ContentsContents THEME:THEME: Special Heirs Issue of – Businessthe Reformation and Theology HeirsEditorial of the Reformation page 3 EVANGELICAL REVIEW OF THEOLOGY VOLUME 41, NO 1, 2017 EVANGELICAL January REVIEW OF THEOLOGY VOLUME 39, NO 3, July 2015 Theology of Jubilee: Biblical,Emilio A ntonioSocial n andúñE zEthical Perspectives page 196 Chris Wright The Mandate of Asian Americanpage 6 Evangelical Theology Amos Yong Paul the Economist? Economicpage Principles 204 in Pauline Literature with the Jerusalem Collection as a Test Case A Trinitarian Doctrine of Christian Vocation Kar Yong Lim scott HArrowEr page 19 page 218 JonathanTGIF! A Edwards,Theology ofSlavery, Workers and and Africa Their Missions Work YK abets and eter C hee m hwAYnE AlA nP DEtzl mErg pagepage 22932 What’sThe in a Church Name? asShould Civil Society:All Followers an African of Jesus Ecclesiology Call Themselves emio‘Christians’?La nihinLoLa EDitED bpageY l.D 48 wAtErmAn Economic Growth vs Thepage Environment: 243 The Need for Articles and book reviews reflecting UnDENewrstA nParadigmsDing AnD Ev inAl UAEconomics,ting tHE P ABusinessrticiPAtion Ethics, of frA ncoandPH onE A Global Forum AfricAns in worlD missionEvangelical: congol ETheologysE working in bUrUnDi bY foHlE global evangelical theology for the purpose lYgUnDA li-m John Jefferson davis page 255 of discerning the obedience of faith page 57 ‘Discerning the Obedience of Faith’: A history of the WEA Work, Spirit, and New Creation Theological Commission mirosLav voLf DAviD PArkEr pagepage 27167 FurtherBook Reviews Reading page page 280 87 Reviews page 89

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ERT cover 39-3.indd 1 21/05/2015 14:04 ABSTRACTS/INDEXING This journal is abstracted in Religious and Theological Abstracts, 121 South College Street (P.O. CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Box 215), Myerstown, PA 17067, USA, and in the Christian Periodical Index, P.O. Box 4, Cedarville, OH 45314, USA. The Church and its Sacraments It is also indexed in the ATLA Religion Database, published by the American Theological Library Understanding the Christian Community Association, 300 S. Wacker Dr., Suite 2100, Chicago, IL 60606 USA, E-mail: [email protected], Web: www.atla.com/ Robert Pope MICROFORM This fascinating study traces and evaluates the development of the doctrine of the This journal is available on Microform from UMI, 300 North Zeeb Road, P.O. Box 1346, Ann Arbor, Church and its sacraments throughout the centuries, with emphasis on the Patristic age, MI 48106-1346, USA. Phone: (313)761-4700 the Reformation and contemporary argument. It gives space to how, from the sixteenth Subscriptions 2017 century, a greater understanding developed of the church as community as well as recent thought about the sacraments as a means of building that community. This distinctive *Sterling rates do not apply to USA and Canada subscriptions. Please see below for further information. work will be foundational for those seeking new and deeper understanding of the church Institutions and Libraries Individuals and its communal life. Period UK Elsewhere UK Elsewhere ‘This is essential reading for all who wish to understand the nuances of church history. Dr Pope is Overseas* Overseas* a master craftsman bringing to life and critically engaging with major thinkers within our Christian heritage.’

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All USA and Canada subscriptions to: EBSCO Subscription Services, P.O. Box 1493, Birmingham, AL 35201-1943, USA The Church and the World All UK and International subscriptions to: Understanding the Relevance of Mission Paternoster Periodicals, c/o AlphaGraphics, 3.2 Clarendon Park, Nottingham, NG5 1AH, UK Tel: UK 0800 597 5980; Fax: 0115 704 3327 J. Andrew Kirk Tel Overseas: +44 (0)115 704 3315; Fax: +44 (0)115 704 3327 This remarkable book begins by examining the biblical material on mission, focusing Email [email protected] specially on the ethical witness of the Christian community. The author then turns his Subscriptions can be ordered online at: attention to patterns of mission from history. Finally, Kirk discusses changing views on www.paternosterperiodicals.co.uk (Non USA and Canada subscriptions only) Special Offer the church’s missionary undertaking in the world after the 2nd World War, considering the All orders placed via our websites will receive a 5% discount off the total price. debates over the concept of missio Dei and ‘the church for others’, the church’s preferential Rates displayed on the websites will reflect this discount option for the liberation of the poor, its commitment to and its missionary obligations in multi-religious and secular worlds. Important Note to all Postal Subscribers When contacting our Subscription Office in Nottingham for any reason ‘This is Andrew Kirk’s most wide-ranging and ambitious book yet: the biblical foundations of mis- always quote your Subscription Reference Number. sion, defining turning-points in the history of mission, philosophies of human rights, the ethics of war and peace, issues of religious plurality, and the challenges posed to the churches by a secular age— they are all here. This is a book that should command the attention of all those concerned to think Photocopying Licensing deeply about what it is that the Church is called to do in the world.’ No part of the material in this journal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or Brian Stanley, Professor of World Christianity, University of Edinburgh transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, record- J. Andrew Kirk is a Mission Theologian, Educator, and Author ing or otherwise without the prior permission of Paternoster Periodicals, except where a licence is held to make photocopies. ISBN 9781842278123 (e.9781842278581) / 300pp / 229x152mm / £15.99 Applications for such licences should be made to the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Available from: 01908 268500 or [email protected] It is illegal to take multiple copies of copyright material. Evangelical Review of Theology A Global Forum

GENERAL EDITOR: THOMAS SCHIRRMACHER

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Printed and bound in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals by AlphaGraphics, 8-9 Vanguard Court, Preston Farm, Stockton-on-Tees, TS18 3TR ERT (2017) 41:1, 3-5 Editorial Introduction This edition marks one of the first ef- speaking to society around economic forts of the World Evangelical Alli- issues. ance’s Council for Business and Theol- Kar Yong Lim then shows us that ogy. The Council is part of the WEA’s economics is not confined merely to Business Coalition, which includes two the Old Testament and the teaching other councils (Business & Ministry of Jesus, but that there is an economic Finance, and Business & Global Strat- harvest to be reaped from the apostle egies), and provides a worldwide plat- Paul’s writings. Paul engages with form for ministries, institutes, speak- a particular economic issue in a way ers, funders and experts dealing with which establishes principles which issues regarding business, finance and stood in opposition to both his own economy from a biblical point of view. contemporary culture, and to the val- The Council for Business & Theology ues often held dear in our own day. exists to provide a platform for the best We then have four systematic and global theological voices on business, applied contributions. Myk Habets economics, and finance. and Peter McGhee present a cross- The articles and reviews contained disciplinary paper, taking the theol- in the following pages are the first step ogy of Thomas Torrance of priestly in providing this platform, in this in- and mediatorial roles in creation for stance aimed at a more scholarly audi- humans and applying it to a study of ence because we believe that it is vital spirituality in the workplace. Emiola to engage theologically before moving Nihinlola develops a distinctive ec- to the level of practice. By engaging clesiological perspective in relation to the global church in this process of the challenges of societal structures in theological reflection, we hope to es- Africa, including economic structures. tablish some common ground while John Jefferson Davis provides us with sharpening our collective thinking in a theological framing of what is often a the worldwide evangelical church. conflict with business and its immedi- ate economic interests, and proposes a new paradigm that takes into account Articles and reviews theological principles from creation. It is only right, as an evangelical publi- And finally, Miroslav Volf contends cation, to begin with biblical theology, that the traditional evangelical under- and the first two articles set the scene standing of work as a calling is theolog- from the Old and New Testaments. We ically inadequate, and that a pneuma- open with Chris Wright, whose analy- tological approach to work is needed. sis of the Levitical Jubilee law is foun- We hope that publishing this extract dational for a Christian system of eco- will stimulate not only a desire to read nomic social ethics. He points out the the rest of Volf’s book, but that it be- ways in which the Jubilee, and its ap- gins a process for many of our readers propriation by Jesus in his own preach- of critically evaluating the theological ing, give us a paradigm for economic basis for understanding work. Other relations and a guide for the church in key writers in this area include Paul 4 Editorial

Stevens (who argues for the primacy of marketsandmorality.com/index.php/ calling), and Darrell Cosden (who like mandm]). Volf writes in conversation with earlier There are many other organisa- work by Jürgen Moltmann). tions and groups focused on faith and The first three of our reviews focus work issues, often making high-quality on leadership (reviewing Al Erisman’s resources freely available, and we en- The Accidental Executive, Thomas courage you to look at the website of Schirrmacher’s Leadership and Ethical the Council for Business and Theology Responsibility, and David Brooks’ The for links to these. Road to Character), a vital aspect of To further assist, we have provided business. The final review is of Busi- a handy list of books and resources, ness for the Common Good, by Kenman briefly annotated and classified into Wong and Scott Rae, which takes a some different categories. This list is broader and more systemic approach found at page 87. to the intersection of theology and business. There are also several short reviews of some other helpful books. Future plans From this point, we want to develop the theological conversation in two key directions. The first is around econom- Wider resources ics and the structure of society. All too Alongside the articles and reviews, we often, public engagement by churches want to encourage our readers to make on economic issues has been marked use of the resources that are now eas- by ignorance, or by churches co-opted ily accessible around the world. to a political agenda (left-wing and The most important of these is the right-wing, in different places and Theology of Work Project ([http:// times). In these conversations we need www.theologyofwork.org]) which has to include both economists with their a vast array of high-quality articles and systemic and technical expertise, and information, including a commentary biblical scholars with their exegetical on the whole Bible with application to skill. the workplace. The second key direction is around An organisation which merits par- the meaning of work, which is closely ticular mention is the Lausanne Move- tied to the less-studied issue of the ment, which fosters three issue net- place of business in society. Within works around topics mentioned here the global evangelical church, the in- (Business as Mission, Marketplace nate value of work (deriving from its Ministry, and Tentmaking), as well as creation mandate) is widely acknowl- other related issue networks (Cities, edged—but often only nominally. Creation Care, etc.). Business is often regarded as having For theological reflection on eco- a contingent value: we might set up a nomic issues, a key resource is the business as a platform or enabler for Journal of Markets and Morality, pub- mission, or encourage workers to see lished in a free open access form by their workplace as primarily a forum the Acton Foundation ([http://www. for personal evangelism. Until there is Editorial 5 an evangelical consensus on the theo- issue, and exceptionally supportive logical meaning of work, it is likely to throughout the whole process. It would be difficult to shift this deep-seated have been quite impossible to complete contingent understanding of work. Is the issue without their wonderful help. work primarily a calling or a charism? The contributors of the articles and What is the place of christology in un- reviews are of course the ones who derstanding work—surely a vital part have done the real work of producing of a genuinely ‘Christian’ theology of the content we all benefit from. We work? want to especially thank Chris Wright We need to work towards a com- and Miroslav Volf for arranging the mon understanding on these issues, republication of their existing (and so that the evangelical church around the world can have a prophetic voice noted) works. to society. Timo Plutschinski Director of the WEA Business Acknowledgements Coalition This journal edition could not have Lyndon Drake been produced without the contribu- Chair of the WEA Council for Business tions of many people. First among & Theology those are Prof Thomas Schirrmacher, who is the editor of the ERT, and Rev Thomas Schirrmacher Dr David Parker, the executive editor. General Editor Both have been very gracious in allow- David Parker ing us to take over the journal for this Executive Editor ERT (2017) 41:1, 6-30 Theology of Jubilee: Biblical, Social and Ethical Perspectives

Christopher J. H. Wright

The jubilee (yobel) came at the end of committed to radical Christian social the cycle of seven sabbatical years. Le- ethics. Our purpose here is to see what viticus 25:8-10 specifies it as the fifti- it may contribute to a biblical under- eth year, though some scholars believe standing of holistic mission. it may have been actually the forty- The jubilee was in essence an eco- ninth—i.e. the seventh sabbatical year. nomic institution. It had two main And some suggest it was not a full points of concern: the family and the year, but either a single day as an event land. It was rooted, therefore, in the within the fiftieth year, or an interca- social structure of Israelite kinship lary month after the forty-ninth year, and the economic system of land-tenure with the same calendrical effect as our that was based upon it. Both of these, system of leap years. In this year there however, also had theological dimen- was to be a proclamation of liberty to sions in Israel’s faith. So we must look Israelites who had become enslaved briefly at the jubilee from each of these three angles. for debt, and a restoration of land to families who had been compelled to sell it out of economic need sometime I The Structure of OT Israel’s during the previous fifty years. Faith and Society Instructions concerning the jubilee, and its relation to the procedures of land and slave redemption are found 1. Social: Israel’s kinship system entirely in Leviticus 25. But it is re- Israel had a three tier pattern of kin- ferred to also in Leviticus 26 and 27. ship, comprising the tribe, the clan, It is an institution which has inspired and the household. Gideon’s modest much curiosity, in ancient and modern reply to his angelic visitor shows us times, and in recent years it has come all three: ‘Look at my clan—it is the to prominence in the writings of those weakest in the tribe of Manasseh; and

Chris Wright (MA, PhD, Cantab), an ordained Anglican minister, who taught at Union Biblical Seminary (UBS) in India from 1983. In 1988 he became Academic Dean, and later Principal of All Nations Christian College, UK. He has been International Director of the Langham Partnership International from 2001. This article is an edited extract from his book, Old Testament Ethics for the People of God (Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP, 2004) and is used with permission. Theology of Jubilee: Biblical, Social and Ethical Perspectives 7

I am the least in my father’s house’ a) Equitable distribution (Judg 6:15). The last two smaller units In pre-Israelite Canaan the land was (household and clan) had greater so- owned by kings and their nobles, with cial and economic importance than the the bulk of the population living as tax- tribe in terms of benefits and responsi- paying tenant farmers. In Israel the bilities relating to individual Israelites. initial division of the land was explic- The father’s house was an extended itly to the clans and households within family that could comprise three or the tribes, under the general rubric four generations living together, along that each should receive land accord- with servants and hired employees. ing to size and need. The tribal lists This was a place of authority, even for of Numbers 26 (esp­ecially note 52-56) married adults like Gideon (Jdg. 6:27, and the detailed territorial division of 8:20). It was also the place of security land recorded in Joshua 13-21 are the and protection (Judg 6:30ff.). The fa- documentary evidence that the origi- thers’ houses also played an important nal intention of Israel’s land system role in the judicial and even military was that the land should be distributed functions, and was the place where throughout the whole kinship system as the individual Israelite found identity, widely as possible. education and religious nurture.1 The jubilee was intended primarily for the b) Inalienability economic protection of the father’s In order to protect this system of kin- house, or the extended family. ship distribution, family land was made inalienable. That is, it was not to be 2. Economic: Israel’s system of bought and sold as a commercial asset, land-tenure but was to remain as far as possible within the extended family, or at least Israel’s system of land-tenure was within the circle of families in the clan. based on these kinship units. As Josh- It was this principle which lay behind ua 15-22 makes clear, the territory was Naboth’s refusal to sell his patrimony allotted to tribes, then ‘according to to Ahab (1 Kgs 21), and it is most ex- their clans’, and then within the clans plicit in the economic regulations of each household had its portion or ‘her- Leviticus 25. itage’. This system had two features that stand in complete contrast to the preceding Canaanite economic struc- 3. Theological: God’s land, ture. God’s people The land shall not be sold perma- 1 For further information on Israel’s kinship nently, for the land belongs to me; system, see Christopher J. H. Wright, God’s for you are ‘guests’ and ‘residents’ People in God’s Land: Family, Land and Prop- with me. (Lev 25:23). erty in the Old Testament, (Grand Rapids: Ee- This statement, at the heart of the rdmans, 1990; Reprint Paternoster, 1996), ch. 2; and, Christopher J. H. Wright, ‘Family,’ in chapter containing the jubilee, pro- Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David Noel Freed- vides the hinge between the social man, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 761-769. and economic system described above 8 Christopher J. H. Wright and its theological rationale. It makes which the relationship had been estab- two fundamental statements about the lished, and also to the moral demands land Israel lived on, and about the Is- on Israel which that relationship en- raelites themselves. These are crucial tailed. to understanding the rationale for the For the Israelite, living with his jubilee. family on his allotted share of YHWH’s land, the land itself was the proof of a) God’s land his membership of God’s people and One of the central pillars of the faith of the focus of his practical response to Israel was that the land they inhabited God’s grace. Nothing that concerned was YHWH’s land. It had been his even the land was free from theological and before Israel entered it (Ex 15:13,17). ethical dimensions—as every harvest This theme of the divine ownership of reminded him (Deut 26). the land is found often in the prophets and Psalms. Far more often than it is b) God’s people. ever called ‘Israel’s land’, it is referred ‘You are guests and residents (RSV), to as ‘YHWH’s land’. At the same time, aliens and tenants (NIV) with me’ (23). although it belonged to YHWH, the These terms, (gerim wetosabim), nor- land had been promised and then given mally in Old Testament texts describe to Israel in the course of the redem­ a class of people who resided among ptive history. It was their possession, the Israelites in Canaan, but were not their inheritance, as Deuteronomy re- ethnic Israelites. They may have been peatedly describes it. descendants of the dispossessed Ca- So the land was in Israel’s posses- naanites, or immigrants. They had no sion, but still under God’s ownership. stake in the tenure of the land, but This dual tradition of the land (divine survived by hiring out their services ownership and divine gift) was associ- as residential employees (labourers, ated in some way with every major crafts­men, etc.) for Israelite land-own- thread in Israel’s theology. The prom- ing households. ise of land was an essential part of the Provided an Israelite household patriarchal election tradition.­ The land itself remained economically viable, was the goal of the exodus redemption then its resident alien employees en- tradition. The maintenance of the cov- joyed both protection and security. But enant relationship and the security of otherwise, their position could be per- life in the land were bound together. ilous. Hence these resident aliens are Divine judgement eventually meant ex- frequently mentioned in Israel’s law pulsion from the land, until the restored as the objects of particular concern for relationship was symbolized in the re- justice because of their vulnerability. turn to the land. The point of Leviticus 25:23 is to say The land, then, stood like a fulcrum that the Israelites were to regard their in the relationship between God and Is- own status before God as analogous to rael (notice, for example, its pivotal po- that of these residential dependents to sition in Lev 26:40-45). The land was themselves. Just as they had resident a monumental, tangible witness both guests living on with them in the land to YHWH’s control of history within they (the Israelites) owned, so they Theology of Jubilee: Biblical, Social and Ethical Perspectives 9

(the Israelites) were resident guests cannot do a thorough exegesis here.2 living on the land that YHWH actually It opens with the law of the sabbati- owned. cal year on the land (1-7). This is an Thus, they (the Israelites) had no ul- expansion of the fallow year law of timate title to the land—it was owned Exodus 23:10f., which was also further by God. YHWH was the supreme land- developed in Deuteronomy 15:1-2 into lord. Israel was his collective tenant. a year in which debts (or more probably Nevertheless, the Israelites could en- the pledges given for loans) were to be joy secure benefits of the land under released. YHWH’s protection and in dependence The jubilee is then introduced in on him. So the terms are not (as they verses 8-12 as the fiftieth year to fol- might sound in English) a denial of low the seventh sabbatical year. Verse rights, but rather an affirmation of are - 10 presents the twin concepts that are lationship of protected dependency. fundamental to the whole jubilee insti- The practical effect of this model tution, namely liberty and return. for Israel’s relationship with God is • Liberty—from the burden of debt seen in verses 35, 40 and 53. If all Is- and the bondage it may have en- raelites share this same status before tailed; God, then the impoverished or indebted • Return—both to the ancestral brother is to be regarded and treated property if it had been mortgaged in the same way as God regards and to a creditor, and to the family treats all Israel, i.e. with compassion, which may have been split up justice and generosity. So the theology through debt-servitude. of Israel’s land and of Israel’s status It was these two components of the before God combine to affect this very jubilee, (freedom and restoration,­ re- practical area of social economics. lease and return), that entered into the metaphorical and eschatological use of the jubilee in prophetic and later NT II Practical Provisions thought.

1. Fundamental concepts 2. Stages of implementation In Leviticus 25, the jubilee provisions The practical details of redemption and are interwoven with other provisions jubilee are outlined from verse 25 to for the practice of redemption of land the end of the chapter. In these verses and slaves. As we have already seen, three descending stages of pov­erty are the economic mechanism of redemp- presented, each with a required re- tion is a vital piece of background for sponse. The stages are marked off by understanding the full meaning of the introductory phrase, ‘If your broth- God’s redemption, as the exodus is called. So it is thus doubly interesting to see how the jubilee was supposed to 2 For a detailed study see Christopher J. H. Wright, ‘Jubilee, Year Of,’ in The Anchor Bible work alongside redemption in Israel’s Dictionary, ed. D.N. Freedman, III, (New York: system. Doubleday, 1992), 1025-1030; and Wright, Old The chapter is complex and we Testament Ethics, ch. 6. 10 Christopher J. H. Wright er becomes poor’ (25, 35, 39 and 47). state of affairs is to continue only until The sequence is interrupted by paren- the next jubilee—i.e., not more than thetical sections dealing with houses one more generation. Then the debtor in cities and Levite properties (29-34) and/or his children (the original and non-Israelite slaves (44-46), which debtor may have died, but the next we need not consider, but the overall generation were to benefit from the legal framework is clear. jubilee, 41, 54), were to recover • Stage 1—selling land (25-28) Initial- their original patrimony of land and ly, having fallen on hard times (for be enabled to make a fresh start. any reason: none is specified), the • Stage 3b—redemption (47-55) If a Israelite land-owner sells, or offers man had entered this debt-bondage to sell, some of his land. To keep it outside the clan, then an obligation within the family, in line with the in- lay on the whole clan to prevent this alienability principle, it was first of loss of a whole family by exercis- all the duty of the nearest kinsman ing their duty to redeem him. The (the go’el) either to pre-empt it (if it whole clan had the duty of preserv- was still on offer), or to redeem it ing its constituent families and their (if it had been sold). Secondly, the inherited land. It also had the duty seller himself retains the right to re- to see that a non-Israelite creditor deem it for himself, if he later recov- behaved as an Israelite should to- ers the means to do so. Thirdly and wards an Israelite debtor, and that in any case, the property, whether sold the jubilee provision was adhered to or redeemed by a kins­man, reverts to eventually. the original family in the year of jubi- lee. 2. Jubilee and redemption • Stage 2—loans (35-38) If the poorer brother’s plight worsens and he still From this analysis, it can be seen that cannot stay solvent, presumably there were two main differences be- even after several such sales, it tween the redemption and jubilee pro- then becomes the duty of the kins- visions: First, timing. Redemption (of man to maintain him as a dependent and or persons) was a duty that could labourer, by means of interest-free be exercised at any time, locally, as cir- loans. cumstances required, whereas jubilee • Stage 3a—bonded service (39-43) In was intended to be twice a century as the event of a total economic col- a national event. Second, Purpose. The lapse, such that the poorer kins- main aim of redemption was the pres- man has no more land left to sell or ervation of the land and persons of the pledge for loans, he and his whole clan, whereas the main beneficiary of family sell themselves to, i.e. enter the jubilee was the household, or ‘fa- the bonded service of, the wealthier ther’s house’. kinsman. The latter, however, is The jubilee there­fore functioned as commanded in strong and repeated a necessary over-ride to the practice of terms, not to treat the debtor Isra- redemption. The regular operation of elite like a slave, but rather as a redemption over a period could result resident employee. This undesirable in the whole territory of a clan coming Theology of Jubilee: Biblical, Social and Ethical Perspectives 11 into the hands of a few wealthier fami- sible, as because it became irrelevant lies, with the rest of the families in the to the scale of social disruption. The clan in a kind of debt-servitude, living jubilee presupposes a situation where as dependent tenants of the wealthy— a man, though in severe debt, still i.e. precisely the kind of land-tenure technically holds the title to his fam- system that Israel had overturned. ily’s land and could be restored to full The jubilee was thus a mechanism ownership of it. to prevent this. The primary purpose But from the time of Solomon on of the jubilee was to preserve the socio- this must have become meaningless for economic fabric of multiple house­hold growing numbers of families as they land tenure with the comparative equality fell victim to the acids of debt, slavery, and independent viability of the smallest royal intrusion and confiscation, and family-plus-land units. In other words, total dispossession. Many were up- the jubilee was intended for the survival rooted and pushed off their ancestral and welfare of the families in Israel. land altogether. After a few genera- tions they had nothing to be restored to 3. Historicity in any practicable sense (cf. Mic. 2:2,9, The inevitable question arises, of Isa. 5:8). This would explain why the course, did it ever historically happen? jubilee is never appealed to by any The fact is that there is no historical of the prophets as an economic pro- narrative recording a jubilee happen- posal (though its ideals are reflected ing. But then, there is no historical metaphorically).3 record of the Day of Atonement, either. Silence in the narratives proves almost nothing. III Ethical and Missiological More divisive is the question wheth- Relevance er the jubilee was an early law that fell Elsewhere I have argued for a paradig- into disuse, or a late piece of utopian idealism from the time of the exile. Many critical scholars affirm the latter, 3 For bibliography of earlier works, see Wright, God’s Land, pp. 119-127, and Wright, but others, especially those with in- ‘Jubilee, Year Of,’ . More recent works include depth knowledge of the ancient Near Fager, Jeffrey A., Land Tenure and the Biblical East, point out that such periodical am- Jubilee, JSOT Supplements, Vol. 155, (Shef- nesties for debt and restoration of land field: JSOT Press, 1993); Hans Ucko, ed. The were known in Mesopotamia for centu- Jubilee Challenge: Utopia or Possibility: Jewish and Christian Insights (Geneva: WCC Publi- ries before the establishment of Israel, cations, 1997); and Moshe Weinfeld, Social though nothing on such a regular fifty Justice in Ancient Israel and in the Ancient near year cycle has been found. East (Jerusalem, Minneapolis: Magnes Press, My own preference is that it makes Fortress Press, 1995). A good, recent and bal- sense to see the jubilee as a very an- anced survey is provided by P. A. Barker, ‘Sab- cient law, which fell into neglect dur- bath, Sabbatical Year, Jubilee,’ in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, ed. Baker David ing Israel’s history in the land. This ne- W. Alexander T. Desmond (Downers Grove glect happened, not so much because and Leicester: Intervarsity Press and IVP, the jubilee was economically impos- 2003), 695-706. 12 Christopher J. H. Wright matic approach to handling the laws lation with its inevitable oppression of the Old Testament as Christians, in and alienation. order to discern their ethical implica- The jubilee thus stands as a critique tions in the contemporary world.4 This not only of massive private accumula- means identifying the coherent body of tion of land and related wealth, but principles on which an Old Testament also of large scale forms of collectiv- law or institution is based and which ism or nationalization which destroy it embodies or instantiates. To do this, any meaningful sense of personal or it is helpful once more to move around family ownership. It still has a point to our three angles and consider how Is- make in modern Christian approaches rael’s paradigm, in the particular case to economics. of the jubilee institution, speaks to The jubilee did not, of course, entail Christian ethics and mission. a re-distribution of land, as some popu- lar writing mistakenly suppose. It was 1. Economic: access to not a re-distribution but a restoration. resources. It was not a free handout of bread or ‘charity’, but a restoration to family The jubilee existed to protect a form units of the opportunity and the resources of land tenure that was based on an to provide for themselves again. In mod- equitable and widespread distribution ern application, that calls for some of the land, and to prevent the accu- creative thinking as to what forms of mulation of ownership in the hands of opportunity and resources would en- a wealthy few. This echoes the wider able people to do that, and to enjoy creation principle that the whole earth the dignity and social involvement that is given by God to all humanity, who such self-provision entails.5 act as co-stewards of its resources. The jubilee, then, is about restoring There is a parallel between, on the to people the capacity to participate in one hand, the affirmation of Leviticus the economic life of the community, for 25:23, in respect of Israel, that ‘the land their own viability and society’s ben- is mine’, and on the other hand, the af- efit. firmation of Psalm 24:1, in respect of all humanity, that ‘the earth is the Lord’s and everything in it, the world and all 2. Social: family viability who live in it’. The jubilee embodied practical con- The moral principles of the jubilee cern for the family unit. In Israel’s are therefore universalizable on the case, this meant the extended family, basis of the moral consistency of God. the ‘father’s house’, which was a size- What God required of Israel in its land reflects what in principle he desires for humanity on the earth—namely 5 Interesting and creative applications of the jubilee and other aspects of Old Testament broadly equitable distribution of the economics are found in John Mason, ‘Biblical resources of the earth, especially­ land, Teaching and Assisting the Poor’, Transforma- and a curb on the tendency to accumu- tion 4.2 (1987), 1-14, and Stephen Charles Mott, ‘The Contribution of the Bible to Eco- nomic Thought’, Transformation 4.3-4 (1987), 4 Wright, Old Testament Ethics, ch. 9. 25-34. Theology of Jubilee: Biblical, Social and Ethical Perspectives 13 able group of related nuclear families But the jubilee was an attempt to limit descended in the male line from a liv- its otherwise relentless and endless ing progenitor, including up to three social consequences by limiting its or four gener­ations. As we have seen, possible duration. this was the smallest unit in Israel’s The economic collapse of a family kinship structure, and it was the focus in one generation­ was not to condemn of identity, status, responsibility and all future generations to the bond- security for the individual Israelite. It age of perpetual indebtedness. Such was this social unit, the extended fam- principles and objectives are certainly ily, that the jubilee aimed to protect not irrelevant to welfare legislation or and periodically to restore if necessary. indeed any legislation with socio-eco- Notably it pursued this objective, nomic im­plications. not by merely ‘moral’ means—i.e. ap- And indeed, taken to a wider level pealing for greater family cohesion or still, the jubilee speaks volumes to the admonishing parents and children to massive issue of international debt. greater exercise of discipline and obe- Not for nothing was the worldwide dience respectively. Rather, the jubilee campaign to see an ending of the in- approach was immensely practical and tolerable and interminable debts of im- fundamentally socio-economic. It estab- poverished nations called Jubilee 2000. lished specific structural mechanisms And many Christians have instinctively to regulate the economic effects of felt a moral imperative to support the debt. Family morality was meaningless campaign, not only out of compassion if families were being split up and dis- for the poor, but out of a biblically possessed by economic forces that ren- rooted sense of justice and what God dered them powerless (cf Neh 5:1-5). requires of us. The jubilee aimed to restore social Another interesting, and in my view dignity and participation to families convincing, paradigmatic handling through maintaining or resto­ring their of the jubilee institution is suggested economic viability.6 Debt is a huge by Geiko Muller-Fahrenholz. He com- cause of social disruption and decay, ments on the powerful theology of time and tends to breed many other social that is implied in the sabbatical cycles ills, including crime, poverty, squalor of Israel, and its contrast with the com- and violence. Debt happens, and the mercialising of time in modern debt Old Testament recognizes that fact. and interest based economies. Time is a quality that belongs to God, for no created being can make time. 6 A thorough attempt to apply the relevance of the Old Testaments patterns regarding the We enjoy time, we are carried along extended family to modern western society is in the flow of time, everything is made by Michael Schluter, and Roy Clements, embedded in its time, so the very Reactivating the Extended Family: From Biblical idea of exploiting the flow of time to Norms to Public Policy in Britain, (Cambridge: take interest on money lent seemed Jubilee Centre, 1986). See further, Michael preposterous. It does so no more Schluter, and John Ashcroft, ed. Jubilee Mani- festo: A Framework, Agenda & Strategy for because the sacredness of time has Christian Social Reform (Leicester: IVP, 2005), disappeared, even before the sa- ch. 9. credness of the land vanished from 14 Christopher J. H. Wright

