoa, K., Matsuura, K., Inada, T., Takeda, M. Hatakanka, H., Okada, K. (eds). (1990). Fishes collected by the R/V Sinkai Maru around New Zealand. Japan Marine Fishery Resource Centre, Tokyo, Japan. 410 pp. 28 Paxton, J. R., Hoese, D. F., Allen, G. R. and Honley, J. E. (1989). Zoological Catalogue of Australia, Vol 7. Pisces - Petromyzontidae to Carangidae. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Australia. 665 pp. 29 Lovett, J. M. (1969). An introduction to the biology of the seahorse Hippocampus abdominalis. Honours thesis. University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia. 103 pp. 30 Woods, C. M. C. (2000). Preliminary observations on breeding and rearing the seahorse Hippocampus abdominalis teleostei: Syngnathidae) in captivity. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 34, 475-485. 31 Kuiter, R. H. (1997). Guide to the sea fishes of Australia, A comprehensive reference for divers and fishermen. New Holland Publishers, Frenchs Forest, Australia. 434 pp. 32 Flynn, A. J. and Ritz, D. A. (1999). Effect of the habitat complexity and predatory style on the capture success of fish feeding on aggregated prey. Journal of the Marine Biology Association U.K. 79, 487-494. 33 Martin-Smith, K., Project Seahorse, University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia, in litt. to S. Foster, 13 Jun 2003. 34 Woods, C., National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research (NIWA), Wellington, New Zealand, in litt. to S. Foster, 27 March 2003. 35 Woods, C., James, P. and Poortenaar, C. (2003). Dads going it alone - fertility and seahorses. Seafood New Zealand 11, 42-43. 36 Woods, C. (1998). Seahorse culture. Seafood New Zealand 6(3), 31-33. 37 Hawkins, R., Seahorse Australia, Tasmania, Australia, in litt. to S. Foster, 12 June 2003. 38 Hickford, M. J. H. (2000). Patterns of distribution and abundance of larval fish in a southern temperate region. Ph.D. thesis. University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. 142 pp. 39 Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. A. and Paxton, J. R. (2002). Conservation overview and action plan for Australian threatened and potentially threatened marine and estuarine fishes. Environment Australia, Canberra, Australia. 375 pp. 40 Casey, S., Zoological Society of London, London, UK, in litt. to S. Lourie. 41 Wilson, M. J. and Vincent, A. C. J. (1998). Preliminary success in closing the life cycle of exploited seahorse species, Hippocampus spp., in captivity. Aquarium Sciences and Conservation 2, 179-196. 42 Perez-Oconer, E. (2002). Reproductive biology and gestation of the male seahorses, Hippocampus barbouri (Jordan and Richardson 1908). PhD thesis. University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. 131 pp. 43 Warland, T. (2003). Seahorses: How to Care for Your Seahorses in the Marine Aquarium. South Australian Seahorse Marine Services, Port Lincoln, Australia. 96 pp. 44 Lafrance, P., Lourie, S. A, Marsden, A. D. and Vincent, A. C. J. (2001a). Hippocampus barbouri. In: 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland. http://www.redlist.org. Viewed June 2003. 45 Gomon, M. F. (1997). A remarkable new pygmy seahorse (Syngnathidae: Hippocampus) from Southeastern Australia, with a redescription of H. bargibanti Whitley from New Caledonia. Memoirs of the Museum of Victoria 56(1), 245-253.

