sign in sign up
<<
Home , Chakma language, Chakma script, Meitei script, Nongdam

A bi-monthly publication of the National Mission for Manuscripts

Vol. 5 nos. 5-6 April – July 2010 “One of our major misfortunes is that we have lost so much of the world’s ancient literature – in Greece, in and elsewhere…. Probably an organised search for old manuscripts in the libraries of religious institutions, monasteries and private persons would yield rich results. That, and the critical examination of these manuscripts and, where considered desirable, their publication and translation, are among the many things we have to do in India when we succeed in breaking through our shackles and can function for ourselves. Such a study is bound to throw light on many phases of Indian history and especially on the social background behind historic events and changing ideas.”

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India

Editor Mrinmoy Chakraborty

Publisher’s detail: Mission Director Cover Image: Mother Trishala with Mahavir Vardaman National Mission for Manuscripts, IGNCA from Kalpasuj-, preseved at Shri D.R. Mehta Collection, 11 Mansingh Road Jaipur New Delhi – 110 001 Tel: +91 11 23383894 The views, opinions and suggestions expressed in the Fax: +91 11 23073340 Kriti Rakshana are strictly those of the authors and Email: [email protected] not necessarily that of the editor or publisher of this Website: www.namami.org publication. Design: Macro Graphics Pvt. Ltd. Print: Ana Print Grafix Pvt. Ltd. From the Director

The knowledge heritage of India contained in have been reactivated and new ones created. Besides manuscripts is vast and rich as also varied in content. cataloguing and preparing a data base of manuscripts These resources had long been neglected; but it is the Mission is also giving due attention to dissemination justified to note that even though delayed, care is of knowledge contained in them. Therefore, the work being taken to protect and preserve and also to make of publication of unpublished manuscripts has been them accessible to public at large and especially to taken up in right earnest and in a big way. Besides this, researchers and scholars. The NMM is one land mark the mission is also paying due attention to the North step in this direction which is providing every required Eastern Region of the country which has hitherto service to the field of manuscripts. It has a network not received due attention. The States of Assam, of Manuscript Resource Centres and Manuscript , and have been covered by Conservation Centres spread out all over the country, the NMM and it is hoped that the other States i.. even in the remotest part. Through this network, Sikkim, and Nagaland would have information is collected about and conservation been covered before the year end. The response of services are provided to manuscript repositories as well the people of this region has been very encouraging. as individual holders. One hopes this would serve as another step forward in th I joined the NMM as Director on the 20 of January bringing them into the mainstream of our country 2010, which happened to be the day of Basant The true measure of a country’s greatness lies in Panchami and Saraswati Pooja. I consider this a good its intellectual growth. As you know India had achieved omen for the future of manuscript awareness in our this a long time ago. Unfortunately, there was a period country. Even though NMM was established in the year of lull of a few hundred years which cost heavily and 2003 (Project Document prepared in 2002) and it was left us in a state of intellectual recession. Government coterminous with the 10th Five Year Plan. The period, initiative in the form of establishment of National between 2008 and 2009 was one of very slow progress Mission for Manuscripts is the beginning of a new era of due to uncertainty about the Mission’s future. It was awakening and I do hope this will lead to a bright future decided in September 2009 by the Ministry of Tourism of our nation. and Culture that the Mission would continue for the period of 11th Five Year Plan i.e. till 31st March 2012. The journal Kriti Rakshana underwent a break in Thus the Mission got a new lease of life. publication over the last two years. It has been revived and I hope we will be able to make up for the lost time Last eleven months at the National Mission for and issues of the journal by the end of December so Manuscripts have been very challenging as well as that the readers are able to get regular issues from the gratifying. The satisfaction of having revived an beginning of 2011. institution gone into almost hibernation is something which is more worth experiencing than describing. Wishing all the readers happy reading. It gives me immense pleasure to share the fact that NMM has not only been revived but also given the thrust that is required for effective intervention in the field of manuscripts heritage of India. Manuscript Prof. Dipti S. Tripathi Resource Centres and Manuscript Conservation Centres Director, National Mission for Manuscripts Editorial Contents

To explore knowledge treasure wrapped up in 1. Origin and Evolution of 3 manuscripts and to bring to light those points of Indian and literary heritage which bear relevance, have been our Jyotirmoy Chakma prime concern from the very beginning. This issue, with its cluster of articles written by erudite scholars on the knowledge contained in the manuscripts 2. Decline of Manipuri Script 8 and manuscriptology is designed keeping this end in M. Imocha Singh perspective. We attach utmost priority to explore the unexplored, keeping intact all-India character of the 3. Jaisalmer Vijñaptipatra: 11 publication, wherein all religions and regions get equal A Socio-religious Portrait of Jainism treatment. In this issue, least explored North-East gets Sweta Prajapati prominence and two articles on scripts: one on the and another on the Manipuri (Metei) script are incorporated. On the other hand, there are two 4. ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkkvksa^ dh ik.Mqfyfi;ksa ds 19 articles on Jaina manuscripts. fp=ksa dk Hkkjrh; fp=dyk ds bfrgkl dks ;ksxnku Jainas inherited a rich tradition of manuscript ehuk{kh Hkkjrh writing and preservation. There was a tradition under which rich persons get the manuscripts copied and donated them to the Munies and institutions. They also 5. Human Rights in Buddhism 23 preserved and protected them religiously; the conditions Dr. C. Upendra Rao of manuscripts in Jain Bhaņdaras vindicates this point. In this issue, there is an article on miniature paintings 6. Taxation in Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra 25 in Jain manuscripts and another interesting article on Sudhir Kumar Lall Vijñaptipatra. After the discovery of manuscript on Kautilya’s 7. Case Study: 31 Arthashastra in 1909, it attracted attention and opened Conservation of Vajrayana Buddhist Manuscript up a new dimension of secular literature in India. An analytical overview of the insight as enshrined in this from N. C. Mehta Gallery Collection, Ahmedabad treatise was a long overdue for our readers. In this issue Vismay H. Raval we have incorporated an article on Taxation in Kautilya’s Arthashastra. Prescription of Kautilya, the creator of the widest kingdom in India, may add to the knowledge of the policy makers and we may get a better taxation policy in return. In reality, manuscript is the means through which we can explore the knowledge contained in it; but the ultimate end lies in utilization of that knowledge for all round development of humanity. Here lies the importance of manuscripts and the objectives of the Mission indeed. Your views and guidance are highly solicited. Others Editor NMM: Summary of Events Origin and Evolution of Chakma Language and Script

Jyotirmoy Chakma

The Chakmas are one of the tribes Ghose stated that the original language residing mostly in of the Chakmas was Bengali.7 Some British of . They are also residing in writers also classified the Chakma language the States of Mizoram, Tripura, Assam as Bengali-offshoot or Bengali or broken and Arunachal Pradesh in India and in the Bengali. Hutchinson viewed, “They (Chakmas) province of Mayanmar. The total migrated into the Chittagong District where Chakma population is estimated to be around they intermarried largely with the Bengalis, 5,50,000. The majority, approximately whose language they speak”.8 He also said in 2,39,4171 are residing in Chittagong Hill An Account of Chittagong Hill Tracts that the Tracts, around 15,000 in Assam, 64,2932 Chakma language is a dialect of the Bengali in Tripura, 71,2833 in Mizoram, 42,3334 in language. G.A. Grierson viewed that: Arunachal Pradesh, and 20,000 in Arakan. “…… a broken dialect of Bengali, peculiar to The origin of the Chakmas is obscure. the locality and of a very curious character However, the history of the Chakmas, called is spoken. It is called Chakma, and is based on 5 Bijag and Radhamohan-Dhanpudi Palha claim South-Eastern Bengali, but has undergone that they are the descendents of the Sakya so much transformation that it is almost race. In appearance, the Chakmas resemble worthy of the dignity of being classed as a the Tibeto-Burman stock of Mongolian race. separate language”.9 However, they speak a dialect belonging According to some others, the Chakmas to the Indo-Aryan family which has close speak a corrupt Bengali.10 However, all of the proximity with the . This above assumptions may not be accepted is puzzling indeed and in this context, the as true. The Chakmas are Mongoloid and paper will try to trace the origin and draw hence can never be their the history of evolution of the Chakma language and script. original language. It can not be denied that the influence of Bengali was enormous upon Chakma Language: The Chakma language the Chakmas when they came in contact in use at present has close similarity with with them. S.P. Talukdar rightly viewed, “This the Assamese and Bengali and abundant of is because of the fact that the Chakmas vocabularies belonging to , Oriya, Pali, have been living in the adjoining parts of Thai, and Prakrit can also be followed. Scholars put forward different opinions regarding Arakan and since very ancient time. the Chakma language. Some of them are of Therefore, their language has an admixture 11 the view that the Chakmas originally spoke of many Bengali words”. It is to be noted Bengali. According to S.R. Maitra, “It may be that the Chakma language is closer to the fact that the Chakmas originally spoke Assamese. Can it be identified as a corrupt or Bengali language but due to its admixture broken or offshoot of Assamese? Similarly, with Magh, Tripuri and other language, it all the Indo-Aryan languages have similarity has changed considerably”.6 Satish Chandra with each other. Is it appropriate to call a