the memories of our modern socie- challenge of the jubilee to the socio- ties. Instead capitalist market econ- economic realm and ignore its inner omies have been elevated to global spiritual and theological motivation. importance; they are enshrined with From a holistic missiological point of the qualities of omnipotence that view, each is as important as the other, border on idolatry. for all are fully biblical and all fully re- So the question arises: does it make flect the character and will of God. The sense to attribute to money quali- following points stand out in the text. ties that no created thing can ever • Like the rest of the sabbatical pro- have, namely eternal growth? Every visions, the jubilee proclaimed the tree must die, every house must one sovereignty of God over time and day crumble, every human being nature, and obedience to it would must perish. Why should immate- require submission to that sover- rial goods such as capital—and its eignty. That is, you were to keep counterpart, debts—not also have the jubilee as an act of obedience to their time? The capital knows no God. This Godward dimension of the natural barriers to its growth. There matter is why the year is deemed is no jubilee to put an end to its ac- holy, ‘a sabbath to YHWH, and why cumulative power. And so there is it was to be observed out of the ‘fear no jubilee to put an end to debts and of YHWH. slavery. Money that feeds on money, • Furthermore, observing the fallow with no productive or social obliga- year dimension of the jubilee would tion, represents a vast flood that also require faith in God’s providence threatens even large national econo- as the one who could command mies and drowns small countries… blessing in the natural order and But at the heart of this deregulation thereby provide for your basic needs is the undisputed concept of the (18-22). eternal life of money.7 • Additional motivation for the law is provided by repeated appeals to the knowledge of God’s historical act of 3. Theological: a theology for redemption, the exodus and all it had evangelism? meant for Israel. The jubilee was a The jubilee was based upon several way of outworking the implications central affirmations of Israel’s faith, within the community of the fact and the importance of these should that all Israelites were simply the not be overlooked when assessing its former slaves of Pharaoh, now the relevance to Christian ethics and mis- redeemed slaves of YHWH (38, 42- sion. As we observed with the exodus, 43, 55). it would be quite wrong to limit the • And to this historical dimension was added the cultic and ‘present’ expe- rience of forgiveness in the fact that 7 Geiko Muller-Fahrenholz, ‘The Jubilee: the jubilee was to be proclaimed on Time Ceilings for the Growth of Money’, in Ucko, ed. Jubilee Challenge., 109. There are the Day of Atonement (9). To know some other creative interpretations of the ju- yourself forgiven by God was to is- bilee in the same book. sue immediately in practical remis- Theology of Jubilee: Biblical, Social and Ethical Perspectives 15

sion of the debt and bondage of oth- personal and social ethics and its future ers. Some of the parables of Jesus hope. spring to mind. • And the inbuilt future hope of the literal jubilee, blended with an es- IV Future Hope and Jesus. chatological hope of God’s final res- The future orientation of the jubilee toration of humanity and nature serves additionally as a bridge to see- to his original purpose. There is a ing how it influenced Jesus, and helps strong theological pulse beating in us answer questions as to whether our this chapter of Leviticus. insistence on a holistic understanding • To apply the jubilee model, then, of mission is sustained in the New Tes- requires that people obey the sover- tament. eignty of God, trust the providence of God, know the story of the redeeming 1. Looking to the future action of God, experience personally the sacrificialatonement provided by Even at a purely economic level in an- God, practise God’s justice and put cient Israel, the jubilee was intended to their hope in God’s promise for the have a built-in future dimension. Antic- future. Now if we summon people ipation of the jubilee was supposed to to do these things, what are we en- affect all present economic values (in- gaging in? Surely these are the very cluding the provisional price of land). fundamentals of evangelism. It also set a temporal limit on unjust Now of course I am not suggesting that social relations—they would not last the jubilee was ‘evangelistic’ in any forever. The jubilee brought hope contemporary sense. What I do mean for change. It was proclaimed with a is that the fundamental theology be- blast on the trumpet (the yobel, from hind it also lies behind our practice of which its name derives), an instrument evangelism. The assumptions are the associ­ated with decisive acts of God same. The theological underpinning of (cf. Is. 27:13; 1 Cor. 15:52). However, the socio-economic legislation of the as time went by, and even when the ju- jubilee is identical to that which under- bilee probably fell into disuse in prac- girds the proclamation of the kingdom tice, its symbolism remained potent. of God. It is no wonder, as we shall We have seen that the jubilee had see in a moment, that the jubilee itself two major thrusts: release/liberty, and became a picture of the new age of return/restoration (from Lev. 25:10). salvation that the New Testament an- Both of these were easily transferred nounces. It is an institution that mod- from the strictly economic provision of els in a small corner of ancient Israel- the jubilee itself to a wider metaphori- ite economics the essential contours of cal application. That is, these econom- God’s wider mission for the restoration ic terms became terms of hope and of humanity and creation. longing for the future, and thus entered When appropriately set in the light into prophetic eschatology. of the rest of the biblical witness, the There are allusive echoes of the ju- wholeness of the jubilee model embraces bilee particularly in the later chapters the church’s evangelistic mission, its of Isaiah. The mission of the Servant 16 Christopher J. H. Wright of YHWH has strong elements of the 2. Looking to Jesus restorative plan of God for his people, How, then, was the institution of jubi- aimed specifically at the weak and op- lee taken up by Jesus and applied in the pressed (Is 42:1-7). Isaiah 58 is an at- New Testament to the age of fulfilment tack on cultic observance without so- that he inaugurated. How, in other cial justice, and calls for liberation of words, did jubilee relate to the wider the oppressed (6), specifically focuss- sense of Old Testament promise that ing on ones own kinship obligations Jesus fulfilled? Jesus announced the (7). imminent arrival of the eschatologi- Most clearly of all, Isaiah 61 uses cal reign of God. He claimed that his jubilee images to portray the one people’s hopes for restoration and for anointed as the herald of YHWH to messianic reversal were being fulfilled ‘evangelize’ the poor, to proclaim liber- in his own ministry. To explain what ty to the captives (using the word deror he meant, he used imagery from the which is the explicitly jubilary word for jubilee circle of ideas (among others, release), and to announce the year of of course). YHWH’s favour (almost certainly an al- The ‘Nazareth manifesto’ (Lk 4:16- lusion to a jubilee year). The hope of 30) is the clearest programmatic state- redemption and return for God’s people ment of this. It is the closest Jesus are combined in the future vision of comes to a personal mission statement, Isaiah 35, and set alongside the equal- and it quotes directly from Isaiah 61, ly dramatic hope of a transformation of which as we have seen was strongly nature. influenced by jubilee concepts. Most Thus, within the Old Testament it- commentators observe this jubilee self, the jubilee had already attracted background to the prophetic text and an eschatological imagery, alongside Jesus’ use of it. It certainly builds a ho- its ethical application in the present. listic dimension into the mission that That is to say, the jubilee could be used Jesus sets out for himself by reading to portray God’s final intervention for this scripture and claiming to be its messianic redempt­ion and restoration; embodiment. but it could still function to justify ethi- Luke will not allow us to interpret cal challenge for human justice to the this jubilee language as flowery meta- oppressed in the present. phors or spiritual allegories. … Jesus When we see how the jubilee vi- fulfilled the Jubilee that he proclaimed. sion and hope inspired prophetic pas- His radical mission was the very mis- sages such as Isaiah 35 and 61, with sion of God found in the Old Testament their beautiful integration of personal, proclamation of Jubilee. It is presented social, physical, economic, political, in Luke’s Gospel as holistic in four as- international and spiritual realms, our pects: own missional and ethical use of the 1. It is both proclaimed and enacted. jubilee must preserve a similar balance 2. It is both spiritual and physical. and integration, preventing us from putting asunder what God will ulti- 3. It is both for Israel and the nations mately join together. 4. It is both present and eschatologi- Theology of Jubilee: Biblical, Social and Ethical Perspectives 17

cal.8 The evidence is broad, and conforms to Other examples of the influence the pattern already observed in the Old of the jubilee on Jesus’ thinking are Testament. The jubilee serves both as suggested by Robert Sloan and Sha- a symbol of future hope and also as an ron Ringe. Sloan observed that Jesus’ ethical demand in the present. use of the word for ‘release’, aphesis, car­ries both the sense of spiritual for­ 2. Looking to the Spirit giveness of sin and also literal and fi- The book of Acts shows that the early nancial remission of actual debts. Thus, church had a similar combination of the original jubilee background of eco- future expectation and present ethi- nomic release has been preserved in cal response. The jubilee concept of Jesus’ challenge concern­ing ethical eschatological restoration is found in response to the kingdom of God. If we the otherwise unique idea of ‘complete are to pray the Lord’s prayer, ‘release restoration’. The unusual word for for us our debts’, we must be willing to this, apokatastasis occurs in Acts 1:6 release others from theirs. It is not a and 3:21, where it speaks of God’s fi- matter of deciding between a spiritual nal restoration of Israel and all things. and a material meaning, for both can It seems Peter has taken the core of be included as appropriate.9 the jubilee hope (restoration) and ap- Ringe traces the interweaving of plied it, not just to the restoration of major jubilee images into various land to farmers, but to the restoration parts of the Gospel narratives and the of the whole creation through the com- teach­ing of Jesus. There are echoes ing Messiah. of jubilee in the beatitudes (Mt 5:2- Significantly, however, the early 12), in Jesus’ response to John the church responded to this future hope Baptist (Mt 11:2-6), in the parable of not merely by sitting waiting for it to the banquet (Lk 14:12-24), in various happen. Rather, they put into practice episodes of forgiveness and especially some of the jubilee ideals at the level teaching on debts (Mt 18:21-35 etc.).10 of mutual economic help. Luke almost certainly intends us to understand that 8 Paul Hertig, ‘The Jubilee Mission of Jesus in doing so they were fulfilling the sab- in the Gospel of Luke: Reversals of Fortunes’, batical hopes of Deuteronomy 15. Acts Missiology 26 (1998), 167-179, 176-177. 4:34, with its simple statement that 9 R. B. Sloan Jr, The Favorable Year of the ‘there were no needy persons among Lord: A Study of Jubilary Theology in the Gospel them’, is virtually a quotation of the of Luke (Austin: Schola, 1977). 10 S. H. Ringe, Jesus, Liberation, and the Bib- Greek Septuagint translation of Deu- lical Jubilee: Images for Ethics and Christology teronomy 15:4, ‘there will be no needy (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985). For a concise person among you’. survey of various interpretations of the way The new community of Christ, now Luke uses Isaiah 61 here, see also, Robert living in the eschatological era of the Willoughby, ‘The Concept of Jubilee and Luke Spirit, is making the future hope a 4:18-30,’ in Mission and Meaning: Essays Presented to Peter Cotterell, ed. Anthony Bill- present reality in economic terms. Or ington, Tony Lane, and Max Turner (Carlisle: to put it another way, the church by its Paternoster, 1995), 41-55. internal practice was erecting a sign- 18 Christopher J. H. Wright post to the reality of the future. The community in mission, marked by a ho- new age of life in the Messiah and in listic combination of verbal proclama- the Spirit is described in terms that tion (the evangelistic preaching of the echo the jubilee and its related sabbati- apostles), and visible attraction (the cal institutions.11 And the effect was a social and economic equality of the believers). Not surprisingly, the church grew in numbers, strength, maturity 11 In addition to my own work, already re- and mission. ferred to, a full and helpful account of the way Jesus and the rest of the New Testament relat- ed to the rich scriptural traditions of the land is enant or Two? (Grand Rapids and Leicester: David E. Holwerda, Jesus and Israel: One Cov- Eerdmans and Apollos, 1995), 85-112.

PATERNOSTER BIBLICAL MONOGRAPHS Joy in Luke-Acts The Intersection of Rhetoric, Narrative, and Emotion David H. Wenkel The Gospel of Luke has been called the ‘gospel of joy’, and the joy theme has also been recognized in Acts. This theme, though, has received relatively little attention in NT scholarship. Joy in Luke-Acts examines the joy theme from a socio-rhetorical vantage point, showing that the joy theme empowers the Lukan rhetoric of reversal. The theme is a primary method in which the narrator seeks to persuade the reader to enter into the values and beliefs that characterize the ‘upside-down’ world in which YHWH has visited his people in Jesus. ‘David Wenkel succeeds wonderfully and lucidly in his attempt to unpack the place of joy within the narrative fabric of Luke-Acts as a whole and coherent unity.’ Paul Borgman, Professor of English at Gordon College in Wenham, Massachusetts ‘David Wenkel has approached Luke’s writings with skill and courage; adding to our understanding of the text. This is just the kind of result I have longed for, and I hope others will follow his lead.’ Matthew Elliott, President of Oasis International (Chicago) David H Wenkel is on the Adjunct faculty, Moody Bible Institute, Chicago

ISBN 9781842278192 (e.9781842278871) / 195pp / 229mm x 152mm / £24.99

Available from: 01908 268500 or [email protected] ERT (2017) 41:1, 19-31 Paul the Economist? Economic Principles in Pauline Literature with the Jerusalem Collection as a Test Case

Kar Yong Lim

I Introduction Armed with a better understanding In an essay published in the Evangelical of ancient economy, I aim to extend Review of Theology in 2013, I lamented the discussion I first mooted in my that in the studies on Pauline theology, 2013 essay by exploring Paul’s view of ethics, and mission, it was often as- economic principles gleaned from his sumed that the apostle did not address writing by paying close attention to the issues regarding wealth and poverty major collection project for the Jerusa- comprehensively in his letters. As a lem saints. result, one could not expect to find the treatment of economic issues or caring for the poor featured or discussed by II Ancient Economy at a the interpreters of Paul. In trying to Glance correct this assumption, I examined Recent studies in ancient economy Paul’s understanding of generosity in shed interesting insights on our un- alleviating the economic hardship of derstanding of inequality and income the poor as a concrete expression of distribution in the Roman Empire. In his gospel.1 an illuminating study, Walter Scheidel However, since the publication of and Steven Friesen attempt to recon- that essay, there has been a surge in struct the size of Roman economy and the interest in exploring ancient eco- income distribution based on available nomic dimensions in engagement with the apostle Paul and early Christianity. This resulted in a number of studies Place of the Poor in the Biblical Tradition (New that focus on Paul’s view of money, Haven: Yale University Press, 2013); David J. inequality, and charity in the Greco- Downs, Alms: Charity, Reward, and Atonement 2 in Early Christianity (Waco: Baylor Univer- Roman world. sity Press, 2016); Steven J. Friesen, Sarah A. James, and Daniel N. Schowalter, eds., Corinth in Contrast: Studies in Inequality (Leiden: Brill, 1 See my ‘Generosity from Pauline Perspec- 2014); and Verlyn D. Verbrugge and Keith R. tive: Insight from Paul’s Letters to the Corin- Krell, Paul & Money: A Biblical and Theological thians’, ERT 37 (2013): 20–33. Analysis of the Apostle’s Teachings and Practices 2 For example, Gary A. Anderson, Charity: The (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2015).

Kar Yong Lim (PhD, Wales) is Lecturer in New Testament Studies and Director of Postgraduate Studies at Seminari Theoloji Malaysia (Malaysia Theological Seminary), Seremban, Malaysia. 20 Kar Yong Lim ancient data and models constructed group, which included the senatorial by others.3 cohort, equestrian order, civic nota- They estimate that the ‘Roman bles, and other wealthy people, com- Empire generated a total income ap- prised only about 1.2-1.7% of the popu- proaching the equivalent of 50 million lation of 70 million at the peak of the tons of wheat or close to 20 billion ses- Roman Empire. This minority group of terces per year.’4 This estimate repre- population controlled an estimated 15 sented the performance of the Roman to 30% of the total income. economy that ‘approached the ceiling The non-elite group (comprising at of what was feasible for ancient and least 97% of the population) were cat- medieval economies’, and peaked in egorised according to two other sub- the mid-second century CE.5 Based on groups comprising those with surplus the Geary-Khamis dollars (a hypotheti- income above the subsistence level cal currency value that had the same and those living at or below subsist- purchasing power based on the USD ence level. in 1990), Scheidel and Friesen calcu- The upper level group, also labelled late the per capita GDP of the Roman as the economically ‘middling’ non- Empire and estimate it to be approxi- elite groups, enjoyed surplus income mately $700.6 between 1.7 to 10 times above the sub- Scheidel and Friesen then proceed sistence level. This group of the non- to measure income distribution in the elites comprised only about 7 to 13% of Roman Empire by dividing up the popu- the population and enjoyed 15 to 25% lation into two separate categories of of the total income. The lower level elite and non-elite groupings.7 The elite group who were living at or below sub- sistence level were the large majority of the population, comprising about 84 3 Walter Scheidel and Steven Friesen, ‘The to 90%. This group earned about 50% Size of the Economy and the Distribution of of the total income, with at least 10- Income in the Roman Empire,’ Journal of Ro- man Studies 31 (2009): 61-91. 22% of them living at starvation level. 4 Scheidel and Friesen, ‘The Size of the Econ- Apart from the population, Scheidel omy,’ 62. and Friesen also assess that the state 5 Scheidel and Friesen, ‘The Size of the Econ- and local governments contributed a omy,’ 74. small share of the overall income of not 6 Scheidel and Friesen, ‘The Size of the Econ- much more than 5%. omy,’ 74. In short, it is likely that the top 10% 7 The method employed in Scheidel and of the population controlled approxi- Friesen’s work is a marked improvement from Steven J. Friesien’s earlier proposal using a mately 50% of the income, leaving not seven-level poverty scale to measure income much more than half of the income for distribution in Pauline communities. See his the remaining population. ‘Poverty in Pauline Studies: Beyond the So- Based on this computation, Scheidel called New Consensus,’ Journal for the Study and Friesen are able to calculate the of the New Testament 26 (2004): 323-361, and Gini coefficient of income inequality on the critique offered by Bruce W. Longeneck- er, Remember the Poor: Paul, Poverty, and the the Roman Empire. The Gini coefficient Greco-Roman World (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, is a measure of inequality ranging from 2010), 44-53. 0 to 1, where 0 denotes perfect equal- Paul the Economist? 21 ity and 1 denotes maximum inequality. III Paul the Economist Scheidel and Friesen compute the Gini coefficient of the Roman Empire 1. ‘Remember the poor’ to be in the region of 0.42-0.44, ‘falling everywhere: Galatians 2:10 once right in the middle of a broad histori- more 8 cal range’. This suggests that some Paul was most likely aware of the eco- measures of inequality existed in the nomic inequality and the neglect of Roman Empire with at least 10-22% of the poor in the Greco-Roman world. the population living at starvation level As argued by Verbrugge and Krell, who required some form of assistance Paul’s concern for the poor was deeply for basic survival.9 rooted in his understanding of the He- This group of extreme poor had of- brew Scriptures and their subsequent ten been ignored by the Greco-Roman traditions.13 His Pharisaic background society.10 In addition, the general at- certainly influenced how he viewed the titude to the helpless poor was al- poor, and how he was obligated by the most hostile, as argued by Roman Law of Moses to care for them. Garrison.11 This probably explained This probably explained why he why charity and caring for the poor carried out acts of mercy towards the were largely non-existent. The elites poor, as evident in Acts and his let- ters. According to Acts 11:27-30, the and those belonging to the ‘middling’ prophet Agabus arrived in Antioch and group of non-elites never saw helping prophesied that there would be a se- the poor as their obligation. Even if vere famine ‘over all the world’ (Acts charitable acts existed, they were of- 11:28) during the reign of Claudius ten extended to those of equal status (most likely 45-47CE). As a result, pre- or those belonging in the same volun- sumably under the leadership of Paul tary associations of guilds within the and Barnabas, the Christ-followers in same locality.12 Antioch made a monetary contribution according to their means. This collec- tion was delivered by Paul and Barna- 8 Scheidel and Friesen, ‘The Size of the Econ- omy’, 84-86. bas to the believers in Judea. 9 For further discussion, see Justin J. Meggit, That the collection was made sug- Paul, Poverty and Survival (Edinburgh: T&T gests that there was a certain amount Clark, 1998) and Longenecker, Remember the of wealth among some of the Christ- Poor, 43-53. followers in Antioch. Moreover, Anti- 10 See Deborah E. Watson, ‘Paul’s Collection och was Paul’s base for the most part in the Light of Motivation and Mechanisms for of his apostolic career and it was from Aid to the Poor in the First-Century World’, this city that he launched all three of PhD dissertation, University of Durham, 2006, 14-55. his Gentile missionary journeys. It 11 Roman Garrison, Redemptive Almsgiving is not inconceivable that the Antioch in Early Christianity, JSNTSup 77 (Sheffield: church also provided financial support JSOT Press, 1993), 38-45. for Paul’s mission activities. This ex- 12 For further discussion, see Longenecker, Remember the Poor, 60-107, and Lim, ‘Gener- osity from Pauline Perspective’, 25-26. 13 Verbrugge and Krell, Paul & Money, 119. 22 Kar Yong Lim ample gives us a glimpse of the income For God, who was at work in Pe- inequality in the Roman Empire. ter as an apostle to the circum- Elsewhere in Acts 20:35, in his fare- cised, was also at work in me as well speech to the Ephesian elders, an apostle to the Gentiles. James, Paul sets himself as an example for Cephas and John, those esteemed them to emulate: ‘In all this I have giv- as pillars, gave me and Barnabas en you an example that by such work the right hand of fellowship when we must support the weak, remember- they recognized the grace given to ing the words of the Lord Jesus, for me. They agreed that we should go he himself said, “It is more blessed to the Gentiles, and they to the cir- to give than to receive.”’14 Since Acts cumcised. All they asked was that 20:33-35 deals with economic issues, we should continue to remember the the exhortation to ‘support the weak’ poor, the very thing I had been eager to must be read within the framework do all along (emphasis mine). of Paul’s deep concern for those who In Galatians 2:1-10, Paul summarises were financially ‘weak’. Here, we see the main issues covered by what is Paul grounds the basis for supporting commonly known as the Jerusalem the needs of the poor on the command Council (see also Acts 15:1-36). From he received from Christ himself. the account in Acts, we see that a In Galatians 6:10, Paul exhorts the letter was sent to the Gentiles at the Galatians to ‘work for the good of all’, end of the Council to exhort them ‘to an expression that Longenecker be- abstain from food sacrificed to idols, lieves would have included ‘charitable from blood, from the meat of strangled works for the needy and poor’.15 Paul animals and from sexual immorality’ also gives instructions to the Thes- (Acts 15:29). salonians believers to ‘help the weak Interestingly, nothing was said (asthene-s)’ (1 Thess 5:14), which most about remembering the poor according likely referred to those who were eco- to the account in Acts. Because of this, nomically weak.16 Turning to Romans it is not surprising that Paul’s mention 12:13, we see Paul’s appeal to the Ro- of remembering the poor in Galatians man believers: ‘Contribute to the needs 2:10 is often treated as a peripheral is- of the saints.’ This would have includ- sue compared to the main issues con- ed those at the bottom of the social- cerning the inclusion of the Gentiles economic hierarchy. and the rite of circumcision debated in The most important evidence that the Council. In light of this, Hans Di- we have concerning Paul’s deep con- eter Betz describes the instruction to cern for the poor is from Galatians 2:8- remember the poor as an ‘additional 10: request’ and ‘unrelated to the main points of the debate’ in Jerusalem.17 14 All Scriptures citations are taken from the Likewise, Larry Hurtado also states NRSV. that this phrase, ‘remember the poor’, 15 Longenecker, Remember the Poor, 142. 16 BDAG, s.v., defines one of the usages of asthene-s as those who are ‘economically weak, 17 Hans Dieter Betz, Galatians, Hermenia poor’. (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 101. Paul the Economist? 23 is often thought to be ‘of no real signifi- within that church’.19 Richard Horsley cance, and only serves to give an un- also makes the similar point that the important detail of the agreement with poor Jerusalem’.18 meant those in the Jerusalem com- This line of argument fails to do jus- munity who were literally poor, tice to Paul’s concern for the poor, as probably because they had no means we have seen thus far from Acts and of self-support. The limited resourc- his letters. If remembering the poor is es they had pooled were hardly suf- indeed an ‘additional request’ or ‘un- ficient to sustain them long-range. related’ or ‘of no real significance’, it Thus other nascent assemblies of is very curious that in Galatians, Paul Christ were to send economic as- makes no mention of the major advice sistance to the poor in Jerusalem.20 or instructions given by the ‘Pillars of This line of argument receives over- Jerusalem’ to the Gentiles, such as ab- whelming support from a number staining from food sacrificed to idols, of commentators, including Ben from blood, from the meat of strangled Witherington,21 Richard Longenecker22 animals, and from sexual immorality and James Dunn.23 (see Acts 15:29). It seems strange that There is no doubt that ‘the poor’ in in recounting the events of the Jerusa- Galatians 2:10 would have included lem council, Paul chose to include this the poor in Jerusalem. But should the particular request to remember the phrase, ‘remember the poor’, be so nar- poor, and further emphasised that this rowly defined in terms of geographical is something that he was eager to do restrictions? If it is true that ‘the poor’ all along. specifically and narrowly referred to It has generally been accepted in those in the Jerusalem church, then it New Testament scholarship that ‘the is understandable that Paul’s collec- poor’ mentioned in Galatians 2:10 re- tion project is a direct result from the ferred to the poor in Jerusalem. This is command received from the Pillars of partly due to reading Romans 15:25-32 Jerusalem. into Galatians 2:10. Romans 15:26 re- However, this consensus has been fers to Paul’s contribution ‘for the poor recently and rightfully challenged among the Lord’s people in Jerusalem’. by Bruce Longenecker. According to As such, it is assumed that the phrase, ‘remember the poor’, in Galatians 2:10 naturally refers to the poor in Jerusa- 19 J. Louis Martyn, Galatians, AB (New York: Doubleday, 1997), 207. lem. 20 Richard A. Horsely, Covenant Economics: J. Loius Martyn specifically indi- A Biblical Vision of Justice for All (Loiusville: cates that by referring to the ‘poor’, Westminster John Knox, 2009), 144. ‘the Jerusalem leaders refer to their 21 Ben Witherington, Grace in Galatia: A Com- own church, or to a circle of persons mentary on Paul’s Letter to the Galatians (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 144. 22 Richard N. Longenecker, Galatians, WBC 18 Larry Hurtado, ‘The Jerusalem Collection (Dallas: Word, 1990), 60. and the Book of Galatians’, JSNT 5 (1979): 46- 23 James D. G. Dunn, The Epistle to the Gala- 62, quotation from 51. tians, BNTC (London: A&C Black, 1993), 112. 24 Kar Yong Lim