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46 Tackett, D. and Tackett, L. (1997). Pygmy Seahorse: The lilliputian reef rider. Asian Diver Oct/Nov, 61-63. 47 Tackett, D., naturalist, Paden City, USA, in litt. to S. Foster, 21 March 2002. 48 Lourie, S., Project Seahorse, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, in litt. to S. Foster, 28 November 2003. 49 Duméril, A. (1870). Histoire naturelle des poissons ou ichthyologie générale, vol. 2. p. 500-526. 50 Holley, A., freelance photographer, New Malden, UK, personal communication to S. Lourie. 51 Moreau, M.-A. and Vincent, A. C. J. (Forthcoming). Social structure and space use in a wild population of the Australian short-headed seahorse, Hippocampus breviceps Peters 1869. 52 Kuiter, R., underwater photographer, Seaford, Australia, personal communication to S. Lourie. 53 Hutchins, B., curator, Western Australian Museum, Perth, Australia, personal communication to S. Lourie. 54 Lowe, R. T. (1843). A History of the Fishes of Madeira. Bernard Quaritch, London, UK. 196 pp. 55 Lockyear, J., Kaiser, H., and Hecht, T. (1997). Studies on the captive breeding of the Knysna seahorse, Hippocampus capensis. Aquarium Sciences and Conservation 1, 129-136. 56 Whitfield, A. K. (1995). Threatened fishes of the world: Hippocampus capensis Boulenger, 1990 (Syngnathidae). Environmental Biology of Fishes 44, 362. 57 Grange, N. and Cretchley, R. (1995). A preliminary investigation of the reproductive behaviour of the Knysna seahorse Hippocampus capensis Boulenger, 1900. South African Journal of Aquatic Sciences 21(1/2), 103-104. 58 Bell, E., Lockyear, J. F., McPherson, J. M., Marsden, A. D. and Vincent, A.C.J. (2003). First field studies of an Endangered South African seahorse, Hippocampus capensis. Environmental Biology of Fishes 67, 35-46. 59 Meeuwig, J. J., Project Seahorse, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, in litt. to S. Foster. 60 Lourie, S. A. (2001). Seahorses (Genus Hippocampus) of Indonesia. McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Unpublished report. 61 Perante, N. C., Pajaro, M. G., Meeuwig, J. J. and Vincent, A. C. J. (2002). Biology of a seahorse species Hippocampus comes in the central Philippines. Journal of Fish Biology 60, 821-837. 62 Perante, N. C., Vincent, A. C. J. and Pajaro, M. G. (1998). Demographics of the seahorse Hippocampus comes in the central Philippines. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on the Marine Biology of the South China Sea. Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong. p. 439- 448. 63 Perante, N., Project Seahorse-Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources, Cebu, Philippines, in litt. to S. Lourie. 64 Morgan, S., Project Seahorse, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, in litt. to S. Foster, 27 August 2003. 65 Lafrance, P., Lourie, S. A., Marsden, A. D. and Vincent, A. C. J. (2001b). Hippocampus comes. In: 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland. http://www.redlist.org. Viewed June 2003. 66 Vincent, A. C. J. and Pajaro, M. G. (1997). Community-based management for a sustainable seahorse fishery. In: Proceedings of the 2nd World Fisheries Congress. Brisbane, Australia. p. 761-766. 67 Kaup, J. J. (1856). Catalogue of Lophobranchiate Fish in the Collection of the British Museum. Woodfall and Kinder, London, UK. 80 pp. 68 Masuda, H., Amaoka, K., Araga, C., Uyeno, T. and Yoshino, T. (1984). The Fishes of the Japanese Archipelago. Tokai University Press, Tokyo, Japan. 437 pp.

