DOCSLIB.ORG

Maynard Keynes and William Paley

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Maynard Keynes and William Paley Review of Keynesian Studies Vol.2 Rod O’Donnell Maynard Keynes and William Paley: Rarely Explored Connections Rod O’Donnell Abstract Keynes and Paley are two names rarely conjoined in the literature of either figure. Keynes, however, made significant references to Paley in four of his essays. Most commentators treat these as historical ephemera, but closer investigations reveal that they illuminate key aspects of his thought. These include whether Paley or Malthus was the first Cambridge economist, methodological issues concerning the nature of economic theorising and how best to disseminate economic thought, and relationships between scientific and religious explanations. They also serve the useful task of clarifying and correcting certain errors in Keynes’s essays due to exaggeration or inaccuracy. In these contexts, Keynes’s remarks on Paley repay investigation. Keywords: Keynes; Paley; Malthus; Darwin; Mary Marshall JEL Classification Number: B19; B22; B30; B31; E12 46 Review of Keynesian Studies Vol.2 Rod O’Donnell I. Introduction Keynes referred to Paley several times in significant ways, yet Keynes and Paley seldom appear together in the literatures of either figure. In exploring this largely uncharted territory, my aim is to examine Keynes’s references to Paley from 1922 to 1944, and to clarify the nature of the connections, positive and negative, arising therefrom in relation to economic, political and philosophical matters.1 The almost complete absence of analytical commentary in the Keynes literature is illustrated by the substantial intellectual biographies by Harrod, Skidelsky, Moggridge and Dostaler, none of which examine the issue. A similar absence appears characteristic of the Paley literature. That such connections are viewed as details in the intellectual contributions of both men is understandable given the many other important matters to discuss. Closer enquiry reveals that complete neglect is unjustified, however, and that, despite differences in historical eras and intellectual milieux, the connections highlight certain key themes in Keynes’s writings. II. William Paley Paley (1743-1805), Cambridge don, fellow of Christ’s College, clergyman, and moral and political philosopher, articulated a distinctive standpoint in morality, politics and economics. In 1766 he became a fellow of Christ’s and began lecturing on metaphysics, moral philosophy and the New Testament, his reputation being that of an engaging, thought-provoking, non-didactic teacher prepared to put unconventional ideas before his students. 1 One earlier explorer is Waterman (1996, 2017) who discusses one of Keynes’s references to Paley (see below). 47 Review of Keynesian Studies Vol.2 Rod O’Donnell He often challenged the complacent assumptions of his undergraduates, himself advocating a position so extreme that his students were forced to clarify their own opinions in relation to it. ... At Cambridge, Paley associated himself with Latitudinarians ... and endorsed an open and tolerant marketplace of ideas. (Le Mahieu 2002, pp. xii-xiii) 2 This influenced his pupil, William Frend, who was Malthus’s tutor as an undergraduate. Malthus would have found the atmosphere highly congenial, having been previously educated by dissenters (i.e. those not conforming to official Anglican doctrine).3 Two of Paley’s books are relevant. His first, The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy of 1785 (hereafter Principles), became a set text for Cambridge undergraduates into the Victorian era. His second, Natural Theology, appeared in 1802, subtitled Evidences of the Existences and Attributes of the Deity Collected from the Appearances of Nature. Prompted by a rise of scepticism about Christianity, it sought to demonstrate to a wide audience the existence of God and the credibility of biblical doctrine using appeals to “empirical” considerations rather than authority. His core argument for a designed universe derived from his famous watchmaker analogy. Just as a watch is a clever, complex and intricate object based on natural laws that is designed by humans for human purposes, so the universe is a far cleverer, more complex and more intricate object designed by God for divine purposes. In short, “Design must have a designer. That designer must have been a person. That person is God”.4 Several other aspects of Natural Theology are relevant. First, it revealed the impact of Malthus’s 1798 Population essay, for Paley now accepted Malthus’s arguments and abandoned the ‘greater population/greater happiness’ argument in his Principles. Second, it was read by Charles Darwin, a later member of Christs’s College. And third, his natural 2 Latitudinarianism emphasised the importance of reason and personal judgment, and hence tolerance towards divergent creeds and forms of worship in Christianity. 3 For a resumé of Paley’s life, see Waterman (2017, pp.209-211). 4 Paley (1854, ch.23 conclusion). 48 Review of Keynesian Studies Vol.2 Rod O’Donnell theology arguments met with opposition from theologians as well as scientists. III. Keynes’s Remarks concerning Paley These appear in four essays in two volumes of The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes − Essays in Persuasion, first published in 1931 and then posthumously in 1951, with one relevant essay; and Essays in Biography published from 1933 onwards, with three relevant essays. In order of first composition, the essays are as follows. (1) “Thomas Robert Malthus”, first read in 1922 prior to publication in 1933 (CW X, pp.71-108).5 (2) “The End of Laissez-Faire”, delivered as a 1924 Oxford lecture before being published in 1926 (CW IX, pp.272-294). (3) “My Early Beliefs”, first read in 1938 prior to posthumous publication in 1949 (CW X, pp.433-450), and (4) “Mary Paley Marshall”, Keynes’s obituary of whom appeared in 1944 (CW X, pp.232-250).6 Keynes regarded Paley as having an important place in the intellectual history of Cambridge. He regretted not having written about him, and awarded him two remarkable accolades. I wish I could have included some account of Paley amongst these Essays [on Biography]. For Paley, so little appreciated now, was for a generation or more an 5 In what follows, all references to Keynes’s writings are to Keynes (1971-1989), and take the form of CW, followed by the volume number and page numbers. 