Longenecker, the understanding of ‘the scends not only geographical but also poor’ as a reference to the believers in ethnic boundaries. Jerusalem finds no support from the It is also interesting to note that a interpretation of Galatians 2:10 prior century after the time of Paul, there to the fourth century CE.24 By assess- is a legend that depicts the apostle as ing data from various patristic writers someone who had deep concern for the such as Tertullian, Origen, Athanasius poor. According to the Acts of Paul and and Aphrahat, Longenecker concludes Thecla, a rich lady by the name of Try- that, at least until the middle of the phaena left ‘much apparel and gold’ for fourth century, ‘the poor’ in Galatians Paul ‘for the ministry of the poor’ (Acts 2:10 has no geographical restriction to of Paul and Thecla II.47). This narra- believers in Jerusalem only. tive is notable in that it highlights that It included the poor within local Paul, even a century after his death, congregations scattered throughout is remembered as someone through Judea and the Greco-Roman world. It whom the resources of the rich could is only by the middle of the fourth cen- be used to channel help to the poor. tury that this interpretation changed, as testified to by Ephrem, Jerome, 2. The Jerusalem collection and John Chrysostom where ‘the poor’ Organising a major relief fund for the takes on a technical term and has been poor in Jerusalem was no easy task since then referred to narrowly as ‘the for Paul.26 This massive project took 25 poor in Jerusalem’. at least a number of years and covered If Longenecker is correct in his churches from the regions of Macedo- interpretation that the phrase, ‘re- nia and Achaia (Rom 15:25-28), and member the poor’, does not have geo- possibly Asia Minor and Galatia as graphical restriction, it opens up fresh well. We do not have any information perspectives in reading Paul’s concern on how the collection was carried out for the poor—that caring for the poor in all these regions except from the is without geographical restriction, church in Corinth (see 1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 and that the Jerusalem collection con- Cor 8-9). stitutes one of the examples in which In 1 Corinthians 16:1–4, Paul lays Paul establishes his care for the poor. down his instructions to the Corinthi- In other words, Paul was eager to re- ans for the collection. They were to member the poor not only in Jerusalem set aside a sum of money on a weekly but also in the local congregations that basis so that on his next visit, the con- he established throughout the Medi- terranean basin. This means also that Paul desired to help not only his fel- 26 For a detailed historical treatment of Paul’s collection, see Dieter Georgi, Remem- low Jews, but also the Gentiles. This bering the Poor: The History of Paul’s Collec- is significant, as helping the poor tran- tion for Jerusalem (Nashville: Abingdon, 1992); David J. Downs, The Offering of the Gentiles: Paul’s Collection for Jerusalem in Its Chrono- 24 Longenecker, Remember the Poor, 159. logical, Cultural, and Cultic Contexts, WUNT 25 For further discussion, see Longenecker, 2:248 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2008); and Remember the Poor, 159-76. Verbrugge and Krell, Paul & Money, 107–201. Paul the Economist? 25 tribution would be ready for dispatch to The Christological movement from Jerusalem. However, these instructions wealth to poverty has often been in- were either ignored by the Corinthians, terpreted by a large majority of com- or were not properly followed through. mentators in an allegorical or spiritual The collection stalled. sense—the wealth of Jesus is gener- There are a number of reasons why ally read as the quality of his heavenly, this happened. One of them could be the pre-existent status as God, and his be- deteriorating relationship between the coming poor referred to his incarnation Corinthians and Paul after the writing or taking on the human form.27 The of 1 Corinthians. Another reason could paradoxical anthropological movement be the presence of the ‘super apostles’ from poverty to richness is often inter- mentioned by Paul in 2 Corinthians 11 preted as believers’ benefits of salva- who sought to undermine his apostolic tion or spiritual enrichment.28 authority among the Corinthians. These Christological and soteri- In order to exhort the Corinthians to ological readings are by no means im- complete what they had earlier set up possible. However, we should note that to do in helping the poor (2 Cor 8:11), 2 Corinthians 8:9 is directly related to Paul addressed the issues surround- the context in which Paul is urgently ing the collection at some length in 2 appealing to the Corinthians to com- Corinthians 8–9. There are a number plete the contribution to the Jerusalem of economic principles at work accord- collection. As Barclay notes, since ing to Paul’s instructions in these two ‘wealth’ is read as spiritual benefits, chapters. possessed, renounced, and gained, the application to the appeal for financial a) The principle of grace and contribution requires a shift from the generosity metaphorical to the literal domain: Paul’s primary motivation in urging the what Christ has done in giving up his Corinthians to complete the collection wealth for others, so the Corinthians is rooted in the example of Jesus. In 2 must now do in giving up their material 29 Corinthians 8:9, Paul appealed to the possessions for the Jerusalem saints. paradigmatic grace of the Lord Jesus However, this direct and parallel Christ: ‘For you know the grace of our application has its problems, as high- Lord Jesus Christ, that though he was lighted by Furnish, where the call is to rich, yet for your sake he became poor, so that you through his poverty might 27 For example, see Murray J. Harris, The become rich.’ Second Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commen- The standard reading of 2 Corinthi- tary on the Greek Text. NIGTC (Grand Rapids: ans 8:9, as reflected in the NRSV, is to Eerdmans, 2005), 579; and Ralph P. Martin, 2 take the juxtaposition of opposites: the Corinthians, 2nd ed, WBC 40 (Grand Rapids: Christological movement from wealth Zondervan, 2014). 40–41. to poverty (‘though he was rich he 28 For example, see Harris, Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 578–79 and Victor Paul Fur- became poor’), and the anthropologi- nish, II Corinthians, AB (New York, NY: Dou- cal movement from poverty to wealth bleday, 1984), 417. through Christ (‘you through his pov- 29 Barclay, ‘Because he was Rich he became erty might become rich’). Poor’, 337. 26 Kar Yong Lim ensure that Jerusalem believers have the “wealth” of his generosity’.33 sufficiency (2 Cor 8:15) and not riches, Barclay further justifies his read- and that the Corinthians are not called ing by tracing Paul’s flow of thought to do what Christ did in giving up eve- in 2 Corinthians 8 where the notion of rything until they become poor. Fur- generosity is clearly highlighted. Paul nish acknowledges the awkwardness described the Macedonians’ giving as in this reading: the result of overflowing of the wealth Paul is not presenting Christ’s act of of their generosity in 2 Corinthians 8:2 grace as an example for the Corin- (‘overflowed in a wealth of generos- thians to emulate. If that were the ity’). This same language of abundance case he ought to urge them to be- is seen also in Paul’s exhortation to come ‘poor’ for the sake of others the Corinthians to give generously in 2 as Christ did, but this he specifically Corinthians 8:7 (‘we want you to excel does not ask them to do … The ad- also in this generous undertaking’), monition implicit in this statement 2 Corinthians 9:8 (‘so that by always is not ‘Do what Christ did,’ or even having enough of everything, you may ‘Do for others what Christ has done share abundantly in every good work’) for you.’ It is, rather, ‘Do what is and 2 Corinthians 9:11 (‘You will be appropriate to your status as those enriched in every way for your great who have been enriched by the generosity’). grace of Christ.’30 Based on this observation, Barclay In light of this, Barclay questions if a concludes that 2 Corinthians 8–9 is closer parallel between a Christologi- saturated with the language of abun- cal statement in an economic metaphor dance and wealth, and ‘people abound which matches its financial context not in what they have but in what they that governs the behaviour of believers give, and “wealth” consists not in pos- 34 could be possible.31 He proposes read- session but in generosity’. As such, ing the participial phrase, plousios o-n, Barclay proposes the reading of 2 Cor- in 2 Corinthians 8:9 as causal, render- inthians 8:9 as follows: ing a nuanced reading as ‘because he You know the charis of the Lord Je- was rich he became poor’.32 This read- sus Christ, that in his wealth (that ing carries the meaning that ‘it was is, generosity) he became poor (a precisely because of his wealth, and as single term covering his incarna- an expression of it, that Christ made tion, life and death), so that by his himself poor. Here, then, “wealth” poverty (by all that is effected by means not what Christ possessed, but, ‘the son of God who loved me and with a different and paradoxical sense, gave himself for me’, Gal 2.20) you might become rich, in the same mo-

30 Furnish, II Corinthians, 418. 31 Barclay, ‘Because he was Rich he became 33 Barclay, ‘Because he was Rich he became Poor’, 338. Poor’, 340, emphasis his. 32 Barclay, ‘Because he was Rich he became 34 Barclay, ‘Because he was Rich he became Poor’, 339. Poor’, 340. Paul the Economist? 27

mentum of generous love.35 thanksgiving and praise to God from This reading, according to Barclay, the recipients of the collection (2 Cor provides a tight fit between the Chris- 9:6–15). tological and soteriological statements of 2 Corinthians 8:9, and the exhorta- b) The principle of equality tion to the Corinthians to give gener- Paul continues to ground his appeal for ously. Christ has made the Corinthians the collection on the notion of equality, rich in generosity and thus, they are to or isote-s, in 2 Corinthians 8:13-15: give generously to the Jerusalem col- I do not mean that there should be lection.36 relief for others and pressure on If Barclay is right in his reading, we you, but it is a question of a fair bal- see Paul using the metaphor of gener- ance (isote-tos) between your present osity to effect a change of behaviour in abundance and their need, so that the Corinthians. The Corinthians were their abundance may be for your exhorted to see beyond themselves by need, in order that there may be a having the poor in mind—the poor in fair balance (isote-tos). As it is writ- Jerusalem who were beyond both their ten, ‘The one who had much did not geographical and ethnic boundaries. have too much, and the one who had Drawing on the narrative of Jesus, little did not have too little.’ Paul challenged the Corinthians to fin- According to Garland, the notion of ish the collection for the poor in Jeru- equality is the ‘principle undergirding salem by drawing on the principle of the whole project’ where it relates to generosity—the abundance that the justice and fairness.37 Garland also fur- Corinthians currently enjoyed would ther comments that in 2 Corinthians supply the needs of the poor in Jeru- 8:13, Paul literally writes, ‘but out of salem (2 Cor 8:11–15). To challenge equality’ (all’ ex isote-tos) the Corinthi- the Corinthians further, Paul reiterated ans should give generously. In other that both he and the Corinthians would words, Paul was not talking about the be shamed if the Macedonians found purpose of giving so that it might cre- out that the collection was left unfin- ate equality, but that the giving should ished by the Corinthians (2 Cor 9:1–5). be from equality.38 The question of Then Paul evoked an agrarian meta- equality goes beyond giving according phor, suggesting that all giving to the to one’s means or one’s possessions (2 Jerusalem collection was like sowing Cor 8:11-12). Equality is rooted in the seed that would reap a harvest. Finally, grace of the Macedonians who gave Paul underscored that true generosity generously and Christ who gave him- was also a direct result of the confes- self completely for humanity. sion of the gospel of Jesus Christ. This L. L. Welborn has carried out a generosity would also bring about study on the notion of equality based

35 Barclay, ‘Because he was Rich he became 37 David E. Garland, 2 Corinthians, NAC 29 Poor’, 343. (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999), 382. 36 Barclay, ‘Because he was Rich he became See also, Georgi, Remembering the Poor, 87. Poor’, 343. 38 Garland, 2 Corinthians, 382. 28 Kar Yong Lim on the Greek concepts of friendship, poorer believers would contribute less. politics, and the cosmos.39 Space does Believers of means like Crispus (Acts not permit me to review all the three 19:8; 1 Cor 1:14), Gaius (Rom 16:23; contexts, and I will focus only on the 1 Cor 1:14), and Erastus (Rom 16:23) context of friendship, which is most in the Corinthian community were ex- relevant for our purpose in this essay. pected to contribute a large portion to Within the context of friendship, Ar- the collection compared to the large istotle has much to say about equality. majority who lived at or below subsist- According to him, ‘friendship is equal- ence level. ity’ and the true friend is ‘equal and As I have suggested earlier in this alike’.40 However, Aristotle also recog- essay, the notion of those who were nised that not all friendships were be- rich contributing to those who were tween equals. There existed two sorts poor beyond their social circles was of equality: friendship between equals alien in the Greco-Roman world. How- and friendship between unequals. ever, this notion had been set aside, For the former, Aristotle insisted that and Paul now imposed on these richer equality was measured in numerical Christ-followers the obligation to help sense according to the same standard. the poor. For the latter, such as friendship be- In addition, Paul also explicitly tween a benefactor and a client, or a used the example of the Macedonians, superior and an inferior, equality must described as those in ‘extreme poverty’ be proportional, and this often ben- (2 Cor 8:2), as those who gave gener- efitted the benefactor or the superior ously, and even ‘beyond their means’ 41 party. The inferior friend was often (2 Cor 8:3) to the Jerusalem collection. required to give honour and respect to They even begged Paul for this privi- the superior friend in accordance with lege of sharing their generosity (2 Cor the friendship of unequals. 8:3). Paul also referred to the Macedo- Let us now consider how equal- nians in Romans 15:26-27, where they ity works in Paul’s community. Paul’s instructions to the Corinthians were have been pleased to share their clear—that all, whether rich or poor, resources with the poor among should give to the Jerusalem poor. the saints at Jerusalem. They were However, for the collection to be suc- pleased to do this, and indeed they cessful, he would have expected the owe it to them; for if the Gentiles rich believers and those who at least have come to share in their spiritual enjoyed some form of surplus beyond blessings, they ought also to be of the subsistence level to contribute service to them in material things. more to the collection, while those This rhetoric would have sounded shocking to the richer Christ-followers in Corinth in a number of ways. Firstly, 39 L. L. Welborn, ‘“That There May be how could those who lived in extreme Equality”: The Contexts and Consequences of a Pauline Ideal’, New Testament Studies 59 poverty, presumably living at or below (2013): 73-90. the level of subsistence who might 40 Aristotle Eth. Nic. 8.5.5; Pol. 3.16. need assistance for survival them- 41 Aristotle Eth. Nic 7.9.5. selves, be extremely generous in giv- Paul the Economist? 29 ing? If anything, this should move the owe the Jerusalem saints’.44 Corinthians, who were better off mate- According to Welborn, this expecta- rially, to greater generosity. tion of Paul based on equality would Secondly, Paul’s language in Ro- have appeared to be ‘a dangerous at- mans 15:26-27, claiming that the tempt to reverse the established social Gentiles owed their generosity to the relations of power within Greco-Roman Jerusalem poor reflects a language of friendship’.45 The table had now been reciprocity. Within the context of the turned. The rich, always viewed as Greco-Roman world, Welborn suggests the benefactor, were now called to be that this language clearly placed the the beneficiaries. The wealthy, out of Corinthians as beneficiaries.42 By the equality, were now obliged to the poor. logic of inverse proportion, they were The Gentiles were now called upon to obliged to make a gift to the Jerusa- give to the Jews. Not only would this lem Christians based on the notion of be completely unheard of in the Greco- equality. Roman world, it also stood in sharp Furthermore, Paul also designated contrast to the economy of the Roman the collection as a ‘gift’ or charis in 2 Empire where tribute was always giv- Corinthians 8:4 and 6, and this evoked en to the elites and superiors. the notion of reciprocity. He appealed In light of this, Welborn suggests also to the unequal status of the Cor- that ‘Paul contributes to the tenta- inthians who enjoyed abundance and tive emergence of a new category of thought—economic’.46 The goal of this compared it to the Jerusalem believ- new economic structure was to achieve ers who suffered need. This inequality an equality of possessions between must be addressed (2 Cor 8:13-15). persons of different classes—rich and This sort of argument would have poor, and ethnic groups—Jews and been offensive to the Greco-Roman Gentiles, through voluntary redistribu- culture deeply rooted in the obligations tion of wealth. between benefactors and clients and the superior and the inferior. Further- c) The principle of sharing more, Furnish argues that this giving resources as a family by the Corinthians to the Jerusalem church did not place the obligation for One interesting feature in 2 Corinthi- the Jerusalem church to reciprocate in ans 8-9 is the frequent use of sibling monetary contribution in the future.43 language. Out of the 12 times where The Jerusalem poor were placed in po- adelphos (brother and sister) or adel- phoi (brothers and sisters) appears in 2 sitions of superiority because they first Corinthians, seven are directly related gave the Corinthians spiritual bless- ings. Spiritual wealth now stood ‘in proxy for material wealth so that Pau’s 44 B. J. Oropeza, Exploring Second Corinthi- congregations become the ones who ans: Death and Life, Hardship and Rivalry (At- lanta: SBL Press, 2016), 518. 45 Welborn, ‘That There May be Equality’, 42 Welborn, ‘That There May be Equality’, 80. 81. 46 Welborn, ‘That There May be Equality’, 43 Furnish, II Corinthians, 419-420. 88. 30 Kar Yong Lim to the sharing of financial resources: that existed only within the familial six are found in 2 Corinthians 8–9 (see and household kinship.47 Family mem- 2 Cor 8:1, 18, 22 [twice]; 9:3 and 5) bers must not be in conflict with one and once in 2 Corinthians 11:9. another, and wealthy members may not In 2 Corinthians 8:1, Paul appealed invoke privileges that society granted to the sibling imagery in emphasising them over others who were of lower the example of the Macedonians who status.48 In light of this, Paul’s frequent had generously contributed to the fund: use of sibling language clearly speaks ‘We want you to know, brothers and of his vision that the Christ-followers sisters, about the grace of God that has should be a very close-knit group. been granted to the churches of Mac- This fictive kinship language pro- edonia.’ moted egalitarian structures compared Paul also used sibling imagery to to other groups that were organiza- highlight the importance of the charge tionally a reflection of the structured given to those who had been entrusted hierarchical first-century society. It with the administration of the collec- also eliminated all social, economic, tion. Five times the word adelphos or and ethnic boundaries established by adelphoi is used to describe Titus, along Greco-Roman society among different with other men, who were entrusted groups of people that divided the Chris- with carrying the collection with Paul tian community, stunted its growth, to Jerusalem (2 Cor 8:18, 22 (2x); 9:3, and hindered its witness as an alterna- 5). Paul also gave the credentials of tive assembly. these brothers. They were enthusiastic Paul was keenly aware of the need about the project, trustworthy, praised to provoke the Corinthian Christ-fol- by others, proven in their service, and lowers to think, and to move them to were representatives of the churches act in ways that reflected the values of and an honour to Christ (2 Cor 8:16– the Mediterranean family in the con- 9:5). Such superlative praise by Paul text of reciprocity and sharing of re- was to further reinforce the fact that sources among siblings. By calling the these brothers were siblings full of in- Macedonians adelphoi, Paul was chal- tegrity who could be trusted with the lenging the Corinthians to reconsider administration of finances. Any fear of their reluctance in completing the fraud or doubt was completely removed collection project for the brothers and with the use of sibling imagery. sisters in Jerusalem. He was also at- To emphasise that siblings share re- tempting to set an example before the sources with one another, Paul further Corinthians so that they could emulate recounted that it was the adelphoi from the Macedonian adelphoi in their giving Macedonia who supplied monetary as- and sharing of resources with those sistance to alleviate his financial needs who were in need in the family. so that he need not depend on the Cor- By doing so, Paul was creating a inthians for support (2 Cor 11:9). social identity for the Christ-followers Within the Greco-Roman setting, the image of siblings evoked physi- cal and emotional security, care and 47 Plutarch, Frat. amor. 479A-D. belonging, and mutuality and respect 48 Plutarch, Frat. amor. 485C; 486F–487B. Paul the Economist? 31 that was radically different from the the principle of sharing resources as a community that surrounded them. By family. using sibling metaphor, a new expec- Collectively, these principles were tation was now imposed on the Corin- revolutionary in nature as they went thians Christ-followers. They could no against the prevailing social and eco- longer view their Jerusalem poor broth- nomic conventions of the Greco-Roman ers and sisters through the lenses of world. Paul used these principles to socio-economic status and ethnicity. construct a new economic structure On the contrary, they were to honour, to achieve an equality of possessions encourage, and build up one another as between persons of different social brothers and sisters. Therefore, ‘sib- classes—rich and poor; geographical ling’ was a fitting metaphor to shape, locations—Judea and the Mediterra- guide, and rebuke the community to- nean world; and ethnic groups—Jews wards honour, respect, and sharing of and Gentiles, through voluntary redis- resources so that no one had need. It tribution of wealth. ultimately drove home the point that Paul’s vision of the new economic the Corinthians belonged together as structure has far-reaching implications one and within this family of Christ, today where we see the continuous rise blood was indeed thicker than water. of income inequality. The gap between the rich and poor is getting wider. As Christ-followers today, we are called to IV Conclusion a lifestyle of generosity and good stew- The economic principles undergirding ardship. Those of us who are wealthier Paul’s concern with inequality of in- should be challenged to give more in come distribution in the Roman Empire terms of higher percentage to the poor, propelled him to remember the poor compared to those who are poorer, so and carry out fundraising activities to that everyone in the family has a fair alleviate their hardship. By examining share of resources. In this family, all Paul’s major collection for the Jerusa- barriers that serve to divide us—the lem poor, we see three principles at social-economic, geographical and eth- work: the principle of grace and gen- nic boundaries—are removed through erosity, the principle of equality, and Paul’s economic principles. ERT (2017) 41:1, 32-47 TGIF! A Theology of Workers and their Work

Myk Habets and Peter K. McGhee

‘Nothing ruins a Friday more than an The majority of the organisations understanding that today is Tuesday.’ within western democratic, capitalist – Anonymous societies reflect this underlying para- digm. They have been set up in such way as to maximise return on invest- I Where is God in Work? ment whether they be for-profit organi- An old Chinese proverb states, ‘May sations or not (for example, a hospital you live in interesting times.’ Our is required to use government money times surely meet this criterion. We as efficiently and effectively as pos- live in a western society dominated by sible). As a result of this, conditions within these organisations are likely to a paradigm that emphasises increas- reinforce conduct that enhances these ing economic growth as the panacea economic goals and constrain behav- for all that ails us and by global mul- iours that do not.3 tinationals that influence, some might Consequently, we are forever read- say control, various areas of our lives.1 ing about some organisation being While combined, these factors have involved in unethical practice, as indi- improved the living standard of many viduals within it are acculturated into (in the West at least), at the same time decision-making and behaviours that they have contributed to significant prioritise the bottom line often at the societal, environmental, and economic expense of ‘being a good person’ or harms.2

3 M. Lips-Wiersma, and V. Nilakant, ‘Practi- 1 C. Hamilton, Growth Fetish (Crows Nest, cal Compassion: Toward a Critical Spiritual NSW: Allen & Unwin, 2003); and J. Bakan, The Foundation for Corporate Responsibility’, in Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit J. Biberman and L. Tischler, eds., Spirituality and Power (New York: Free Press, 2004). in Business: Theory, Practice, and Future Direc- 2 D. Korten, When Corporations Rule the World tions (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2001). 51–72.

Peter K. McGhee (PhD, Auckland), is Senior Lecturer in Management at AUT University, New Zealand. His main disciplinary and research interests are in the areas of philosophy and business (specifically ethics) and organizational behaviour. Myk Habets, PhD, is Dean of Faculty and Professor of Theology, Carey Baptist College and Graduate School, New Zealand. His main disciplinary research interests are in the areas of Spirit Christology, Theosis, the theology of Thomas F. Torrance, Evangelical Calvinism, Pneumatology, and construc- tive Trinitarian theology. TGIF! A Theology of Workers and their Work 33

‘doing the right thing’.4 to achieve instrumental ends.6 Economic capitalism is not the only Perhaps, it is not surprising there- pressure one feels in the workforce fore, that interest in spirituality in the today, however. In an increasingly in- workplace (hereafter SWP) has devel- dustrialized world, many simply feel oped not only as a bulwark against such their work is disconnected from any- thinking7 but also to meet existential thing important, it has little value to needs for greater connectedness and them, and so it is compartmentalized meaning through work.8 As Mitroff has and tolerated. Monday is a curse and noted, ‘whether we like it or not, work Friday evening is the goal; everything is inextricably intertwined with our in-between is simply to be endured. perpetual search for meaning. Work is We speak of Mondayitis, Wednesday an integral part of our spirituality, our has become known as ‘hump day’, and search for ultimate meaning.’9 after-work drinks on a Friday represent Much has been written about SWP the entrance to the promised land of in the last two decades. Organizational the weekend; hence the common ab- scholars have found beneficial rela- breviation, ‘TGIF’ (Thank G*d it’s Fri- tionships between SWP and employee day)! Not insignificantly, this attitude well-being,10 motivation,11 and sense of is shared by many Christians as well. Such views as these need to be chal- 6 G. Morgan, Images of Organizations (Thou- lenged and radically reoriented. What sand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1997). is required is a theology of work with 7 M. Benefiel, L. W. Fry, and D. Geigle, ‘Spir- practical relevance from Monday to ituality and Religion in the Workplace: His- Friday (and Saturday and Sunday for tory, Theory, and Research’, Psychology of many who work these days as well). Religion & Spirituality 6 no. 3 (2014): 175–87. Labour is an inherent part of what 8 H. Ashar, and M. Lane-Mahar, ‘Success and we do and so, by derivation, of who we Spirituality in the New Business Paradigm’, Journal of Management Inquiry 13 no. 3 (2004): are; it affects our lives both at work and 249–60. at home. Unfortunately, much of how 9 I. I. Mitroff, ‘Do Not Promote Religion Un- we understand work ‘is a modern in- der the Guise of Spirituality’, Organization 10 vention, a product of industrialisation no. 2 (2003): 375. and governed by the laws of economic 10 W. J. Harrington, R. C., and D. J. Gooden, rationality’.5 These ‘laws’ ensure that ‘Perceptions of Workplace Spirituality Among labour is reorganised in the interests of Professionals and Executives’, Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal 13 no. 3 efficiency and profits. Workplaces, and (2001): 155–63; F. Karakas, ‘Spirituality and the individuals within them, have come Performance in Organizations: A Literature to be seen as machines—tools created Review’, Journal of Business Ethics 94 no. 1 (2010): 89–106; and D. C. Trott, ‘Spiritual Well-being of Workers: An Exploratory Study 4 V. Anand, B. E. Ashforth, and M. Joshi, of Spirituality in the Workplace’ (PhD, The ‘Business as Usual: The Acceptance and University of Texas, Austin, TX, 1996). Perpetuation of Corruption in Organizations’, 11 L. W. Fry, S. T. Hannah, M. Noel, and F. Academy of Management Executive 18 no. 2 O. Walumbwa, ‘Impact of Spiritual Leadership (2004): 39–53. on Unit Performance’, The Leadership Quarterly 5 C. Casey, Work, Self and Society (London: 22 no. 2 (2011): 259–70; Y.A. Nur, and D. W. Routledge, 1995), 28. Organ, ‘Selected Organizational Outcome Cor- 34 Myk Habets and Peter K. McGhee community.12 Unfortunately, spiritual- This essay builds on the notion ity has become an applause word—it that people want to integrate their is the kind of word that generates ap- spirituality into their work. It uses plause whenever it is used.13 In this two suggestive themes: human beings sense, the modern understanding of are created to be ‘priests of creation’ the term depends on whoever is using and ‘mediators of order’. The essay it. begins with an overview of what such Locating SWP within a wider reli- roles entail, what relevance they have gious system such as Christianity, with to our labours, and how we might en- act these callings in and through our its long history and analysis of work,14 work. These ideas then form the basis may produce better insights.15 What for conclusions drawn from a deductive might a distinctly theological approach analysis of Christians enacting their to SWP look like and what would it spirituality in several large New Zea- consist of? land service organisations.16 relates of Spirituality in the Workplace’, Psy- chological Reports 98 no. 1 (2006): 111–20; A. II A Theology of Workers Rego, and M. P. Cunha, ‘Workplace Spiritual- According to Scottish theologian, Tho- ity and Organizational Commitment’, Journal mas F. Torrance, human beings require of Organizational Change Management 21 no. 1 others to fulfil their end or telos. Thus, (2008): 53–75. he contends we are ‘defined by, and 12 A. Crawford, S. S. Hubbard, S. R. Lonis- sustained within our relations to God, Shumate, and M. O’Neill, ‘Workplace Spiritu- ality and Employee Attitudes Within the Lodg- the created order and fellow human be- 17 ing Environment’, Journal of Human Resources ings’. Several pertinent ideas arise in Hospitality & Tourism 8 no. 1 (2009): 64–81; from this claim. R. W. Kolodinsky, R. A. Giacalone, and C. L. First, human beings are created by Jurkiewicz, ‘Workplace Values and Outcomes: and contingent upon God and as such Exploring Personal, Organisational and Inter- have both physical and spiritual as- active Workplace Spirituality’, Journal of Busi- ness Ethics 81 no. 2 (2008): 465–80; and J. F. pects that are ‘essentially complemen- Milliman, A. J. Czaplewski, and J. Ferguson, tary and ontologically integrated’.18 ‘Workplace Spirituality and Employee Work Consequently, differentiating between Attitudes: An Exploratory Empirical Assess- ment’, Journal of Organizational Change Man- agement 16 no. 4 (2003): 426–47. 16 P. K. McGhee, ‘The Role of Spirituality in 13 D. A. Carson, ‘When is Spirituality Spir- Ethical Decision Making and Behaviour’ (PhD, itual? Reflections on Some Problems of Defi- Auckland University, New Zealand, 2015). nitions’, Journal of the Evangelical Theological 17 E. G. Flett, ‘Priests of Creation, Mediators Society 37 no. 3 (1994): 381–94. of Order: The Human Person as a Cultural Be- 14 M. Volf, Work in the Spirit: Toward a Theol- ing in Thomas F. Torrance’s Theological An- ogy of Work (London: Oxford University Press, thropology’, Scottish Journal of Theology 58 no. 1991). 2 (2005): 163. 15 P. K. McGhee, ‘Taking the Spirit to Work’, 18 T. F. Torrance, Transformation and Conver- in M. Habets, ed., The Spirit of Truth: Reading gence in the Frame of Knowledge: Explorations in Scripture and Constructing Theology with the the Interrealations of Scientific and Theological Holy Spirit (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publica- Enterprise (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984), tions, 2010), 179–205. 105. TGIF! A Theology of Workers and their Work 35 the physical (e.g. labour) and the spir- ing God for his own sake liberates us itual (e.g. worship) is a non sequitur; from ourselves such that we can love rather these are two basic aspects of our neighbour objectively.24 Restored the Christian life, albeit different in vertical relations with God ensure form but irreducible to one another; to- comparable horizontal relations with gether they are an inseparable unity.19 others. According to Torrance, this Second, because we are addressed network of redeemed relationships and constituted by God, all that we are, (e.g. family, church, and society) ena- and indeed can become, is dependent bles humanity (and the created order upon ‘a continuing relation and proper of which we are part) to image or mir- orientation towards that same God’.20 ror God back to God though Christ by However, such a relationship is possi- the Holy Spirit—this is the true telos ble only through the person and work of being human. Flett labels this a dy- of Jesus Christ whom Torrance labels, namic image; it is ‘not only a creaturely the ‘Personalising Person’21 and ‘Hu- reflection, or a spiritual reflection, but manizing Man’,22 and upon the Holy also a social reflection’.25 Spirit who continually sustains ‘com- Without social contexts, such as munion between man and God’.23 workplaces, it is not possible ‘for hu- Thus, the work of Christ and the manity in the image God to fulfil its Spirit does not override humanity but calling and vocation as such a being’.26 recreates, reaffirms, and enables one Solitary confinement is, in other words, to stand before God as his beloved the opposite of what a life well-lived child. Accordingly, in accepting the looks like. Rather, a human person truth of Jesus Christ, we become more involved in a rich nexus of rightly or- human not less; our lives, and there- dered social relationships at church, fore our labour, take on new meaning at home, at work, and at play, provides and importance as we participate in the context for life to flourish. God’s divine love and plan for creation. These onto-personal relations (be- Here we might say we require not only ing constituting relations between per- a theology of work but a theology of sons and objects that are necessary for workers. the healthy development of the self)27 Finally, this ontological change from ensure that the image of God in human- self-will and self-understanding to lov- ity is both a description and an action, it is both one’s nature and one’s call- 19 Volf, Work in the Spirit. ing. Interestingly, work has often been 20 Flett, ‘Priests of Creation’, 169. viewed from a vocational perspective 21 T. F. Torrance, The Mediation of Christ, 2nd edition (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1992), 67. 22 Torrance, Mediation, 69. 24 T. F. Torrance, Theology in Reconstruction 23 T. F. Torrance, ‘The Soul and Person in (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965). Theological Perspective’, in Religion, Reason, 25 Flett, ‘Priests of Creation’, 170. and the Self: Essays in Honour of Hywel D. 26 Flett, ‘Priests of Creation’, 171. Lewis, S.R. Sutherland and T.A. Roberts, eds. 27 T. F. Torrance, Reality and Evangelical (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1989), Theology (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 112. 1982). 36 Myk Habets and Peter K. McGhee in Christian thought.28 However, as Volf that exists is God’s gift to man, and has noted, this understanding often al- it all exists to make God known to lows any type of work, no matter how man, to make man’s life communion dehumanizing, to be a calling.29 Moreo- with God.31 ver, there can be ambiguity between In addition to eating—clearly a meta- one’s spiritual and one’s external call phorical use of the term—humanity is when the two conflict. This can lead given the task of naming the animals, to a compromising synthesis whereby something which Schmemann further one’s external vocation becomes one’s comments on: spiritual one. To name a thing is to manifest the Finally, Jensen has argued that such meaning and value God gave it, to thinking has furthered the elevation of know it as coming from God and to 30 So work to the status of a religion. know its place and function within what notion might conceptualise the the cosmos created by God. To name image of God in a work context if the a thing, in other words, is to bless concept of vocation as historically un- God for it and in it. And in the Bible derstood has limitations? The concept to bless God is not a ‘religious’ or a of humanity as priests of creation and ‘cultic’ act, but the very way of life. mediators of order recommends itself. God blessed the world…and this means that He filled all that exists 1. Priests of creation with His love and goodness…So the Reflecting a unified view of creation only natural (and not ‘supernatural’) and humanity under the triune creator reaction of man, to whom God gave God, Russian Orthodox theologian Al- this blessed and sanctified world, exander Schmemann writes: is to bless God in return, to thank Him, to see the world as God sees it In the Bible the food that man eats, and—in this act of gratitude and the world of which he must partake adoration—to know, name and pos- in order to live, is given to him by sess the world.32 God, and it is given as communion with God. The world as man’s food To see the world as God sees it. That is not something ‘material’ and is the vision for everyday life we re- limited to material functions, thus quire today. In order to see the world different from, and opposed to, the as God sees it, we must be Godlike; specifically ‘spiritual’ functions by and that means not only giving but which man is related to God. All also receiving. Such a gift is possible only as we are in communion with God. The Gift cannot be abstracted from the 28 D. Cosden, A Theology of Work: Work Giver. All of this, the Orthodox, and and the New Creation. Paternsoter Theologi- cal Monographs (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2005). 31 Alexander Schmemann, For the Life of the 29 Volf, Work in the Spirit. World: Sacraments and Orthodoxy, 2nd edition 30 D. H. Jensen, Responsive Labor: A Theology (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, of Work (Louisville: Westminster John Knox 1973), 14–15. Press, 2006). 32 Schmemann, For the Life of the World, 15. TGIF! A Theology of Workers and their Work 37 many western thinkers, subsume un- of creation captures what he means der the grand idea that humans are the by the image of God being a calling.36 God-ordained ‘priests of creation’. The As its priest, humanity’s vocation is to Spirit of God woos and entices us into ‘assist the creation as a whole to real- this priestly vocation. Again, Schme- ise and evidence its rational order and mann writes: beauty and thus to express God’.37 The first, the basic definition of man ‘Nature itself is mute’, writes Tor- is that he is the priest. He stands rance, ‘but human being is the one in the centre of the world and uni- constituent of the created universe fies it in acts of blessing God, of through whom its rational structure both receiving the world from God and astonishing beauty may be brought and offering it to God—and by fill- to word in praise of the Creator.’38 As ing the world with his Eucharist, he such, humanity is the mediator of order transforms his life, the one that he and the priest of creation, a creation receives from the world, into life in ‘freely brought into being by the will of God, into communion with Him.33 God and graciously entrusted to a crea- Romanian Orthodox theologian, ture crafted after the image of God’.39 Dumitru Staniloae, prefers to describe Torrance views redeemed human- men and women as creation’s ‘master’ ity as co-creators with God. Our (archon), its created ‘co-creator’, ‘co- work brings forth ‘forms of order and worker’ or ‘continuator’.34 Staniloae beauty of which it would not be capa- considers the world as God’s gift to ble otherwise’.40 This is our priestly humanity in order that humanity may call to co-create and act as stewards gift it back to God. In this way, argues of creation. For Torrance, the primary Staniloae, the sacrifice offered to God way this occurs is through the natural by men and women is a Eucharist, sciences.41 However, as both Habets making every person a priest of God for and Flett note, this seems too narrow the world.35 The language of Eucharist an approach. If we take this idea into reminds us of priestly duty, specifically the workplace (a social context), then the priestly duty of humanity to repre- our daily labours also enact our priest- sent the world to God. hood.42 Such is a vision for a rightly ordered We see this in the original creation concept of work; it is priestly labour, freely offered to God. In the hands of Thomas Torrance, the concept of priest 36 T. F. Torrance, The Ground and Grammer of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2001). 37 M. Habets, Theosis in the Theology of Tho- 33 Schmemann, For the Life of the World, 15. mas Torrance (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009), 45. 34 Dumitru Staniloae, The Experience of God: 38 T. F. Torrance, The Christian Doctrine of Orthodox Dogmatic Theology: Vol 2: The World: God: One Being Three Persons (Edinburgh: Creation and Deification,trans. and ed. I. Ionita T&T Clark, 1996), 213. and R. Barringer (Brookline, Mass.: Holy 39 Flett, ‘ Priests of Creation’, 182. Cross Orthodox Press, 2000), 21–112. 40 Habets, Theosis, 45. 35 Dumitru Staniloae, ‘The World as Gift and 41 Torrance, Reality and Evangelical Theology. Sacrament of God’s Love’, Sobornost 9 (1969): 42 Habets, Theosis, and Flett, ‘Priests of 662–73. Creation’. 38 Myk Habets and Peter K. McGhee story of the Garden of Eden. We must Adam was an archetypal priest, not ask ourselves, is Eden merely a Meso- a farmer. Scanning the horizon of potamian farm and Adam and Eve its redemptive history, we find further first gardeners? If so, does Genesis confirmation of the garden-temple 1–2 then provide human creatures thesis. At the end of redemptive with a work ethic—to till the ground, history it is not a massive city-farm multiply, and steward? Quite simply, that descends out of the heavens, No. Adam’s responsibility is not so but a city-temple. If the end of re- much farming as priestly. The Garden demptive history represents God’s of Eden functions as the earthly arche- intentions from the beginning, then typal temple and Adam and Eve are its he planted a temple in Eden, not a 43 first priests. The combined evidence farm.44 suggests that the Genesis narrative It is from this relationship of Creator to identifies the Garden as the holy of creature that the human beings derive holies, in which human creatures had access to the presence of God. their significance and responsibility in And so we return to ask what the the formation of the world towards its ‘work’ was that Adam and Eve, and final consummation. As Flett notes, all their sons and daughters, were cre- ‘this creature is peculiarly constituted ated for. God placed humans ‘in the and uniquely called to improvise with garden to work it and keep it’ (Gen God as “scientist”, “midwife”, “priest”, 2.15). Many simply read this as ‘culti- and “instrument”, in order to draw the vation’—thus ‘farming’. God meant us created order toward its liberating te- 45 all to be farmers! But that is not what los’. the text is saying at all. The exact same vocabulary—’work’ 2. Mediators of order and ‘keep’ is used to describe the Telling the story of God’s work in the priestly responsibilities in the taber- world involves the embodiment and nacle: ‘They shall keep guard over expression of God’s purposes for it. him…before the tent of meeting as This story cannot be told apart from they minister/work at the tabernacle’ the formation of specific communities (Num 3.7-8; 8.26; 18.5-6 cf. 4.23-24, and their concrete action . 26). This is the only other time in the in the world Pentateuch when these words are used When human persons act in the world together—something the Rabbis no- they function, implicitly or explicitly, ticed in their Midrash. as ‘mediators of order’. They cannot Thus we are on safe ground to as- escape the fact that their actions have sert that Adam and Eve’s responsibili- a purpose and that purposeful action is ties in the garden are primarily priestly rooted in an overarching and compre- rather than agricultural! As John Fes- hensive conception of order. ko has stated: Consequently, the way in which hu- man communities order their social