National Mission for Manuscripts 3 particular language a corrupt or broken terms from their neighbours are not language of the other? different. However, there are abundant of There is a group of scholars who are of vocabularies used by the Chakmas which are the view that the Chakmas originally spoke neither Indo-Aryan nor Arakanese in origin Arakanese (Burmese) language. According and probably this is the original language of to Capt. T.H. Lewin, “The elders among the Chakmas. According to S.P. Talukdar, “The them (Chakma) are still acquainted with Chakmas used many words of non-Sanskrit the Arakanese vernacular, but the present origin in their daily life. Most probably these generation due to fast amalgamation with words have come down from their original the rest of the tribe use among them a language carried through the collective corrupt species of Bengali”.12 H.J.S. Cotton memory of the race and passed on from 15 in his book, Revenue History of Chittagong generation to generation”. From history, mentioned that the Chakmas are Buddhists, it is found that a group of people who formerly spoke Arakanese and due to some entered India and settled on the foothills of remarkable circumstances that they should Himalaya are mongoloid in origin and their have changed their language while retaining language was Tibetan but they adopted their old character. Here Mr. Lewin and Aryan terms liberally. According to Sunity Cotton tried to establish that the Chakmas Kumar Chaterjee, “The eastern tribe like the formerly have spoken Arakanese dialect. How Sakyas, the Koliyas, the Licchavis, the Vrijis, could the Chakmas, despite being a distinct the Moryas and others were in reality of tribe from Arakanese, speak a different Mongoloid origin or were mixed people with language as their own? Further, there are a strong Mongoloid elements who adopted no Arakanese words found in the Chakma or adopting Aryan speech”.16 The Chakmas language at present except a very few terms claim that they are the descendents of Prince which they have adopted when they came in Bijoygiri of Sakya clan who came to Roang contact with them. (Arakan) from Kalapnagar situated on the foothills of Himalya.17 Thus, it can be assumed Further, some writers found similarity that the Chakmas originally spoke Tibetan of the Chakma language with Sanskrit, but gradually adopted Indo-Aryan dialects in Maghdi Prakrit and with Pali. According to course of time after entering into India. Dr. Bankim Chandra Chakma, “Pali originated from and its impression is Chakma Scripts: The Chakmas possessed still found in the Chakma language”.13 Besides their own script which makes them proud Dr. Bamkim Chandra, Dr. Sugata Chakma also and distinct from other tribes in the Indian found similarity of the Chakma language with sub-continent. These scripts are preserved the Magadhi Prakrit. It is true that there are in their oldest religious manuscripts called a few terms of Pali origin deeply rooted in Agartara and the medicinal manuscripts called Vadyali Pudhi. The custodian of and still prevalent in the Chakma language. It these manuscripts are the Loris (Mahayani clearly suggests that the Chakmas have been Buddhist Monks) and the Vadyas (traditional residing in Indian Subcontinent since very physicians) respectively. The Chakma script ancient time. According to D.C. Ahir, “They has distinctive similarity with the Brahmi, (Chakmas) are a tribe which is a survival from Tamil and Burmese scripts. According to 14 the Buddhist period”. Grierson, “It is written in an (Chakma It is obvious that the cultural exchanges Script) which, allowing for its cursive form, is take place among different communities almost identical with the Khmer characters, when they come in contact with each other. which were formerly in use in Cambodia, The cases of the Chakmas who adopted Laos, Annam, Siam and at least, the southern

4 National Mission for Manuscripts parts of Burma. This is, in turn, with 7 (seven) Mahayani monks during Roang the same as that was current in the south of expedition in 9th century AD. It is interesting India in the sixth and seventh centuries. The to note that a person, namely Suleiman Burmese characters derived from it, but is Badshah appears in the Radhamohan- much more different than the Chakmas”.18 Dhanpudi Palha (a ballad) was a Persian trader S.P. Talukdar found similarity of the Chakma who imported cowries from Maldives to scripts with the ancient Tamil scripts Bengal in around 850 AD20 and from whom engraved in a copper plate in Canjevaram. He the Magh Raja and the Kuki Raja sought help th said that the cursive style of the 13 century against the Chakmas. From the above fact, script of ancient Tamil has a great similarity the Roang expedition of Bijoygiri can be with the Chakma script.19 assigned to 9th century AD. It is not possible to ascertain the exact The total number of characters period of origin of the Chakma script. But has been mentioned by many writers we get the references of the existence of differently, viz., 33, 36 and 37. However, Agartara in a ballad called Radhamohan- there are forty characters in all and these Dhanpudi Palha which narrates: characters are divided into two groups- Bijoygiri Somare Anya Tara Agare, 36 are called Ojhaphat and the Mani Labang Egeme, Cholibong sagale sudine. remaining four are called Agju Harag. The The above lines imply that Bijoygiri, a Agju Harag are said to be the creator of all Chakma king brought Agartara with him along vowel signs.

Ojhāphāt a p r m f Chuchyāngyā KĀ Gujangyā KHĀ Chāndyā GĀ Tindālyā GHĀ Chilemu ŃĀ j z s y “ Didāchyā CĀ Majarā CHĀ Dipadalā JĀ Urourih JHĀ Chelosyā ÑĀ $ % ^ & * Thutyā ŢĀ Duobānyā ŢHĀ Adhubāngā DĀ Lejbhoreyā DHĀ Pettuo Ņ̣̣Ā o b w g Ghangadāt TĀ Jangadāt THĀ Dhuloni DĀ Talmwā DHĀ Pārbanyā NĀ e i v d l Phallyā PĀ Lejbhoreyā PHĀ Ubormwā BĀ Cherdālyā BHĀ Bugotdalā MĀ x h t ¹ c ChimusyāYĀ Didāchyā RĀ Talmwā LĀ Bhājonyā VĀ Bhudibukyā/ Ubormwa SĀ n k q • • • Uburmwā HĀ Pejpedā LHĀ Pejpujo/ Ek Pudo Di Pudo Talmwā • È Chānd Pudo

National Mission for Manuscripts 5 Āgju Harag ³ ± ² ¹I ú Lejubho E Deldyā I Borsi U Bi Jwilyā JĀ

It is to be noted that the three certain vowel signs, which are mixed with the letters a, p and n are not pronounced consonants. Therefore, it may be the fact like Bengali and other scripts. They have that the Chakma script is older in its origin and special phonetic sound. Likewise, a & p are adopted from Brahmi scripts in their own way. not pronounced as Kā & Khā but as Hā & Besides, all the Chakma letters without mixing Hhā and n is not Hā but as ā in low pitch. any sign, pronounced with Ā-ending viz. Kā, The only vowel in the Chakma alphabet is Khā, Gā, Ghā, etc. like Pali. But all the Burmese q known as Ānji Harag, the father of all letters are pronounced with A-ending; like , letters and the remaining are consonants. , , , etc. There are differences in However, all the letters can be used to pronunciation between Burmese and Chakma represent different sounds by adding any and hence the Chakma script may not be the one of the 12 patterns of vowel signs or offshoot of the Arakanese. symbols called Bhāro Mātrā. Nada (Numerals): The Chakmas have It is found that there was no vowel and adopted the counting system of the the ancient scriptures and literatures were Bengalis. However, they have their own way written only with the help of consonants. of counting and numerals in their own script. The earlier Chakma script has only one vowel The numerals and counting system21 are and other vowels are made with the help of shown in the table on the next page:

Bhāro Mātrā Sl. Name of the Sign Sign Pronunciation Example with Position of No. Diacritic the Sign

1. Ojha Pat unseen ā kā a

2. Ubartulya Pat ºJ a ka aJ above ’ 3. Machya Pat º¯¯¯ ˚ kk ÿ above 4. Banya Pat ºI, º[ i, ī ki, kī , a[ above 5. Tanya Pat ºU, º] u, ū ku, kū aUUU, a] below 6. Delbangya Pat ºZ ē kē aZ above 7. Reii Pat ºQ, ºD ō, ōi kō, kōi aQ, aD right 8. Ekardya Pat Eº, EEº e, ee ke, kee Ea, EEa left 9. Ua Pat º,, º wa, waa a, a below 10. pat ºS yā kyā aS right 11. Pat ºX .r kr. aX below 12. Phudodya Pat º}, ºç, ºæ h., am, amæ k., km, kmæ a}, aç, aæ above