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69 Lieske, E. and Myers, R. (1994). Collins pocket guide to the coral reef fishes of the Indo-Pacific and Caribbean. HarperCollins Publishers, London, UK. 400 pp. 70 Baum, J. K., Meeuwig, J. J. and Vincent, A. C. J. (2003). Bycatch of seahorse (Hippocampus erectus) in a Gulf of Mexico shrimp trawl fishery. Fishery Bulletin 101(4), 721-731. 71 Teixeira, R. L. and Musick, J. A. (2001). Reproduction and food habits of the lined seahorse, Hippocampus erectus (Teleostei: Syngnathidae) of Chesapeake Bay, Virginia. Review Brazilian Biology 61(1), 79-90. 72 Herald, E. S. and Rakowicz, M. (1951). Stable requirements for raising sea horses. Aquarium Journal 22, 234-242. 73 Foster, S. J., Marsden, A. D. and Vincent, A. C. J. (2003). Hippocampus erectus. In: 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland. http:// www.redlist.org. Viewed June 2003. 74 Jordan, D. S. and Evermann, B. W. (1903). The Shore Fishes of the Hawaiian Islands, with a General Account of the Fish Fauna - Family XXXIX, Syngnathidae. Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission 22, 119-120. 75 Golani, D. and Fine, M. (2002). On the occurrence of Hippocampus fuscus in the eastern Mediterranean. Journal of Fish Biology 60, 764-766. 76 Whitehead, P. J. P. (1986). Fishes of the north-eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean, vol. II. UNESCO, Paris, France. 490 pp. 77 Curtis, J., Project Seahorse, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, personal communication to S. Foster. 78 Lythgoe, J. and Lythgoe, G. (1971). Fishes of the Sea - the coastal waters of the British Isles, northern Europe and the Mediterranean. Blandford Press, London, UK. 320 pp. 79 Garrick-Maidment, N., The Seahorse Trust, Torbay, UK, in litt. to S. Foster, 16 September 2003. 80 Reina-Hervas, J. A. (1989). Contribucion al estudio de la F. Syngnathidae (Pisces) en Las Costas del Sureste de España. Arquivos do Museu Bocage 1(21), 325-334. 81 Boisseau, J. (1967). Les régulations hormonales de l’incubation chez un Vertèbre male: recherches sur la reproduction de l’Hippocampe. PhD thesis. l’Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France. 379 pp. 82 as cited in 15 83 Wheeler, A. (1985). World Encyclopedia of Fishes. MacDonald and Co. Ltd, London, UK. 368 pp. 84 D’Acona, U. (1932). Famiglia: Syngnathidae In Uovo, Larvi e Stadi giovanilli di Teleostei. Fauna Flora Golfo Napoli. Monograph 38, 281-298. 85 Kuiter, R. H. and Debelius, H. (1994). Southeast Asia Tropical Fish Guide. IKAN- Unterwasserarchiv, Frankfurt, Germany. 321 pp. 86 Miller, D. J. and Lea, R. N. (1972). Guide to the Coastal Marine Fishes of California. California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento, USA. 249 pp. 87 Gomezjurado, J., National Aquarium, Baltimore, USA, in litt. to S. Lourie. 88 Humann, P. (1993). Reef fish identification: Galapagos. New World Publications, Florida, USA. 200 pp. 89 Groves, J. S. and Lavenberg, R. J. (1997). The Fishes of the Galapagos Islands. Stanford University Press, Stanford, USA. 936 pp. 90 Baum, J., Project Seahorse, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, personal communication to S. Foster. 91 Choo, C. K. and Liew, H. C. (2003). Spatial distribution, substrate assemblages and size composition of seahorses (Family Syngnathidae) in the coastal waters of Penninsular Malaysia. Journal of Marine Biology Association U.K. 83, 271-276.