6 Indirect references to Paley arise in Keynes’s Treatise on Probability. Arguments by design are found to be logically insufficient unless appreciable prior probabilities of designer existence are available (CW VIII, pp. 329-30, 334). 49 Review of Keynesian Studies Vol.2 Rod O’Donnell intellectual influence on Cambridge only second to Newton. Perhaps, in a sense, he was the first of the Cambridge economists. If anyone will take up again Paley’s Principles he will find, contrary perhaps to his expectations, an immortal book. (CW X, p.79 n2, original emphasis) It is unclear why Keynes chose the adjective immortal, for it would not have been based on the belief that the book’s central arguments were correct or enduring. It appears to have been used because the book was one that would ‘live on’ due to its significance in relation to the development of thought during the (English) Enlightenment, its synthesis of morality, politics, economics and religion, and its thought-provoking nature. That aside, to be placed second only to Newton in his influence on Cambridge, and possibly to have displaced Malthus as the first of the Cambridge economists was high praise indeed. Concerning Newton, Keynes’s essay on the natural philosopher suggests one possible reason. [Newton] looked on the whole universe ... as a secret which could be read by applying pure thought to certain evidence, certain mystic clues which God had laid about the world [that] were to be found partly in the evidence of the heavens [and] partly in certain papers ... handed down ... in an unbroken chain back to the original...revelation... He regarded the universe as a cryptogram set by the Almighty (CW X, p.366; also p.377). In their different ways, both Newton and Paley sought decipherment. Concerning the possible displacement of Malthus as the title-holder, Paley’s Principles is the key work. Although focused on moral and political philosophy, it contained significant economic content. Moral philosophy might set ends, but political philosophy is related to means and so involves economics. In addition, Paley’s work is related to other issues in Keynes’s writings (see below). While not highly significant, Keynes’s remarks on Paley are still far from insignificant and repay exploration. The key analytical themes in the Keynes-Paley links are as follows. 50 Review of Keynesian Studies Vol.2 Rod O’Donnell (i) The degrees of consilience between private and public interests. (ii) The respective roles of markets and the state. (iii) Whether current economic systems require significant change. (iv) The reasons for such changes. (v) The connections, if any, between economic and religious explanations. IV. Paley on Happiness, Population and Economic Policy The scope of Paley’s thought ranged from God’s design of the universe and its inhabitants; how individuals do, and should, use their faculties to make rational choices; how society should be constituted to better serve God’s purpose; and reflections on current issues. However, in discussing these, he used ideas that were not always internally compatible. The views in his Principles may be summarised as follows. First, the argument is teleological. It bases itself on God’s purposeful design of the universe, this purposiveness being revealed by natural religion (the evidence provided by nature) and revealed religion (the evidence provided by the bible). Concerning humans, Paley saw God’s purpose as having two primary elements: the happiness of humans, the beings placed at the pinnacle of living creatures; and the endowment of humans with intelligence and free will, such faculties ensuring that choice becomes a necessity. Second, in explaining how humans go about making choices, he was influenced by Bentham’s utilitarianism.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Developing and Strengthening Belief in God I
    DEVELOPING AND STRENGTHENING BELIEF IN GOD I First Cause (Cosmological) and Design (Teleological) Arguments he cornerstone of Jewish belief is that God created the universe ex nihilo with Tthe Torah as His Divine plan and that He continually guides and supervises His creation. Nevertheless, there are many people who do not share this belief, or at least question it. There is a need, therefore, to present a range of approaches to developing and strengthening belief in God. The traditional Jewish approach to belief in God is based on the Exodus from Egypt and hashgachah pratit (Divine Providence). These approaches are discussed in the Morasha classes on Passover, Torah M’Sinai, and Hashgachah Pratit. The goal of this series of classes is to present additional approaches to belief – those based on logic and science – to help strengthen one’s belief in God. Specifically, this series will present three arguments for the existence of God. The first class, after defining the aim of the series on the whole, will explore two deductive arguments for the existence of God, namely the First Cause or Cosmological Argument, and the Design or Teleological Argument. The second class in the series will explore the inductive approach, focusing on the Moral Argument. In order to help students digest the logical force of the arguments presented, the series will conclude with an exploration of the decision making process. In this first class we will explore the following questions: Where did the world come from? Does it make sense that the world always existed? What does modern science have to say about the subject? Does the design found in nature imply that there is a Divine Designer? Does the Theory of Evolution explain this phenomenon? 1 Core Beliefs DEVELOPING & STRENGTHENING BELIEF I Class Outline: Section I.