6 National Mission for Manuscripts Nada (Numerals) sishyas (disciples) and due to its presence in the Vadyalis and the Agartara. If such neglect English Chakma Counting System prevails and if no proper initiative is taken for 1. 1 Ek Ta its preservation, the script will extinct in near 2. 2 Di Ta future. 3. 3 Ti Ari Jyotirmoy Chakma is Lecturer, 4. 4 Ti Ta Kamalanagar College, Mizoram 5. 5 Ghandhi 6. 6 Gondhā Reference 1 7. 7 Ăd http://www.ijpnus.org/jumma_ethnic_group, 12.09,09. 2 State Primary Census Abstract for Scheduled Tribe, 8. 8 Ghād Directorate of Census Operation, Tripura, 2001. 3 9. 9 Chelā State Primary Census Abstract for Scheduled Tribe, Directorate of Census Operation, Mizoram, 2001. 0. 0 Patti 4 State Primary Census 2001, Department of Economics and Statistics, Government of Arunachal. 5 Radhamohn-Dhanpudi Palha is a part of Gyangkulee Gheet (ballad song) sung by ballad singer which recalls the origin Conclusion: The present day Chakma of the Chakmas and also throws light on the Arakan dialect is considered to be Indo-Aryan but expedition by Prince Bijoy Giri along with his commander Radhamohan. This palha or part has been divided into six Chakmas are purely Mongoloid in origin sub-palhas. and hence the present language may not 6 S. R. Maitra, Ethnographic Study of the Chakmas in Tripura, be their original tongue. They must have Anthropological Survey of India, Kolkata, 2002, page-7. 7 spoken a language other than Indo-Aryan Satish Chandra Gosh, Chakmader Bhacha Tathya, Bangla Sanayik Patre Adivasi Katha edited by Dipankar Gosh, Lokh as the existence of numerous non-Aryan Sanskriti O Adivasi Sanskrit Kendra, 2002, page-252. vocabularies present in their language 8 R.H. Hutchinson, Eastern Bengal and Assam District Gazetteer, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Pioneer Press, Allahabad, suggests. They have gradually adopted the 1909, page-21. Indo-Aryan terms from the Aryans when 9 G. A Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India, Indo Aryan Family, they entered India long ago. Eastern Group, Vol. V, Part-I, Motilal Bhanarsidas, Delhi, 1903, Reprint, 1968, page-321. The Chakma script has proximity with 10 E.A Gait, C.G.H. Allen, H.F Howard, Gazetteer of Bengal and the Burmese, Khmer, ancient Tamil and North-East India, Mittal Publication, New Delhi, Reprint 1979, page-410. Brahmi. These scripts handed down from 11 S.P. Talukdar, The Chakmas Life and Struggle, Gian generation to generation since ancient time. Publishing House, Delhi, 1988, page-111. 12 The Chakma script has hook on the side Capt. T. H. Lewin, The Hill Tracts of Chittagong and the Dwellers Therein, Tribal Research Institute, Aizawl, representing the ‘ā’ and all these are relics Reprinted, 2004, page-94. of the old sign.22 Thus, the Chakma script 13 Bankim Chandra Chakma, Chakma Samaj O Sanskriti (Society and Culture of the Chakmas), Tribal Cultural must have originated from the Institute, Rangamati, 1998, page-61. and adapted in its own way. It is pitious to 14 D.C. Ahir, Buddhism in Modern India, Sri Satguru Publication, note that a very few Chakmas specially the Delhi, 1991, page-129. 15 S.P. Talukdar, Chakmas: An Embattled Tribe, Uppal Vaidyas (physicians), Loris (Mahayani Monks) Publishing House, New Delhi, 1994, page, 47. and some interested persons are literate in 16 Dr. Sunity Kumar Chaterjee, Kirata Jana Kriti, JASB, Chakma script and the bulk of the majority Calcutta, 1950, page-59. 17 Radhamohn-Dhanpudi Palha, A Chakma Ballad. can not read and write their own script. 18 G.A. Grierson, op. cit., page-321 This is mainly due to lack of initiatives on the 19 Chakma Life and Struggle, op. cit., page-106. 20 part of the state machineries (king in the S.K. Bose, Samatata Region, Harikela Coins and Trading Activities, Jahar Acharjee (ed), History-Culture & Coinage bygone days and the Government in present of Samatata & Harikela, Vol. I, Raj-Kusum Prakashani, days). The script has survived only due to Agartala, 2006, page-49. 21 Satya Lankar Bikkhu, Pattam Gunmala Dharapat, Abir farsightedness and efforts of the Vaidyas Printers, Kulai Bazar, Dhalai, 2003, page-7. and the Loris who teach this script to their 22 G.A. Grierson, op. cit., page-321.

National Mission for Manuscripts 7 Decline of Manipuri Script

M. Imocha Singh

There are enough evidences of the However, it has been maintained that Meitei emergence and decline of languages and Mayek was the till the last part scripts. In the history of mankind, only three of 19th Century, during the reign of Maharaja major writing systems are recognized, though Kullachandra. (Moirangthem Chandra Singh: many models are available in different regions Meitei Mayek, , 1969, p-1). independently. These three systems are With the advent of Sanskritization, a Egyptian, Sumerian and Chinese. They have socio-cultural and religious assimilation took gone through a long series of developments, place and conversion to Hinduism in the 18th adaptation and changes to give birth to and the 19th century was responsible to the different languages of the world. The earliest decline of the use of Manipuri script by the texts show the existence of an advance younger generations. in the later part of the 4th th millennium B. C. (Winfred P. Lehmann: Historical With the approach of 20 century, Linguistics, pub. University of Texas, 1962, modernization and domination of Western P–65). But the and the Hieroglyphic influences under British colonial rule rooted scripts were discovered only when scientific out the practice of Manipuri script entirely mannerism developed in the 19th Century. The from the soil replacing with Bengali script. above writing system had considerable impact The Sanskritization process which was on the shaping of history. started in Manipur in 18th Century was Indeed, the Egyptian had contributed a great landmark in the entire historical an alphabet to the Greek, Latin, Roman and process of the land. It brought tremendous other scripts. In case of Chinese, their script changes in the life of the people in general is still developing. However, as far as Manipuri and the whole state administration in script (Meitei Mayek) is concerned, there is particular. It seriously affected the future historical process of origin, continuity and of Manipuri script also. So the advent of changes. Here the term ‘changes’ has been Sanskritization process had given a great used to denote the process of declination of blow to the existence of traditional script in Manipuri script. the state. It is historically true that the people of The process of Sanskritization reached Manipur had enjoyed a distinct culture and its zenith during the time of King Pamheiba, tradition. They had their peculiar practice of who was also popularly known as Garibniwaz. writing since time immemorable. During the A big change took place in Manipur during his reign of Meidingngu Sameirang (518–568 reign. In 1717 he was initiated into Hinduism A. D.) there was a conflict due to war of of Rama cult by one Shanta Das Gosai, a succession and some portions of royal palace Brahmin from Sylhet. In 1727 all the Meitei including Nongdam Sanglen (Department of scholars were forced to bring all manuscripts Scholars) were set on fire and manuscripts in their possession in front of the Kangla like Cheitharol Kumbaba (Royal Chronicle) and Uttra. Thus more than 120 precious a few others burnt. (M. S. Yengkhomnon). manuscripts written in on