43 J. V. Fesko, Last Things First: Unlock- ing Genesis 1–3 with the Christ of Eschatology 44 Fesko, Last Things First, 75. (Fern: Mentor, 2007), especially 57–75. 45 Flett, ‘Priests of Creation’, 182. TGIF! A Theology of Workers and their Work 39 and physical environments becomes a sion in the world through cultural form of embodied worship, a living and transformation.46 concrete witness to their most compre- As uniquely created beings in the hensive ideas of order, value, and pur- image of God, humanity occupies an pose formed in conversation with a real exclusive place on the boundary be- and objective world. Our relationships tween the natural and the super natu- with others, the created order, and ral.47 As priest of creation, humanity God, form the fundamental basis upon has the function and privilege to assist which this activity takes place. the creation to realise and evidence its The quality of these relationships rational order and beauty and thus to will determine also whether the result express God’s beauty and being back of that activity will sustain or subvert to God. the very relations upon which it is According to Torrance, ‘through built. Those relations, and the cultural human cultivation and development environments they produce and sus- nature should bring forth forms of or- tain, can be morally legitimated only as der and beauty of which it would not they enable the embodiment of God’s be capable otherwise’.48 True priestly purposes for the created order and by functions of humanity include caring so doing sustain the personhood and for the poor and the oppressed, devel- integrity of human agents created in oping sustainable farming practices, God’s image. And this can be done only implementing ethical labour practices, when life is lived in relation to Jesus and generally working in ways which the Son of God incarnate. respect God, creation, and humanity. In other words—when men and Through their work, Christians par- women function in their God-given ticipate in God’s new creation. This in- roles as priests of creation and mediators volves our labour reflecting God back of order, they initiate the great shalom to himself. Through their work, Chris- of God, they embody worship (Rom tians also cooperate with God in the 12.1), and they represent the world to redemption of the world. Our mundane God in their representation of God to labours empowered by the Holy Spirit the world. As such we work towards contribute to God’s eschatological creating the ‘order that ought to be’— the nudging of creation towards its in- 46 E. G. Flett, Persons, Powers, and Plurali- tended telos. Eric Flett correctly argues ties: Toward a Trinitarian Theology of Culture that: (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2011), 222. 47 T. F. Torrance, The Christian Frame of If that relation is construed prop- Mind: Order and Openness in Theology and Natu- erly, that identity and mission will ral Science (Edinburgh: Handsel Press, 1985), thrust [the church] into the world as 41, 62; and ‘The Goodness and Dignity of Man a royal priesthood, whose activity in in the Christian Tradition’, Modern Theology 4 no. 4 (1988): 311. the world of culture will not only 48 T. F. Torrance, Divine and Contingent Order bear witness to the God she wor- (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), ships, but will advance God’s mis- 130. 40 Myk Habets and Peter K. McGhee transformation of the present.49 These participants frequently acted as ‘em- expectations ensure that legitimate bodied witnesses to the glory and eter- forms of work have intrinsic value and nal purposes of God’ and in doing so invest it with ultimate meaning via its brought another dimension to their or- relation, indirectly through sanctifica- ganisations.51 This dimension encour- tion and directly through what humans aged serving humanity’s real needs, create, to the new creation. developed a corporate distinctiveness Not all work, however, qualifies. that focused on character and virtues, Criteria in 1 Corinthians 3:12-15 sug- and made decisions that transcended gest that under judgement, work that individual and organizational selfish- has ultimate significance, work that ness. reflects and cooperates with the triune This resonates with the Spirit’s nature of God, is purified (is good). work in creation and contributes to Insignificant work, on the other hand, the long-term flourishing of all.52 Such work done counter to God’s nature or behaviour was worship made flesh; an in cooperation with powers that wish incarnate and tangible sign of God in to ruin God’s plan for creation, is ille- the world through their work. gitimate. A good example of these ideas in action comes from Spencer, a privacy manager in a Government organisa- III A Study of Christian tion. In response to questions about Spirituality at Work his influence in the workplace, Spen- Using the preceding theology as the cer provided a clear indication that his basis for deductive analysis, and as Christian spirituality played a signifi- part of a larger study, 21 Christians cant role. When asked how, he stated it from several New Zealand service or- helped set the ethical tone at work and ganisations were interviewed about contributed momentum for sustainable their spirituality and its relationship ethical change: 50 to their work. After discussing 2 to Well I believe it [Christianity] en- 3 critical incidents, their answers were hances it [the organisation] sig- analysed, using the two key themes: nificantly…I believe I help set the first, Christians are co-creators and tone. I believe that being a spiritual co-redeemers with God in and through person, and having that as a value their work, and, second, that such means that I do my job different, work has ultimate meaning and value better; more efficiently, more thor- in and of itself separate from other ex- oughly than I would if I didn’t have ternal goods. that. And that that does effect the organisation. And I think that hav- 1. Co-creators in the workplace ing people who get that, who do As a result of this analysis, we found value spirituality, it does create mo- mentum towards making the organi-

49 Volf, Work in the Spirit. 50 McGhee, ‘The Role of Spirituality in Ethi- 51 Flett, ‘Priests of creation’, 176. cal Decision Making and Behaviour’. 52 Volf, Work in the Spirit. TGIF! A Theology of Workers and their Work 41

sation a better place. this often fosters policies, procedures, Spencer referenced improved working and practices that bolster unethical outcomes including caring about his conduct.56 team, looking out for broader interests The potency of self-interest in many besides his own, and working with in- organisations suppresses moral choic- tegrity. es, ensures means are more important Unfortunately, organisational mis- than ends, and regularly ignores exter- behaviour continues to make headlines nalities as part of operational process- around the world. From the collapse of es.57 This incentivises individuals to Enron and WorldCom in 2001 through view their organisation as a separate to Volkswagen’s recent admission that entity from society; an entity that pri- 11 million of its vehicles were equipped orities economic goals over other con- with software to cheat emissions tests cerns.58 Indeed, Schwartz, writing in in 2016, there have been many well- his book, Narcissistic Process and Cor- 53 known cases. Why are such trans- porate Decay, argues that organisations gressions a prevalent and continuing blight in organisations? The simple answer is that we are, as Paul writes are Destroying Good Management Practices’, in Rom 3:9–10, ‘all under sin…there is Academy of Management Learning & Education no one righteous, not even one’. 4 no. 1 (2005): 75–91; R. A. Giacalone, ‘A This response, appropriate as it Transcendent Business Education for the 21st Century’, Academy of Management Learning & is, does not explain such incidents’ Education, 3 no. 4 (2004): 415–20. frequent occurrence. Many modern 56 Anand, Ashforth, and Joshi, ‘Business organisations operate within a per- as Usual’, 39–53; Bakan, The Corporation; A. vasive economic system that is indi- Buchanan, ‘Toward a Theory of the Ethics of vidualistic, self-interested, focused Bureaucratic Organizations’, Business Ethics on pecuniary ends while rationalising Quarterly 6 no. 4 (1996): 419–40; J. M. Dar- such behaviour as conducive to greater ley, ‘How Organisations Socialize Individuals 54 into Evil Doing’, in Codes of Conduct: Behavio- well-being. This ensures that organi- ral Research into Business Ethics, eds. D. Me- sations image this dominant paradigm sick, and A. E. Tenbrunsel (New York: Russell and strive to realise its ends.55 Sadly, Sage Foundation, 1996), 13–42; R. Jackall, Moral Mazes: The World of Corporate Managers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); R. 53 G. Gates, J. Ewing, K. Russell, and D. McKenna, and E. Tsahuridu, ‘Must Managers Watkins, ‘Explaining Volkswagen’s Emissions Leave Ethics at Home? Economics and Moral Scandal’, New York Times. (June 1, 2016). Re- Anomie in Business Organisations’, Reason trieved from http://www.nytimes.com/interac- in Practice 1 no. 3 (2001): 67–76; and L. K. tive/2015/business/international/vw-diesel- Trevino, and S. A. Youngblood, ‘Bad Apples emissions-scandal-explained.html?_r=0 in Bad Barrels: A Causal Analysis of Ethical 54 P. Berry, Fostering Spirituality in the Work- Decision-making Behavior’, Journal of Applied place: A Leader’s Guide to Sustainability (New Psychology 75 no. 4 (1990): 378–85. York: Business Expert Press, 2013); Hamil- 57 G. Moore, ‘Re-imagining the Morality of ton, Growth Fetish; T. Kasser, The High Price Management: A Modern Virtue Ethics Ap- of Materialism (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, proach’, Business Ethics Quarterly 18 no. 4 2002); Lips-Wiersma, and Nilakant, ‘Practical (2008): 483–511. Compassion’, 51–72. 58 Lips-Wiersma, and Nilakant, ‘Practical 55 S. Ghoshal, ‘Bad Management Theories Compassion’, 51–72. 42 Myk Habets and Peter K. McGhee could not be the ‘bastions of benign glory and eternal purpose of God’.62 community oriented ethical reason- Christians in the workplace are to im- ing we wished them to be because of age God, not the dominant economic the demands and requirements of the ideology. Our purpose and labours help market’.59 liberate creation from its ‘bondage to Accordingly, organisations, and the decay’; this is the true calling of Christ people within them, create for them- since it brings our work-life into ‘con- selves a ‘self-contained, self-serving formity with the way it has been or- worldview, which rationalizes anything dered by the Father and redeemed by 63 done on their behalf and does not re- the Son’. For Spencer, work was more than quire justification on any grounds out- just a job—it was also about making side of themselves’.60 This worldview, a difference. His spirituality acts as a Schwartz suggests, imposes a survival compass pointing him back to Christ. of the fittest requirement on all- par This ensures his work reflects God’s ticipants in organisational life that in nature and desires for creation: turn ensures that to get ahead all must I like to think what I do, it’s not conform. about getting information to par- As embodied created beings living ties, it’s ultimately about the best in community, human action has bear- interests of the parties that are in- ing not only on others, but on creation volved…I know sometimes in meet- itself. As Paul writes in Romans 8:19- ings and things you hear other em- 22, creation is frustrated by our sin. ployees talking about, ‘Well it’s just It bears the scars of humanity’s diso- about this request or whatever’ and bedience. Unfortunately, business and I always say, ‘Well no it’s not just industry often play a conspicuous role about that request; it’s about what in such wounding.61 is the best long-term decision for The church’s mission, states Flett, these parties.’ Many times, we can is ‘not spiritual in any narrow sense, lose that perspective. but cultural, since it is her function to But I think spirituality and under- stand as an embodied witness of the standing, for me, what God means and what Jesus has done in my life means that I do always get remind- 59 H. S. Schwartz, Narcissistic Process and Corporate Decay: The Theory of the Organiza- ed: well look it’s about more than tional Ideal, cited in A. Gini, ‘A Short Primer on just this…I think, well, when you’re Moral Courage’, in Moral Courage in Organiza- not tired and you are fresh you get tions: Doing the Right Thing at Work, eds. D. R. reminded that no, this counts, this Comer & G. Vega (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, actually is making a difference for 2011), 59. God’s world. It might not be huge 60 Schwartz, Narcissistic Process and Corpo- and it might not hit the media in a rate Decay, 59. 61 R. Ehrenfeld, and A. J. Hoffman, Flourish- ing: A Frank Conversation about Sustainabil- ity (Stanford, CA: Stanford Business Books, 62 Flett, ‘Priests of Creation’, 176. 2013); and N. Klein, This Changes Everything 63 Flett, ‘Priests of Creation’, 178. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014). TGIF! A Theology of Workers and their Work 43

positive way but it’s important and debasing work either for ourselves or it counts. others’.67 As recreator, God makes all As stated earlier, interpreting work things new. In adopting us through from a traditional calling stance may Christ by the Holy Spirit, God human- be problematic. Several authors, writ- ises our labours fully such that they ing in the theology of work literature, participate in the completion of his provide varied limitations of this ap- new creation. Work that fails in these proach.64 While their criticisms differ, aspects, that fails to cooperate with they share a belief that underpinning God in his eschatological transforma- much of this perspective is the no- tion mundi, has no place in this new tion of individualism. Perhaps this is creation.68 not surprising, given its ascetic roots, The participants in this study re- Protestant emphasis on freedom and jected any such co-optation and en- close links to capitalism.65 acted their spirituality often in the face Unfortunately, such a focus shifts of counter-forces which encouraged our attention from the object of our dehumanising work practices.69 They faith, which is the Triune redemptor reframed their circumstances from a and recreator, to the subjective re- transcendent perspective and acted quirements of persons (or organisa- accordingly. This involved considering tions). Our faith becomes primarily a the impact of their decisions on a range transaction between an individual and of stakeholders as well as God’s desire God often at the expense of the wider for his creation. community. Within the work context, Again, we turn to Spencer for an this typically involves co-opting no- example of such praxis in his refusing tions of faith, spirituality, and calling a superior’s request to withhold docu- 66 to serve instrumental ends. mentation from its rightful owner be- As redemptor, God frees us from cause she feared compromising the or- sin. His spiritual presence enables us ganisation’s reputation and/or having to reject evil and to choose his desires a potential claim against the organisa- (2 Cor 3:17) and ‘not to be instigators tion from the client: or active practioners of degrading or Well I think to me the question be- comes, if we remove documents for 64 See for example, Cosden, Theology of this reason, then what stops us from Work; Jensen, Responsive Labor; and Volf, Work removing other documents for other in the Spirit. reasons? I mean where does it end? 65 N. H. Nadesan, ‘The Discourses of Corpo- And then you know even do we go rate Spiritualism and Evangelical Capitalism’, Management Communication 13 no. 1 (1999): further? Do we go through all the 3–42. files, and start sort of rummaging 66 J. Carrette, and R. King, Selling Spiritual- ity: The Silent Takeover of Religion (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005); M. Lips-Wiersma, K. L. 67 McGhee, ‘Taking the Spirit to Work’, 190. Dean, and C. J. Fornaciari, ‘Theorizing the 68 Volf, Work in the Spirit. Dark Side of the Workplace Spirituality Move- 69 Ghoshal, ‘Bad Management Theories’, ment’, Journal of Management Inquiry 18 no. 4 75–91; and Giacalone, ‘A Transcendent Busi- (2009): 288–300. ness Education’, 415–20. 44 Myk Habets and Peter K. McGhee

through files and say ‘Anything that wholeness. Recall that for Torrance, doesn’t make us look good?’ I sim- human beings are constituted by their ply can’t do that! relations with God, creation, and oth- She [his manager] wasn’t happy but ers. As instruments in the hand of God, we ended up getting someone else human beings are in tune when these involved—another executive man- onto-relations are transcendentally ager– and they decided not to re- determined. When we choose freely to move the document from the file… image God in our labours by, for exam- As Christian I would have to say ple, treating others as ends not means (e.g. opposing sweatshop labour), and that they [his choices here] would stewarding God’s creation as opposed have something to do at least with to diminishing it (e.g. reducing pollu- the teachings and the life and the tion), then we ‘are being transformed death of Jesus of Nazareth. into his likeness with ever-increasing And that would certainly include— glory, which comes from the Lord, who but not be limited to—things like is the Spirit’ (2 Cor 3:18). caring about others, loving our This progression, through Christ neighbour as ourselves, being in and by the Spirit, ensures we are no touch with God, through things like longer alienated from God, from each prayer and reading the bible. So other, or from creation. Instead of be- yeah, those kind of principles upon ing less, we are becoming more com- which we build our lives—I think plete, more in-tune, indeed we are be- –that help us to make decisions to coming more human. It is no surprise live how God wants us to. perhaps that participants felt and Many times, participants told the articulated enhanced well-being, ‘a story of God’s work in the world via sense of peace that transcends all un- their concrete embodied actions. And derstanding’ (Phil 4:7), when they la- these actions helped shape their world boured objectively for God as opposed in ways that effect God’s intended telos to subjectively for themselves. for creation. Interestingly, these bene- We see a good example of this from fits were not limited to our participants Daniel, an insurance agent in a large alone. Through their conduct, they ini- multinational company. Daniel chose tiated the great shalom of God as they to circumvent rules and policies to pay out clients who had suffered dur- helped others (often unbeknownst to ing a devastating earthquake in New them) represent themselves to God Zealand and who had been unjustly re- and back again. Spencer, for example, jected by his Insurance Company, even influenced his fellow privacy officers to at the risk of his own job position and act in similar redemptive ways. financial security. He transcended his role and the organisational culture to 2. Enacting meaningful work help these people: Participants found such priestly work So quite often I batted for the client, brought significant meaning and value I looked for opportunities wherever to their lives. Indeed, many reported I could to pay claims for the cli- a deep-seated sense of fulfilment and ent, even though that actually went TGIF! A Theology of Workers and their Work 45

away from the rules and regulations This differs significantly from con- of the company… temporary views of spirituality which There was some wheeling and deal- are primarily about satisfying individ- ing and maybe, as I say, when I was ual existential desires and organisa- younger there’s no way I would do tions’ instrumental needs. Such a view that because I was probably more simply ‘reinforces the idea of work pro- black and white. Now I would, I’ve viding a path to enlightenment through 70 changed in the fact of wanting to the notion of self-actualisation’ in- help people so how can I pay some- stead of through Christ, the person- thing, get under the radar and yet it alising person and the humanizing 71 [the claim] still lines up. human, and the Holy Spirit. As Her- rick puts it, such a limited perspective When asked why he did this, Dan- iel’s answer reflected his desire to live calls for a self-adoration and exalta- an authentic Christian life, a life not tion of our own rational self-aware- compromised by inauthentic action. ness—the divinity operating within Daniel interpreted this authentic life us [and…] arrives at no more in- using a phrase, ‘living for God, living teresting destination than spiritual 72 for the kingdom’, which essentially narcissism. means being true to your priestly call- Interestingly, those that failed in ing daily. Interestingly, for Daniel, this their ‘priestly duties’ often conveyed was primarily about loving God and his feelings of discontent, anxiety, and neighbour objectively: meaninglessness dependent on the It’s [Christianity] everything, so extent of their inauthenticity in action. every day you want to be living for Communication of this was often in God, living for the kingdom. If it’s terms of damage to the self. If imag- not of the kingdom then you don’t ing God is the central aspect of a Chris- want to be doing it, so that’s part of tian’s identity, then not acting thus may who I am, so every day is, yeah, it cause significant conative conflict and affective distress.73 Several extracts is a part of everyday life. So to me, are provided as evidence of this: [it is about] helping others, in this case we’re to help other people, you I feel guilty but—yeah but I feel, know, their lives are decimated, so linking back to my faith, I feel like common sense tells us to pay what it’s perhaps a hurt on my spiritual- we can to get their house repaired, to put them in temporary accommo- 70 E. Bell, and S. Taylor, ‘The Elevation of dation, to get them some help. So Work: Pastoral Power and the New Age Work what is living for Kingdom? [It is] Ethic’, Organization 10 no. 2 (2003): 336. loving God and others. 71 Torrance, The Mediation of Christ. For Daniel, the consequence of these 72 J. A. Herrick, The Making of the New Spir- types of transcendent actions and ituality (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 259. this authentic living was an enhanced 73 C. Rozuel, and N. Kakabadse, ‘Ethics, sense of well-being and the ongoing Spirituality and Self: Managerial Perspectives likelihood of such behaviours happen- and Leadership Implications’, Business Ethics: ing in other contexts: A European Review 19 no. 4 (2010): 423–36. 46 Myk Habets and Peter K. McGhee

ity….It just feels like something to IV Conclusion be avoided. I feel really conflicted, Writing in the Journal of Management I stress a lot about those kinds of Inquiry, Gull and Doh argued that or- things and the net result is that I ganisations need transmutation to- found it a lot more stress here than wards more spiritual workplaces.76 ever before and so then there’s the They contend that rationalism, power, physical, feeling tired and so on. You self-will, and greed are rampant and as can’t pinpoint it to whether it’s just such, limit our capacity for connected- that issue but it sure doesn’t help— ness with and compassion for others.

Zeta, Project Manager This encourages a ‘me’ over the ‘we’ You’re going to feel discomfort be- mentality which eventually corrupts cause you’re dealing with people behaviour. The solution to this prob- and their futures and all the rest of lem, they argue, is to change the or- it. If you take that stuff [Christian- ganisation’s dominant schema. ity] seriously, if you have a sense of This, however, cannot occur by sim- care for people and their wellbeing ply espousing spirituality or by includ- then some situations inevitably are ing a few spiritual mantras as part of uncomfortable because the out- the company’s values statement. Train- comes have quite strong effects— ing and incentives programmes will Michael, Director also be ineffective. Such a transmuta- Oh, I felt awful; it was really dif- tion, according to Gull and Doh, will ficult, I felt disconnected from my happen only if employees are permitted spiritual self like someone else was and encouraged to enact their spiritual- doing it—Lucy, Communications ity fully in the life of the organisation. Consultant Despite these lofty goals, Gull and Moreover, such individuals ‘yield Doh offer a very humanistic/existen- more easily to the pressure of social tialist solution that cannot achieve conformity, relinquishing their person- what they desire. The proposal pre- al responsibility by claiming to be just sented in this paper, on the other hand, an agent within a system’.74 Being in- provides a short overview of the work authentic ensures the ego takes prece- of Thomas Torrance and its application dence so ‘moral decisions may no long- to Christian faith in the workplace. It er be genuine and in accordance with briefly discusses the findings of ade- our values; instead, they may respond ductive qualitative study that applied to our personal interests or to collec- this framework to Christians in New tive expectations’.75 Such individuals Zealand Organisations. It finds that hu- can become compartmentalised, ignore mans created in the imago Dei flourish they are created in the imago Dei, and when they fully live out their roles as risk developing psychopathologies. mediators of order and priests of crea-

74 Rozuel and Kakabadse, ‘Ethics, Spiritual- 76 G. A. Gull, and J. Doh, ‘The “Transmuta- ity and Self’, 426. tion” of the Organization: Towards a More 75 Rozuel and Kakbadse, ‘Ethics, Spirituality Spiritual Workplace’, Journal of Management and Self’, 426. Inquiry 13 no. 2 (2004): 128–39. TGIF! A Theology of Workers and their Work 47 tion, ordering creation and presenting wards God. Once this shift occurs, as it back to God in worship. the qualitative study described above Labour, which has so often instru- highlights, human beings can become mentalized humans and has been co- the human persons God intended them opted for power relations and economic to be, in harmony with God, with each control, must be seen, rather, as a key other, and with all of creation. aspect of humanity’s priestly duty to-

STUDIES IN EVANGELICAL HISTORY AND THOUGHT The Life of God in the Soul The Integration of Love, Holiness and Happiness in the Thought of John Wesley David B. McEwan This unique work begins with Wesley’s understanding of the life of the Triune God as the model for understanding love, holiness and happiness. These qualities are restored to us in our salvation. John Wesley believed that these are foundational to our discipleship and to our spiritual formation in Jesus Christ. David McEwan expertly shows how. ‘There have been a number of attempts to revisit Wesley’s doctrine of sanctification and reconstruct it along more dynamic, relational lines but most of these attempts have proven superficial. The Life of God in the Soul, on the other hand, provides us with a serious scholarly treatment of what has been called Wesley’s theology of “relational holiness.” I recommend it wholeheartedly.’ Glen O’Brien, Associate Professor of Church History and Theology, Booth College, Sydney ‘Every Christian should aim to reflect the holy character of God more and more, and John Wesley is one of the Church’s greatest spiritual guides. David McEwan’s expertise enables him to give a clear exposition which will help many to benefit from Wesley’s practical spiritual wisdom.’ Thomas A. Noble, Professor of Theology, Nazarene Theological Seminary, Kansas City, USA David B. McEwan is Director of Research, Nazarene Theological College, Brisbane, Australia; and Director of the Australasian Centre for Wesleyan Research ISBN 9781842278008 (e.9781842278888) / 200pp / 229mm x 152mm / £24.99

Available from: 01908 268500 or [email protected] ERT (2017) 41:1, 48-56 The Church as a Civil Society: An African Ecclesiology

Emiola Nihinlola

I Introduction theology of the church. The doctrine The doctrine of the church is an im- of the church is actually one of special portant study for at least two reasons. interest to Baptists. This is because, First, in Systematic Theology, which historically and practically, Baptists is the particular area of theological are a group of protestant, evangelical preoccupation of the writer, ecclesi- Christians with particular ecclesio- ology (the doctrine of the church) is logical conviction and sacramental the bridge between soteriology (the persuasion. Some of the fundamental doctrine of salvation) and missiology pillars of the Baptist faith have to do (the doctrine of Christian missions). with the doctrine of the life and work According to Millard Erickson, bibli- of the church. Examples are regener- cally speaking, ‘conversion leads the ate church membership, ordinances of individual into fellowship of a group of baptism and Lord’s Supper, church pol- believers. That collective dimension of ity that is both local (congregational) the Christian life we call the church.’1 and connectional (advisory bodies— Church experience is thus indissolubly association, conference, convention/ bound to salvation experience. And a union and alliance). very important part of church life is church work or mission. Second, ecclesiology is of particular II The Use of a Theological interest to evangelical theological in- Model stitutions and instructions. Research This paper is an attempt to explore the topics at post-graduate levels in Sys- topic, ‘The Church as a Civil Society’, tematic Theology in the Nigerian Bap- by the use of a theological model. In tist Theological Seminary from middle systematic theology, a model (image, 1990s have focused particularly on the figure) is a valid methodology for a the- ological discourse. Down through the 1 Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theol- ages, the church has been studied with ogy (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, the aid of models. The models of the 1998), 1036. church are of diverse categories: bibli-