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92 Mackinnon, J., Sha, M., Cheung, C., Carey, G., Xiang, Z. and Melville, D. (1996). A biodiversity review of China. World Wide Fund for Nature, Hong Kong. 529 pp. 93 Randall, J. E. (1996). Caribbean Reef Fishes, 3rd edn. TFH Publications, Neptune City, New Jersey. 368 pp. 94 Lee, S. -C. (1983). The family Syngnathidae (Pisces: Syngnathiformes) of Taiwan. Bulletin of the Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica 22, 67-82. 95 Nguyen, V. L. and Do, H. H. (1996). Biological parameters of two exploited seahorse species in a Vietnamese fishery. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference in Marine Conservation, Hong Kong. 96 Truong, S. K. and Doan, T. K. L. (1994). Reproduction of the seahorse (Hippocampus kuda) inhabiting the Cuabe Estuary. Tuyen Tap Nghien Cuu Bien 5, 111-120. 97 Mi, P. T., Kornienko, E. S. and Drozdov, A. L. (1998). Embryonic and larval development of the seahorse Hippocampus kuda. Russian Journal of Marine Biology 24(5), 325-329. 98 Lourie, S. A., Pritchard, J. C., Casey, S. P. Truong, S. K., Hall, H. J., and Vincent, A. C. J. (1999). The taxonomy of Vietnam’s exploited seahorses. Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society. 66(2), 231-256. 99 Jiaxin, C. (1990). Brief introduction to mariculture of five selected species in China (Section 1: Sea- horse culture). Working paper. FAO/UNDP Regional Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project, Bangkok, Thailand. 100 Rosa, I. L., Dias, T. L. and Baum, J. K. (2002). Threatened fishes of the world: Hippocampus reidi Ginsburg, 1933 (Syngnathidae). Environmental Biology of Fishes 64, 738. 101 Dauwe, B. (1992). Ecologie van het zeepaardje Hippocampus reidi (Syngnathidae) op het koraalrif van Bonaire (N.A.): Habitatgebruik, reproductie en interspecifieke interacties. MSc thesis. Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Haren, The Netherlands. 65 pp. 102 Weber, M. and de Beaufort, L. F. (1922). The fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago, vol. IV Heteromi, Solenichthyes, Synentognathi, Percesoces, Labyrinthici, Microcyprini. EJ Brill Ltd., Leiden, The Netherlands. 410 pp. 103 Truong, S. K. and Nga, T. N. M. (1995). Reproduction of two species seahorses Hippocampus histrix and H. trimaculatus in Binhthuan Waters. Bao Cao Khoa Hoc 27, 68. 104 Marsden, A.D., Foster, S. J. and Vincent, A.C.J. (2003). Hippocampus spinosissimus. In: 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland. http:// www.redlist.org. Viewed June 2003. 105 Moore, G., University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia, in litt. to S. Foster, 3 September 2003. 106 Coleman, N. (1980). Australian Sea Fishes South of 30 degrees South. Doubleday Australia Pty Ltd., Lane Cove, Australia. 302 pp. 107 Jones, A. G. and Avise, J. C. (1997). Microsatellite analysis of maternity and the mating system in the Gulf pipefish Syngnathus scovelli, a species with male pregnancy and sex-role reversal. Molecular Ecology 6, 203-213. 108 Lourie, S., Project Seahorse, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, personal communication to S. Foster. 109 Cai, N., Xu, Q., Yu, F., Wu X., and Sun, G. (1984). Studies on the reproduction of the seahorse Hippocampus trimaculatus. Studia Marina Sinica 23, 83-93. 110 Kuiter, R. H. (1997). Guide to the sea fishes of Australia. New Holland Publishers Pty Ltd., Sydney, Australia. 111 Vincent, A. C. J. and Sadler, L. M. (1995). Faithful pair bonds in wild seahorses, Hippocampus whitei. Animal Behaviour 50, 1557-69.

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112 Vincent, A. C. J., Marsden, A. D., Evans, K. L. and Sadler, L. M. (in press). Temporal and spatial opportunities for polygamy in a monogamous seahorse, Hippocampus whitei. Behaviour. 113 Whitley, G. P. (1964). Fishes from the Coral Sea and the Swain Reefs. Records of the Australian Museum 26, 164-165. 114 Strawn, K. (1958). Life history of the pigmy seahorse, Hippocampus zosterae Jordan and Gilbert, at Cedar Key, Florida. Copeia 1958(1), 16-22. 115 Strawn, K. (1953). A study of the dwarf seahorse, Hippocampus regulus Ginsburg at Cedar Key, Florida. MSc thesis. University of Florida, Florida, USA. 116 Masonjones, H. D., University of Tampa, Florida, USA, personal communication to S. Lourie. 117 McAllister, D.E. (1990). Working list of the fishes of the world. Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Canada. Unpublished report.

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APPENDIX A. SEAHORSE IDENTIFICATION DATA SHEET

Specimen Data Height Coronet Eye spine Head Length (HL) Snout Length (SnL) Nose spine HL/SnL (calculated) Tail rings Snout Dorsal fin rays Pectoral fin rays Pectoral fin Trunk rings Cheek spine Trunk rings supporting the dorsal fin Tail rings supporting the dorsal fin Anal fin Cheek spines Dorsal fin Eye spines

Species Checklist First tail ring 1 2 3 4 5 6789 Last trunk ring H. abdominalis H. algiricus Brood pouch (males) H. angustus H. barbouri H. bargibanti H. borboniensis H. breviceps H. camelopardalis He Ridge ad le H. capensis ngth H. comes H. coronatus H. denise First trunk H. erectus ring H. fisheri H. fuscus H. guttulatus S H. hippocampus nout lengt H. histrix h H. ingens H. jayakari H. kelloggi H. kuda H. lichtensteinii H. minotaur2 H. mohnikei First trunk H. reidi ring H. sindonis H. spinosissimus H. subelongatus H. trimaculatus H. whitei H. zebra H. zosterae 1 = height 2 = HL/SnL 3 = tail rings 4 =dorsal fin rays 5 = pectoral fin rays 6 = trunk rings 7 = rings supporting dorsal fin 8 = cheek spines 9 = eye spines