8 National Mission for Manuscripts culture, religion, history, politics, geography, The British won a decisive victory in the literature, etc. were put on a funeral pyre Manipur war of 1891 and took over Imphal and burnt to ashes. on 27th April, 1891. In the light of the (N. Khelchandra: Ariba Manipuri Sahitya Itihas, debate in the House of Lords in which two 1969). Thus the King imposed Hinduism on former viceroys, Lord Northbrook and Lord his people. The degree of the invasion of the Rippon begged not to annex Manipur, the Hinduism was so strong that even the name British government, instead of annexing of the land was changed from its traditional Manipur outright, decided to keep it as a one to Manipur. (L. Naba: Meitei Khunaigi princely state under British paramountcy. Shaktaklon, Unpublished, p-30). The government of India appointed a boy In the last phase of the 19th century of six years as the Raja of Manipur and Manipur came under the direct rule of carried on the administration of the State, colonial British and it was the dark age in through a British officer for fourteen years the history of Manipuri script. In short, the during the mutiny of the Raja. During this relation with the Britishers gave a greater period of British management in the State blow to the Manipuri alphabet than the of Manipur, the British retained Manipuri Sanskritization period of Garibniwaz. as the official language of the State, but adopted the Bengali script for writing it. Kangla was the capital of Manipur, This was for administrative convenience the seat of political, judicial, military as there was no type foundry for and economic power and it was also the manufacturing the Manipuri script at that centre of the socio-cultural and religious time. (A Porteons: Administrative Report of activities. After the occupation of Kangla, the Manipur Political Agency for 1893–94, the British began to destroy palace Shillong) properties and monuments. The Kangla Sha was demolished by the help of explosives. From 1st June, 1892 onwards, the Besides these, the Kangla mound, citadels, British spread English education in the State temples, caves and other cultural objects, through Bengali medium. In 1920, Manipuri viz, stone impliments and inscriptions were was introduced as a subject of study with buried or disposed of as debris. Later on, the help of Pettigrew, in the lower Primary the British deliberately wanted to study Schools and it gradually replaced Bengali as and analyze the sacred puyas (manuscripts) the medium of instruction and examination; of Manipur through local pundits. For that but the practice of writing Manipuri in Bengali purpose they ordered all the available puyas script continued. In fact, the decision taken from localities. The Cheitharol Kumbaba, by the British in 1891 to use Bengali script for a royal chronicle, which was written in writing Manipuri was not revised even after indigenous Manipuri script was translated the attainment of Independence in 1947 and into English (by Bama Charan Mukherjee) Manipuri is still written in Bengali script. and Bengali. During the Anglo-Manipuri war As a matter of fact, the study of of 1891, the man like Khuraijamba Lallup ancient Manipuri script took the backseat. and others collected all the palace puyas Of late, some prominent figures and local stored at the Ras Mandal along with local people of Manipur who enthusiastically puyas (L. Ibungohal Singh & N. Khelchandra embraced Bengali school of Vaishnavism, Singh: Cheitharol Kumbaba, 2nd Edition, strongly supported the newly introduced 1989, p-499), under the coercive orders of Bengali and Sanskrit languages thereby the British and thus the scripts along with totally discouraging the study of old the puyas were burnt down at Manung Manipuri script. This group of people which Kangjeibung of Kangla on Inga 28th panba, formed part of the then intelligentsia Monday 1891. (M. S. Miyat). expressed the idea even to the extent

National Mission for Manuscripts 9 that the Manipuris did not have any script Reference of their own and so they borrowed the 1 Winfred P. Lehmann: Historical Linguistics, University of ancient Indian and Bengali scripts. This Texas, 1962 callousness of the then intelligentsia has 2 Devid Diringer: The Alphabet, Vol. I, London. 1968. blurred the original identity of Meitei script, 3 Moirangthem Chandra Singh: Meitei Mayek, Imphal, 1969 4 Gangmumei Kabui: History of Manipur, Pre-Colonial giving a severe blow to the consciousness Period – Vol., I, Delhi, 1989. of the younger generation. 5 Administrative Report: 1893 – 94. 6 L. Ibungohal Singh & N. Khelchandra: Cheitharol Kumbaba, M. Imocha Singh is Lecturer, Department 1965. of History, Modern College, Imphal 7 Miyat (Mss.)

Calygraphic Representation of the Manipuri Script.

10 National Mission for Manuscripts Jaisalmer Vijñaptipatra: A Socio-religious Portrait of Jainism Sweta Prajapati

Besides the Manuscripts and their covers patra means a . Thus Vijñaptipatra the pictorial treasure of medieval Gujarat means a letter of request. Vijñaptipatras are contains a few portraits, letters of letters, sent to Jain monks by a community, apology (Kşamāpanapatra), instruction inviting the spiritual leaders to spend the (Sūcanāpatra) and request (Vijñaptipatra). monsoon (cāturmasa) in their hospitality The Kşamāpanapatra or letters of apology and participate in religious ceremonies and are heavily decorated scrolls presented by deliver public discourses. Vijñaptipatras are the laity to their Gurus or religious guides in scroll forms and are long and narrow at the end of an eight day festival of fast. and varied in size. They were first prepared Forgiveness for all wrong doings in the past on separate pieces of paper, painted with year is the main part of the Kşamāpanapatra; opaque water colours and then pasted on instructions by the preceptor to their a long and narrow piece of cloth. Scrolls followers is the main part of the Sūcanāpatra are finished with floral border. These and the request to invite the guru to spend scrolls, sent to the monks were scribed the forthcoming monsoon with them is the in scholarly Sanskrit or Prakrit and were main part of the Vijñaptipatra. The majority often a harmonized blend of prose and of scrolls were stored in the treasure verse. Moreover the Vijñaptipatras of the houses of Jain temple libraries, bhandaras later period were also scribed in regional of Gujarat and Rajasthan especially in Patan, languages such as – Rajasthani and Gujarati. Cambay and Jaisalmer which were built and The letters normally illustrated the maintained by the Jain community. 14 dreams of Mahavira's mother and Aşţamańgalas, the eight auspicious symbols What is Vijñaptipatra of Mahavira. Rajput-Mughal style of painting is observed in majority of the Vijñaptipatras. We Vijñaptipatra, the long and illustrated scroll can presume that there may be some group of of invitation is one of the most significant people, who accompany the Yatis for academic contributions of Śvetāmbara Jains. As help like copying the text and preparing fine pieces of art and materials for the paintings in accordance with the texts. writing of social history, these are of paramount importance. Vijñaptipatras have B.L.Nahata comments on the historical perpetuated and glorified the exclusive origin and evolution of the Vijñaptipatras 3 d. tradition of sending invitations in the as : ‘ the tradition took a spurt and scrolls Jain cultural tradition. This tradition can were written in several verse forms, notably be traced back to the later part of the dūtakāvya, khandakavya, pādapūrtikāvya th 14th century and extends up to 17th-18th and the stream continued till the 18 century. Vijñaptipatras are valuable source century, when Sanskrit was replaced by local for the social history of Jain community. vernaculars.” Vijñapti means a respectful statement or The scrolls scripted during 14-16th communication, a request, an entreaty and centuries are more textual than illustrative.

National Mission for Manuscripts 11 The practice of illustrating the scrolls seems to have started in the 17th century. The scrolls of 17th century are countable and rare to the extent of becoming extinct. The scrolls scripted in the 18th century can still be traced in the private individual preserves or even in Manuscript Libraries and Jain Bhandaras. The Oriental Institute of Baroda, is one of the best constituted and richest Manuscript Repositories across the world. It was established by the visionary, His Highness Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III in 1927, containing around 5000 Jain Manuscripts. The Institute has a compendium of illustrated, rare and precious manuscripts belonging to different historical periods, acquired from various parts of India and now the collection has reached to more than 30,000. Among these, three Vijñaptipatras viz., Jaisalmer-Vijñaptipatra, Duńgarapur- Vijñaptipatra and Citrāńkita-Vijñaptipatra (of Baroda) hold a very pertinent position for the visitors. The rare formidable Vijñaptipatras are preserved in the Oriental Institute in order to make these timeless records of culture reach posterity. The present paper attempts to present a minute study of the Jaisalmer Vijñaptipatra. Though this is one of the twenty four Vijñaptipatras studied by Hirananda Sastri in his book Ancient Vijñaptipatras, this paper attempts to present a further minute and detailed study.

The Jaisalmer Vijñaptipatra The Citrāńkita-Vijñaptipatra as it is recorded in the Institute is a Vijñaptipatra of Jaisalmer. This is a scroll (Acc. No. 7572) dated Caitra suda 13 Budhavar, Vikram Samvat 1916 ( i. e. 4/4/1860 A.D. ) made of paper and mounted on a very rough cloth. It measures 29.7 feet x 9.5 inches. It has decorative border of 1.5 inch on both sides and writings and illustrations in the area of 6.5 inches in A portion of the Jaisalmer Vijñaptipatra, width. The illustrations cover the area of preserved at Oriental Institute of Baroda.