Rev Dr Emiola Nihinlola, (PhD, Nigerian Baptist Theological Seminary) is the President of Nigerian Baptist Seminary in Ogbomoso. Dr Nihinlola was previously the Rector of the Baptist College of Theology in Lagos. He is also the Director of the International Council for Higher Education, West Africa Network. Dr Nihinlola’s specialisation is in systematic theology. The Church as a Civil Society: An African Ecclesiology 49 cal, religious, philosophical, cultural, logical interpretation from the perspec- social and political. A few examples tive of injustice, disintegration, discon- may be cited: nectedness, hostility and alienation). • The people of God, the body of Some scholars like Matthew Lamb Christ, the bride of Christ, the build- think that liberation theologies are ing of God, the kingdom of God, the meant for the Third World countries family of God, the flock of God and while political theologies are for west- 5 the vineyard of God.2 ern cultures. Contrary to that opinion • The temple of the Holy Spirit3 this paper, as an African socio-political • Political society, communion of theology, borrows some elements from saints, servant, theocentric commu- both liberation and political theologies. nity, mother, ancestral mediation, A clarification may be made at this clan.4 juncture, namely, that the paper does not endorse the use of Marxist cat- From the viewpoint of linguistic egories and methods like the use of analysis, ‘the church as a civil society’, violence to press for societal develop- is a simile. The church is not really a ment. civil society, but it can be studied as a The paper will begin with a discus- civil society. Philosophically, however, sion of the nature of the church as a a model is an approximate symbolic civil society. This will be followed by an language to describe a reality. Useful examination of the task of the church as it is, a model has certain limitations as a civil society in Africa today. Partic- as it cannot usually completely or ad- ular attention will be given to Nigerian equately represent its object. It will be socio-political context. understood, then, that this model will reflect that deficiency. The church as a civil society is a III The Nature of the Church socio-political model to examine some as a Civil Society civic responsibilities of the body of Christ in contemporary Africa. This What does it mean to talk about the paper is thus an attempt to develop church as a civil society? The starting an ecclesiology that is contextually, point is to consider the meaning of the ‘contemporarily’ African. It can be said world ‘church’. Among several other to be an exercise in political theology possibilities, I think of the church (theology of public and corporate life), as the assembly of Christian believ- as well as liberation theology (ecclesio- ers called by God the Father from the world, saved by the Lord Jesus Christ and empowered by the Holy Spirit. 2 Bruce Milne, Know the Truth (Leicester: Every local church is a representative Inter-Varsity Press, 1998), 260-265. and expression (rightly, poorly or oth- 3 Erickson, Christian Theology, 1049-1051. 4 John O. Enyinnaya, ‘Ecclesiology through the Centuries: A Critical Assessment of His- 5 Matthew L. Lamb, ‘Political Theology’, in torical Paradigms of the Church’, Contempo- David F. Wright, Sinclair B. Ferguson, and rary Issues in Systematic Theology: An African James I. Packer (eds), The New Dictionary of Christian Perspective (Ibadan: Sceptre Prints Theology (Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Aca- Ltd, 2011), 65-97. demic, 1988), 772-779. 50 Emiola Nihinlola erwise) of the universal church. civil society? As an important element Theologians and practitioners ap- of social development and the democ- proach the life, functions or purposes ratization process, civil society (along of the church in different ways. For with government and business) is an Erickson, the functions of the church important sector of every modern state are evangelism, edification, worship or community. One public policy inter- and social concern.6 On the other hand governmental organisation has defined Wayne Grudem considers the purposes civil society as: ‘an arena, a forum in of the church to be ministry to God, which citizens associate to achieve a ministry to believers and ministry to wide range of different purposes, some the world.7 The threefold ministry of positive and peaceful, some perceived the church is sometimes described as as negative and violent’.8 Most civil ‘up reach’, ‘in reach’, and ‘outreach’. society institutions and organizations For this author, the essential, major in different parts of the world promote functions of the church are worship, democracy, good governance, rule of fellowship, discipleship, stewardship, law, equity, transparency and account- ministry and mission. ability. Examples of civil societies in Usually, the mission/task of the Africa are: church is an integral aspect of the • African Women’s Economic Policy nature of the church. In socio-polit- Network, Uganda ical terms the mission of the church • Cameroon Aid Action for the under- includes social ministry and action privileged Areas, Cameroon (to the poor, prisoners, the blind and • Campaign for Democracy, Nigeria oppressed—economically and politi- • Foundation for Eco Diversity, Kenya cally as seen in the manifesto of Jesus • International Centre for Conflict and Christ, Luke 4:18, 19). We observe that Human Rights Analysis, Ghana the traditional statements of models • Development in Africa Inc, Nigeria and mission tasks of the church are • Youth Partnership for Peace and De- mostly socially cautious, economically velopment, Sierra Leone.9 hesitant and politically evasive. The As Reuben Abati, a well-known task of the church in society is usu- Nigerian commentator, put it, an im- ally discussed from the perspectives portant task of civil society is ‘to hold of evangelism and social ministry with government down to the first principles particular emphasis on preaching, of the social contract’.10 The 21st cen- teaching and learning. In this paper an attempt is made to highlight the role of the church to citizens in the face of 8 Civil Society, Policy Paper by The Interna- tional Institute for Democracy and Electoral unjust economic and enslaving politi- Assistance. Retrieved from http://www.idea. cal structures. int/publications/country/upload/8 civil society. What is the meaning and task of a pdf on 3 October 2014. 9 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development proceedings, www.unctadxii. 6 Erickson, Christian Theology, 1061-1069. org/Documents/UNCTADXII/uxiidom cso001 7 Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology (Grand en.pdf, accessed on 3 October 2014. Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan: 1994), 867-869. 10 Reuben Abati, ‘More Than a Strike’, in The Church as a Civil Society: An African Ecclesiology 51 tury African nations are struggling to beings in his own image.’12 Moreover, democratize. that dignity confers certain rights on The mission of the church cannot be every human being as explained by restricted to traditional roles of Chris- Bujo, ‘At the core is the concept of the tian mission—soul winning, church dignity of the individual: being human planting, discipleship training, and justifies the claim to certain rights.’13 revivalism. The church must become Human rights in a society have been more politically sensitive and involved. classified into various groups. The first Thomas Starks thus once asserted sig- ‘generation’ of rights, usually called nificantly, ‘The day is coming and now ‘classical rights’, are civil and political. is when social liberation is absolutely The second generation of rights are essential to evangelism. Unless be- social and economic rights. The third lievers are promoting the rights of the generation of rights in developing na- oppressed humans, the church’s wit- tions have to do with ‘the basic needs ness in the 21st century will be made for living—water, food, shelter—with- inauthentic.’11 The African church out which human beings can claim no 14 must function as a civil society to con- other rights’. Some of these rights are tribute to the contemporary democrati- taken for granted in developed nations. zation process on the continent. However, from the African perspec- tive as stated by Bujo, ‘property is never private. In the final analysis, the IV The Task of the Church individual administers property in the as a Civil Society in the name of the community.’15 This means that, unlike in the western World, in Contemporary Africa Africa, human and personal rights are The issues that will be considered in actual community rights. The point of this section are defence and preserva- interest is that in a socio-political life, tion of human rights, democracy and denial of the rights enumerated above the rule of law, social/economic injus- as a result of mismanagement, op- tice and the connection between social pression and exploitation of the poor justice and communal peace. amount to great injustice. This be- comes truer when the poverty is due to 1. Defence and preservation of human rights 12 Alan D. Falconer, (1999) ‘Rights, Human’, From the biblical perspective, human in David F. Wright, Sinclair B. Ferguson, and dignity is the basis of human rights. James I. Packer (eds), The New Dictionary of Theology (Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Aca- Christian theologians have always demic, 1988), 901-902. maintained that ‘Human beings have 13 Benezet Bujo, The Ethical Dimension of dignity because God created human Community (Nairobi: Pauline’s Publications Africa, 1997), 144. 14 Benezet Bujo, The Ethical Dimension of The Guardian, 18 January 2004, 18. Community, 144. 11 M. Thomas Starks, Toward a Theology of 15 Benezet Bujo, The Ethical Dimension of Missions (Aurora: Ont. AMG, 1984), 54. Community, 149. 52 Emiola Nihinlola enslaving structures of a society. toral malpractices, restrictions on God’s concern for the poor, weak, freedom of speech and assembly, all oppressed, marginalized people is seen of which the government justifies in biblical and church history. The de- with the omnibus phrase ‘security liverance of Israel from Pharaoh and concerns’.18 their exodus from Egypt is an example. Should the church keep quiet? No, In the Magnificat, Mary’s song of so- the church should team up with ap- cial, economic and political liberation, propriate civil societies to condemn ‘God’s “no” resounding from Mary’s life actions of government that have to is a “no” to the social evil of injustice do with abuses of human rights. The 16 in its “various forms”’. Luke 1:51-53 church should seek legal assistance is one of the most radical and revolu- for hundreds of prison inmates who tionary documents of all times. This is have not been tried for offences. The liberation theology par excellence. church should organize public protests In the New Testament we also see when any inhuman policy is about to God showing ‘solidarity with an intrin- be passed by legislature. The church sically poor humanity’ in and through should condemn acts of corruption at Jesus Christ. It has been argued that, every level of government. since love of God and love of neigh- Conversely, the church should com- bour as oneself is the greatest com- mend right steps of government to pro- mandment, ‘human rights need to be mote communal, human rights. An ex- grounded in love of God who gives hu- 17 ample is the promulgation against gay, man their rights’. Africa is being im- lesbianism and same-sex marriage in poverished morally, socially, economi- Nigeria and Uganda in 2014. The body cally and politically. God is concerned of Christ needs to be culturally sensi- about the suffering of his people. tive. The African worldview is a cele- The human rights record of Nigeria bration of heterosexuality. The church and some other African countries is in Africa cannot take a stand that will very poor. amount to cultural perversion. How- The catalogue of violations include ever the stand, position and expression politically motivated assassina- of the African church on this and other tions, extra-judicial killings and issues must not be judgmental. excessive use of force by security agencies, arrest and detention of people for political reasons, elec- 2. Democracy and rule of law One key preoccupation of most civil so- cieties is the promotion of democracy 16 Ivone Gebaru and Maria Clara Binger, and the rule of law. Democracy is a Mary, Mother of God, Mother of the Poor, trans. particularly appealing and widely ac- by Philip Beryman. (Maryknoll, New York: Or- bis Books, 1989), 1170. cepted contemporary political system. 17 Glen H. Stassen, ‘Human Rights’, in Wil- However, it also shares some of the liam A. Dryness and Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen demerits of other ideologies and politi- (eds.), Global Dictionary of Theology (Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic, 2008), 405- 141. 18 The Guardian, 2005, 14. The Church as a Civil Society: An African Ecclesiology 53 cal systems. Democracy is humanistic cialism, capitalism and others should both by definition and tendency. It is a be ‘harmoniously joined together into a government of people, by people, for religious whole’,23 as it obtained in the people. Where is the place of God in African Traditional Life. this ordinary but popular definition? While democracy has practical chal- One major problem of modern po- lenges is there a better alternative in litical systems (including democracy) contemporary life? Africa is struggling which have been imported into Africa to imbibe the spirit of multi-party de- is that they have no place for religion mocracy. Many political leaders are not and fear of God. John Mbiti thus la- true democrats, but instead, they are mented that they ‘despise, reject or despotic rulers in civilian dress; they even oppose religion’.19 This is a seri- try to monopolize power, to force them- ous deficiency that makes them irrel- selves on citizens through bribery, ma- evant to Africans who have a religious nipulation, violence and all kinds of un- worldview. democratic and unjust actions. There Western democracy has many are many pretenders in governance limitations and problems as analyzed who are in politics not for the common critically by Y. A. Obaje.20 Communal good of society but for personal enrich- democracy has some claims if ‘it pays ment. attention to the traditional African The church needs to be politically model and properly considers it’.21 In awake and participate more actively traditional African leadership style in the democratic process. The church every king or chief was supported by (both at denominational level like the a council of elders. No king was an Nigerian Baptist Convention) and in- absolute ruler. The ruler that was be- terdenominational level (like Christian coming tyrannical would be removed or Association of Nigeria) needs to spon- killed. In a similar manner, as asserted sor election-monitoring teams along by Bujo, even ‘a multi-party system not with local and international groups understood and not rooted in tradition, doing so. The church should condemn can lead to chaos’.22 maladministration and misgovern- It is imperative then to incorporate ment. traditional African values into any Is it not a shame that churches in socio-political ideology that will be of Nigeria and Kenya with 50% and 80% benefit to Africa. Mbiti has suggested Christian populations respectively that in such a system elements of so- have kept quiet in the face of dispro- portionately, outrageous salaries of elected political officers! Democracy 19 John Mbiti, African Religions and Philoso- phy (Ibadan: Heinemann, 1969), 285. is threatened when the financial cost 20 Obaje, Yusufu Ameh, Theonicracy and Not of governance impoverishes the poor. Democracy for Nigeria (Ogbomoso: Ogunniyi Some Nigerian politicians are extreme- Printing Works, 1994). ly wealthy, almost rich enough to buy 21 Benezet Bujo, The Ethical Dimension of Community, 179. 22 Benezet Bujo, The Ethical Dimension of 23 John Mbiti, African Religions and Philoso- Community, 144-149. phy, 266. 54 Emiola Nihinlola human beings, whereas the poor can- Africa is poor but the economic pov- not afford three square meals daily. erty is largely due to tyranny, malad- When a political party in governance ministration and mismanagement of fails to abide by the judgement of a God-given natural and human resourc- court of law, it is also a crime for the es. This poverty of godly, responsible, church to keep quiet. responsive governance and leadership is one of the reasons for the under- 3. Social and economic injustice development of the land. The church must wake up, speak up and advocate Justice is an issue in social relation- against the widening economic gap ships. According to Nicholas Wolter- between the leaders and followers, be- storff, people are treated justly when tween the rich and the poor. The con- they receive what is due to them.24 As temporary church in Africa seems to stated earlier, in Christian understand- have lost a sense of justice, the pursuit ing, the requirement to be just to peo- ple is rooted in the image of God. Thus, of moral righteousness in public life. says Wolterstorff, we are to do justice This is a matter of enlightened both ‘as a manifestation of our respect self-interest. Economic inequality is a for the image of God in persons’ and recipe for social disharmony and po- also ‘as constituting (part of) our imag- litical chaos. Where there is economic ing of God’.25 injustice there cannot be social peace In this respect an important empha- and the church cannot preach the gos- sis of justice in the Bible is the care of pel effectively. Meanwhile, the starting the weak, impoverished and marginal- point is to achieve internal justice and ized members of the community, partic- peace in the church. The church must ularly the poor, widows, orphans and conduct its life in justice and right- aliens. Several Old Testament prophets eousness to be able to help society. called for social justice. For instance, ‘Amos spoke at a time when financial 4. Social justice and communal affluence and religious formalism com- peace bined to produce a high-tide of social Interestingly and justifiably, justice decadence and permissiveness.’26 He and peace are closely related. There protested vehemently against social are two significant and fundamental vices like injustice, corruption, oppres- sion, and exploitation and called for facts about that relationship. The first justice and righteousness (Amos 5:24). fact is that in the context of this study both justice and peace are relational concepts based on human relationships 24 N. P. Wolterstorff, ‘Justice and Peace’, in and so human rights, human worth, hu- David J. Atkinson, David F. Field, Arthur F. man dignity, on the basis of their crea- Holmes, and Oliver O’Donovan (eds.), New tion in the image of God. The second Dictionary of Christian Ethics and Pastoral The- fact is that in social relationships jus- ology (Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic, 1995), 16. tice is the prerequisite for peace. Hu- 25 N. P. Wolterstorff, ‘Justice and Peace’, 18. man beings cannot live in peace unless 26 David and Pat Alexander, The Lion Hand- and until there is righteousness in the book to the Bible (Oxford: Lion, 1983), 372. lives of people and justice in society. The Church as a Civil Society: An African Ecclesiology 55

Wolterstorff has pointed out that to economic injustice. The people are both justice and righteousness come very poor. Life is very cheap and they from the same Greek word dikaio- are frustrated because they have not syne. In the Bible justice is equivalent benefited from civilization (which they to righteousness (Mt 5:6, 10) and it equate with western education). So is closely connected with holiness, they wrongly reason, conclude and de- wholeness, integrity and peace (sha- cide to go back to primitive lifestyle! lom) and so flourishing.27 Two passages This is really a self-contradiction be- of the Old Testament will be cited to cause they use modern scientific and show the direct interconnectedness of technological inventions such as auto- justice (righteousness) and peace: mobiles and the internet. Justice will dwell in the desert and Of course global terrorism in many righteousness live in the fertile respects and places wears a religious field. The fruit of righteousness will garb but its objectives include a reac- be peace; the effect of righteousness tion (and perhaps overreaction) against will be quietness and confidence for- unjust international economic systems ever (Isaiah 32:16-17, NIV). and structures. The truth is that one Love and faithfulness meet togeth- of the reasons for contemporary global er; righteousness and peace kiss restiveness and restlessness is the fact each other. Faithfulness springs that the activities of many multina- forth from the earth, and right- tional corporations, along with banks eousness looks down from heaven and governments, have enriched a few (Psalm 85:10-11, NIV). people who swim in stupendous riches One major factor responsible for while the majority dwell in abject pov- 28 conflicts and wars today is the lack erty. The free market economy pro- of harmonious relationships. Many moted by capitalism is a bubble that people are alienated from God and so will soon burst. Some international lack inner, individual peace (James organizations and multi-national cor- 4:1, 2a). In different parts of the world porations dictate local economy. If labour unions go on strike to ask for the church wants peace in the world, social and economic justice. There is let the church strive for social justice. no peace in many families and organi- Peace without justice is a mirage, an zations because of lack of justice. At illusion. national level, many political and eth- nic communal clashes have unjust eco- nomic undertones leading to hostilities V Conclusion and warfare. I would like to conclude this paper by For instance, in my opinion, there proposing an agenda for the church in are at least two factors for Boko Har- Africa to pursue social justice and com- am in Nigeria. One is religious, the munal peace. other is political, but both are related First, theological institutions need

27 N. P. Wolterstorff, ‘Justice and Peace’, 15- 28 John Perkins, Confessions of an Economic 21. Hit Man (London: Plume, 2004). 56 Emiola Nihinlola to develop ecclesiological models that civil roles, public life and political of- are more socially responsible and en- fice. courage churches to embrace practices Fifth, economic inequality in the that are more politically relevant. world today is social injustice and it is Second, the scope of the mission/ one of the reasons for lack of peace in task of the church in the world needs to the world. The church in Africa must be enlarged, to include social ministry show an example by working for inter- and action in support of the oppressed, nal justice and righteousness and by marginalized and impoverished people caring more for the economically dis- in the world. advantaged citizens as called for in the Third, like a civil society, the church biblical revelation. must participate in human rights Sixth, since it has been established watch. Abuses of humans rights are offensive to the gospel of Jesus Christ. that peace will come into society The church must continually call on through justice, the church in Africa the government to maintain and uphold should actively collaborate with and human rights. support advocacy for different types of Fourth, since credible elections and social justice: creation care and envi- rule of law is the pivot of participa- ronmental justice, human rights abus- tory democracy, the church must seek es and violations, gender rights and means to educate the populace on re- issues, youth orientation and empow- sponsible citizenship. Discipleship erment, as well as electoral education training should include equipping for and election monitoring. ERT (2017) 41:1, 57-66 Economic Growth Vs. The Environment? The Need for New Paradigms in Economics, Business Ethics, and Evangelical Theology

John Jefferson Davis

‘Animosity has traditionally existed the habitats of the spotted owl.2 between environmental advocates and It is not the purpose of this paper3 to those whom they perceive as the ene- address the issue of ‘economic growth my—business,’ noted Gregory Adami- vs. the environment’ in general, but an, president of Bentley College, on the rather to argue more specifically that occasion of a conference hosted by his the current paradigms in economics, institution on the theme of ‘The Corpo- business ethics, and evangelical theol- ration, Ethics, and the Environment.’1 ogy are inadequate and in need of sub- This tension between environmental- stantial revision.4 After a brief review ists and the business community can be observed in global, regional and local settings—as, for example, in 2 See, for example, Robert Bonnie, et al, the controversies surrounding the de- ‘Counting the Cost of Deforestation’, Science forestation of the Amazon rainforests, 288 (9 June 2000), 1763–4; Lisa Newton and Catherine Dillingham, ‘Forests of the North and battles between the logging inter- Coast: the Owls, the Trees, and the Conflicts’, ests in the Pacific Northwest and ani- in Laura Pincus Hartman, Perspectives in mal rights activists seeking to protect Business Ethics (Chicago: Irwin/McGraw-Hill, 1998), 704–11. 3 The author wishes to thank Rev. William Messenger of the Mockler Center for Faith and Ethics in the Workplace for the generous sup- 1 In W. Michael Hoffman, Robert Frederick, port provided for this research project. and Edward S. Petry, Jr., eds., The Corporation, 4 The standpoint assumed by the author in Ethics, and the Environment (New York: Quo- this paper is that known as ‘sustainable devel- rum, 1990), xii. opment’, as defined in note 7 below.

Dr. John Jefferson Davis, (PhD, Duke), an ordained Presbyterian minister, is Professor of Systematic Theol- ogy and Christian Ethics at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary in South Hamilton, Massachusetts, USA. A former president of the Evangelical Philosophical Society, Dr. Davis is the author Practicing Ministry in the Presence of God (Cascade, 2015), Meditation and Communion with God, (IVP Academic 2012), Evangelical Ethics: Issues Facing the Church Today (Presbyterian and Reformed), and numerous ar- ticles in scholarly journals. This article (now slightly edited) was originally published in our issue of July 2002 (26:3), 265-275 . 58 John Jefferson Davis of the historical development of the opment’ was popularized by the 1987 current discussion, it will be argued report of the Brundtland Commission, that neo-classical economists, busi- a panel of experts assembled under the ness ethicists, and evangelical theo- leadership of the then prime minister logians have not generally in the past of Norway.7 This report evoked various taken creation or the environment seri- responses defending continuing eco- ously enough as a crucial element in nomic growth and questioning the se- the frameworks and paradigms of their riousness of environmental problems, disciplines. The paper will conclude notably works by Julian Simon and with a proposal that these disciplines Herman Kahn.8 This debate between need a new paradigm of ‘theocentric, the so-called ‘cornucopian’, pro-growth creation-connectedness’ to deal more and ‘sustainable development,’ limits- adequately with the environmental to-growth points of view has been re- challenges of our time. flected in evangelical circles as well.9 The standpoint assumed by this author I Historical Context of the is that of ‘sustainable development,’ Debate Since the 1970s two powerful trends 7 The report of the Brundtland Commission around the globe have been in con- was published under the title Our Common Fu- flict: the movement toward free market ture (London: Oxford UP, 1987). ‘Sustainable economies, and the growth of the envi- development’ has been defined as ‘develop- 5 ment that does not destroy or undermine the ronmental movement. Environmental ecological, economic or social basis on which concern and activism has accelerated continued development depends’. In Rudi M. since the first Earth Day in 1970, and Verburg and Vincent Wiegel, ‘On the Compat- the movement toward free market ibility of Sustainability and Economic Growth’, economies has accelerated since 1989 Environmental Ethics 19 (1997), 247–65 at with the fall of communism in the 250. 8 Julian L. Simon, The Ultimate Resource former Soviet Union. The influential (Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1981), arguing 1972 publication by D.H. Meadows and for the long-term economic benefits of popula- others, The Limits to Growth, argued tion growth, and Julian L. Simon and Herman that present trends in economic growth Kahn, eds., The Resourceful Earth (New York: begun with the Industrial Revolution Basil Blackwell, 1984), questioning the envi- could not be sustained indefinitely ronmental pessimism of the Global 2000 Re- port to the President of 1980. without producing environmental ca- 6 9 See, for example, Richard T. Wright, ‘Tear- tastrophe. ing Down the Green: Environmental Backlash The concept of ‘sustainable devel- in the Evangelical Sub-Culture’, Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 47:2 (June 1995), 80–91, responding to the ‘cornucopian’ 5 Denis Collings and John Barkdull, ‘Capital- point of view in Larry Burkett, Whatever Hap- ism, Environmentalism, and Mediating Struc- pened to the American Dream (Chicago: Moody, tures: From Adam Smith to Stakeholder Pan- 1993); E. Calvin Beisner, Prospects for Growth els’, Environmental Ethics 17 (1995), 227–44 (Westchester, IL: Crossway, 1990), and Where at 227. the Garden Meets the Wilderness: Evangelical 6 D.H. Meadows, et al, The Limits to Growth Entry into the Environmental Debate (Grand (New York: Universe, 1972). Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997). Economic Growth Vs. The Environment? 59 and from this perspective the paper es overlooks the fact that in the real will proceed with an examination of world consumers may lack scientific existing paradigms in neo-classical knowledge about the possible damage economics, business ethics, and evan- that certain chemicals and technolo- gelical theology. gies, e.g. mercury and DDT, can inflict on human health and the ecosystem.11 The damage may already be done be- II Neo-Classical Economics fore the information is available, and Since the 1970s a growing number of the damages may be irreversible, at environmentalists and ethicists have least within the limits of a human life- argued that the traditional categories time. of neo-classical economics that have The economic category of commod- prevailed in the discipline since 1870 ity price is inadequate to deal with the are conceptually inadequate to deal full range of aesthetic, historical, reli- with current ecological problems. Tra- gious, and scientific values that are im- ditional categories of cost-accounting portant to humane societies.12 Would it such as Gross Domestic Product and make any sense to place the Statue of depreciation have not reflected the Liberty on the auction block and sell true environmental and social costs of it to Walmart on the basis of market industrial activity. The cost of cleaning forces alone? Should the market alone up the oil spillage of the Exxon Valdez determine the allocation of monies for disaster, for example, is counted as a fundamental scientific research in- ar gain to the Gross Domestic Product eas such as high-energy physics, that rather than as an environmental loss. may have no immediate payoff in eco- Keynesian economics counts the cost nomic terms? Critics of neo-classical of depreciation of a factory, but tends economics think that the answers to to ignore the depreciation of natural re- such questions are an obvious ‘no’. sources such as soil fertility and clean Academic economists are not una- water, treating the environment as a ware, of course, of these problems. ‘free’ good.10 The term ‘externalities’ is used to de- Neo-classical economics’ model of scribe cases of market failure where the modern economy as an ‘auction’ economic transactions impose costs where prices are determined by con- on non-consenting secondary parties.13 sumer preferences tends to undervalue A chemical plant that dumps mercury and under-represent the interests of wastes into a river imposes external future generations who have no direct costs on the surrounding residents voice in the ‘auction.’ The assumption that those in the auction have ‘perfect 11 John M. Gowdy and Peg R. Olsen, ‘Fur- information’ to inform their preferenc- ther Problems with Neo-classical Economics’, Environmental Ethics 16 (1994), 161–171 at 10 A.J. McMichael, Planetary Overload: Global 169–70. Environmental Change and the Health of the Hu- 12 Holmes Rolston, III, ‘Valuing Wildlands’, man Species (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1993), Environmental Ethics 7 (1985), 23–48. 298–301; see also Al Gore, Earth in the Bal- 13 James D. Gwartney and Richard Stroup, ance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (Boston: Economics: Private and Public Choices, 3rd ed. Houghton Mifflin, 1992), 183–91. (New York: Academic Press, 1982), 610. 60 John Jefferson Davis who prefer clean water. The market ponents of this point of view believe price of the chemical does not in such that many environmental problems a case reflect the true social cost, since can be handled more efficiently by the the manufacturer is not assuming the private sector rather than government full responsibility for his actions. through a more thorough assignment One attempt to remedy these limi- of property rights. Tradeable pollu- tations of traditional economic theory tion permits, for example, rather than is known as ‘contingent evaluation’ top-down emission controls are said to or ‘shadow pricing’.14 Consumers are be more effective in controlling water polled and asked how much they might and air pollution. The property-rights be willing to pay to preserve an old- approach is not adequate, however, growth forest, for example, from log- in such cases as migratory animals or ging or real estate development. The preserving the integrity of the ozone problem with such a methodology, layer. Government must still establish however, is that it assumes that con- acceptable levels of air or water pollu- sumer preferences are well informed tion in a given region based on scien- as to the scientific and other intangi- tific—not merely market—considera- ble values of the property in question. tions of acceptable health risks. Consumers who are polled as to their ‘Shadow pricing’ and ‘free market preferences regarding the preservation environmentalism’ represent ‘tinker- of the Amazonian rainforest may not be ing’ with the existing paradigm in tra- aware of the role that such ecosystems dition neo-classical economics. More play in the stabilization of regional and radical critics such as Herman Daly global climates.15 have argued that the paradigm itself The sub-discipline known as ‘free is inadequate and are calling for a new market environmentalism’ has also ‘ecological economics’.17 According tried to address these problems.16 Pro- to Daly, traditional economic theory

14 See, for example, Steven Edwards, ‘In Government Do More for the Environment?’ Defense of Environmental Economics’, Envi- in Michael Cromartie, ed., Creation at Risk? ronmental Ethics 9 (1987), 73–…, and Bernard Religion, Science, and Environmentalism (Grand J. Nebel and Richard T. Wright, Environmen- Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 121–136; PERC tal Science: The Way the World Works, 4th ed. Reports and various publications of the Politi- (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993), cal Economy Research Center, Bozeman, MT, 387–88. {www.perc.org}. 15 Mohammed H. I. Dore, ‘The Problem of 17 Herman E. Daly and John B. Cobb, Jr., For Valuation in Neo-classical Environmental the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy To- Economics’, Environmental Ethics 18 (1996), ward Community, the Environment, and a Sus- 65–70 at 69. On the crucial role and valuation tainable Future (Boston: Beacon, 1989); Her- of ‘ecosystem services,’ see Gretchen C. Daly, man E. Daly, Beyond Growth: The Economics ed., Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on of Sustainable Development (Boston: Beacon, Natural Ecosystems (Washington, D.C.: Island 1996); Rajaram Krishnan, Jonathan M. Harris, Press, 1997). and Neva R. Goodwin, eds., A Survey of Eco- 16 Terry L. Anderson and Donald R. Leal, logical Economics (Washington, D.C.: Island Free Market Environmentalism (San Fran- Press, 1995); Juan Martinez-Alier, Ecological cisco: Pacific Research Institute for Public Economics: Energy, Environment and Society Policy, 1991); Peter J. Hill, ‘Can Markets or (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987). Economic Growth Vs. The Environment? 61 is based on a ‘pre-analytic vision’18 of ergy than humanity used in the entire the world in which creation or nature thousand year period before 1900.21 is largely absent or simply assumed as Traditional neo-classical economics a ‘given’. In the traditional model the with its categories of markets and pric- economy is an isolated system in which es is a very efficient means of resolving firms produce goods and services and the issues of allocation (‘What goods households supply factors of produc- and services shall we produce?’) and tion in a never-ending circular flow. A distribution (‘Who shall enjoy the goods new paradigm is needed in which the and services that are produced?’), but global economy is seen as a subset of has ignored the issue of the absolute the global ecosystem, and dependent scale of the global economy relative upon it. The new paradigm recognizes to the global ecosystem that supports that in this period of history it is natural it.22 ‘If there was ever a time’, observe capital, not man-made capital, that is Gowdy and Olsen, ‘when economic the- emerging as a fundamental constraint ory could ignore the natural world, that on economic growth.19 time has past.’23 If one billion Indians Traditional neo-classical econom- and 1.2 billion Chinese were to demand ics, emerging in the 1870s, tended to the number of automobiles, refrigera- assume the environment as a given tors, and washing machines consistent ‘background’ to human economic ac- with western patterns of consumption, tivity, an unlimited set of ‘sources’ of and were to burn fossil fuels at west- raw materials and ‘sinks’ for waste ern rates, it could not be assumed that products. Economic growth was as- the impacts on global warming and on sumed as a self-evident good.20 Since the ozone layer would be benign. It is the 1870s, world population has more high time for economists to recognize than quadrupled. Humans in the twen- the global ecosystem and to make it tieth century used ten times more en- a fundamental part of the governing paradigm of their discipline.