    [Show full text]
  • The Clockmaker Returns
    Review of Books on the Book of Mormon 1989–2011 Volume 20 Number 1 Article 12 2008 The Clockmaker Returns James L. Farmer Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/msr BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Farmer, James L. (2008) "The Clockmaker Returns," Review of Books on the Book of Mormon 1989–2011: Vol. 20 : No. 1 , Article 12. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/msr/vol20/iss1/12 This Science and Religion is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Review of Books on the Book of Mormon 1989–2011 by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Title The Clockmaster Returns Author(s) James L. Farmer Reference FARMS Review 20/1 (2008): 139–45. ISSN 1550-3194 (print), 2156-8049 (online) Abstract Review of The Case for Diving Design: Cells, Complexity, and Creation (2006), by Frank B. Salisbury. The Clockmaker Returns James L. Farmer Review of Frank B. Salisbury. The Case for Divine Design: Cells, Complexity, and Creation. Springville, UT: CFI, 2006. xv + 256 pp., with subject index, notes, glossary, appendixes, and bibliography. $15.99. or much of the twentieth century, few geologists believed, in spite Fof evidence to the contrary, that continents could drift. Continental drift was called “geopoetry” because there was no known mechanism to drive continents through the hard oceanic crust. Now continental drift is “geoscience” because the theory of plate tectonics explains the motion. Similarly, cosmology was once considered to be nonscience because there was no way to test hypotheses.
    [Show full text]
  • Intelligent Design: Lesson Plan
    Intelligent Design: Appeal to Purpose - Philosophy of Religion Series | Academy 4 Social Change Intelligent Design: Lesson Plan Topic Intelligent design, also known as the teleological argument, is an argument for the existence of God that contends that the order and patterns present in the universe are evidence for God’s existence. Possible subjects/classes Time needed ● Philosophy 30-40 minutes ● Religion Video link: https://academy4sc.org/topic/intelligent-design-appeal-to-purpose/ Objective: What will students know/be able to do at the end of class? Students will be able to... ● Articulate Paley’s watch and watchmaker argument by analogy. ● Explain how the argument from intelligent design attempts to prove God’s existence. ● Describe Wittgenstein’s objection to the argument from intelligent design. Key Concepts & Vocabulary Teleological, Omnibenevolence, Sound Argument Materials Needed Worksheet Before you watch Quick write: Have students quickly jot down some aspects of the natural world that amaze them and why. Ask them to consider whether they seem intended or purposeful. While you watch Intelligent Design: Appeal to Purpose - Philosophy of Religion Series | Academy 4 Social Change 1. What is another name for the argument by intelligent design? 2. What philosopher created the watch and watchmaker analogy? 3. What philosopher argued that the “order” of the world may not be intended? After you watch/discussion questions 1. How might this ordering of the world be uniquely purposeful? 2. How can the theory of evolution detract from or add to the argument from intelligent design? 3. Do you think that everything in nature was created with a purpose? 4.