12 National Mission for Manuscripts 21 feet x 10 inches in length. The text part 3. Winged elephant, 4. Goddess Lakşmī, 5. Pair covers the area of 5 feet and 4 inches in of garlands of Mandāra flowers, 6. The moon length. The signatures cover the area of with the emblem of a deer, 7. The radiant 23 inches at the last part of the letter. The Sun represented by a male face, 8. The priceless scroll was purchased by the Institute Celestial Banner, 9. Pitcher, 10. Pond of on September1, 1916 from Sundarasri of lotuses, 11. Ocean with ship, 12. Devavimāna- Jodhapur with meagre fifteen rupees. It is celestial abode, 13. Covered vessel and a letter of invitation sent by Jain sangh to 14. Smokeless fire. Jain Yati Sri Jinamuktisūri, the pontiff of According to Kalpasūtra,5 the third object Brhat-Kharataragaccha, requesting the Yati should be white spotted winged energetic to spend forthcoming monsoon in Jaisalmer lion with straight tail and tongue shown out (Madadesa). Yatis of Kharataragaccha have but here an Airāvata (winged white elephant their influence over vast areas of the western of Indra) is portrayed, which is one of the 16 Rajasthan, Gujarat, Malwa and Mewar. Somani dreams of Digambar sect. The flag of Jainism Ram Vallabha has mentioned the name of Yati in five colours, white, red, orange green dark Sri Jinamuktisūri in his article4 as an Ācārya at blue or black, represents Pańcaparameşţhī, Mandor after Muni Jinamahendra in VE 1892. Arihant, Siddha, Ācārya, Upādhyaya and This long scroll with colourful illustrations Sādhu. It also symbolizes victory of Jain in Rajput-Mughal style of painting includes religion. 13th object should be a heap of jewel, auspicious symbols, Palace scenes with kings and gurus and the text at the bottom. but in the present epistle, it is a covered vessel. It appears that the artist who has portrayed these objects may not have The Content complete knowledge of the Jain tradition. The content and the structure of the Jwelled vassel represents expansiveness Vijñaptipatra is divided into two categories: of wealth, prosperity and treasure. These illustrations and text. At the outset of the svapnas are often found illustrated in the scroll, there are sequential and thematic Manuscripts of Kaplasūtras as well as painted illustrations. on the walls of Jain temples. First set of illustrations: The scroll begins Aşţamańgalas: The Aşţamańgalas (eight with the illustration of holy pitcher (Kalaśa) – auspicious objects) that follow the 14 a flower-vase, followed by three illustrations dreams are: 1. Darpanah – round mirror with of couches each attended by a pair of decorative border and artistic handle. This is cāmara-bearer; mother of Tīrthańkara, for seeing one’s true self. 2. Puşpadāma: full lying fast asleep on her comfortable bed blossomed flower, it represents primordial in a decorated room, attended by three purity of body, speech and mind floating maiden; two of them fanning and the other above the muddy waters of attachment sitting at her feet; the last picture of this and desire, represents the blossoming of set depicts a meeting in the palace, where wholesome deeds in blissful liberation, the king is found discussing with one person 3. Svastika: it is highly auspicious, it signifies in presence of his ministers and army chiefs peace. It represents Samyakjňāna, Darśana with the three cāmara-bearers and lady and Caritra. 4. Kalaśah or pūrņa-ghaţa- guards by the king’s side. full vase with flowers. This is worshipped Fourteen Dreams (Svapnas): After because Jina is like Kalaśa in his family. this, fourteen dreams are depicted in two Two etes are depicted around the Kalaśa columns. These pictures signify the dreams symbolizing right faith and right knowledge. that occurred to Trishala before the birth of 5. Matsya-yugam (two fishes) – it represents Mahavira. They are: 1. Black elephant, 2. Bull, the state of fearless suspension in harmless

National Mission for Manuscripts 13 ocean of the universe. Just as fish swims Manuscripts or in the paintings on canvas of without fear in waters, they symbolize different patas and in the scroll painting of happiness as they have complete freedom of the Vijñaptipatras. Ajoy Kumar Sinha notes movement. They also represent fertility and in his article7 that Aşţamańgalas are also abundance. 6. Bhadrāsanam or Supratişţha- represented in the Jaina miniature paintings auspicious seat. The beautiful coach has an preserved in the manuscripts or in the artistic umbrella over it. It is worshipped as paintings on canvas of different patas, and in it is sanctified by the feet of the blessed scroll-paintings of the Vijñaptipatras. It is also Lord. 7. Vardhamānaka or Cūrņapātra – a observed that such Aşţamańgalas are also flask, it is suggestive of increase of wealth, prepared on silver metal for the purpose of fame, merit etc. 8. Nandyāvarta: its nine worship. Moreover, Jaina ladies decorate the points have been beautifully casted without hall of worship with such eight symbols and any fault. Nine points stand for nine nidhis on platters with uncooked husked rice. (treasures). The city of Jaisalmer: Aşţamańgalas are Aşţamańgalas hold an important place followed by the historical pictures of the as symbolic worship in Jain religion. In city of Jaisalmer itself. This set of pictures Svetāmbar and Digambar sects Aşţamańgalas depicts places along with the route to be are different. The present epistle described followed and shows the city of Jaisalmer the Aşţamańgalas according to Svetambar in oblique perspective and considerable texts like Ācaradīnakara’s, Aupapātikasūtra detail. The first picture depicts the outskirts and Trişaşţiśalākāpuruşa. These are found showing hills from a far and a beautiful on decorative tops of architraves or architectural map of fort of king Rawal ramparts or platforms or painted on walls Jaisala, also known as Sonar Killa (golden fort) or slabs. These are engraved on metals built in 1156 A.D. The fort is a city complex and worshipped in the Jain temples. Small in itself consisting of palaces, security platters of these Aşţamańgalas, be it in sources, havelis, temples and residential silver or in bronze, are dedicated in the complexes of army and nine Śvetāmbara Jain temples and worshipped along with Jaina temples dating back to 12th century. other Jain metal images in the sanctum.6 The fort complex encompasses mammoth Jain ladies prepare such Aşţamańgalas on merchant havelis which were built in 12th ground with the paste of uncooked rice and century by the rich merchants. The mansions worship them. They are also represented in are a fine example of craftsmanship of the Jain miniature paintings available in the Hindus and Muslim workers. The sculptural

A portion of the Jaisalmer Vijñaptipatra, preserved at Oriental Institute of Baroda.

14 National Mission for Manuscripts filigree, screen windows, delicate pavilions that the ladies were free to move outside and beautiful balconies of the mansions their houses. The eyes are prominent and are simply amazing. The picture also noses aquiline and the dress is gaudy such as details Guards at the gate of the fort we often see in case of Rajasthani ladies. The holding weapons, elephants and horses, cloths of customers at the shops are clearly camels, chariots, cavalrymen, infantrymen, indicative of Rajasthani clan. Regarding the palanquins; the palace, the flagstaff, three market places depicted in Vijñaptipatras, shops with customers, large scales or Surendra Gopal remarks: “We learn from tuladāna for weighing gold and silver and these about food that was popular, textiles officials in Marvadi dresses sitting in their that were in use, the market that served offices. local needs and the people who provided The next picture is of an empty royal leadership in both secular and religious seat or gādī with a big round shape pillow; affairs.’’8 the city with houses on both the sides of Harley David discussing this epistle and the road. Men and women are standing on particularly the route, remarks9: “What is the gallery of the houses and looking at the shown may vary enormous in scale from road from windows. Total 8 houses and two one part of a scroll to another, so that, for big empty halls are portrayed. Two empty example, a few shops along the pontiff’s big halls appear like rest houses for the route may be shown as large as an entire passersby. The picture also portrays the city. We do not know if the order of objects road along with people and soldiers passing encountered along a particular route is on elephant and holding flags in their hands. properly maintained on scroll, though that A Yati is passing on the road and three seems likely, nor have we any idea what people observing him. On this road a hawker consideration guided the artist’s choice of selling a food item (chanajorgaram) is also what to show or omit.” beautifully portrayed. A person sitting on Procession: After this, appears a picture a road with a basket and snake in his hand of a big main gate – praveśadvāra, followed appears like a Juggler. by the procession to receive the male After this commences marvelous scene and female monks. This is portrayed in a of a market, which has 18 shops of various horizontal shape. The procession presents objects portrayed in two columns along marvelous illustrations of five soldiers the road sides. The shops are mainly of holding flags on elephants and six soldiers on jewels, milk, sweet, cloths for rich as well as horses ; five persons driving a cart which has ordinary people, washer-man, dyers, cobbler, long religious flag over it; 11 soldiers holding potter, blacksmith, turban, weapon, sword- big rifles, the possibility of their being British sharpening. cannot be denied as this epistle belong to According to Hirananda Sastri the fort 1860 A.D.; one bullock cart; one open pālkhī is Kapilapa-durga. The shops of turban and carried by four persons; one close pālkhī sword-sharpening are interesting features of carried by four persons; nine Yatis and eight the picture found in rarity. It is also worthy nuns; two persons with trumpet and six to note that the cobblers are Muslims. The musicians with drum, conch etc. musical picture of a lady operating the sword- instruments in their hands; well decked sharpening machine and a lady dyer reflects men and women, some are holding flags- on the identity and status of the women of indradhvajas in their hands, the main that age. We further know that the ladies Yati – the principal preceptor with four often visited the market place which shows persons holding cloth over his head and two

National Mission for Manuscripts 15 persons fanning with cāmara. The picture controlling of mind, speech and body are also portrays the outskirts of the city included in these gunas. This epistle gives showing trees, temples and some houses. the details of all the main characteristics of the Jaina Sādhus. Further it describes total The Text 36 qualities of Muni Jinamuktisūri. Normally they are 108 but this letter mentions only The text is in Devanāgarī script and the language is a blend of Rajasthani and Prakrit. 36 out of 108. It is written in dūhā style. Dūhās are famous The scribe furnishes the information in local dialects and they are sung in a that the epistle is prepared at Madadesa: definite raga. In some places few words of efue<³ee ef®e$eebefkeÀle ues

