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Notes INTRODUCTION I. John L. Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Post­ War American National Security Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 4. 2. E.M. Earle, ed., Makers of Modern Strategy (Princeton: Princeton University press, 1971), p. viii. 3. For a collection of the Basic National Security Policy papers under Eisenhower, see Marc Trachtenberg, ed., The Development of American Strategic Thought: Basic Documents from the Eisenhower and Kennedy Periods (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. 1988). For NSC 162/2, see pp.35-67. 4. JCS 21011113, Enclosure "A" Military Strategy to Support National Security Policy Set Forth in NSC 162/2, 10 December 1953, ccs 381 US(I-31-50) sec. 32 JCS (Geographic File) 1954-56, Box 2, Rg. 218, NARA, and Gaddis, Strategies of Containment, pp. 148-150. For an excel­ ient account and analysis of the administration's approach to national secu­ rity policy see Gaddis, Strategies of Containment, chapters 5 and 6. 5. Gaddis, Strategies of Containment, p. 146. 6. Ole Holsti, T. Hopmann and J. Sullivan, Unity and Disintegration in International Alliances: Comparative Studies (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1973), especially chapter one. See also Erling Bj~l, ''The Power of the Weak," Cooperation and Conflict 3, (1968). 7. Geir Lundestad, America, Scandinavia and the Cold War 1945-1949 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), p. 338. 8. Helge Pharo and Knut E. Eriksen, Norsk sikkerhetspolitikk som etterkrigshistoriskforskningsfelt (Bergen: LOS-senter Notat 92/13), p. 41. Certain aspects of Norway's relationship to the US have been subject to scrutiny. A good example is provided by Gleditsch's work on the military importance of radio navigation aids in Norway. See Owen Wilkes and Nils P. Gleditsch, Loran-C and Omega: A Study of the Military Importance of Radio Navigation Aids (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1987). 9. Rolf Tamnes, The United States and the Cold War in the High North (Oslo: Ad Notam, 1991). See also "Doktordisputas, 12 oktober 1991, pl'l·avhan­ dlingen The United States and the Cold War in the High North," Historisk Tidsskrift 2 (1992). 10. Lundestad, America, Scandinavia and the Cold War, p. 346. See also Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My years in the State Department (New York: Norton & Company Inc., 1969), pp. 277-279. 11. Memorandum of Conversation, 26 May 1960, Staff Notes May 1960(1), Box 50, DDE Diary Series, Papers of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, DDEL, and letter to author from Harold E. Stassen, 15 April 1991. 181 182 Notes 12. Memorandum for the President, 3 March 1953, Norway (3), Box 37, International Series, Papers of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, and, Briefing Note for NSC Meeting of 1 April 1960, Attachment to Summary of Discussion 439th Mtg of the NSC, Box 12, NSC Series, Papers of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, DDEL. 13. Gordon Gray, "Organising for Total Defence," The General Electric Defence Quarterly 3 (July-September 1960). For a more recent account of the workings of the NSC under Eisenhower, see Anna Kasten Nelson, "The 'Top of Policy Hill': President Eisenhower and the National Security Council," Diplomatic History 7 (Fall 1983). 