    [Show full text]
  • Natural Theology and Natural Philosophy in the Late Renaissance
    Natural theology and natural philosophy in the late Renaissance Thomas Woolford Trinity College This dissertation is submitted to the University of Cambridge for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy November 2011 Declaration This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except where specifically indicated in the text. This dissertation is also not substantially the same as any that I have submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at any other University. The length of this dissertation is under 80,000 words. Thomas A. Woolford November 2011 i Acknowledgements Many thanks to the Arts and Humanities Research Council for providing a studentship bursary to enable me to undertake research and to Cambridge University, Trinity College and the School of Humanities for providing an outstanding work environment. I am most grateful for the support, guidance, encouragement and friendship of my supervisor Richard Serjeantson. I’d also like to mention here friends and family who have cared for and supported me: my wonderful wife Julie, Dad, sister Kim, brother-in-law Doug, brother Sam, parents-in-law Margaret and James, friends Tim, Alex, Jon and Chrissy, and our hospitable neighbours Christine and David. To fulfil a twenty-year-old promise, this is dedicated to my cousins Alison and David, but they have to share the dedication with my late mother, Mary. SDG ii Natural theology and natural philosophy in the late Renaissance T. A. Woolford Despite some great strides in relating certain areas of Christian doctrine to the study of the natural world, the category ‘natural theology’ has often been subject to anachronism and misunderstanding.
    [Show full text]
  • Neo-Darwinian Teleological Redundancy Sarah Crawford California State University, Fresno
    Neo-Darwinian Teleological Redundancy Sarah Crawford California State University, Fresno The discoveries of modern science have fundamentally reshaped our understanding of the world in many surprising ways. Science has increased our experience of the world. With modern technology the vast expanses of the universe as well as the smallest microcosms of space are within our range of experience. The explosion of new data produced in the last half century has tempted many to make claims about the origins of the universe and nature of God. This practice is not new, as David Hume, an 18th century philosopher generally thought to be one of the greatest thinkers of western philosophy, questioned his contemporaries who did the same. In more recent history a group of scientists and intellectuals united by an atheistic worldview have begun to utilize the discoveries of science to attempt to make claims about the existence of God and the creation of the world. These attempts are nothing more than a thinly veiled continuation of the skeptical enquiry born of enlightenment-era philosophical discourse. The self-proclaimed new breed of atheists is in fact doing nothing new at all: the scientific discoveries are new, but the framework of skepticism and reason has not changed since Hume's day. Below are a few major arguments from David Hume, Daniel Dennett, Victor Stenger, and Richard Dawkins that show how science provides us with exciting opportunities to study the world but cannot produce knowledge pertaining to the transcendent nature of the universe. David Hume is one of the most celebrated thinkers in Western history.
    [Show full text]
  • THE CHALLENGE of CHANCE a Multidisciplinary Approach from Science and the Humanities the FRONTIERS COLLECTION
    THE FRONTIERS COLLECTION Klaas Landsman Ellen van Wolde (Eds.) THE CHALLENGE OF CHANCE A Multidisciplinary Approach from Science and the Humanities THE FRONTIERS COLLECTION Series editors Avshalom C. Elitzur Iyar The Israel Institute for Advanced Research, Rehovot, Israel e-mail: [email protected] Laura Mersini-Houghton Department of Physics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3255, USA e-mail: [email protected] T. Padmanabhan Inter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Pune, India e-mail: [email protected] Maximilian Schlosshauer Department of Physics, University of Portland, Portland, OR 97203, USA e-mail: [email protected] Mark P. Silverman Department of Physics, Trinity College, Hartford, CT 06106, USA e-mail: [email protected] Jack A. Tuszynski Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1Z2, Canada e-mail: [email protected] Rüdiger Vaas Center for Philosophy and Foundations of Science, University of Giessen, 35394 Giessen, Germany e-mail: [email protected] THE FRONTIERS COLLECTION Series Editors A.C. Elitzur L. Mersini-Houghton T. Padmanabhan M. Schlosshauer M.P. Silverman J.A. Tuszynski R. Vaas The books in this collection are devoted to challenging and open problems at the forefront of modern science, including related philosophical debates. In contrast to typical research monographs, however, they strive to present their topics in a manner accessible also to scientifically literate non-specialists wishing to gain insight into the deeper implications and fascinating questions involved. Taken as a whole, the series reflects the need for a fundamental and interdisciplinary approach to modern science. Furthermore, it is intended to encourage active scientists in all areas to ponder over important and perhaps controversial issues beyond their own speciality.