94 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II APPENDIX B. HOW TO USE THE SPECIES CHECKLIST

Figure 3 shows a photograph of a dried seahorse specimen and data about the specimen as collected according to the procedure outlined in Section 4.2, Step B. In identifying the specimen, these data were compared to the information in Tables 1–6, according to the procedure outlined in Section 4.2, Step C (Appendix A. The completed checklist is shown as Table 7). The following text explains how the columns of the checklist were completed using this procedure: 1. According to Table 1, only 19 species have a maximum size equal to or greater than 14.3 cm. An X was placed in column 1 for each of these 19 species. 2. According to Table 2, of the 19 species noted in column 1, only 15 could have a HL/SnL of 2.4. An X was placed in column 2 for each of these 15 species. 3. According to Table 3, of the 15 species noted in column 2, only 9 could have 38 tail rings. An X was placed in column 3 for each of these 9 species. 4. According to Table 4, of the 9 species noted in column 3, only 7 could have 19 dorsal fin rays. An X was placed in column 4 for each of these 7 species. 5. According to Table 5, all of the 7 species noted in column 4 could have 17 pectoral fin rays. An X was placed in column 5 for each of the 7 species. 6. According to Table 6, all of the 7 species noted in column 5 could have 11 trunk rings. An X was placed in Column 6 for each of the 7 species. 7. According to Table 6, all of the 7 species noted in column 6 could have the dorsal fin supported by 2 trunk rings and 1 tail ring. An X was placed in column 7 for each of the 7 species. 8. According to Table 6, of the 7 species noted in column 7, only 6 could have only 1 cheek spine. An X was placed in column 8 for each of these 6 species. 9. According to Table 6, all of the 6 species noted in column 8 could have only 1 cheek spine. An X was placed in column 9 for each of the 6 species. At this point the identification of the specimen was narrowed to 6 possible species: H. erectus, H. guttulatus, H. ingens, H. reidi, H. spinosissimus and H. trimaculatus. The specimen was then compared to the species descriptions in Section 5.0 of this guide and identified as H. trimaculatus based on the following characters: low, rounded spines; sharp, hook-shaped cheek spine; low coronet; and distinctive dark spots on the dorso-lateral region of the 1st, 4th and 7th trunk rings.

Height 14.3cm Snout length (SnL) 1.1 cm Head length (HL) 2.6 cm HL/SnL (calculated) 2.4 Tail rings 38 Dorsal fin rays 19 Pectoral fin rays 17 Trunk rings 11 Trunk rings supporting the dorsal fin 2 Tail rings supporting the dorsal fin 1 Cheek spines 1 Eye spines 1

Figure 3. Example of a Dried Seahorse Specimen with Morphological Data 95 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

Table 7. Completed Species Checklist for Seahorse Specimen Illustrated in Figure 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 H. abdominalis X X H. algiricus X X H. angustus X X H. barbouri X X H. bargibanti H. borboniensis X X X H. breviceps H. camelopardalis H. capensis H. comes X X H. coronatus H. denise H. erectus X X X X X X X X X H. fisheri H. fuscus X X H. guttulatus X X X X X X X X X H. hippocampus X H. histrix X H. ingens X X X X X X X X X H. jayakari X X X X X X X H. kelloggi X H. kuda X X X H. lichtensteinii H. minotaur H. mohnikei H. reidi X X X X X X X X X H. sindonis H. spinosissimus X X X X X X X X X H. subelongatus X H. trimaculatus X X X X X X X X X H. whitei H. zebra H. zosterae

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APPENDIX C. PHOTOGRAPHIC ATLAS OF DRIED SEAHORSES

1 cm

adult juvenile

Hippocampus abdominalis

1 cm 1 cm

Hippocampus algiricus Hippocampus barbouri

97 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

1 cm 1 cm

bleached specimen

Hippocampus barbouri Hippocampus borboniensis

1 cm 1 cm

(specimen has a broken tail)