16 National Mission for Manuscripts NMM: Summary of Events

1st April – 31st July, 2010

The National Mission for Manuscripts was Survey & Post Survey brought into existence through a gazette Activities of National Survey have been notification of 5th February 2003, by the Department of Culture, Ministry of Tourism initiated in Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, and Culture, Government of India. NMM has Uttarkhand, Jammu & Kashmir, Goa, Rajasthan the mandate of: and some districts of Gujarat.  Identifying, documenting, preserving, Under its Post Survey programme, digitizing and making accessible the the NMM has started documentation of manuscript heritage of the country. manuscripts in two districts of Tripura,  Creating awareness about Manuscripts four districts of Gujarat (where Survey has amongst scholars and public at large. already completed) and one district of Andhra  Publication of unpublished Manuscripts. Pradesh. Thirty-two well trained documenters So far, the main thrust of the NMM have been assigned different identified was to fulfill the objectives of locating, repositories or manuscript areas to collect documenting, conserving and digitizing of information for the National Database through manuscripts, During the current Financial Year focus is shifted to dissemination of the Post Survey documentation programme. knowledge content of the manuscripts of During this period (1st April to 31st July, India. The performance of the NMM during 2010) the Mission has managed to collect 1st April to 31st July, 2010 is discussed in information about 15,000 manuscripts from brief under the following headings: these districts.

Prof. Radhavallabh Tripathi, V.C., Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, New Delhi, presenting certificate at Preventive Conservation Awareness Workshop held at National Museum, New Delhi.

National Mission for Manuscripts Documentation The performance of the NMM from 1st April to 31st July 2010 so far as the documentation is concerned, is summerised below: 1. Total Number of Data Received up to March 2010 : 30,67,975 2. Data Received from April 2010 to July 2010 : 00,68,974 3. Total Data Received up to July 2010 : 31,36,949

Data Processing Detail Description Total Position up Achievements Total Position on to March 2010 during 1st April – 31st July, 2010 31st July, 2010 1. Total Electronic Data Received 21,67,000 75,000 22,42,000 2. Total Hard Data Received 9,00,000 12,000 9,12,000 3. Total Data Edited 24,00,000 1,00,000 25,00,000

Conservation MCPCs was organized at Allahabad from 16th to 20th July, 2010. Through its network of Manuscript Conservation Centres (MCCs) and Manuscript In total, the NMM has planned to organize Conservation Partner Centres (MCPCs), the 21 conservation workshops in the year NMM organizes awareness workshops and 2010-11. training programmes across the country to create a national pool of conservation Digitization expertise for manuscripts. These workshops Till 31st July, 2010 the digitization of are organized to impart training to the 6,9636 Manuscripts (8560151 pages) has participants, of MRC, MCC, MCPC and other been completed. There are in total 55,200 institutions on preventive and curative DVDs containing the digital images of the conservation of manuscripts. Manuscripts are in the possession of the One such Preventive Conservation NMM. The detailed status of digitization of Awareness Workshop for the MRCs and Manuscripts stands as follows:

National Mission for Manuscripts Status of Digitization Initiated under Phase-I Institution No. Mss No. of Pages Status ORI, Srinagar 10,591 21,00,000 Complete OSM, BBSR 1,749 3,50,000 Complete Jain Manuscripts 180 42,951 Complete Kutiyattam 340 38,260 Complete Siddha Manuscripts 1,938 78,435 Continuing TOTAL 14,798 26,09,646

Status of Digitization Initiated under Phase-II Institution No. Mss No. of Pages Status OSM, BBSR 4,777 13,48,398 Complete KKHL,Guwahati 2,091 1,56,170 Complete Harisingh Gaur University, 1,010 1,17,603 Complete Sagar Anandashram Sanstha, Pune 7,939 9,21,673 Complete Bharat Itihas Samshodhan 1,523 6,60,730 Complete Mandal, Pune Himachal Academy, Simla 225 55,751 Complete Vrindavan Research Institute 25,668 13,24,503 Complete Institute of Asian Studies, 481 34,505 Complete Chennai French Institute Pondicherri 502 1,70,629 Complete Kundakunda Jnanpeeth, 8,622 11,60,433 Complete Indore TOTAL 41,863 48,16,015

Publication Published  Tattvabodha III Publication of unpublished manuscripts, critical edition of manuscripts, seminar Ongoing Projects papers, lectures etc. occupy a position of  Kritibodha II prime emphasis in the scheme of things  Samikshika III undertaken by the NMM. The NMM has  Samikshika IV started four primary series –Tattvabodha  Illustrated Catalogue of Guru Granth (lecture papers), Kritibodha (critical editions), Sahib Manuscripts in four volumes (in Samikshika (seminar papers) and Samrakshika collaboration with National Institute of (papers of seminars on conservation) - Punjab Studies, New Delhi) besides other publications. So far NMM has Besides these, one descriptive catalogue published two volumes under Tattvabodha and some important manuscripts in Persian, series, one volume under Kritibodha, and South Indian scripts have two under Samikshika and two under just been taken up for publication (vulgate/ Samrakshika. transcribed/translated/critically edited).

National Mission for Manuscripts Public Outreach different locations in the country are going on at full swing. With a view to spreading awareness about manuscripts, the importance of preserving A series of lectures was organized at them and facilitating documentation, Saiha and Lungclei (Mizoram) on 18th and the NMM has initiated a number of 19th May, 2010. The lectures were organized programmes including seminars, lectures under Public Outreach programme of the advertisements, publication of newsletter NMM and added to the punlic awaress in the and reports, etc. The objectives of the state of Mizoram. During the programme, outreach programmes are: it has been revealed that though the  Creation of a platform for discussion, traditional literature in Mizoram was mostly debate and critical engagement with in oral form but there are manuscripts manuscripts, available in the Kamalanagar District and  Promotion of awareness and some other parts of Mizoram. understanding of the manuscript Besides this, a lecture under Tattvabodha heritage of India, Series was organied at NMM, New Delhi on 30th  Generation of interest, awareness and July, 2010. knowledge of the manuscripts among the Prof. Lakshmishwar , Prof. and Dean, general populace. Vedic Studies, Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri Rashtriya As per the Annual Action Plan 2010– Sanskrit Vidyapeeth (Deemed University), New 2011, the NMM has to organize 9 seminars Delhi delivered the lecture on Yajnavijnana and 24 public lectures under Tattvabodha evam Pandulipi. The lecture session was Series. Preparations for these programmes, presided over by Prof. B. B. Chaubey, former which are designed to be organized at Director, VVISIS, Hosiarpur, Punjab.

Prof. Dipti S. Tripathi, Director, NMM addressing at the Seminar cum Exhibition held at (Mizoram), on 19 May, 2010.



National Mission for Manuscripts and the request is made to visit early in the style of the Vijñaptipatra is characterized coming four months of monsoon. by thin wiry lines or by bold outlines, On behalf of the sańgh of brilliant colours, architecturally and Jaisalmer, Pandit Satyavinayamuni, Pt. rudimentary landscape background set into Amarasundaramuni and Nimachandamegharaj harmonious patterns. Regional idioms in the sent this letter of request. It also records its treatment of facial types, local scenery, date as Vikram Samvat 1916 (1859 A.D.) caitra ornamentations and head-dresses and other month, suda 13 and Wednesday. Nathamal details can be discerned from the different Joravar Sanghani Varadhiyera may be the sub-schools. name of the scribe. As usual the name of the artist who has portrayed this epistle is not Conclusion mentioned. At the end again refuting the sarcastic remark of Alfred Master I would like to About Illustration conclude with highly optimistic opinion The illustrations of this Vijñaptipatra that Dr.Hirananda Sastri’s efforts in this may belong to Jaisalmer Ţhikānā of Rajput direction are certainly going to be rewarded kingdoms. Each Ţhikānā enjoyed a more or in understanding thoroughly such many less visual art tradition like miniature, mural, more Vijñaptipatras. Unfortunately, this pahadi paintings from the medieval period. tradition of inviting monks by sending Usually the format of the Vijñaptipatra is Vijñaptipatra is not in practice any more. long and vertically painted cloth scrolls, Still today also monks do travel on foot, where pictographic narrations were done in invited by local Jain communities but usually continuous sequences. The incidents/themes by way of a letter or something like that arranged chronologically however follow a but nothing as formal as Vijñaptipatra. basic sense of order where space is divided Moreover, in comparison with ordinary into various sections representing different simple manuscript it is more difficult to preserve this literature due to their physical geographical areas and themes. form. They are made on one material An artist used either synoptic or (preferably paper) and mounted on another episodic or continuous narrative format. material, mostly on cloth. Generally in every According to the demand, artist/painter library they are found folded and placed in required a distinct visual language of the show-cases to attract the visitors. As his own in order to suit the demand of a result, frequently it comes into contact a patron’s/laity’s/dharmaguru’s choice. with light and air and even touch of people Literary narrative traditions are rich in for photography. This has contributed allegory, myth and folklores and therefore in the shortening of its life. In some of it becomes a sensitive task for a painter to the Jain temple libraries these are found derive on continuous narrative structure completely neglected. In such a situation so that the story could be depicted step by it is extremely necessary to preserve such step. This Vijñaptipatra contains both visual literature with utmost care. Therefore along and verbal aspects. with the critical edition and publication of It was demonstrated by using various rare and important Manuscript of Śhāstra symbols or pratik of Jain religion like 14 texts similar importance should be given dreams, Aşţamańgalas etc. Each episode to the publication and study of such paţas is confined to a single scene and each which are important from cultural, social, succeeds the other chronologically. The historical, political, architectural, and artistic