18 On the concept of ‘pre-analytic vision’, cf. the discussion of ‘vision’ in Thomas Sow- III Emerging Trends in ell, A Conflict of Visions: Ideological Origins of Political Struggles (New York: William Mor- Business Ethics row, 1987), 14: ‘A vision has been described In recent years there has been an as a ‘pre-analytic cognitive act.’ It is what emerging awareness in the business we sense or feel before we have constructed community that perspectives in busi- any systematic reasoning that could be called a theory … A vision is our sense of how the ness ethics must be more comprehen- world works.’ sive than considerations of the ‘bot- 19 See figures 2 and 3 in Daly, Beyond tom line’. As W. Michael Hofman has Growth, 47, 49. 20 According to McMichael, Planetary Over- load, 302, neo-classical economics ‘… has 21 J.R. McNeill, Something New Under the not only discounted impacts upon the envi- Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth- ronment; it has explicitly encouraged exces- Century World (New York: Norton, 2000), xvi. sive extraction, harvesting, consumption and 22 Daly, Beyond Growth, 56. waste—all in the exalted cause of expanding 23 Gowdy and Olsen, ‘Further Problems with the GNP’. Neo-classical Economics’, 171. 62 John Jefferson Davis observed, the new ‘business ethics’ ton Friedman or sociologists such as movement rejects the mistaken belief Amitai Etzioni, on issues of corporate that ‘… business only has responsi- ethics codes and training programmes, bilities to a narrow set of its stake- and on ethical dilemmas presented as holders, namely its stockholders’.24 At case studies in the business schools.27 least since the 1980s there has been a This paper would call for a conception growing recognition that business has of business ethics that incorporates ethical obligations that include the en- both environmental concerns and faith vironment as well as the local human perspectives. communities that provide the infra- Evangelicals writing in the area of structures within which business activ- business ethics have brought biblical ity takes place.25 Ethics in business is perspectives to the issues, but by and not a matter of ‘mere compliance’, op- large have not integrated environmen- erating within the letter of the law, but tal concerns into their discussions. Ri- should involve a more active posture of chard Chewning, professor of Christian ‘doing no harm’ to human communities Ethics in Business at Baylor University, and the environment, and ‘doing good’ has edited a series of books on biblical 26 wherever possible. principles in business and economics. Mainstream publications in busi- In the first volume on ‘Foundations,’ ness ethics and management have one contributor, Kenneth Kantzer, tended to ignore faith perspectives. notes that the biblical doctrine of crea- As Laura Nash has noted, these dis- tion implies that humans are to exer- cussions have marginalized religious cise dominion over nature in such a concerns as they may relate to deci- way as ‘… to guard those resources … sion making, and have focused instead seeing to it that they make their great- on ‘proper values’ for business as est possible contribution for the good theorized by economists such as Mil- of all humanity’.28 This environmental concern is largely lacking, however, in 24 Hofman, ‘Business and Environmental Ethics’, 697–703 at 703, in Hartman, Perspec- the volume where biblical principles tives in Business Ethics; also reprinted in Tom are applied to specific areas of busi- L. Beauchamp and Norman E. Bowie, eds., ness such as planning, marketing, ad- Ethical Theory and Business, 4th ed. (Engle- vertising, accounting, and investing.29 wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1993), 217–23; In a text intended primarily for stu- originally published in Journal of Business Eth- ics 9 (1990), 579–89. dents at Christian colleges, Business 25 The volume The Corporation, Ethics, and Through the Eyes of Faith, Chewning, the Environment, Hofman, ed, cited above, is an Eby, and Roels devote three pages to example of the attempt to integrate business ethics and environmental concerns. 26 Kirk Davidson comments on the willing- 27 Laura L. Nash, Believers in Business (Nash- ness of corporations such as Chevron to ‘ac- ville: Thomas Nelson, 1994), ix, x. cept … [environmental] responsibilities and 28 In Richard C. Chewning, ed., Biblical Prin- go beyond mere compliance [to environmental ciples and Business: The Foundations (Colorado regulations] in his article ‘Straws in the Wind: Springs: NavPress, 1989), 25. The Nature of Corporate Commitment to En- 29 Richard Chewning, ed., Biblical Principles vironmental Issues’, 57–66 at 61, in Hofman, and Business: The Practice (Colorado Springs: The Corporation, Ethics, and the Environment. NavPress, 1990). Economic Growth Vs. The Environment? 63 a section titled ‘Responsibility for the environmental awareness, devoting a Environment’. They note that Chris- complete chapter to such concerns. Hill tians ‘… should be concerned for the argues that a biblical understanding of environment as a matter of good stew- stewardship ‘… leads us to care for ardship’, and in a study question chal- nature as one aspect of our vocational lenge the student to think of ways that calling to love God and neighbor’.33 such stewardship could be exercised so as to benefit future generations and those living in other parts of the IV Evangelical Ethics and world.30 Theology William Diehl’s The Monday Connec- If evangelical authors working in the tion is one of the more helpful contribu- area of business ethics have had a tions to the growing literature relating mixed record concerning the incor- Christian faith to the workplace. Diehl poration of environmental issues into discusses specific ways that Christians their fields of vision, this may only be can be effective witnesses on the job, a reflection of the state of evangeli- through competency, caring presence, cal ethics generally. This writer’s own lifestyle choices, and ethical integrity, Evangelical Ethics: Issues Facing the but environmental issues in business Church Today, now in its second edition are not addressed in any substantial (4th edition was published 2015—ed.) way. ‘Stewardship’ is developed in , deals with issues of human relation- terms of personal giving, use of time, ships and sexuality such as marriage, and lifestyle choices, but not in relation divorce, abortion, homosexuality, and to larger environmental concerns.31 euthanasia, but does not address glo- The Complete Book of Everyday bal environmental problems.34 Christianity is presented as ‘An A-to-Z Carl F.H. Henry, the editor of Baker’s Guide to Following Christ in Every As- Dictionary of Christian Ethics, did in- pect of Life’. Strangely, however, the clude an article on ‘Environmental Pol- index of ‘Ethical Issues’ contains no lution’ in this reference work. V. Elving entry on ‘Ecology’ or ‘Environment’, Anderson, the author of the article, ob- and the article on ‘Business Ethics’ is served that the concept of ‘dominion’ silent on these topics as well.32 Alex- in the first chapter of Genesis does not ander Hill’s Just Business: Christian Eth- mean exploitation. The command to ics for the Marketplace is notable for its subdue and to exercise dominion is bal- anced in Genesis 2 by the instruction to dress and to keep the land. ‘Steward- 30 Richard C. Chewning, John W. Eby, and Shirley J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of ship’ should not be limited to money Faith (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1990), and personal talents; environmental 219, 220. 31 William E. Diehl, The Monday Connection: 33 Alexander Hill, Just Business: Christian On Being an Authentic Christian in a Weekday Ethics for the Marketplace (Downers Grove, IL: World (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1991), IVP, 1997), 196. 145–161. 34 John Jefferson Davis, Evangelical Ethics: 32 Robert Banks and R. Paul Stevens, eds., Issues Facing the Church Today, 2nd ed. (Phil- The Complete Book of Everyday Christianity lipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed, (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 1997), 1158; 90–96. 1993). 64 John Jefferson Davis concerns should be included in stew- was about 1%. The median figure for ardship programmes in churches.35 the amount of space devoted to matters John and Paul Feinberg’s text, Eth- such as evolution, the age of the earth, ics For a Brave New World, like Davis’s, and the days of Genesis one was about tends to focus issues of sexual and 31%. It was apparent that evangelical medical ethics. There are chapters on theologians have tended to devote dis- abortion, euthanasia, capital punish- proportionate amounts of attention to ment, birth control, homosexuality, matters of origins and too little to mat- divorce, remarriage, genetic engineer- ters of humanity’s proper relationship to ing, and war, but the index contains no creation.37 entries for ‘ecology’ or ‘environment’ As Paul Santmire has pointed out, 36 or ‘environmentalism’. the history of Christian theology in Robertson McQuilkin’s An Introduc- general has shown a very mixed record does include the tion to Biblical Ethics in its sensitivity to and concern for environment in his field of concern. In nature. Some theologians such as Ire- a brief (3 pages out of 535) but insight- naeus, Augustine, and St. Francis have ful section, he notes that at the root been very affirming of nature, while of much of the current environmental Origen and others have been very ‘oth- problem is a ‘… consumer economy aimed at material affluence, which de- erworldly’ in their spirituality and have liberately sacrifices long-range benefit not fostered appreciation of the mate- 38 for short-range economic profit’. Love rial order. Luther and Calvin are very for the ‘neighbour’ includes love for appreciative of the wonders of nature and care of creation, and love for God and look forward to a new creation, but requires the stewardship of creation the centre of their theological inter- for the glory of God and the welfare of est is soteriological, focused on grace humanity. and the God-human relationship. In The uneven record of evangelical the twentieth-century neo-orthodox ethicists in matters of environmental theology of Barth, Brunner, and Bult- concern reflects the state of evan- mann, this soteriological concentration gelical theology generally. A recent is accentuated, ‘redemptive history’ is examination of the content of twenty brought to the forefront, and nature be- representative evangelical systematic theology textbooks published since 1970 found that in the chapters on the 37 John Jefferson Davis, ‘Ecological ‘Blind Spots’ in ‘The Structure and Content of Re- doctrine of creation, the median figure cent Evangelical Systematic Theologies’, Jour- for the amount of space devoted to nal of the Evangelical Theological Society 43:2 matters of environmental stewardship (June 2000), 273–286. On this point see also Jonathan R. Wilson, ‘Evangelicals and the En- vironment: A Theological Concern’, Christian 35 Carl F. H. Henry, ed., Baker’s Dictionary of Scholar’s Review 28/2 (1998), 298–307, and Christian Ethics (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1973), R.J. Berry, ‘Creation and the Environment’, 209–12. Science and Christian Belief 7/1 (1995), 21–43. 36 John S. Feinberg and Paul D. Feinberg, 38 H. Paul Santmire, The Travail of Nature: Ethics For a Brave New World (Wheaton, IL: The Ambiguous Ecological Promise of Christian Crossway, 1993). Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1985). Economic Growth Vs. The Environment? 65 comes a marginal concern.39 with an appeal for Christians work- The formulation of the church’s ing in economics, business ethics, and doctrine of creation has always been evangelical theology to consider the influenced by the conditions of the merits of a new paradigm that could be time. The early church asserted the termed ‘theocentric, creation-connect- goodness of the material world (Gen edness’. 1) against the Gnostics, and devel- In the proposed paradigm, the natu- oped the understanding of creation ral world is not just a ‘background’ for ex nihilo in the face of Greek notions human activity, but has intrinsic value of the eternity of matter.40 Today, the as the creation of God (Gen 1:31), and Christian doctrine of creation needs to is recognized as itself being included in address the challenges of the global the redemptive purposes of God (Rom environmental crisis. The need is not 8:31, 32; Col 1:15–20). Human beings merely to repeat earlier affirmations of are understood theologically not only the metaphysical goodness of creation, terms of the God-human and human- but to emphasize the intrinsic value of human relationships, but also as be- the created order and humanity’s moral ing integrally related to the natural obligation to preserve and care for it. environment that makes human life possible42 and for which humans bear V A New Paradigm ethical responsibility. Because creation has intrinsic value, and because eco- The need for new conceptual frame- nomic activity is integrally connected works that connect the concerns of en- to the ecosystems which sustain such vironment, economy, business ethics, activity, business leaders have a moral and theology has been recognized by various writers.41 This paper concludes responsibility not merely to appear to be environmentally responsible, but to be actually so. 39 Harold Oliver, ‘The Neglect and Recovery Theologically, taking such a new of Nature in Twentieth-Century Protestant Thought’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion 60:3 (1992), 379–404 at 381–3. which persons are in ‘… continuity with—but 40 On the history of the development of the not on all fours with—the rest of the natural Christian doctrine of creation, see Denis Car- order’; Sandra Rosenthal and Rogene A. Buch- roll, ‘Creation’, The New Dictionary of Theol- holz, ‘Bridging Environmental and Business ogy, ed. Joseph A. Komonchak, Mary Collins, Ethics: A Pragmatic Approach’, Environmental and Dermot A. Lane (Wilmington, DE: Michael Ethics 20 (1998), 393–408 at 408, proposing a Glazier, 1987), 249–258; Emil Brunner, ‘On neo-pragmatic conceptual framework in which the History of the Doctrine of Creation’, in there is a recognition that ‘… the corporation Emil Brunner, The Christian Doctrine of Crea- has its being through its relation to a wider tion and Redemption (London: Lutterworth, environment and this environment extends to 1964), 36–39. the natural world’. 41 In addition to the work of Herman Daly 42 In this paradigm humans are understood noted above, see also Frederick Ferre, ‘Per- both in terms of ‘dust’ (Gen 2:3) and ‘domin- sons in Nature: Toward an Applicable and ion’ (Gen 1:26); i.e., as both dependent on the Unified Environmental Ethics,’ Zygon 28:4 natural order and integrally related to it, and (1993), 441–53 at 442, calling for a revised at the same time having responsibility to exer- worldview of ‘personalistic organicism’ in cise wise stewardship over the natural order. 66 John Jefferson Davis paradigm seriously would involve re- Lord’s Supper remind the church that thinking basic Christian doctrines from the grace of God is mediated through the perspective of ‘creation-connect- the structures of creation and the el- edness’. Discussions of the doctrine ements of the material world, and not of creation would not be preoccupied apart from them. A Christian and bibli- with questions of origins and evolu- cal eschatology would not be limited to tion, but would articulate humanity’s an individualistic hope for a ‘heaven’ obligation to be rightly related to crea- disconnected from the world, but to tion and to care for it. Christian anthro- a New Heaven and a new earth (Rev pology would take seriously the biblical 21:1), in which a redeemed humanity insight that man is ‘dust’, connected enjoys communion with God in the con- with the earth and with the larger ter- text of a new creation. restrial and cosmic processes that sus- Christians should welcome the ef- tain human life and make it possible. forts of those working in the area of The doctrine of original sin would be ‘ecological economics,’ and encour- seen as a reminder that man’s fall af- age efforts to enlarge the categories fected not only humanity but creation of traditional economic theory so as to itself (Gen 3:17). Personal sin involves recognize that natural capital, not just not only sins against God, the neigh- buildings and machines, need to be bour, and the self, but sinful abuses of depreciated and reckoned in schemes the earth as well. of cost accounting. Business ethicists In the area of Christology, the In- need to be encouraged to enlarge their carnation would be seen as God’s own affirmation of the intrinsic value of paradigms beyond shareholder and let- creation, and the manifestation of ter-of-the-law interests to incorporate God’s enduring intent to enter into a the real connections with the human redemptive relationship with it. The communities and physical environ- atonement provided the basis not only ments that provide the infrastructures for humanity’s reconciliation with God, that ultimately make the creation of but also for the ultimate reconcilia- wealth possible. tion of creation as well (Col 1:19, 20). The interconnected nature of the en- In the area of ecclesiology, the mission vironment, the global economy, and hu- of the church would be seen to incor- man activity is becoming increasingly porate not only the Great Commission evident in the contemporary world. It (Mt 28:19–20), but the cultural man- is time for Christians working in the date (Gen 1:26–28) as well, including areas of economics, business ethics, all those activities that bring redemp- environmentalism, and theology to tive influences to bear on culture and explicitly recognize the new realities creation. in the basic conceptual frameworks of The sacraments of baptism and the their respective disciplines. ERT (2017) 41:1, 67-86 Work, Spirit, and New Creation

Miroslav Volf

I A Pneumatological Theology individual.’1 One can account for this of Work? restriction by two consequential theo- logical decisions. To use traditional One cannot talk about the new crea- formulations: first, the activity of the tion without referring to the Spirit of Spirit was limited to the sphere of God. For the Spirit, as Paul says, is salvation, and second, the locus of the the ‘first fruits’ or the ‘down payment’ present realization of salvation was of the future salvation (see Rom 8:23; limited to the human spirit. 2 Cor 1:22) and the present power of [Elsewhere, I have tried] to show eschatological transformation in them. that the Spirit of God is not only spiri- In the Gospels, too, Spirit is the agent tus redemptor but also spiritus creator.2 through which the future new crea- Thus when the Spirit comes into the tion is anticipated in the present (see world as Redeemer he does not come Mt 12:28). Without the Spirit there is to a foreign territory, but ‘to his own no experience of the new creation! A home’ (Jn 1:12)3—the world’s lying theology of work that seeks to under- in the power of evil notwithstanding. stand work as active anticipation of the Here, however, I want to discuss brief- transformatio mundi must, therefore, be ly the limitation of the Spirit’s salvific a pneumatological theology of work. operation on the human spirit. For my purposes, this is the crucial issue. The 1. Work and the Spirit question of whether one can reflect on But what does the Spirit of God have to do with the mundane work of hu- 1 A. I. C. Heron, The Holy Spirit: The Holy man beings? According to most of Spirit in the Bible, the History of Christian Protestant theology, very little. It has Thought, and Recent Theology (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1983), 154. been ‘inclined to restrict the activity 2 See Volf, Work in the Spirit, 143f. of the Spirit to the spiritual, psycho- 3 See H. Berkhof, The Doctrine of the Holy logical, moral or religious life of the Spirit (Richmond: John Knox, 1964), 96.

Miroslav Volf is the founding Director of the Yale Center for Faith and Culture. His books include Allah: A Christian Response (2011), and Free of Charge: Giving and Forgiving in a Culture Stripped of Grace (2006). He has been involved in international ecumenical and interfaith dialogues. A native of Croatia, he regularly lectures in Central and Eastern Europe. This article is an edited extract from his book, Work in the Spirit (Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock, 2001), Chapter 3, ‘Work, Spirit, and New Creation’, 102-122, and is published with permission. 68 Miroslav Volf human work within the framework of by these expressions. The matter is not the concept of the new creation and as simple as it looks, because he equiv- develop a pneumatological theology ocates and makes a twofold distinction of work depends on the question of in his use of those terms.7 whether the Spirit’s salvific work is First, and most obviously, Luther limited to the human spirit or extends makes an anthropological distinction. to the whole of reality. The exact nature of this anthropologi- The exclusion of the human body cal distinction is not easy to establish. and materiality in general from the In particular, it is not clear what he sphere of salvation in Protestant means by the ‘inner man.’ Fortunately, thought4 is well illustrated by Luther’s Luther is very clear on what he means The Freedom of a Christian, a ‘small by the ‘outward man’: it is the aspect book’ that in Luther’s own opinion, of the human being that is sick or nevertheless contained his view of ‘the well, free or imprisoned, that eats or whole of Christian life in a brief form.’5 hungers, drinks or thirsts, experiences Later Protestant theologians have fol- pleasure or suffers some external mis- lowed Luther rather closely in regard fortune.8 The outward man is a person to the materiality of salvation.6 with respect to his bodily existence in In The Freedom of a Christian Luther the world. makes the well known distinction be- That leaves the inner man stripped tween the ‘inner man’ and the ‘out- of all corporeality as ‘the naked self ward man.’ For the discussion of the which exists concealed in his [human materiality of salvation it is crucial to being’s] heart.’9 Whatever ‘the naked determine what, exactly, Luther means self,’ or as Luther says, the ‘soul,’ is, one thing is certain: for Luther it does not denote a human being’s bodily ex- 4 On this issue, see Miroslav Volf, “Material- istence. ity of Salvation. An Investigation in the Soteri- Superimposed on the anthropologi- ologies of Liberation and Pentecostal Theolo- gies.” Journal of Ecumenical Studies 26 (1989): cal distinction between inner and out- 447–67. ward man is the second, soteriological 5 Luther, WA, 1, 11, 8–9. Together with De distinction between ‘new man’ and servo arbitrio this treatise can most easily be ‘old man.’ Significant for the study of described as a ‘systematic presentation of his the materiality of salvation is the fact [Luther’s] theology’ (G. Ebeling, Luther: An that Luther applies the soteriological Introduction to His Thought [Philadelphia: For- tress, 1970], 212). distinction between new and old only 6 There is no need to document this state- to the inner man. ‘Outward man’ is ment extensively, I will give only one exam- ple. Taking up Luther’s distinction between ‘inward’ and ‘outward man,’ Bultmann writes: 7 For a discussion of the differences and simi- when a person becomes a new creation, ‘out- larities between Luther’s, Plato’s, and Aristo- wardly everything remains as before, but tle’s talk about inner and outward man, see inwardly his relation to the world has been E. Jüngel, Zur Freiheit eines Christenmenschen. radically changed’ (R. Bultmann, “New Testa- Eine Erinnerung an Luthers Schrift (München, ment and Mythology.” In H. W. Bartsch (ed.), Kaiser, 1981), 69ff., 116ff. Kerygma and Myth: A Theological Debate [New 8 Luther, WA, 7, 21f. York: Harper & Row, 1961] 20). 9 Ebeling, Luther, 202. Work, Spirit, and New Creation 69 and (until the day of the resurrection Spirit, healings are not merely symbols of the dead) will remain ‘old man’—in of God’s future rule, but are anticipa- the case of both the Christian and the tory realizations of God’s present rule. non-Christian. Only the inner man can They provide tangible testimony to the become a new man. The anthropologi- materiality of salvation; they demon- cal locus of salvation is the inner man.10 strate God’s desire to bring integrity The outward man and the whole mate- to the whole human being, including rial reality remain outside the sphere the body, and to the whole of injured of the salvific activity of God.11 reality.14 In a broken way—for healed We need to look no further than people are not delivered from the pow- the Gospels to see that the exclusion er of death—healings done here and of materiality from the sphere of the now through the power of the Spirit il- present salvific activity of the Spirit lustrate what will happen at the end of is exegetically and theologically un- the age when God will transform the acceptable. The Gospels widely use present world into the promised new soteriological terminology (e.g., the creation. term so-zein) to designate deliverance When the ascended Christ gave the from the troubles and dangers of bodily Spirit, he ‘released the power of God life.12 More significantly, they portray into history, power which will not abate 15 Jesus’ healing miracles as signs of the until God has made all things new.’ inbreaking kingdom.13 The Spirit of the new creation cannot be tied to the ‘inner man.’ Because the As deeds done in the power of the whole creation is the Spirit’s sphere of operation, the Spirit is not only the 10 See Jüngel, Freiheit, 72–73. Calvin seemed Spirit of religious experience but also to have thought somewhat differently than the Spirit of worldly engagement. For Luther on the issue: ‘We should note that the this reason it is not at all strange to spiritual union which we have with Christ is not a matter of the soul alone, but of the body connect the Spirit of God with mun- also, so that we are flesh of his flesh, etc. (Eph dane work. In fact, an adequate under- 5:30). The hope of resurrection would be faint, standing of human work will be hardly if our union with him were not complete and total like that’ (Calvin, The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians [Grand Rapids: 14 See Jürgen Moltmann, Der Weg Jesu Chris- Eerdmans, 1960], ad 1 Cor 6, 15). ti: Christologie in messianischen Dimensionen 11 It should be noted that classical Protes- (München: Kaiser, 1989), 127. Without know- tantism did not deny that the full experience ing the results of modern New Testament stud- of salvation directly affects bodily existence, ies, Pentecostalists have rightly maintained for it did expect the future resurrection of that by experiencing healing of the body, peo- the body. The point is that the salvation ex- ple became ‘partakers of the bodily nature of perience does not directly affect human bodily the kingdom of God’ (E. P. Paulk, Your Pente- existence in the present, i.e., before the con- costal Neighbor [Cleveland: Pathway, 1958], summation. 110—italics mine). 12 See W. Schrage, ‘Heil und Heilung in Neue 15 C. H. Pinnock, “Introduction,” in G. Testament,’ EvTh 46 (1986), 200. Vandervelde (ed.), The Holy Spirit: Renew- 13 See G. E. Ladd, A Theology of the New Tes- ing and Empowering Presence (Winfield: Wood tament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974), 76f. Lake, 1989), 7. 70 Miroslav Volf possible without recourse to pneuma- ment of the Vatican II Gaudium et spes tology.16 contains probably the most notable ex- ample of a charismatic interpretation 2. Work and charisms of Christians’ service to their fellow human beings through work: ‘Now, In a sense, a pneumatological under- the gifts of the Spirit are diverse… standing of work is not new. There He summons… [people] to dedicate are traces of it even in Luther. He dis- themselves to the earthly service of cussed the not only in vocatio externa men and to make ready the material of the context of the Pauline concept of the celestial realm by this ministry of the Body of Christ (which is closely theirs.’19 To my knowledge, however, related to Paul’s understanding of no one has taken up these suggestions charisms) but also—and sometimes and developed them into a consistent explicitly—in the context of the gifts theology of work. of grace: ‘Behold, here St. Peter says The pneumatological understanding that the graces and gifts of God are not of work I am proposing is an heir to of one but of varied kind. Each one the vocational understanding of work, should understand what his gift is, and predominant in the Protestant social practice it and so be of use to others.’17 ethic of all traditions.20 Before develop- In recent years authors from vari- ous Christian traditions have sug- gested interpreting human work as an teacher turns out a brilliant success, whereas aspect of charismatic life.18 The docu- he on whom Love has laid no hold is obscure? If Apollo invented archery and medicine and divination, it was under the guidance of De- 16 Similarly W. Kasper, “Die Kirche als Sakra- sire and Love; so that he too may be deemed ment der Geistes,” in W. Kasper and G Stauter a disciple of Love, as likewise may the Muses (eds.), Kirche—Ort des Geistes (Freiburg: Herd- in music, Hephrestus in metal-work, Athene in er, 1976), 35, with reference to a theology of weaving…’(Symposium, 197Af.). A. K. Coom- the world, culture, and politics. raswamy, following Plato’s lead, has suggest- 17 Luther, WA, 10, I, 311—italics mine. For ed a kind of ‘pneumatological’ understanding an early Protestant (and conservative) ap- of work: ‘So the maker of anything, if he is to plication of the gifts theme from Romans 12 be called creator, is at his best the servant of to the secular and not only the ecclesiastical an immanent Genius… he is not working of or activities of Christians, see Laurence Chad- for himself, but by and for another energy, that erton’s famous sermon on Romans 12, called of the Immanent Eros, Sanctus Spiritus, the ‘A fruitful sermon, upon the 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and source of all “gifts”’ (A. K. Coomaraswamy, “A 8 verse of the 12 chapter of the epistle of St. Figure of Speech or a Figure of Thought?” in Paul to the Romanes’ (Lake, Puritans, 28ff.). R. Lipsey (ed.), Selected Papers: Traditional Art 18 See, for instance, H. Mühlen, “Charisma and Symbolism [Princeton: Princeton Univer- und Gesellschaft,” in H. Mühlen (ed.), Gestes- sity Press, 1977], 33). gaben heute (Mainz: Matthias-Grünewald, 19 W. M. Abbott, S.J. (ed.), The Documents of 1982) 168; G. Lampe, God as Spirit (London: Vatican II, Gaudium et Spes (New York: Guild, SCM, 1983), 202; J. V. Taylor, The Go-Between 1966), n. 38. God: The Holy Spirit and the Christian Mis- 20 See, for instance, two contemporary Prot- sion (London: SCM, 1972), 26f. For examples estant writers from different segments of Prot- from non-Christian tradition, see Plato, who estantism, D. Field and E. Stephenson, Just the says: ‘Again, in artificial manufacture, we do Job: Christians Talk about Work and Vocation not know that a man who has this god for a (Leicester: InterVarsity, 1978), 18ff; and J. C. Work, Spirit, and New Creation 71 ing a pneumatological understanding of life, Luther spoke of the double vo- of work, it is therefore helpful to in- cation of every Christian: spiritual vo- vestigate both the strengths and weak- cation (vocatio spiritualis) and external nesses of the vocational understanding vocation (vocatio externa). Spiritual of work. Similarly to any other theory, vocation is God’s call to enter the king- a particular theology of work will be dom of God, and it comes to a person persuasive to the extent that one can through the proclamation of the Gos- show its theological and historical su- pel. This call is common to all Chris- periority over its rivals. tians and is for all Christians the same (‘communis et similis’).22 External vocation is God’s call to II Work as Vocation serve God and one’s fellow human be- Both Luther and Calvin, each in his ings in the world. It comes to a person own way, held the vocational view of through her station in life or profession work. Since Luther not only originat- (Stand).23 This call, too, is addressed ed the idea but also wrote on it much to all Christians, but to each one in a more extensively than Calvin, I will different way, depending on his par- develop my theology of work in critical ticular station or profession (‘macht ein dialogue with Luther’s notion of voca- unterscheid’).24 tion (which differs in some important In Kirchenpostille 1522—a work in respects from Calvin’s,21 and even more which Luther uses ‘vocation’ for the from that of the later Calvinists). first time as a terminus technicus ‘for The basis of Luther’s understand- a purely secular activity’25—Luther ing of vocation is his doctrine of jus- gives an explanation of external voca- tification by faith, and the occasion for tion while answering the question of its development, his controversy with someone who feels without a vocation: medieval monasticism. One of Luther’s What if I am not called? What most culturally influential accomplish- should I do? Answer: How can it be ments was to overcome the monastic that you are not called? You are cer- reduction of vocatio to a calling to a tainly in a station (Stand), you are particular kind of religious life. He either a husband or a wife, son or came to hold two interrelated beliefs daughter, male or female servant.26 about Christian vocation: (1) all Chris- tians (not only monks) have a vocation, To be a husband, wife, child, or serv- and (2) every type of work performed by Christians (not only religious activity) 22 Luther, WA, 34, II, 300. can be a vocation. 23 I take it that Luther’s use of vocation is Instead of interpreting vocatio as a not limited to one’s standing within the three call of a select group within the larger orders but often equals the person’s occupa- Christian fellowship to a special kind tion (contra Bockmühl, “Ethics,” 108). 24 Luther, WA, 34, II, 306. 25 G. Wingren, “Beruf II: Historische und Raines and D. C. Day-Lower, Modern Work and ethische Aspekte,” in G. Krause and G. Müller Human Meaning (Philadelphia: Westminster, (eds.), TRE (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1980), 1986), 94ff. 661. 21 See Calvin, Institutes, 724f. 26 Luther, WA, 10, I, 308. 72 Miroslav Volf ant means to be called by God to a III Limits of the Vocational particular kind of activity, it means to Understanding of Work have a vocation. When God’s spiritual A responsible theology of work should call through the proclamation of the seek to preserve Luther’s insight into gospel reaches a person in her station God’s call to everyday work with its or profession, it transforms these into two consequences. The way Luther a vocation. The duties of the station be- (and especially later Lutheranism) de- come commandments of God to her. In veloped and applied this basic insight this way, Luther links the daily work is, however, problematic. Luther’s of every Christian inseparably with the notion of vocation has serious limita- centre of Christian faith: for a Chris- tions, both in terms of its applicability tian, work in every profession, and not to modern work, and in its theological only in ecclesiastical professions, rests persuasiveness. on a divine calling. Two important and related conse- quences follow from Luther’s notion of 1. Critique of Vocation vocation. These insights make up the (1) Luther’s understanding of work as novum of Luther’s approach to human vocation is indifferent toward alienation work. First Luther’s notion of vocation in work. In his view, two indispensa- ascribed much greater value to work ble features sufficiently qualify a -par than was previously the case. As We- ticular work theologically as vocation. ber rightly observed, Luther valued The two features are the call of God and one’s service to fellow human be- the fulfillment of duty in worldly ings. The origin and purpose of work, affairs as the highest form which not the inherent quality of work, define the moral activity of the individual vocation. could assume… The only way of Hence it seems that virtually every living acceptably to God was not to type of work can be a vocation, no mat- surpass worldly morality in monas- ter how dehumanizing it might be (pro- tic asceticism, but solely through vided that in doing the work one does the fulfillment of the obligations not transgress the commandments of imposed upon the individual by his God).29 Although it could never be one’s position in the world.27 vocation to be a prostitute because it Second, Luther’s notion of vocation entails breaking God’s commandment, overcame the medieval hierarchy between the vocational understanding of work vita activa and vita contemplativa.28 does not in any way prevent mindless Since every vocation rests on God’s work on the assembly line at a gallop- commission, every vocation is funda- ing pace from being considered as a mentally of the same value before God. vocation. Such broad applicability might seem a desirable feature for an under- 27 M. Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the standing of work, especially since (as Spirit of Capitalism (New York: Charles Scrib- ner’s Sons, 1958), 80. 28 Volf, Work in the Spirit, 70. 29 See Weber, Ethic, 282. Work, Spirit, and New Creation 73