Hippocampus breviceps Hippocampus camelopardalis

98 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

1 cm 1 cm

Hippocampus comes Hippocampus coronatus

1 cm 1 cm

Hippocampus erectus Hippocampus fuscus

99 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

1 cm 1 cm

Hippocampus guttulatus Hippocampus hippocampus

1 cm 1 cm

Hippocampus histrix Hippocampus ingens

100 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

1 cm 1 cm

Hippocampus kellogi Hippocampus kuda

1 cm 1 cm

Hippocampus mohnikei Hippocampus reidi

101 Order Gasterosteiformes / Family Syngnathidae CITES Appendix II

1 cm 1 cm

Hippocampus spinosissimus Hippocampus subelongatus

1 cm 1 cm

(specimen has a damaged brood pouch)

Hippocampus trimaculatus Hippocampus zosterae

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APPENDIX D. TAXONOMY OF H. histrix AND H. kuda

The confusion of seahorse taxonomy is not easily resolved. The names H. histrix and H. kuda are particularly problematic, having been casually used for virtually any spiny seahorse (H. histrix) and any smooth seahorse (H. kuda) from the Indo-Pacific basin. Untangling these species complexes, wherein a single name is applied to many species, is difficult, and a final resolution will only emerge after more detailed analysis. It is not surprising that these two problematic species complexes are found in the Indo-Pacific basin, given the high species diversity of the area and the dearth of work done on seahorses in the region2.

The following notes should be considered when reviewing publications that cite these names, as many sources are erroneous2.

H. histrix The name H. histrix has been used across the Indo-Pacific basin, apparently indiscriminately, to refer to any spiny seahorse. This guide distinguishes the true H. histrix and uses morphometric and, in most cases, genetic data to allocate the remaining species to H. angustus, H. barbouri, H. jayakari and H. spinosissimus. Some of the species emerging from the H. histrix complex, such as H. barbouri, may turn out to be species complexes in themselves. The wide range of H. histrix (from Mozambique to Tahiti) also suggests that it may incorporate further cryptic species that are morphologically indistinguishable but reproductively isolated2.

H. kuda The name H. kuda, a counterpart for H. histrix, has been used for all non-spiny seahorses in the Indo- Pacific basin. Taxonomic work has suggested that at least 15 names for apparent species were merely synonyms for H. kuda117. Conversely, H. barbouri, H. borboniensis, H. comes, H. fisheri, H. fuscus and H. kelloggi have been isolated as species that had been subsumed into the H. kuda complex. Genetic data indicate that H. algiricus, H. capensis, H. ingens and H. reidi are close relatives but distinct species2.

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APPENDIX E. DISTRIBUTION OF SEAHORSE SPECIES BY COUNTRY

A distribution is listed here as confirmed where specimens or photographs of that species have been seen by the senior author of this guide. A distribution is cited as suspected if (a) confirmed sightings occur on either side of the country in question and it appears biologically likely that the species could also occur in the intervening country; or (b) specimens or photographs have been observed but there is some question (raised by genetic evidence, for example) as to the identification or precise location of the origin of those specimens. This assessment of seahorse distributions is less conservative than that of Lourie et al2 to extrapolate information for countries for which concrete data is lacking. Additional species to those named might be found in any particular country in the same ocean basin as the countries of confirmed distribution.

Country Confirmed Distribution Suspected Distribution Albania H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Algeria H. hippocampus H. algiricus; H. guttulatus Angola H. algiricus Antigua and Barbuda H. erectus; H. reidi Argentina H. erectus Australia H. abdominalis; H. angustus H. fisheri; H. kelloggi H. bargibanti; H. breviceps; H. kuda; H. minotaur; H. spinosissimus; H. subelongatus; H. trimaculatus; H. whitei; H. zebra Bahamas H. erectus; H. reidi; H. zosterae Bahrain H. fuscus; H. jayakari; H. kelloggi Bangladesh H. histrix; H. kelloggi; H. kuda; H. spinosissimus; H. trimaculatus Barbados H. reidi H. erectus Belgium H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Belize H. erectus; H. reidi Benin H. algiricus Bosnia and Herzegovina H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Brazil H. reidi H. erectus Brunei Darussalam H. histrix; H. kelloggi; H. kuda; H. spinosissimus; H. trimaculatus Cambodia H. kuda; H. spinosissimus; H. histrix; H. kelloggi; H. trimaculatus H. mohnikei Cameroon H. algiricus Canada H. erectus China H. histrix; H. kelloggi H. kuda; H. mohnikei; H. spinosissimus; H. trimaculatus