National Mission for Manuscripts 17 point of view. Sanskritists and Art-historians 8 Surendra Gopal, Social Life in Gujarat & Rajasthan in the 19th century as revealed in a scroll of invitation, Jain both should join hands in this pious work of Journal, 1972, Vol.VI, No.3, pp. 106-108 preserving our cultural heritage. 9 John Brian Harley & David Woodward, Cartography in the Traditional and South Asian Societies, A History of Sweta Prajapati is Research Officer, Cartography, Vol. 2, Issue 1, The University of Chicago Oriental Institute, M.S. University of Baroda, Press, Chicago, 1992, p.461. Baroda Bibliography References 1. Bothra J.S. Procession from Vijñaptipatras, Jain Journal, p.184. 1 Moti Chandra, A Painted Scroll from Nepal, Bulletin of the 2. Idem, Vijñaptipatras a source for the social History of Jains Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, No.1, 1950-51, pp.6-14. in the 19th century, Proceedings, Indian Historical Records 2 Review of Hirananda Sastri’s Ancient Vijñaptipatras by Commission, Madras, XL session, pp.1-3. Alfred Master, Journal of the Royal Society of Great Britain 3. Nalini Balbir, Seth Kanaiyalal, Chandrabala Tripathi, and Ireland, No. 1, April 1944, pp.96-98. Catalogue of Jain Manuscripts, Vedams Books Private 3 Nahata B.L., Vijñaptipatra of Udaipur, Jain Journal, Vol.VII, Limited, Delhi. No.1, 1972, p.1. 4. Sastri, Hirananda, Ancient Vijñaptipatras, Sri Pratapasimha 4 Somani Ram Vallabh, History of Kharataragaccha, Jain Maharaja Rajyabhiseka Granthamala, Memoir No. 1, Baroda Journal, July 1992, Vol.XXVII, No.1, pp.33-52. State Press, 1942 5 The Auspicious Dreams of Ksatriyani Trisala, Translated 5. Ghosh, Amalananda, Jain Kala Evam Sthapatya, Vol.III, by Hermann Jacobi, Jain Journal, April 1971, Vol.V, No.4, Bharatiya Jnanapith, New Delhi, 1975 pp.188-193. 6. Nawab, Sarabhai Manilal, Jain Citra-kalpadruma, Ahmeabad, 6 Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, Benaras, 1955, pp.109-112. 1936 7 Sinha, Ajoy Kumar, An Unpublished Aşţamańgala Paţa at 7. Sharma G. N., Social life in Mediaeval Rajashthan, Lakshmi Bhagalpur, Jain Journal, Vol.XXI, No.2, Oct.1986. Narain Agarwal Educational Publisher, Agra, 1968

18 National Mission for Manuscripts ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkkvksa* dh ik.Mqfyfi;ksa ds fp=ksa dk Hkkjrh; fp=dyk ds bfrgkl dks ;ksxnku ehuk{kh Hkkjrh tSu èkeZ ds fl)kUr fdlh oxZ ;k èkeZ fo'ks"k tksèkiqj fLFkr fofHkUu tSu&xzUFkkxkjksa esa lax`ghr ds fy, ugha gSaA muesa loZèkeZ leHkko] loZtkfr lfp= dkxth; ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkkvksa* dh leHkko] loZtho leHkko dh yksdeaxydkjh ikou ik.Mqfyfi;ksa ds fp=ksa us Hkkjrh; fp=dyk bfrgkl èkkjk izokfgr gksrh gSA tgk¡ muls oS;fDrd thou dks vusd miyfCèk;k¡ iznku dh gSaA ;Fkk& 'kq) vkSj ifo= curk gS] ogha lkewfgd lnkpkj vtUrk] ,yksjk] flÙkuokly vkfn dh fHkfÙk 'khyrk dk Hkko Hkh tkx`r gksrk gSA blhfy, fp=.k ijEijk ds lekIr izk;% gksus ds mijkUr Hkxoku egkohj dh thou xkFkk vkSj mins'k vkt yxHkx 10oha 'krkCnh esa fp=kadu ds fp= Qyd 2600 o"kksZa ds ckn Hkh orZeku thou ds fy, mruh esa ifjorZu vk;kA bl vofèk esa fp=kadu dk dk;Z gh mi;ksxh vkSj lkFkZd gSA egkohj ds fpUru ls fHkfÙk ds LFkku ij rkM+i=ksa ij gksus yxkA ;|fi izsfjr gksdj tSu èkekZoyfEc;ksa us iqjkrRo] dyk] fHkfÙk fp=.k dh rduhd vkfn dh n`f"V ls ;g Hkk"kk] lkfgR;] iz'kklu] jktuhfr] m|ksx] dk;Z ljy Fkk] rFkkfi LFkkf;Ro ,oe~ ykfyR; dh okf.kT; rFkk tu dY;k.kdkjh vkfn fofoèk izo`fÙk;ksa rqyuk esa xkS.k gh jgkA3 esa viuk Hkjiwj ;ksxnku nsdj jktLFkku izns'k ds bu rkM+i=ksa dks èkeZ xzUFkksa esa LFkku izkIr gks lkaLd`frd xkSjo dh vrqyuh; vfHko`f) dh gSA1 tkus ds dkj.k èkkfeZd fo"k;&oLrq ds vuq:i tSu èkeZ dh vewY; nsu ds lkFk&lkFk tSu fp=kafdr fd;k tkuk izkjEHk gqvk vkSj vkxs ds lkèkqvksa dh egÙoiw.kZ nsu muds }kjk jpk x;k fo'kky lkfgR; gSA Hkkjrh; bfrgkl] n'kZu ,oe~ lkfgR; ds Kku ds fy, tSu fo}kuksa dk ;g fo'kky lkfgR; gekjh vewY; fufèk gSA blh izdkj tSu vkxfed jpukvksa ds vUrxZr ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkkvksa* dh yksdfiz;rk ds QyLo:i] budk Lo:i ifjofrZr dj bUgsa fpf=r fd;k tkuk izkjEHk gqvkA rkM+i=ksa o dkxt tSls NksVs Qyd ij dh tkus okyh fp=dyk dh fn'kk esa ;g izFke egÙoiw.kZ dne FkkA vtUrk dh fp=dyk fHkfÙk] fp=dyk gS vkSj 642 bZ- bl egku dyk dh vfUre fuekZ.k lhek fuf'pr gksrh gSA bl frfFk ds i'pkr~ vkSj Qkjlh fp=dyk ds Hkkjrh; lkaLd`frd ifjn`'; ij izHkko Mkyus rd dh vofèk esa dsoy ek= tSu xzUFkksa ds vUrxZr gh fp= fuekZ.k ds Bksl izek.k izkIr gksrs gSaA2 ftlds vUrxZr ^dYilw= o dkydkpk;Z dFkkvksa* dh dkxth; iksfFk;ksa dks fpf=r fd;k ekrk nsokuUnk o 14 egkLoIu laxzg&jktLFkku izkP; fo|k tkuk budh viuh miyfCèk dgh tk ldrh gSA izfr"Bku tks/kiqj