    [Show full text]
  • Analogy and Pattern Recognition
    Analogy and pattern recognition Vitor Manuel Dinis Pereira1 1LanCog (Language, Mind and Cognition Research Group), Philosophy Centre, University of Lisbon Lisbon, Portugal Abstract - I'll show in an initial section (1.) that the religion (1779) [7], can be formulated as the classic kind of analogy between life and information (argue for by watchmaker analogy as follows. authors such as [1], [2], [3] [4], [5], [6]) is like the 1. The clock for its complexity and the way is ordered, is design argument and that if the design argument is a machine that has to have an intelligent author and invalid, the argument to the effect that artificial mind may builder, with proportional capacities to his work - the represents an expected advance in the life evolution in human watchmaker. Universe is also unfounded and invalid. However, if we 2. The world, for its complexity and the way is ordered, are prepared to admit (though we should not do) this it is like a clock. method of reasoning as valid, I'll show in an second 3. So, the world also has to have a smart author and section (2.), that the analogy between life and information builder, with proportional capacities to his work - the seems suggest some type of reductionism of life to divine watchmaker (God). information, but biology respectively chemistry or physics Basically, this argument holds that, just as a clock are not reductionist, contrary to what seems to be before being built, we can assume the existence of an suggested by the analogy between life and information. intelligent being who built it in a certain order, also for the world, we can assume the existence of an intelligent being who built it according with a specific purpose, given the Keywords: analogy, pattern, recognition, reductionism, similarities between a watch and the world.
    [Show full text]
  • Theme 1: Arguments for the Existence of God – Inductive, AS A. Inductive
    Theme 1: Arguments for the existence of God – inductive, AS A. Inductive arguments – cosmological • Inductive proofs • the concept of ‘a posteriori’. • Cosmological argument: St Thomas Aquinas’ first Three Ways 1. motion or change 2. cause and effect 3. contingency and necessity • The Kalam cosmological argument with reference to William Lane Craig (rejection of actual infinities and concept of personal creator) B. Inductive arguments – teleological • St Thomas Aquinas’ Fifth Way - concept of governance • archer and arrow analogy • William Paley’s watchmaker - analogy of complex design • F. R. Tennant’s anthropic and aesthetic arguments - universe specifically designed for intelligent human life C. Challenges to inductive arguments • David Hume - empirical objections and critique of causes (cosmological) • David Hume - problems with analogies • rejection of traditional theistic claims: designer not necessarily God of classical theism; • apprentice god; • plurality of gods; • absent god (teleological). • Alternative scientific explanations including Big Bang theory and Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Issues for analysis and evaluation will be drawn from any aspect of the content above, such as: ➢ Whether inductive arguments for God’s existence are persuasive. ➢ The extent to which the Kalam cosmological argument is convincing. ➢ The effectiveness of the cosmological/teleological argument for God’s existence. ➢ Whether cosmological/teleological arguments for God’s existence are persuasive in the 21st Century. ➢ The effectiveness of the challenges to the cosmological/teleological argument for God’s existence. ➢ Whether scientific explanations are more persuasive than philosophical explanations for the universe’s existence. Theme 1: Arguments for the existence of God – deductive, AS D. Deductive arguments - origins of the ontological argument • Deductive proofs; • the concept of ‘a priori’.
    [Show full text]
  • {Download PDF} the Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence Of
    THE BLIND WATCHMAKER: WHY THE EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION REVEALS A UNIVERSE WITHOUT DESIGN PDF, EPUB, EBOOK Richard Dawkins | 496 pages | 14 Jul 2016 | WW Norton & Co | 9780393351491 | English | New York, United States The Blind Watchmaker - Wikipedia The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe without Design by British science writer and zoologist Richard Dawkins presents the theory of evolution while arguing for its acceptance by the general public. While a bestseller and widely praised for its persuasive writing and in-depth research, it has been critiqued for not offering explanations of human consciousness. Its themes include scientific discovery, overcoming human cognitive limitations, and the peculiar social stigma against evolution. The title is a response to an hypothesis held by Theologian William Paley that the complexity of nature suggests an intelligent creator behind it. Paley likens this creator to a watchmaker. Dawkins argues that common misperceptions of evolution lead to many social problems, including a devaluation of nature and skepticism toward the efficacy of vaccines. It thus is urgent for society to confront its skepticism of evolution and to understand the evidence thoroughly before making light of it or claiming all the research is bogus. Dawkins looks into public misconceptions of how evolution operates. He highlights that it is an intensely random process. That it gives rise to complex organisms seems counterintuitive, but it becomes more reasonable when one considers this process takes millions and millions of years. With one example, Dawkins looks into how airplanes are built. This process is known as gradualism. One can see its work in how the human eye has developed, as well as the echolocation abilities of bats.