14. NSC, Vol. I Geographical Area Policies (Part VI, Europe, Scandinavia), NSC 121, 1 November 1952,001028 DDC, 1989. NSC 6006/1, 6 April 1960, NSC 600611 Scandinavia, Box 29, NSC Series, Policy Papers Subseries, WHO: Office of Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, DDEL. 15. These include: Study of Continental Defence for the Interim Subcommittee on Preparedness of the Senate Armed Services Committee by Robert Sprague, February 1954; The President's Citizen Advisors on the Mutual Security Programme, 1956 (Fairless Committee); Report to President on United States Overseas Bases, December 1957 (Nash Report); The President's Committee to Study the US Military Assistance Programme, 1958-1959 (The Draper Committee), and Review of United States Overseas Military Bases (Lang Report), April 1960, DDEL. 16. Memorandum for the President, 24 November 1954, Dulles, John Foster Nov.' 54(1), Box 3, Dulles-Herter Series, Papers of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, DDEL. 17. Paul Nitze, "Atoms, Strategy and Policy", Foreign Affairs 34, No.2, (1956). 18. Ibid., p. 187. 19. In a key article which differentiates explicitly between different "levels" of "strategy" and "decision-making", Rosenberg argues that "nuclear strategy does not, in reality, consist of concepts or even policy statements. It consists of concrete decisions regarding war plans, budgets, forces, and deploy­ ments." See David Rosenberg, "Reality and ResponSIbility: Power and Process in the Making of United States Nuclear Strategy 1945-68," Journal of Strategic Studies 9 (March 1986), p. 35. 20. David Rosenberg, "The Origins of Overkill: Nuclear Weapons and American Strategy, 1945-1960," International Security 7 (Spring 1983). See also David Rosenberg, "US Nuclear Stockpile 1945 to 1950," The Bulletin ofAtomic Scientists (May 1982). 21. Martin S. Navias, Nuclear Weapons and British Strategic Planning, 1955-1958 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), chapter three. 22. Olav Riste, "Relations Between the Norwegian Government in Exile and the British Government," Paper presented to colloquium on Anglo­ Norwegian Relations during the Second World War, Oxford, 25-27 September 1991. Riste's observation was made with reference to the nature of the wartime alliance between Britain and Norway, another alliance rela­ tionship between highly "unequal" powers. 23. George Liska, Nations in Alliance: The Limits of Interdependence (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1962), pp. 116-117. 24. Ibid. Notes 183 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. See discussion in Chapter One. 28. Nitze, "Atoms, Strategy and Policy", p. 188. 29. Johan J. Holst, "The Security Pattern in Northern Europe: A Norwegian Perspective," in Britain and NATO's Northern Flank, ed. Geoffrey Till (London: Macmillan Press, 1988). 30. For a comprehensive treatment of these issues, see Rolf Tamnes, "Handlefrihet og 10jalitet: Norge og atompolitikken i 1950 1irene," in Historiker og Veileder: Festskrift til Jakob Sverdrup, eds. H. Pharo and Trond Bergh (Oslo: Tiden Norsk Forlag, 1989). 1 ANGLO-AMERICAN STRATEGIC POLICY AND NORWAY, 1945-54 1. State Department, Policy Statement: Norway, 15 September 1950, File 611.57/9-1550, Rg. 59, NARA. 2. See for example Roald Berg, "'Det land vi venter hjrelp af .. ' England som Norges beskytter 1905-1908," in Defence Studies IV, ed. Rolf Tamnes (Oslo: Tano, 1985). and Jens Petter Nielsen. "0nsket tsaren seg en isfri havn i nord?" Historisk Tidsskrift, no. 4; (1991). 3. Olav Riste, "Fra integritetstraktat til atompolitikk: det stormaktsgaranterte Norge. 1905-1983," in Defence Studies 1983-4, ed. Rolf Tamnes (Oslo: Tanum-Norli, 1984), p. 42. See also Olav Riste, "Isolationism and Great Power Protection: The Historical Determinants of Norwegian Foreign Policy," FHFS Notat 2, 1984 (Oslo: Research Centre for Defence History, 1984), p. 3. 4. Olav Riste, lsolasjonisme og stormaktsgarantiar (Oslo: Institutt for Forsvarsstudier, 1991), p. 47. 5. For an account of the development of the government's "Atlantic Policy" see Olav Riste, "The Genesis of North Atlantic Defence Co-operation: Norway's 'Atlantic Policy', 1940-45," in Defence Studies 1981, ed. Rolf Tamnes (Oslo: Tanum-Norli, 1982). 6. For the strategic rethinking which lay at the root of the Atlantic policy see Foreign Minister Trygve Lie's article in The Times (London), 14 November 1941, entitled "A Community of Nations: Plans for lasting peace after victory." 