Calvin pointed out) it can give ‘singular (3) The understanding of work as consolation’ to people whose work is vocation is easily misused ideological- ‘sordid and base.’30 But one can have ly. As already indicated, Luther elevat- broad applicability and the benefits of ed work in every profession to the level consolation only at the expense of the of divine service.33 The problem arises transforming potential for overcoming when one combines such a high valua- alienation in situations when transfor- tion of work with both indifference to mation is both necessary and possible. alienation and the identification of call- If even the ‘lifting of a single straw’ is ing with occupation. Since the notion a ‘completely divine’31 work, there is of vocation suggests that every em- no reason why the same description ployment is a place of service to God— could not apply to the most degrading even when human activity in work is types of work in industrial and infor- reduced to ‘soulless movement’—this mation societies. notion functions simply to ennoble de- (2) There is a dangerous ambiguity humanizing work in a situation where in Luther’s notion of vocation. In his the quality of work should be improved view, spiritual calling comes through through structural or other kinds of the proclamation of the gospel, while change. The vocational understanding external calling comes through one’s of work provides no resources to foster station (Stand). It has proven difficult such change. for Lutheran theology to reconcile the (4) The notion of vocation is not ap- two callings in the life of an individual plicable to the increasingly mobile in- Christian when a conflict arises be- dustrial and information society. Most people in these societies do not keep tween them. a single job or employment for a life- The history of Lutheranism as well time, but often switch from one job to as Lutheran ethics shows that another in the course of their active Luther’s bold identification of vo- life. The half-life of most job skills is cation [i.e., vocatio externa] with dropping all the time, so they have to the call [i.e., vocatio spiritualis] led change jobs. And even if they could again and again to the integration keep their jobs, they often feel that of the call into vocation and voca- being tied down to a job is a denial of tion into occupation, and thus to their freedom and of the opportunity the consecration of the vocational- for development. occupational structure. ‘Vocation be- Industrial and information societies gan to gain the upper hand over the are characterized by a diachronic plural- call; the Word of God on the right ity of employments or jobs for their mem- (gospel) was absorbed by the word bers. Luther’s understanding of exter- of God on the left (law).’32 nal vocation corresponds necessarily to the singleness and permanence of

30 Calvin, Institutes, 725. 31 Luther, WA, 10, I, 317. 33 On Luther’s understanding of work as di- 32 J. Moltmann, ‘The Right to Work,’ in On vine service, see H. Gatzen, ‘Beruf bei Martin Human Dignity (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), Luther und in der industriellen Gesellschaft’ 47. (Th. D. diss., University of Münster, 1964), 79. 74 Miroslav Volf spiritual calling. As there is one irrevo- an theology, vocatio externa as a rule cable spiritual calling, so there must be refers to a single employment or job, one irrevocable external calling. which people hold throughout their Given Luther’s affirmation of the lives. This corresponds, of course, to singleness and static nature of exter- the singularity of vocatio spiritualis. nal vocation, it is easy to understand Unlike much of Lutheran theology, why he regularly relates his comments Luther himself maintained that, since about external vocation to a conserva- a person mostly belonged to more than tive interpretation of the body of Christ one Stand (she might have been daugh- and adds the injunction: ‘Let each one ter, mistress, and wife, all at the same remain in his vocation, and live content time), a person had more than one ex- with his gift.’34 The injunction to ‘re- ternal vocation.36 main’ and ‘be satisfied’ is a logical con- His sense of reality led him to break sequence of the notion of vocation.35 loose from the exegetical and dogmatic To change one’s employment is to fail framework set up with the concept of to remain faithful to God’s initial com- vocation. He is more consistent with mandment. this concept when he exhorts a person 37 The only way to interpret change of not to ‘meddle’ in another’s vocation. employment positively and at the same Strictly speaking, one may take work time hold to the notion of vocation is to be vocatio only if one assumes that a to assume a diachronic plurality of Christian should have just one employ- 38 external vocations. The soteriological ment or job. meaning of vocation, which serves as (6) As the nature of human work a paradigm for the socioethical under- changed in the course of industriali- standing of vocation, however, makes zation, vocation was reduced to gain- ful employment. Lutheran social ethic such an assumption anomalous. For followed this sociological development singularity and permanence are con- and, departing from Luther but in anal- stitutive characteristics of the soteri- ogy to the singularity of the vocatio ological understanding of vocation. spiritualis, reduced its notion of voca- (5) In industrial and information tion to gainful employment.39 societies people increasingly take on The reduction of vocation to em- more than one job or employment at ployment, coupled with the belief that the same time. Synchronic plurality of vocation is the primary service ordi- employments or jobs is an important nary people render to God, contributed feature of these societies. In Luther- to the modern fateful elevation of work to the status of religion. The religious 34 Luther, WA, 42, 640. pursuit of work plays havoc with the 35 Calvin claims that God gave human beings vocations because he knew ‘with what great restlessness human nature flames’ (Calvin, 36 See Wingren, Beruf, 17. Institutes, 724). Having a calling from God, a 37 Luther, WA, 34, II, 307. person ‘of obscure station will lead a private 38 G. Wunsch, Evangelische Wirtschaftsethik life ungrudgingly so as not to leave the rank (Tübingen: Mohr, 1927), 579. in which he has been placed by God’ (Calvin, 39 See W. Trilhaas, Ethik (Berlin: Walter de Institutes, 725). Gruiter, 1970, 3rd ed.), 396. Work, Spirit, and New Creation 75 working individual, his fellow human Thus, when kle-sis refers not to becom- beings, and nature. ing a Christian but to living as a Chris- tian, it does not designate a calling 1. Reinterpretation of vocation? peculiar to every Christian and distin- guishing one Christian from another, In responding to these criticisms, one as Luther claimed of vocatio externa. might be tempted to reinterpret the Instead, it refers to the quality of life understanding of work as vocation in that should characterize all Christians order to free it from theological inad- as Christians. equacies and make it more applicable (2) Theologically it makes sense to industrial and information societies. to understand work as vocatio externa There are, however, both exegetical only if one can conceive of this voca- and theological arguments against do- tio in analogy to vocatio spiritualis. One ing so. has to start with the singularity and (1) Exegetes agree that Luther mis- permanence of vocatio spiritualis, which interpreted l Corinthians 7:20, the, individualizes and concretizes itself in main proof text for his understanding of the process of human response in the work. ‘Calling in this verse is not call- form of a singular and permanent voca- ing with which, to which, or by which a tio externa. Even Luther himself, in a man is called, but refers to the state in social ethic designed for a compara- which he is when he is called to become tively static society, could not main- 40 a Christian.’ Except in 1 Corinthians tain this correspondence consistently. 7:20 (and possibly 1 Cor 1:26), Paul One could weaken the correspondence and others who share his tradition use - between vocatio spiritualis and vocatio the term klesis as a terminus technicus externa and maintain that when the one for ‘becoming a Christian.’ - call of God, addressing all people to As 1 Peter 2:9 shows, klesis en- become Christians, reaches each indi- compasses both the call of God out of vidual, it branches out into a plurality ‘darkness into his wonderful light’ that of callings for particular tasks.42 constitutes Christians as Christians, I do not find it helpful, however, to and the call to conduct corresponding deviate in this way from the New Testa- to this ‘light’ (see 1 Pet 1:15), which ment and from a dogmatic soteriologi- 41 should characterize life of Christians. cal use of vocatio, especially since the New Testament has a carefully chosen 40 C. K. Barrett, A Commentary on the First term—actually a terminus technicus— Epistle to the Corinthians, BNTC (New York: to denote the multiple callings of every Harper & Row, 1968), 169-70; cf. H. Brock- Christian to particular tasks both in- haus, Charisma und Amt: Die paulinische Charis- menlehre auf dem Hintergrund der früchristlichen Gemeindefunktionen (Suppertal: Brockhaus, ‘refer[s] to the call of God in Christ to mem- 1972), 224; J. Eckert, “Kaleo-, ktl.,” in Horst bership in the community of his people, the Balz und Gerhard Schneider (eds.), EWNT “saints,” and to the qualities of Christian life (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1981) 2:599. which this implies.’ 41 See Preston, “Vocation,” in J. Macquarrie 42 See F. Wagner, “Berufung III: Dogma- (ed.), A Dictionary of Christian Ethics (London: tisch,” in G. Krause and G. Müller (eds.), TRE SCM), 355: The New Testament term vocatio (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1980), 711. 76 Miroslav Volf side and outside the Christian church. I more specifically ascharismatic . refer to the term charisma. I cannot argue for this point within I propose that a theology of charisms the confines of a book on work,44 but supplies a stable foundation on which must simply assert that it seems to me we can erect a theology of work that more adequate to differentiate, with is both faithful to the divine revela- Paul, between the gifts and the fruit of tion and relevant to the modern world the Spirit. The fruit of the Spirit des- of work. In the following pages I will ignates the general character of Chris- first give a theological reflection on the tian existence, ‘the lifestyle of those Pauline notion of charisma, and second who are indwelled and energized by apply it to a Christian understanding the Spirit.’45 The gifts of the Spirit are of work, while developing further the related to the specific tasks or func- theology of charisms as the application tions to which God calls and fits each demands. Christian. (2) One should not define charisma so narrowly as to include in the term IV A Theological Reflection on only ecclesiastical activities. One inter- Charisms pretation limits the sphere of operation In recent decades the subject of of charisms to the Christian fellowship, charisms has been the focus of lively insisting that one cannot understand discussion, both exegetical and theo- ‘charismatically the various activities logical. As I argue here briefly for a of Christians in relation to their non- particular understanding of charisms, Christian neighbors.’46 But, using indi- my purpose is not merely to analyze vidual charisms as examples, it would Paul ‘s statements but to develop theo- not be difficult to show the impossibili- logically some crucial aspects of his ty of consistently limiting the operation understanding of charisms, and in this of charisms to the Christian church. way set up a backdrop for a theology The whole purpose of the gift of of work. an evangelist (see Eph 4:11), for in- (1) One should not define charisma stance, is to relate the gospel to non- so broadly as to make the term encom- Christians. To take another example, it pass the whole sphere of Christian would be artificial to understand con- ethical activity. E. Käsemann has ar- tributing to the needs of the destitute gued that the whole ethical existence (see Rom 12:8) as charisma when ex- of the Christian, the nova obaedientia, ercised in relation to Christians but as is charismatic.43 No doubt, the whole simple benevolence when exercised in new life of a Christian must be viewed relation to non-Christians. As the first pneumatologically, but the question is fruits of salvation, the Spirit of Christ whether it is legitimate to describe it

44 On that issue, sec Brockhaus, Charisma, 43 See E. Käsemann, “Amt und Gemeinde 220ff. im Neuen Testament,” in Exegetische Versuche 45 F. F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Galatians: A und Besinnungen (Göttingen: Vendenhoeck & Commentary on the Greek Text, NIGTC (Grand Ruprecht, 1970) 1:109–134; E. Käsemann, Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), 251. “Gottesdienst,” in Exegetische, 1:204. 46 Brockhaus, Charisma, 239. Work, Spirit, and New Creation 77 is not only active in the Christian fel- nature,50 ‘charismatic’ is very fre- lowship but also desires to make an quently taken to mean ‘extraordinary.’ impact on the world through the fellow- Ecclesiologically we come across this ship.47 restricted understanding of charisms All functions of the fellowship— in some Pentecostal (or ‘charismatic’) whether directed inward to the Chris- churches that identify charismatic with tian community or outward to the the spectacularly miraculous.51 world—are the result of the operation A secular version of this ‘super- of the Spirit of God and are thus charis- naturalistic reduction’ confronts us matic. The place of operation does not in the commonly accepted Weberian define charisms, but the manifestation understanding of charisma as an ex- of the Spirit for the divinely ordained traordinary quality of leadership that purpose. appeals to nonrational motives.52 One (3) Charisms are not the possession of the main points of the Pauline theol- of an elite group within the Christian ogy of charisms is the overcoming of fellowship. New Testament passages such a restrictive concentration on the that deal with charisms consistently miraculous and extraordinary. For this emphasize that charisms ‘are found reason it is of great importance to keep throughout the Church rather than be- ing restricted to a particular group of the term charisma as a generic term for 53 people.’48 In the Christian fellowship as both the spectacular and the ordinary. the Body of Christ there are no mem- (5) Traditional view of the imparta- bers without a function and hence also tion of charisms can be described as no members without a charisma. The the addition model: ‘the Spirit joins Spirit, who is poured out upon all flesh himself, as it were, to the person, giv- (Acts 2:17ff.), imparts also charisms ing “something” new, a new power, to all flesh: they are gifts given to the Christian community irrespective of 50 See W. Joest, Dogmatik I: Die Wirklichkeit the existing distinctions or conditions Gottes (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 49 within it. 1984), 302. (4) The tendency to restrict charisms 51 For a similar understanding of charisms in to an elite group within the Christian the New Testament, see also K. Berger, “Cha- fellowship goes hand in hand with the risma, ktl.,” in EWNT 3:1105. tendency to ascribe an elite character 52 For an important (but only partial) criti- to charisms. In widespread pneuma- cism of Weber’s understanding of charismatic personality and its popular use in Western cul- tologies in which the Spirit’s function ture, see A. Bloom, The Closing of the American is to negate, even destroy the worldly Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democ- racy and Impoverished the Souls of Today’s Stu- dents (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 47 For a similar understanding of charisma, 208ff. see M. Harper, Let My People Grow: Ministry 53 Schulz, “Charismenlehre des Paulus: Bi- and Leadership in the Church (London: Hod- lanz der Probleme und Ergebnisse,” in J. Frie- der & Stoughton, 1977), 100; Mühlen, “Cha- drich et al. (eds.), Rechtfertigung: Festschrift für risma,” 161. Ernst Käsemann zum 70 Geburtstag (Göttingen: 48 Küng, Church, 246. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht; Tübingen: Mohr, 49 See Brockhaus, Charisma, 170. Siebeck, 1975), 444. 78 Miroslav Volf new qualities.’54 It might, however, be theology of work only for a Christian better to understand the impartation of subculture? Does not a pneumatologi- charisms according to the interaction cal understanding of work amount to model:55 a person who is shaped by her theological ideology of human achieve- genetic heritage and social interaction ment? To these questions I now turn. faces the challenge of a new situation as she lives in the presence of God and 1. Theological basis learns to respond to it in a new way. This is what it means to acquire a new If we must understand every specific spiritual gift. No substance or quality function and task of a Christian in the has been added to her, but a more or church and in the world charismati- less permanent skill has been learned. cally, then everyday work cannot be We can determine the relationship an exception. The Spirit of God calls, between calling and charisma in the endows, and empowers Christians to following way: the general calling to work in their various vocations. The enter the kingdom of God and to live charismatic nature of all Christian ac- in accordance with this kingdom that tivity is the theological basis for a pneu- comes to a person through the preach- matological understanding of work. ing of the gospel becomes for the be- There are also some biblical refer- liever a call to bear the fruit of the ences that can be taken to suggest Spirit, which should characterize all a pneumatological understanding of Christians, and, as they are placed in work. We read in the Old Testament various situations, the calling to live in that the Spirit of God inspired crafts- accordance with the kingdom branches men and artists who designed, con- out in the multiple gifts of the Spirit to structed, and adorned the tabernacle each individual. and the temple. See, the Lord has chosen Bezalel… and he has filled him with the Spirit V Work in the Spirit of God, with skill, ability and knowl- But is there a connection between char- edge in all kinds of crafts… and… ismata and the mundane work? If there the ability to teach others (Exod is, can a theology of work be based on a 35:2-3) theology of charismata? And if it could, Then David gave his son Solomon… would such a theology of work have the plans of all that the Spirit had any advantages over the vocational un- put in his mind for the courts of the derstanding of work so that we could temple of the Lord (1 Chron 28:11- with good conscience leave the second 12). in favour of the first? Can it be applied Furthermore, judges and kings in to work of non-Christians or is it a Israel are often said to do their tasks under the anointing of the Spirit of 54 T. Veenhof, “Charismata—Supernatu- God (see Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 16:13; 23:2; ral or Natural?” in G. Vandervelde (ed.), The Prov 16:10).56 Holy Spirit: Renewing and Empowering Presence (Winfield: Wood Lake, 1989), 90. 55 See Veenhof, “Charismata,” 91. 56 The point I am making is not invalidated Work, Spirit, and New Creation 79

As they stand, these biblical af- cised by using the so-called natural ca- firmations of the charismatic nature pabilities, it would be incorrect to say of human activity cannot serve as the that a person is ‘enabled’ irrespective basis for a pneumatological under- of God’s relation to him. Rather, the standing of all work, for they set apart enabling depends on the presence and people gifted by the Spirit for various activity of the Spirit. It is impossible to extraordinary tasks from others who separate the gift of the Spirit from the do ordinary work. But we can read enabling power of the Spirit.57 When these passages from the perspective people work exhibiting the values of of the new covenant in which all God’s the new creation (as expressed in what people are gifted and called to various Paul calls the ‘fruit of the Spirit’) then tasks by the Spirit. the Spirit works in them and through In this case they provide biblical them. illustrations for a charismatic under- The understanding of work as coop- standing of the basic types of human eration with God is implied in the New work: intellectual (e.g. teaching) or Testament view of Christian life in gen- manual (e.g. crafts) work, poiesis (e.g. eral. Putting forward his own Christian arts and crafts) or praxis (e.g. ruling). experience as a paradigm of Christian All human work, however complicated life, Paul said: ‘it is no longer I who or simple, is made possible by the op- live, but Christ who lives in me; and eration of the Spirit of God in the work- the life I now life in the flesh I live by ing person; and all work whose nature faith in the Son of God’ (Gal 2:20). That and results reflect the values of the Paul can in the same breath make such new creation is accomplished under seemingly contradictory statements the instruction and inspiration of the about the acting agent of Christian life Spirit of God (see Isa 28:24-29). (‘I no longer live, Christ lives in me’ and ‘I live my life in the flesh’’) testifies unmistakably that the whole Christian 2. Work as cooperation with life is a life of cooperation with God God through the presence of the Spirit. A If Christian mundane work is work in Christian’s mundane work is no excep- the Spirit, then it must be understood tion. Here, too, one must say: I work, as cooperation with God. Charisma is not and the Spirit of the resurrected Christ just a call by which God bids us to per- works through me. form a particular task, but is also an Since the Spirit who imparts gifts inspiration and a gifting to accomplish and acts through them is ‘a guarantee’ the task. Even when charisma is exer- (2 Cor 1:22; cf. Rom 8:23) of the reali- zation of the eschatological new crea- tion, cooperation with God in work is by the observation that the claim to Spirit’s in- spiration might have served Israel’s kings only proleptic cooperation with God in God’s as a sacral legitimation of a fundamentally eschatological transformatio mundi. secular power (see G. von Rad, Theologie des As the glorified Lord, Jesus Christ is AltenTestaments I: Die Theologie der geschichtli- chen Überlieferungen Israels [München: Kaiser, 1969], 109). 57 See Käsemann, “Amt,” 110. 80 Miroslav Volf

‘present in his gifts and in the services action of human beings with the Spirit that both manifest these gifts and are of God. made possible by them.’58 Although his Yet charisms remain different from reign is still contested by the power their mediations and should not be re- of evil, he is realizing through those duced to or confused with them.60 For gifts his rule of love in the world. As the Spirit who gives gifts ‘as he wills’ Christians do their mundane work, the (1 Cor 12:11) by social and natural me- Spirit enables them to cooperate with diation is not the Spirit of human social God in the kingdom of God that “com- structures or of a persons’ psychoso- pletes creation and renews heaven and matic makeup, but the Spirit of the cru- earth.”59 cified arid resurrected Christ, the first fruits of the new creation. 3. A pneumatological approach (2) The pneumatological under- to work: does it solve anything? standing of work is not as open to ideological misuse as the vocational In the last two chapters [of my book] understanding of work.61 It does not I develop some of the most important proclaim work meaningful without si- aspects of a pneumatological under- multaneously attempting to humanize standing of work. Here I want to show it. Elevating work to cooperation with that this understanding of work is not God in the pneumatological under- weighed down by the serious deficien- standing of work implies an obligation cies of the vocational understanding of to overcome alienation because the in- work. dividual gifts of the person need to be (1) The pneumatological under- taken seriously. The point is not simply standing of work is free from the por- to interpret work religiously as coop- tentous ambiguity in Luther’s concept eration with God and thereby glorify of vocation, which consists in the unde- it ideologically, but to transform work fined relation between spiritual calling through the gospel and external calling into a charismatic cooperation with through one’s station. The resurrected God on the ‘project’ of the new crea- Lord alone through the Spirit calls and tion. equips a worker for a particular task in (3) The pneumatological under- the world. standing of work is easily applicable to Of course, neither the Spirit’s call- the increasing diachronic plurality of ing nor equipping occur in a social and employments or jobs that characterize natural vacuum; they do not come, so industrial and information societies. to speak, directly from Christ’s im- Unlike Christian calling, charisma-in material Spirit to the isolated human the technical sense is not ‘irrevocable’ soul. They are mediated through each person’s social interrelations and psy- 60 For a similar differentiation between chosomatic constitution. These media- calling and mediations within the vocational tions themselves result from the inter- understanding of work, see O. Bayer, “Beru- fung,” in T. Schober et al. (eds.), Evangelisches Soziallexikon (Stuttgart: Kreuz, 1980, 7th ed.), 58 Käsemann, “Amt,” 118. 142. 59 Moltmann, “Work,” 45. 61 See Volf, Work in the Spirit, 163–68. Work, Spirit, and New Creation 81

(see Rom 11:29). True, a person cannot In any case, one can change jobs simply pick and choose her charisma, without coming under suspicion of for the sovereign Spirit of God imparts unfaithfulness. If the change is in har- charisms ‘as he wills’ (l Cor 12:11). mony with the charisma given, then But the sovereignty of the Spirit does changing can actually be an expres- not prohibit a person from ‘earnestly sion of faithfulness to God, who gave desiring’ spiritual gifts (1 Cor 12:3 1; the charisma and readiness to serve 14: 1, 12) and receiving various gifts fellow human beings in a new way. at different times.62 Paul presupposes There is no need to worry that in the both a diachronic and a synchronic plu- absence of a permanent calling, human rality of charisms. life will be ‘turned topsy-turvy’65 (as The diachronic plurality of charisms Calvin thought) or that human beings fits the diachronic plurality of employ- will ‘spend more time in idleness than ment or jobs in modern societies. Un- at work’66 (as the Puritans feared). like in the vocational understanding Rather, freedom from the rigidity of a of work, in the pneumatological un- single, permanent vocation might sea- derstanding of work one need not in- son with creativity and interrupt with sist that the occupational choice be a rest the monotonous lives of modern single event and that there be a single workaholics. right job for everyone63 (either because (4) It is also easy to apply the pneu- God has called a person to one job or matological understanding of work to because every person possesses a rela- the synchronic plurality of jobs or em- tively stable pattern of occupational ployments. In Paul’s view every Chris- traits). People are freed for several tian can have more than one charisma consecutive careers in rapidly chang- at any given time. His aim is that Chris- ing work environments; their occupa- tians ‘excel in gifts’ (1 Cor 14: 12), tional decisions need not be irrevoca- provided they exercise them in inter- ble commitments but can be repeatedly dependence within the community and made in a continuous dialogue between out of concern for the common good. their preferences and talents on the The pneumatological understanding of one hand, and the existing job opportu- work frees us from the limitation of be- nities on the other.64 ing able to theologically interpret only

62 Paul explicates his views on charisms in primo ex divina providentia, quae ita hominum the context of the understanding of the church status distribuit… secundo etiam ex causis as the Body of Christ. He does not derive his naturalibus, ex quibus contingit, quod in diver- views on charisms from this metaphor of the sis hominibus sund diversae inclinationes ad church, but uses the metaphor to illustrate diversa officia’ Quaest. ( quodliberal, VII, Art. certain aspects of his teaching on charisms. 17c; cf. E. Welty, Vom Sinn und Wert der men- 63 So industrial psychology until recently: schlichen Arbeit [Heidelberg: Kerle, 1949], 41). see W. S. Neff, Work and Human Behavior (Chi- As portrayed by Thomas Aquinas, the natural cago: Aldim, 1977, 2nd ed.), 125. inclinations of different people are as static 64 Thomas Aquinas speaks of natural in- as Luther’s calling and are hence equally ill- clinations (caused by divine Providence) to suited to modern, dynamic societies. particular employments: ‘Haec autem diver- 65 Calvin, Institutes, 724. sificatio hominum in diversis officiis contingit 66 Baxter, as quoted by Weber, Ethic, 161. 82 Miroslav Volf a single employment of a Christian (or church and society in the Corpus Chris- from the limitation of having to resort tianum that Luther and other seminal to a different theological interpretation theologians of the past presupposed. for jobs that are not primary). In much of the world throughout In accordance with the plurality of history, however, church and society charisms, there can be a plurality of were never identified, and the cradle of employments or jobs without any one the Corpus Christianorum is becoming of them being regarded theologically its grave: in the Western world a clear as inferior, a more ‘job on the side.’ and irretrievable separation between The pneumatological understanding of church and society is taking place. work is thus also open to a redefinition Since Christians today live in religious- of work, which today’s industrial and ly pluralistic societies, their theologies information societies need.67 of work must incorporate reflect ion on the-work of non-Christians. Hence my next step is to indicate the implications VI Spirit and Work in Regnum of a pneumatological theology of work Naturae for understanding non-Christians’ As I have sketched it, the pneumato- work. logical understanding of work is clear- What is the relation of the work ly a theology of Christian work. The of non-Christians to the new crea- significance and meaning of Christians’ tion? The answer to this question is work lie in their cooperation with God implicit in the way I have determined in the anticipation of the eschatologi- the relation between the present and cal transformatio mundi. The power the future orders. If the world will be enabling their work and determining transformed, then the work of non- its nature is the Holy Spirit given when Christians has in principle the same they responded in faith to the call of ultimate significance as the work of God in Christ. Christians: insofar as the results of But what about the work of non- non-Christians’ work pass through the Christians? Traditionally theologians purifying judgment of God, they, too, simply bypassed the issue as uninter- will contribute to the future new crea- esting. Although Luther, for instance, tion. did not apply the concept of vocation In Revelation one reads that the to the work of non-Christians,68 he re- kings of the earth and the nations will flected little in his writings on the theo- bring their splendour, glory, and hon- logical significance of their work. This our into the New Jerusalem (Rev 21:24, is understandable, given the identity of 26). It makes perhaps the best sense to take this enigmatic statement to mean that all pure and noble achievements 67 See above, 7–14; Miroslav Volf, Zukunft of non-Christians will be incorporated der Arbeit—Arbeit der Zukunft: Der Arbeits- in the new creation. begriff bei Karl Marx und seine theologische Wertung (München: Kaiser; Mainz: Grünewald, But is it possible to understand 1988), 100ff. the work of non-Christians pneuma- 68 See Wingren, Beruf, 15; Gatzen, Beruf, tologically? Charisms are specifically 39ff. ecclesiastical phenomena. They are Work, Spirit, and New Creation 83 gifts given to those who acknowledge with the two groups of human beings, Jesus as Lord. How, then, can anything as in the nature of the receptivity of hu- we learned about the nature of work man beings. from the theology of charisms apply to Third, the goal of the Holy Spirit the work of non-Christians? The an- in the church and in the world is the swer depends on how we conceive of same: the Spirit strives to lead both the the relationship between the Spirit of realm of nature (regnum naturae) and God and the non-Christians. I can only the realm of grace (regnum gratiae) to- sketch an approach to this extremely ward their final glorification in the new complex and not sufficiently investi- creation (regnum gloriae).70 gated subject here. Since in the realm of grace the First, if we affirm that Christ is the Spirit is active as the first fruits of the Lord of all humanity—indeed of the coming glory, which is the goal of the whole universe—and not only of those realm of nature, we must think of the who profess him as their Lord, and Spirit’s activity in the realm of nature that he rules through the power of the as analogous to its activity in the realm Spirit, then we must also assume that of grace. What can be said of the work the Spirit of God is active in some way of Christians on the basis of the bibli- in all people, not only in those who con- cal understanding of charisms can also sciously live in the Spirit’s life-giving be said by analogy of the work of non- power. As Basil of Caesarea observes Christians. in his De Spiritu Sancto, creation pos- Revelation of the future glory in sesses nothing—no power, no motiva- the realm of grace is the measure by tion, or ingenuity needed for work— which events in the realm of nature that it did not receive from the Spirit must be judged. To the extent that non- of God.69 There is hence an important Christians are open to the prompting of sense in which all human work is done the Spirit, their work, too, is the coop- ‘in the power of the Spirit.’ eration with God in anticipation of the Second, one and the same Spirit of eschatological transformation of the God is active both in the Church and in world, even though they may not be the world of culture. As the first fruits aware of it. of the new creation, the Spirit is active in the Church, redeeming and sancti- fying the people of God. In the world VII A Christian Ideology of of culture the Spirit is active sustain- Work? ing and developing humanity. The dif- Work as cooperation with God in the ference in the activity of the Spirit in these two realms lies not so much in the different purposes of the Spirit 70 For the relation between natura, gratia, and gloria, see J. Moltmann, “Christsein, Men- schsein und das Reich Gottes: Ein Gespräch 69 Basil, De Spiritu Sancto, as quoted by W. mit Karl Rahner,” in Stimmen der Zeit 203 Kern and Y. Congar, “Geist and Heiliger Geist,” (1985), 626 (though I am not always able to in F. Böckle et al. (eds.), Christlicher Glaube in follow Moltmann in the way he determines the moderner Gesellschaft (Freiburg: Herder, 1982), relation between gratia and gloria, and hence 22:87. also between natura and gratia). 84 Miroslav Volf eschatological transformation of the not indiscriminately affirm the present world! Work in the Spirit! These are world. Such promiscuous affirmation lofty words about human work. But is would be the cheapest of all graces, it not true that work reflects not only and hence no grace at all. The realiza- the glory of human cooperation with tion of the new creation cannot bypass God but also the misery of human re- the Judgment Day, a day of negation of bellion against God? This is, indeed, all that is negative in the present crea- a testimony of Genesis 2 through 3, tion.72 which explains how pleasant work in a Paul’s reflection on the ultimate garden (2:15) became futile toil outside significance of missionary work in the of it (3:17ff.). The experience of most face of God’s judgment (1 Cor 3:12-15) working people confirms it. The state- might give us a clue to understanding ment Wolterstorff makes about art is a God’s judgment in relation to human forteriori true of work: it ‘reeks of mur- work in general. Like the test of fire, der, and oppression, and enslavement, God’s judgment will bring to light the and nationalism, and idolatry, and rac- work that has ultimate significance ism, and sexism.’71 since it was done in cooperation with Given the drudgery of much of mod- God. Like gold, silver, and precious ern work, the exploitation of workers, stones (see 1 Cor 3:12), such work will and the destruction of nature through survive the fire purified. human work, does not the talk about But the Judgment Day will also working in the Spirit and about the plainly reveal the work that was ul- eschatological significance of work timately insignificant because it was sound suspect? Does it not amount to a done in cooperation, not with God, but glorification of work that conceals the with the demonic powers that scheme debasement of workers? Is a theology to ruin God’s good creation. Like wood, of work only an ideology of work in dis- hay, and straw, such work will burn up, guise? for ‘nothing that is impure will ever enter’ the New Jerusalem (Rev 21:27). 1. God’s judgment of human Every understanding of work as coop- work