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China (Hong Kong SAR) H. kuda; H. trimaculatus H. histrix; H. kelloggi; H. spinosissimus China (Province of H. kuda; H. spinosissimus; H. histrix; H. kelloggi Taiwan) H. trimaculatus Columbia H. ingens; H. reidi H. erectus Comoros H. borboniensis; H. fuscus; H. histrix Congo H. algiricus Congo, Democratic H. algiricus Republic of Costa Rica H. ingens H. erectus; H. reidi Côte d’Ivoire H. algiricus Croatia H. guttulatus H. hippocampus Cuba H. erectus; H. reidi Cyprus H. guttulatus H. fuscu; H. hippocampus Djibouti H. fuscus H. jayakari; H. kelloggi; H. lichtensteinii Dominica H. erectus; H. reidi Dominican Republic H. erectus; H. reidi Ecuador H. ingens Egypt H. fuscus; H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus; H. jayakari; H. kelloggi; H. lichtensteinii El Salvador H. ingens Equatorial Guinea H. algiricus Eritrea H. fuscus; H. jayakari; H. kelloggi; H. lichtensteinii Fiji H. kuda H. histrix France H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus France (Caribbean H. erectus; H. reidi territories) France (New Caledonia) H. bargibanti; H. histrix; H. fisheri H. kuda France (French Guiana) H. erectus; H. reidi France (Réunion) H. borboniensis; H. histrix H. fuscus France (Tahiti) H. histrix; H. kuda; H. trimaculatus Gabon H. algiricus Gambia H. algiricus H. hippocampus Ghana H. algiricus Greece H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Grenada H. reidi H. erectus Guatemala H. erectus; H. ingens H. reidi Guinea H. algiricus; H. hippocampus Guinea-Bissau H. algiricus; H. hippocampus

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Guyana H. erectus; H. reidi Haiti H. erectus; H. reidi Honduras H. erectus; H. reidi H. ingens India H. fuscus; H. histrix; H. spinosissimus H. kelloggi; H. kuda; H. trimaculatus Indonesia H. barbouri; H. bargibanti; H. comes; H. denise; H. histrix; H. kelloggi; H. kuda; H. spinosissimus; H. trimaculatus Iran, Islamic Republic of H. fuscus; H. jayakari; H. kelloggi Iraq H. kelloggi Israel H. jayakari H. fuscus; H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus; H. lichtensteinii; H. kelloggi Italy H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Jamaica H. reidi H. erectus Japan H. bargibanti; H. coronatus; H. histrix; H. kelloggi; H. kuda; H. mohnikei; H. sindonis; H. trimaculatus Kenya H. fuscus; H. histrix; H. kelloggi Kiribati H. histrix; H. kuda Kuwait H. fuscus; H. jayakari; H. kelloggi Lebanon H. fuscus; H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Liberia H. algiricus Libya H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Madagascar H. borboniensis H. fuscus; H. histrix

Malaysia H. barbouri; H. comes; H. bargibanti H. denise; H. histrix; H. kelloggi; H. kuda; H. spinosissimus; H.trimaculatus Malta H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Mauritania H. hippocampus Mauritius H. borboniensis; H. histrix H. fuscus Mexico H. erectus; H. ingens; H. reidi; H. zosterae Micronesia, Federated H. denise; H. histrix; H. kuda H. bargibanti States of Monaco H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Morocco H. guttulatus H. hippocampus