7. See Instilling fra Forsvarskommisjonen av 1946, Dell: Grunnleggende synspunkter og forslag (Oslo: Arbeidernes Aktietrykkeri, Oktober 1949), p.67. 8. Ibid., pp. 37-40. 9. Nils Morten Udgaard, Great Power Politics and Norwegian Foreign Policy: A Study of Norway's Foreign Relations November 1940-February 1948 (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1973), p. 92. 10. Riste, "Isolationism and Great Power Protection," p. 10. 11. St.meld. nr.32, (1945-46) Plan for en f¢rste reisning av Norges Forsvar (Trearspianen). Stortingsforhandlinger 1945-46, 2.Bind (my emphasis). 184 Notes See also Memorandum of Conversation with Norwegian Government and Defence Officials, 13 January 1951, Trips: SHAPE no. 1, Round Robin, Box 201, Dwight D. Eisenhower Pre-Presidential Papers, DDEL. 12. On the issue of functional ties, see Magne Skodvin, Norden eller NATO? Utenriksdepartementer og alliansesp¢rsmalet, 1947-1949 (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1971), pp. 33-34, and Olav Riste, "Functional ties: a semi-alliance? Military co-operation in north-west Europe 1944-1947," in Defence Studies, ed. R. Tamnes (Oslo: Tanum-Norli, 1981), pp. 37-50. 13. Olav Riste, "Was 1949 a turning point? Norway and the Western Powers 1947-50," in Western Security: The Fonnative Years, ed. Olav Riste (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1985), p. 137. 14. Anthony Eden, The Eden Memoirs: The Reckoning, Vol. 3 (London: Cassell & Company Ltd., 1965), p. 291. See also The Diaries of Sir Alexander Cadogen, 1938-45, ed. David Dilks (London: Cassell, 1971), p. 420. 15. Udgaard, Great Power Politics and Norwegian Foreign Policy, p. 41. For an account of Soviet-Norwegian relations during the war, see Sven G. Holtsmark, The Norwegian Government and the Soviet Union, 1940-1945 (Oslo: Institute for Defence Studies, 1988). 16. Thus in March 1944, Trygve Lie told the Soviet ambassador, Victor Lebedev, that the Norwegian Government was prepared to discuss the issue of letting Norwegian police forces stationed in Sweden participate
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  • Signature Redacted Signature of Author: History, Anthropology, and Science, Technology Affd Society August 19, 2014

    Signature Redacted Signature of Author: History, Anthropology, and Science, Technology Affd Society August 19, 2014

    Project Apollo, Cold War Diplomacy and the American Framing of Global Interdependence by MASSACHUSETTS 5NS E. OF TECHNOLOGY OCT 0 6 201 Teasel Muir-Harmony LIBRARIES Bachelor of Arts St. John's College, 2004 Master of Arts University of Notre Dame, 2009 Submitted to the Program in Science, Technology, and Society In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History, Anthropology, and Science, Technology and Society at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology September 2014 D 2014 Teasel Muir-Harmony. All Rights Reserved. The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part in any medium now known or hereafter created. Signature redacted Signature of Author: History, Anthropology, and Science, Technology affd Society August 19, 2014 Certified by: Signature redacted David A. Mindell Frances and David Dibner Professor of the History of Engineering and Manufacturing Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics Committee Chair redacted Certified by: Signature David Kaiser C01?shausen Professor of the History of Science Director, Program in Science, Technology, and Society Senior Lecturer, Department of Physics Committee Member Signature redacted Certified by: Rosalind Williams Bern Dibner Professor of the History of Technology Committee Member Accepted by: Signature redacted Heather Paxson William R. Kenan, Jr. Professor, Anthropology Director of Graduate Studies, History, Anthropology, and STS Signature