    [Show full text]
  • A Review of the Dawkin's God: Genes, Memes, and the Meaning Of
    News from the A Review of the Field Dawkin’s God: Genes, Memes, and continued from page 4 the Meaning of Life (by Alister McGrath; Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005, 202 pages) urged to “prohibit all forms of human cloning.” Dónal P. O’Mathúna, Ph.D., is Lecturer in Health Care Ethics at the School of Nursing, Dublin City University (Dublin, Ireland) Brain Damaged Firefighter In Reproductive BioMedicine Online, Richard Holloway declared that he felt some sympa- Makes Recovery thy for “the lumberingly awkward religious communities” because their “commanders . Ten years after a firefighter was left brain-damaged and mostly mute during have to maneuver their ancient barnacle-encrusted galleons through these modern torrents” a 1995 roof collapse, he unexpectantly of bioethical debates (2005;10(suppl):137-9). The role of religious belief in bioethics is began to speak, making requests to increasingly under attack. Leading that assault in Britain and Ireland is Richard Dawkins, see his wife. Professor of the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford University. The view of science that he so persuasively offers society, however, is that evolutionary biology and logical rea- Donald Herbert was fighting a house soning make religion not only unbelievable, but unethical—a parasitic “virus of the mind.” A fire December 29, 1995, when the roof review of his recent collection of essays, A Devil’s Chaplain (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003), collapsed, burying him under debris. noted that Dawkins “has swung from writing about science for a popular audience to waging After going without air for several min- an all-out attack on Christianity” (Michael Ruse, American Scientist 2003;91:554-6).
    [Show full text]
  • DESIGN ARGUMENTS for the EXISTENCE of GOD Johari Dean-Lindsey ‘22
    DESIGN ARGUMENTS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD Johari Dean-Lindsey ‘22 An “argument from design” for the existence of God is an argument for the existence of God or, more generally, for an intelligent creator based on perceived evidence of deliberate design in the natural world (Teleological Argument). Design arguments are popular and multi- conceptual arguments for the existence of God which, again, rely on complex features of the world to generate an inference for the existence of God or some intelligent creator/designer. Philosopher William Paley has a famous example about a watchmaker, and Philosopher Michael Behe has one about flagellum and bacteria. However, Philip Kitcher gives us an argument against design arguments. Essentially, he has a response that opposes the argument, trying to disprove them basically. In this paper, I’m going to defend arguments from design and stand in my affirmation that Philip Kitcher is wrong in his response, because of the flaws in his perspective against design arguments, where he mistakenly only draws his reasoning from two specific examples to defame the entire concept. One of the oldest arguments from design that gained popularity is Paley’s watchmaker argument. William Paley's watchmaker analogy is basically a teleological argument, and it played a prominent role in natural theology. Basically, it was the watchmaker analogy that was used, “To support the argument for the existence of God and for the intelligent design of the universe in both Christianity and Deism” (Abersold). Paley went on to argue that the complex structures of living things and the remarkable adaptations of plants and animals required an intelligent designer.
    [Show full text]
  • Richard Dawkins Richard Dawkins Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL (Born March 26, 1941), Is a British Ethologist, Evolutionary Biologist and Author
    THOUGHTFUL RECOMMENDED VIDEOS The Society of Edmonton Atheists supports freethinking and encourages the quest for knowledge and skeptic inquiry into social issues pertaining to religion. We do not try to present radical atheist points of view, we present religion and its affect on the human condition as we see it in the modern and historic world. We will recommend a variety of videos and sites as resources for those that would like to know more about what is going on in the world and how religion is effecting various societies. Some of the following videos will expose, through humor and reasoning, why atheists question the existence of a deity and see the irrationality of faith. We try to recommend inoffensive resource material to simply expose the viewer to alternative points of view. Atheists and agnostics will appreciate the open-minded knowledge gained; and those questioning their faith will, hopefully, be helped in their inquiry into faith and religion’s role in society. Recommended books by Richard Dawkins Richard Dawkins Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL (born March 26, 1941), is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and author. He is an emeritus fellow of New College, Oxford, and was the University of Oxford's Professor for Public Understanding of Science from 1995 until 2008. Dawkins came to prominence with his 1976 book The Selfish Gene, which popularized the gene-centered view of evolution and introduced the term meme. In 1982 he introduced an influential concept into evolutionary biology, presented in his book The Extended Phenotype, that the phenotypic effects of a gene are not necessarily limited to an organism's body, but can stretch far into the environment, including the bodies of other organisms.
    [Show full text]