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Mozambique H. borboniensis; H. fuscus; H. histrix H. camelopardalis Myanmar H. spinosissimus; H. histrix; H. kelloggi; H. kuda H. trimaculatus Nauru H. histrix; H. kuda Netherlands H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Netherlands (Caribbean H. erectus; H. reidi territories) New Zealand H. abdominalis Nicaragua H. erectus; H. ingens; H. reidi Nigeria H. algiricus Oman H. jayakari H. fuscus; H. kelloggi Pakistan H. jayakari; H. kelloggi; H. kuda H. fuscus Palau H. denise H. bargibanti; H. histrix; H. kuda Panama H. erectus; H. ingens; H. reidi Papua New Guinea H. bargibanti; H. denise; H. spinosissimus; H. trimaculatus H. histrix; H. kuda Peru H. ingens Philippines H. barbouri; H. bargibanti; H. comes; H. denise; H. histrix; H. kelloggi; H. kuda; H. spinosissimus; H.trimaculatus Portugal H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Qatar H. fuscus; H. jayakari; H. kelloggi Saint Kitts and Nevis H. erectus H. reidi Saint Lucia H. erectus; H. reidi Saint Vincent and the H. erectus; H. reidi Grenadines Samoa H. histrix H. kuda São Tomé and Principe H. algiricus Saudi Arabia H. fuscus H. jayakari; H. kelloggi; H. lichtensteinii Senegal H. algiricus; H. hippocampus H. guttulatus Serbia and Montenegro H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Seychelles H. fuscus; H. histrix; H. kelloggi Sierra Leone H. algiricus Singapore H. comes; H. kuda; H. histrix; H. kelloggi H. spinosissimus; H.trimaculatus Slovenia H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Solomon Islands H. denise; H. kuda; H. whitei H. bargibanti; H. histrix Somalia H. fuscus; H. jayakari; H. kelloggi; H. lichtensteinii South Africa H. borboniensis; H. fuscus H. camelopardalis; H. capensis; H. histrix

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Spain H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Sri Lanka H. fuscus; H. spinosissimus H. histrix; H. kelloggi; H. kuda; H. trimaculatus Sudan H. fuscus; H. jayakari; H. kelloggi; H. lichtensteinii Suriname H. erectus; H. reidi Syria H. fuscus; H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Tanzania, United Republic H. borboniensis; H. fuscus of H. camelopardalis; H. histrix; H. kelloggi Thailand H. comes; H. kelloggi; H. kuda; H. histrix; H. mohnikei H. spinosissimus; H. trimaculatus Togo H. algiricus Tonga H. histrix; H. kuda Trinidad and Tobago H. erectus; H. reidi Tunisia H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Turkey H. fuscus; H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus Tuvalu H. histrix; H. kuda United Arab Emirates H. fuscus; H. jayakari; H. kelloggi United Kingdom H. guttulatus; H. hippocampus United Kingdom H. erectus; H. reidi (Caribbean territories) United Republic of H. borboniensis; H. fuscus Tanzania H. camelopardalis; H. histrix; H. kelloggi United States of America H. erectus; H. ingens; H. reidi; H. zosterae United States of America H. histrix; H. kuda (American Samoa) United States of America H. erectus; H. reidi (Caribbean territories) United States of America H. fisheri; H. histrix; H. kuda (Hawaii) Uruguay H. erectus Vanuatu H. denise H. bargibanti; H. histrix; H. kuda Venezuela H. erectus; H. reidi Western Sahara H. hippocampus Viet Nam H. comes; H. histrix; H. mohnikei H. kelloggi; H. kuda; H. spinosissimus; H. trimaculatus Yemen H. fuscus; H. jayakari; H. kelloggi; H. lichtensteinii

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APPENDIX F. COLOUR PLATES OF SEAHORSE SPECIES

Hippocampus abdominalis Hippocampus algiricus

Hippocampus angustus Hippocampus barbouri

Hippocampus bargibanti Hippocampus borboniensis

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Hippocampus breviceps Hippocampus camelopardalis

Hippocampus capensis

Hippocampus comes Hippocampus coronatus

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Hippocampus denise Hippocampus erectus

Hippocampus fisheri Hippocampus fuscus

Hippocampus guttulatus Hippocampus hippocampus

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Hippocampus histrix Hippocampus ingens

Hippocampus jayakari

Hippocampus kelloggi Hippocampus kuda

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Hippocampus lichtensteinii Hippocampus minotaur

Hippocampus mohnikei Hippocampus reidi

Hippocampus sindonis Hippocampus spinosissimus

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Hippocampus subelongatus Hippocampus trimaculatus

Hippocampus whitei

Hippocampus zebra Hippocampus zosterae

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