The understanding of work as coop- 72 The claim that “all human activity, includ- eration with God in the transformatio ing that of work, is captured, permeated and mundi is not a general theory of all transfigured by the event of salvation” and human work. It is not applicable to that “secular reality gains a new-divine-dimen- every type of work and to every way of sion” (L. Roos, “On a Theology and Ethics of working, for the simple reason that the Work,” in Communio 11 [1984], 103, reporting on French theologies of work) amounts to a new creation will not incorporate eve- dangerous ideology of work if it is understood rything found in the present creation. as an indiscriminate statement about all hu- When God creates a new world he will man activity and about the whole of secular reality. For some of human activity is beyond salvation and requires abolition (i.e., prostitu- 71 N. Wolterstorff, “Evangelicalism and the tion), and some of secular reality has demonic Arts,” in Christian Scholar’s Review 17 (1988), dimensions and requires destruction (i.e., 467. chemical weapons). Work, Spirit, and New Creation 85 eration with God that does not include the work has meaning in spite of the the theme of judgment is inadequate. transitoriness of the world. If human As we have to pattern our work accord- work is in fact ‘chasing after wind’ ing to the values of the new creation, (Eccles 4:4)-whether or not one experi- so we also have to criticize it in the ences it subjectively as meaningful-it is light of the eschatological judgment. not so because of the transitoriness of In relation to God’s judgment on the world, but because of the evilness human work, it is important to distin- of the work. All work that contradicts guish between what might be called the new creation is meaningless; all the moral and the ontological value work that corresponds to the new crea- of human work. I have already argued tion is ultimately meaningful. against ascribing eschatological sig- This should serve as an encourage- nificance merely to the attitude of love ment to all those ‘good workers’ who exhibited in work.73 It would also be see themselves in the tragic figure of insufficient to attach eschatological Sisyphus. In spite of all appearances, significance only to the results of work their work is not just rolling a heavy done in love.74 ‘Man’s envy of his neigh- rock up a hill in this earthly Hades; bour’ (Eccles 4:4), as the realistic ec- they are preparing building blocks for clesiast puts it, spurs him on to many the glorified new creation. Further- of the best human achievements. more, all those weighed down by the Do they lose their inherent value be- toil that accompanies most of human cause they were done out of ethically work can rest assured that their suffer- impure motives? Every noble result of ings “are not worth comparing with the human work is ultimately significant. glory” of God’s new creation they are It is possible that the fire of judgment contributing to (Rom 8:18). will not only burn up the results of work, the worker herself escaping ‘the flames’ (1 Cor 3:15),75 but that the 2. Work against the Spirit flames of ‘the absolutely searching and What is the relationship between the penetrating love of God’76 will envelop Spirit of God and the work that de- the evil worker while her work is puri- serves God’s judgment? There is a fied and preserved. sense in which all human work is done The reality of judgment makes it in the power of the Spirit. The Spirit clear that relating human work posi- is the giver of all life, and hence all tively to God’s new creation does not work, as an expression of human life, amount to an ideological glorification draws its energy out of the fullness of work. It lies in the affirmation that of divine Spirit’s energy. When human beings work, they work only because God’s Spirit has given them power and 73 See Volf, Work in the Spirit, 96-98. talents to work. To express the same 74 See Documents, Gaudium et Spes, n. 39: thought in more traditional terminol- ‘manete caritate eiusque opere.’ 75 For this interpretation of 1 Cor. 3:15, see ogy, without God’s constant preserving Fee, First Corinthians, 144. and sustaining grace, no work would 76 B. Hebblethwaite, The Christian Hope be possible. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985), 215. But a person can misuse his gifts 86 Miroslav Volf and exercise them against God’s will. ence from the Spirit’s prompting. Through his work he can destroy ei- Because the Spirit creates human ther human or natural life and hence beings as free agents, work in the pow- contradict the reality of the new crea- er of the Spirit can be done not only in tion, which preserves the old creation accordance with but also in contradic- in transfigured form. The circumstance tion to the will of the Spirit; it can be that the gifts and energies that the performed not only in cooperation with Spirit gives can be used against the the Holy Spirit who transforms the will of the Spirit results from the Spir- creation in anticipation of the glorious it’s condescension in history: by giving new creation, but also in collaboration life to the creation, the Spirit imparts with that Unholy Spirit who strives to to the creation the power for independ- ravage it. ERT (2017) 41:1, 87-88 For Further Reading

We want to encourage our readers per (number 59) on Business as Mis- to make use of the resources that sion (BAM), arising from the 2004 Fo- are now easily accessible around the rum on BAM held in Thailand in 2004. world. The most important of these is For theological reflection on eco- the Theology of Work Project (http:// nomic issues, a key resource is the www.theologyofwork.org) which has a Journal of Markets and Morality, pub- vast array of high-quality articles and lished in a free open access form by the information, including a commentary Acton Foundation (http://www.market- on the whole Bible with application to sandmorality.com/index.php/mandm). the workplace. Their key contribution This journal features careful and nu- is careful engagement with the Bible anced interaction between theology on issues relating to work, including and economics from specialists in both its intrinsic worth. An organisation which merits par- fields, and is a first resource for ethical ticular mention is the Lausanne Move- questions around markets. ment, which fosters three issue net- There are many other organisa- works around topics mentioned here tions and groups focused on faith and (Business as Mission, Marketplace work issues, often making high-quality Ministry, and Tentmaking), as well as resources freely available, and we en- other related issue networks (Cities, courage you to look at the website of Creation Care, etc.). Lausanne have the Council for Business and Theology published an important Occasional Pa- for links to these.

Recommended books for perspectives on work: Miroslav Volf, Work in the Spirit: Toward a Theology of Work (Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Darrell Cosden, A Theology of Work: Work and the New Creation (Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2004) R. Paul Stevens, The Other Six Days: Vocation, Work, and Ministry in Biblical Perspective (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000) Ben Witherington, Work: A Kingdom Perspective on Labor (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2011)

Recommended books for perspectives on markets and economics: Christopher J. H. Wright, Old Testament Ethics for the People of God (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2013) Samuel Gregg, Economic Thinking for the Theologically Minded (Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2001) Brian Griffiths, Robert A. Sirico, Norman Barry, and Frank Field,Capitalism, 88 Further Reading

Morality and Markets (London: The Institute of Economic Affairs, 2001) Richard A. Horsley, Covenant Economics: A Biblical Vision of Justice for All (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox, 2009) Paul Mills and Michael Schluter, After Capitalism: Rethinking Economic Relationships (Cambridge: Jubilee Centre, 2012) Stephen Green, Good Value: Reflections on Money, Morality and an Uncertain World (London: Allen Lane, 2009) Clive Beed and Cara Beed, Alternatives to Economics: Christian Socio-Economic Perspectives (Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2006)

Recommended books for the field of Business as Mission: Neal Johnson, Business as Mission: A Comprehensive Guide to Theory and Practice (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2010) Michael Baer, Business as Mission: The Power of Business in the Kingdom of God (Seattle, WA: YWAM Publishing, 2006) Steven Rundle and Tom A. Steffen, The Emerging Role of Business in Missions (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2011) Web sites: www.bamglobal.org and www.businessasmission.com ERT (2017) 41:1, 89-96 Books Reviewed Reviewed by Michael R Bae Short Reviews Albert M. Erisman Reviewed by Lyndon Drake The Accidental Executive: Lessons on Business, Faith and Calling from the Samuel Gregg Life of Joseph Economic Thinking for the Theologi- cally Minded Reviewed by Norman Rentrop Thomas Schirrmacher Brian Griffiths, Robert A. Sirico, Nor- Leadership and Ethical Responsibility: man Barry, and Frank Field The Three Aspects of Every Decision Capitalism, Morality and Markets Richard A. Horsley, Reviewed by Rod St Hill Covenant Economics: A Biblical Vision David Brooks of Justice for All The Road to Character Paul Mills and Michael Schluter Reviewed by Lyndon Drake After Capitalism: Rethinking Economic Kenman L. Wong and Scott B. Rae Relationships Business for the Common Good: A Christian Vision for the Marketplace Book Reviews

ERT (2017) 41:1, 89-90 executive in his own right at Boeing, and an obvious student of Scripture. The Accidental Executive: Lessons Accidental Executive would not be classi- on Business, Faith and Calling fied as scholarly nor would I describe it from the Life of Joseph as exegetical. It does not draw its truth Albert M. Erisman from the text. On the contrary, Erisman Peabody: Hendrickson, 2015 takes the common experiences and ISBN 978-61970-719-1 (ebook) challenges of believers in business and reads them back into the text, into the Reviewed by Michael R Baer, CEO, Third story of Joseph and uses this story as Path Initiative a powerful illustration of how a man of God can operate in the work place while There is no shortage of books written on remaining faithful. This is a devotional market place ministry or living out our work aimed at encouraging the Christian faith in the domestic workplace. In that in his or her job. sense, Accidental Executive is not unique. However, what is different about Albert Each chapter is an explanation and illus- Erisman’s book is that it is not writ- tration of some principle or experience ten by a Bible college professor or the that most of us who actually live in the director of some non-profit organization world of work can quickly identify with. trying to operate in the business world. Erisman deals with the preparation of a Erisman is a practitioner, a successful leader, the specific temptations a leader 90 Book Reviews will face, perseverance and focus on of the story too far or force points that the task, how to bring bad news to your simply don’t fit the narrative. boss and more than 20 other real life If the reader is looking for guidance in topics. The development of each topic is how to launch a business for God or how not limited to what we can glean from to use business to penetrate into the Joseph’s life; Erisman also draws upon a unreached and hard-to-reach places on rich and diverse database of interviews earth he will be disappointed. This is not with current workplace leaders such as a book on business as mission. However, Allen Mullaly of Ford Motor Company, for those wanting to see the correla- Gloria Nelund of TriLinc Global, and Bill tion between sound business practices, Pollard of ServiceMaster. These modern solid Christian virtues and successful stories blend with the ancient story of navigation in the world of work then Joseph to provide a well-rounded and Accidental Executive will prove encourag- thoughtful guide to difficult situations. ing, instructive and challenging. Of particular interest to many readers will be the chapter on ‘Talking About God in the Workplace’. Many passion- ERT (2017) 41:1, 90-91 ate Christians wrestle with how to be vocal and yet sensitive to the setting. Leadership and Ethical The chapter is summarized in Erisman’s Responsibility: The Three Aspects words, ‘There is a place for a strong and of Every Decision clear statement about God in the midst Thomas Schirrmacher of a situation, but there are often times Bonn: Culture and Science Pub., 2013 when simply turning away from the situ- WEA Global Issues Series Vol 13 ation is what is necessary.’ The chapter ISBN 978-3-86269-072-5 then expands on how to know when to Pb, pp 139 also e-version do what. Reviewed by Norman Rentrop, Germany Another helpful chapter is ‘The Big Pro- motion’, in which Erisman unpacks the Our economic system is based upon humility needed by Joseph when he is trust. When a distributor delivers goods elevated from prison to Prime Minister. on account, he trusts that at a later The emphasis on servant leadership and time he will be paid for his services. If a understanding the true nature of posi- customer did not pay, the system of trust tion is healthy and needed. would be disturbed. Mistrust makes Some of the analogies raised in Ac- economic life difficult and complicated. cidental Executive are hard to see. The A distributor would rather deliver to comparison of the hungry masses of customers he trusts and whom he knows Egypt during the time of plenty that from experience to be reliable. Compa- preceded the great famine and Ameri- nies which are managed in a scrupulous can’s greed and avarice prior to the 2008 and ethically responsible manner are meltdown is a stretch. So also, the sug- preferred in our economic system. gestion of Joseph’s failure to engage his Ethical responsibility not only strength- subordinates drawn from the argument ens relationships with customers and from silence misses the mark. This is business partners, but it also creates the practical problem with all devotional a productive work atmosphere for em- writing and the tendency to press details ployees. On the one hand, it heightens Book Reviews 91 existing employees’ motivation and, on full of material offerings and promises, the other hand, makes the company at- interpersonal ethical values will become tractive for new top talent. increasingly important for people who Human ideals and practical constraints appear to have everything. Responsible appear to contradict each other in the Christian ethics is such a value. And for interpersonal realm. On this point, this that reason, this book is so important. book explains how the Bible makes clear It provides a sound footing by provid- guidelines available so that optimal solu- ing the best guide, the biblical point of tions can be found in the case of con- view thought through and desired by the flicts between economic, personal, and Creator with respect to decision-making impersonal interests. These spiritual and behaviour. principles not only give the decision- maker himself a form of support. They also result in a situation where his ERT (2017) 41:1, 91-93 leadership decisions inspire confidence, are reliable, and are transparent. The Road to Character Christian leadership is often equated David Brooks with a type of ‘starry-eyed idealism’ that London: Allen Lane, 2015 cannot be squared with the economic ISBN 978-0-241-18672-5 interests of a company. This book dem- Hb., pp 273, notes, index onstrates the opposite by showing how Reviewed by Rod St Hill, Christian Heritage Christian-ethical responsibility not only College, Brisbane, Australia exists in relation to the individual em- ployee but also in relation to the entire I caught a snippet of an interview with company and the goals the company has. David Brooks about The Road to Char- At those points where companies are acter on Australia’s public radio, Radio becoming increasingly similar to each National, in July 2014. I was intrigued other, the quality of the employees and by his approach, based on ‘philosophi- leadership are becoming increasingly im- cal humility’, and ordered a copy of his portant. Ethically responsible leadership book. He defines character as ‘a set of has become a critical success factor. The dispositions, desires, and habits that Bible is first-rate management literature. are slowly engraved during the strug- What one finds with Thomas Schir- gle against your own weakness’ (263). rmacher is that he lays down a compre- Philosophical humility is an acknowl- hensive and generally valid foundation edgment of our inherent tendencies from the Bible in order to reach correct towards selfishness, pride, greed and leadership decisions. In the process, as self-deception, and a recognition that far as ethical responsibility is concerned, our struggle against the weaknesses in he not only deals with economic leader- ourselves is never solitary. ‘Everybody ship, he also creates a sound basis for needs redemptive assistance from the all areas of decision-making, regardless outside—from family, friends, ancestors, of whether it is a matter of decisions in rules, traditions, institutions, exemplars, one’s profession, at a personal level, in and, for believers, God.’ one’s family, or in the church. Brooks draws Adam I and Adam II from Futurologists have seen the value of eth- Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik’s Lonely Man ics rise in society even more. In a world of Faith as his thematic metaphors. 92 Book Reviews

The Adams are developed from the two Me’. He suggests that the 1960s saw a accounts of creation in Genesis and rep- significant cultural change, but one built resent opposing sides of our nature. In on a long history. ‘Starting in biblical contemporary times, Adam I is recogniz- times there was a tradition of moral able as the external Adam who wants to realism, the “crooked-timber” school conquer the world. This is ‘the big me’. of humanity. This … put tremendous Adam II is internal, with a desire for a emphasis on sin and human weakness… serene, inner character, keen not only captured in the figure of Moses… and to do good, but to be good. This is ‘the by biblical figures like David, who were little me’. Brooks asserts that today’s great heroes, but deeply flawed… later culture nurtures Adam I and neglects expressed by Christian thinkers such as Adam II. The book focusses on Adam II. Augustine… (then)… humanists like ‘I wrote it, to be honest, to save my own Samuel Johnson, Michel de Montaigne, soul’ (xi). and George Eliot, who emphasized how little we can know, how hard it is Brooks’ method is to review the lives of to know ourselves, and how hard we a sample of historical figures. None was have to work along the road to virtue’ saintly. Indeed, some (Dwight Eisen- (pp. 243-4). According to Brooks moral hower, Bayard Rustin, George Eliot and realism found a rival in moral romanti- Augustine) veered well away from the cism, which replaced emphasis on inner path of decency at times. One, George weakness with emphasis on inner good- Marshall, was so self-effacing that a ness, around the eighteenth century. The weak President appointed Eisenhower two traditions existed together until the to oversee Operation Overlord when Great Depression and the Second World Marshall was clearly the better logisti- War, when people wanted to escape from cian and leader. Nevertheless, all dealt self-restraint. heroically with human weakness of one kind or another. Brooks nominates four books that el- evated moral romanticism: Rabbi Joshua Brooks aligns each figure with ele- L. Liebman’s Peace of Mind (1946), ments of Adam II—the summoned self Benjamin Spock’s, The Common Sense (Frances Perkins, one of the architects Book of Baby and Child Care (1946), of Roosevelt’s New Deal), self-conquest Harry Overstreet’s The Mature Mind (Dwight Eisenhower), struggle (Dorothy (1949) and Rev Norman Vincent Peale’s Day, the Catholic Worker movement), The Power of Positive Thinking (1952) as self-mastery (George Marshall, architect the watershed literature, together with of the Marshall Plan), dignity (Phillip the humanistic psychology of Carl Rog- Randolph and Bayard Rustin, leaders of ers ‘and others’. Brooks argues that this the civil rights movement), love (George shift produced some positive outcomes, Eliot), ordered love (Augustine), and including rising aspirations of women, self-examination (Samuel Johnson and minorities and the poor, but simultane- Michel de Montaigne). I found myself ously diminished the role of external reflecting on my own struggle between objective good as the basis for moral Adam I and Adam II as I read Brooks’ authority. vignettes. It puzzles me why Brooks overlooked I confess that I was not always sure the critical importance of Albert where the book was heading. It became Maslow’s ‘A theory of human motiva- clear in the concluding chapter, ‘The Big tion’ published in 1943 in Psychological Book Reviews 93

Review. His hierarchy of needs, culminat- the development of simplistic prosperity ing in ‘self-actualization’, is arguably theology and the uncritical acceptance the most influential thinking ever in of Maslow’s hierarchy in Christian think- moral romanticism. His hierarchy is ing on counselling. utterly inconsistent with Paul’s notion of ‘contentment’ in Philippians 4:11-13 and with the idea of ‘realization of self’ ERT (2017) 41:1, 93-95 and the ‘subordinate goals of economic life’ published in 1954 by Howard R Business for the Common Bowen in Christian Values and Economic Good: A Christian Vision for the Life. Maslow’s hierarchy is ubiquitous Marketplace in social science text books to this day Kenman L. Wong and Scott B. Rae despite its weak theoretical basis (obser- vations of animals) and lack of empirical Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP support. Academic, 2011 ISBN 978-0-8308-2816-6 Towards the end of the book, Brooks Pb., pp 287, bibliog., index. defines what he calls ‘The Humility Code’, a set of fourteen principles drawn Reviewed by Lyndon Drake, Chair of the WEA Council for Business and Theology from the lives of his historical figures. They include acknowledgement that we Wong and Rae open this book, aimed at are ‘flawed creatures’, ‘humility is the an informed but not technical audience, greatest virtue’, ‘pride is the central with a brief resumé of well-known in- vice’, ‘character is built in the course stances of harm done to society by busi- of your inner confrontation’, ‘we are nesses: financial scandals, WorldCom, all ultimately saved by grace’, and, my Enron, and the economic effects that favourite, ‘wisdom starts with epistemo- were starting to be felt as the financial logical modesty’. With respect to leader- crisis took root in 2009 and 2010. ship, an academic and practical interest of mine, he says, ‘The best leader … In response, the authors seek to provide realizes that he, like the people who he a genuinely Christian response, targeted leads, is likely to be sometimes selfish, towards the transformation of the world narrow-minded and self-deceiving. through involvement in business. A Therefore, he prefers arrangements that strength is their acknowledgement of are low and steady to those that are the reality of living in a broken world, lofty and heroic’ (266). even when Christian norms are clear. In Overall this book is engaging and pro- particular, they point out that wisdom is vocative. I was frustrated, however, that needed to identify which steps towards Brooks never argues for the centrality a Christian ideal are in practice possible. of Christian faith in the development ‘Sometimes the best we can do is make of character. He never alludes to the a bad situation better or pursue the wis- meta-narrative of the Bible and the est (versus perfect or optimal) course of fact that even the humility code cannot action.’ deal with the fallenness of humankind. Methodologically, Wong and Rae ac- Perhaps for this reason, he neglects knowledge the hermeneutical difficulty to discuss the effect of ‘the big me’ of speaking about business when a mod- on the Christian church, the two most ern business environment is not directly important of which, in my opinion, are envisaged in Scripture. They propose 94 Book Reviews using a ‘framework’ approach, which their theological methodology, particu- they do not define in detail. larly when it comes to identifying the The first substantive chapter of the book reason why a particular principle should focuses not on business specifically, but be chosen. This is particularly evident on the intrinsic value of work more gen- in Chapter 5, where the prescription for erally. Wong and Rae provide a helpful engaging with the issues around glo- survey of current theological reflection balisation and liberal trade policies look on work, with a strong affirmation of its remarkably similar to the prescriptions intrinsic value derived from the creation one might find in a ‘secular’ economic mandate, as well as helpful points on text. As an example, they suggest that the contingent positive effects of work. ‘Christian love of neighbour would seem They touch on the idea of business as to imply support for fair representation mission (BAM), although they engage of rule-making organizations’, which is more thoroughly with the BAM litera- easy to agree with whether or not one ture in the final chapter. Their primary shares the premise of ‘Christian love of neighbour’. Perhaps, however, this just metaphor for work is that of an ‘altar’, shows that Christian values are deeply representing the offering of service to embedded in western thought. God through involvement in daily work. My second criticism is that most of the They then move from this starting point book is concerned with the place of the in successive chapters to examine busi- individual in business, and less on the ness as a place of personal spiritual for- systemic issues. There is only limited mation (and conversely temptation); the discussion of systemic issues around issues of wealth, success, and ambition; business in developed societies (com- business within the global economy; pared with the discussion of globalisa- ethics in the workplace; leadership and tion), such as disintermediation, the management; marketing; stewardship agency problem, and modern ownership and sustainability; and emerging direc- and liability structures. That is simply a tions in business. choice of content, though, and highlights These chapters have a mix of focus, the need for more work on systemic but primarily engage with involvement issues rather than detracting from the in business at the individual level. The overall excellence of what the authors focus lifts to a systemic level primarily have provided. in Chapter 5, ‘Business within the global Wong and Rae have produced a warm, economy’. Here, the main discussion is balanced book, engagingly illustrated around globalisation and the liberalisa- with examples from the business lives of tion of trade. Wong and Rae present a individuals and companies. They engage balanced discussion, identifying key widely with both theological and busi- Christian values that can contribute to ness literature. It deserves a wide read- policy discussions. The other chapters ing, especially among those Christians follow a similar pattern, identifying whose instincts or experience might lead Christian principles with reference to them to doubt the place of business in Scripture, and applying those to modern Christian life at all—and many Chris- business situations individuals might tians in business can testify that the encounter. church often leaves them alienated. This I have two minor criticisms. The first book provides a necessary and helpful is that Wong and Rae lack precision in corrective to that widespread problem. Book Reviews 95

If Wong and Rae’s message is heard by mission in the world through business the global church, they will contribute to activity. a real increase in participation in God’s

ERT (2017) 41:1, 95-96

Short reviews by Guest Editor, Lyndon Drake

Samuel Gregg, Economic Thinking for the Theologically Minded (Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2001) ISBN 0-7618-2096-5; Hb, pp 155. The basic premise of Samuel Gregg’s book is that Christians receiving theological training often have a right concern for the alleviation of poverty in society. Semi- naries do an excellent job of raising issues of justice and righteousness with their students. Where theologians often struggle, though, is in a basic understanding of the discipline of economics. This concise and readable book is intended to provide at least some remedy for that lack. The book is organised in two parts. The first addresses general issues of ethics, eco- nomics, and institutions. The second part moves on to particular topics such as prop- erty, trade, value and price theory, and so on. A particularly helpful feature of this second part is the introduction to significant scholars and schools, including brief historical context and summary of subsequent influence. The whole book is written with simplicity, warmth, and a concern for Christian ethics that makes it commend- able. If read widely, it would act as an excellent safeguard against the economic embarrassments occasionally uttered by well-meaning Christian public figures.

Brian Griffiths, Robert A. Sirico, Norman Barry, and Frank Field, Capitalism, Morality and Markets (London: The Institute of Economic Affairs, 2001) ISBN 0-255-36496-2; Pb, pp 92 This fascinating book represents an engaging discussion of moral and ethical issues from four eminent authors, engaging with their respective topics from a range of political viewpoints. The authors make two main contributions. The first is to make it evident that in contrast to popular caricature, Christians in corporate and public life have often given careful thought to the application of biblical principles to their work. Readers will not always agree with the authors’ conclusions, but may well find their prior assumptions about the motives of those in business or public life challenged. The second contribution is to provide a level of detail in ethical engagement with the capitalist system that is sometimes lacking in more scholarly theological work. Sweeping statements about the evils of capitalism are easy to make, and possibly rather enjoyable to write. But perhaps what is needed is more of what this book reflects: thoughtful, critical engagement with the very details of capitalism that provide both benefits and risks. When Brian Griffiths examines the corporation as a moral community, or Frank Field urges state intervention in retirement savings, they are doing public theology from a position of subject expertise that is rarely found in the theological guild. 96 Book Reviews

Richard A. Horsley, Covenant Economics: A Biblical Vision of Justice for All (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox, 2009) ISBN 978-0- 66423395-2; Pb, pp 194 Richard Horsley gives readers a vivid and passionate survey of the whole Bible in relation to economic rights. For Horsley, covenant is an important framework for un- derstanding economic justice, which can be seen not only in the explicitly covenantal framework of the Hebrew Bible, but in the renewal of the covenant by Jesus. Horsley is at his best when he shows us the ancient economic context for the Bible’s testimony, and in highlighting the economic dimensions of the teachings of Jesus and Paul. The book does have two weaknesses which detract from the excellence of its historical-critical exegesis. The first is that Horsley writes with his eye mainly on the USA, and so his examples might not always travel well. This issue is compound- ed by the consistency with which Horsely sees corporations as the modern equiva- lent of the Israelite monarchy and the Roman imperium, when perhaps there might be room for also seeing modern political institutions as bearing some parallels. The second, in common with other works by Horsley, is that his valuable contribution in highlighting the economic dimensions of Jesus’ teaching is sometimes marred by an overemphasis on economics to the exclusion of recognising non-economic elements. The book is iconoclastic in tone, and it is not always clear how the political conclu- sions drawn derive from the exegesis presented. Nevertheless, the biblical survey is so excellent and concise that the book should be read widely. Paul Mills and Michael Schluter, After Capitalism: Rethinking Economic Relationships (Cambridge: Jubilee Centre, 2012) ISBN 9780948476211; Pb, pp 191 This book is a compilation of a number of essays published over several years. The essays cover a range of economic topics, united by a consistently Christian engage- ment with economic issues, and an emphasis on relationships as the key framework for Christian economic ethics. Mills and Schluter reach some of the same conclu- sions as some other writers, (such as Richard A. Horsley, Covenant Economics: A Biblical Vision of Justice for All [Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox, 2009]), but they use a quite different methodology (this lack of methodological consensus is one of the challenges in Christian economic reflection) and provide a fresh and interesting approach to the market economy. And where Horsely’s economic and political conclusions arguably owe too much to socialist thinkers, Mills and Schluter are at pains to directly tie their social pre- scriptions to the explicit commands of the Bible. They are rightly cautious about excessive debt, and can show thoughtful readers of the Bible why this caution is a Christian concern. The book suffers from lack of methodological rigour, though. It is hard to understand why the ban on charging interest on debt is so straightforwardly applied to a modern context when other commands with equal clarity in the legal codes are apparently not applicable. And the argument for relationship as the uniting theme of the Bible needs a more persuasive argument. Engagement with the scholarly literature in these areas would significantly improve the book.