National Mission for Manuscripts 19 dkyksa esa dkxt dh loZ lqyHkrk us rkM+i=ksa dk vU; izkUrksa esa Hkh gt+kjksa dh [;k esa gqvkA vr% LFkku dkxt dh ik.Mqfyfi;ksa us ys fy;kA ;g dguk vfr'k;ksfDr iw.kZ ugha gksxk fd mÙkj bl tSu 'kSyh dh ,sfrgkfld miyfCèk 7oha eè;dky tSu fpf=r xzUFkksa dk loksZUeq[kh fodkl 'krkCnh esa nf{k.k ls ekuh tkrh gSA 10oha 'krkCnh dky gSA bl le; lSdM+ksa lfp= xzaFkksa dh jpuk ls ysdj 15oha 'krkCnh ds chp o mlds ckn Hkh gqbZ ftuds fp= vkus okyh Hkkjrh; dyk dh vkèkkj Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dh le`f) ds fy, tSu 'kSyh f'kyk cu x;sA ;g ,d ubZ 'kSyh Fkh ftlesa vkfne dk lokZfèkd ;ksxnku ekuk tk;sxkA ;g fp=dyk dyk dh vfHkO;fDr Fkh] ^yksd dyk* dk rh[kkiu xqtjkr dh 'osrkEcj dye ls vkjEHk gksdj Fkk ,oe~ dFkk dgus dh f{kizrk FkhA 11oha 'krkCnh ls jktiwrkuk esa o"kksZa rd fodkl djrh jghA ckn esa 16oha 'krkCnh rd lkjs mÙkjh Hkkjr esa ;s xzUFk fp= jktiwr dye esa gh foy; gks xbZA4 bl izdkj izfrfufèk 'kSyh ds :i esa curs jgsA7 tks fd bl 'kSyh tSu fp='kSyh ds }kjk Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dh ijEijk dh Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dks cgqr cM+h nsu gSA fdrus gh o"kksZa rd vVwV :i esa vkxs c<+rh jghA 16oha 'krkCnh rd gh tSu 'kSyh ds vUrxZr oLrqr% Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dk eè; ,oe~ mÙkj ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkk* fp=ksa dk ijEijkxr o eè;dkyhu bfrgkl tSu fp=dyk }kjk fn;k gqvk ekSfyd Lo:i ns[kk tkrk gSA rRi'pkr~ bl 'kSyh bfrgkl gh gSA 10oha&11oha bZ- 'krkCnh ls 15oha us vius futRo dks ledkyhu jktLFkkuh o eqxy 'krkCnh bZ- ds mÙkjk)Z rd tSu gLrfyf[kr xzUFkksa fp= 'kSyh ds o`f)xr izHkko esa ,dkdkj dj fn;kA esa LFkku ikus okys fp= o iVfy;k¡ gh fp= lkexzh bl n`f"V ls Hkkjrh; fp=dyk ds Hkkoh ds :i esa fp= bfrgkl ds dks"k dks Hkjrs gSaA5 fodkl ds fy, ^tSu&'kSyh* ds vUrxZr fufeZr ;s gh vla[;ksa fpf=r xzUFk dkxt dh miyCèkrk ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkk* fp=ksa dk ;g egÙoiw.kZ ds i'pkr~ izdk'k esa vk x;s] ftuesa loZizFke ;ksxnku dgk tk;sxk D;ksafd jktiwr vkSj eqxy 'kSyh ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkkvksa* dks fpf=r fd;k ds fp=dkjksa us tSu 'kSyh ds bu fp=ksa ls izsj.kk vkSj x;kA vr% bl n`f"V ls ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z u;s Hkko foèkku xzg.k dj vius {ks=ksa dks vfèkd dFkkvksa* dh ;g viuh egÙoiw.kZ miyfCèk jgh gSA O;kid cuk;kA8 vusd lekykspdksa us bl dky dh dyk dks oLrqr% ^tSu&'kSyh* iksfFk;ksa dh gLrfyf[kr o bl ;qx dks vèk%iru dh laKk nh gSA tcfd fyfi ds vuq:i FkhA ftls ns[kdj ,slk izrhr oLrqfLFkfr ;g gS fd blh tSu 'kSyh us 11oha 'krkCnh gksrk gS fd v{kjksa ds Lo:iksa ls rkyesy cSBkus ls 16oha 'krkCnh rd Hkkjr ds if' Hkkx xqtjkr] ds fy, gh bldh jpuk dh xbZ gksA blh izdkj jktLFkku bR;kfn ds lkFk gh mÙkj rFkk eè; {ks= ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkk* fp=ksa ds fuekZ.k esa dks Hkh vius lEeksgu esa vkc) fd;s j[kkA6 ^tSu èkeZ* dk Hkh vkxzg jgk gSA tSu èkeZ ds vuqlkj ge ns[krs gSa fd tSu fpf=r xzUFkksa ds Øfed L=h&iq#"k] i'kq&i{kh] dhM+s&edksM+s] isM+&ikSèks vkfn fodkl esa 16oha 'krkCnh esa bu xzUFk fp=ksa esa lkSUn;Z lHkh esa tku gksrh gS] ftuesa vlhe 'kfDr Hkh fufgr vkSj lthork vk tkrh gSA yxHkx 1525 bZ- esa vofèk gksrh gSA vr% bu lHkh dks ,d gh èkjkry ij Hkk"kk esa fyf[kr ^ykSjpUnk dkO;* ds miyCèk dqN fxuk tkuk pkfg;sA ;gh dkj.k gS fd bu fp=ksa ds fpf=r i`"Bksa esa bl 'kSyh dk Øfed fodkl Li"V vkys[ku esa lc izdkj ds vfHkizk;ksa ds lkFk ,d n`f"Vxkspj gksrk gSA mDr xzUFk ds fp=ksa esa vkd`fr;k¡ leku vyadj.k dh Hkkouk jgh gSA9 xfreku gSaA vk¡[ksa 'kh'ks tSlh ugha oju~ ltho gSaA ;gh vkyadkfjdrk dh izo`fÙk bl 'kSyh dh vfr'k; vyadj.k dk Hkh bu fp=ksa esa vHkko gSA Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dks lcls cM+h nsu jgh gSA lksus fo"k; dks Hkkoiw.kZ

20 National Mission for Manuscripts vkSj eqxy fp=ksa esa csy&cwVksa dh cukoV dk bl izdkj bl le`f)'kkyh jktLFkkuh 'kSyh ds rjhdk tSu fp=ksa ls gh fy;k x;k gSA bu fp=ksa esa mn; ds dkj.k Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dh tks izlqIr fo'ks"kdj ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkk* tSls èkkfeZd psruk tkx`r gqbZ og tSu 'kSyh dk gh uohu fp=ksa esa N=] dey vkSj LofLrd vkfn ds vadu] laLdj.k FkkA budh lkt&lTtk dks vkSj Hkh 'kksHkkef.Mr dj vr% ^tSu 'kSyh* ds vUrxZr ^dYilw=& nsrs gSaA vr% Hkkjrh; fp= 'kSyh esa ^csy&cwVksa* dh dkydkpk;Z dFkk* fp=ksa dk ,d vkSj egÙoiw.kZ tUenk=h ^tSu&'kSyh* gh jgh gSA10 lkFk gh i`"BHkwfe ;ksxnku ;g Hkh Li"V gksrk gS fd bu fp=ksa ds esa LFkkiR; dh lajpuk esa egyksa ,oe~ m|kuksa esa ekè;e ls eè;dkyhu lkaLd`frd iqu#RFkku vkSj v.Mkdkj vkyadkfjd o`{kksa ds fp=kadu bR;kfn dh lfEefJr laLd`fr ds fodkl dks volj izkIr izsj.kk ds ewy esa tSu fp= 'kSyh gh jgh gSA gqvk vkSj bl n`f"V ls tSu 'kSyh ds }kjk Hkkjrh; tSu 'kSyh ds ;ksxnku ds lEcUèk esa yxHkx fp=dyk esa vk;k ;g ifjorZu ,d egÙoiw.kZ ;gh fopkj MkW0 t;flag uhjt ds Hkh gSa & Hkkjrh; ;ksxnku fl) gksrk gSA ;g Hkh Kkr gksrk gS fd fp= 'kSfy;ksa esa csy&cwVksa ds lfUuos'k dh tUenk=h izkphu dky ls gh Hkkjr ds Qkjl ls O;kikfjd tSu dyk gh jgh gSA blh izdkj Hkko foèkku ,oe~ lEcUèk] LFkkfir gks pqds FksA vkys[ku dh n`f"V ls jktLFkkuh 'kSyh ;|fi vius tksèkiqj fLFkr tSu&xzUFkkxkjksa esa lax`ghr viwoZ u;s ifjos'k dks ysdj vkbZ] fdUrq fo"k;&oLrq ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkk* fp=ksa esa vafdr ds fy, mlus viuh iwoZorhZ tSu&'kSyh dk gh ekuokd`fr;ksa dh os'kHkw"kkvksa] o vkHkw"k.kksa ls vkJ; fy;kA11 rRdkyhu lkekftd O;oLFkk o yksd laLd`fr ij ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkk* tSls fp=ksa ij izdk'k iM+rk gSA buls xqtjkr o jktLFkku esa oL=ksa 14oha&15oha 'krkCnh esa bZjkuh 'kSyh ds rÙoksa dh dh NikbZ] jaxkbZ vkfn dh izkphu ijEijk ds izek.k izsj.kk ls egÙoiw.kZ ifjorZu vkus izkjEHk gq,A ftlds Hkh izkIr gksrs gSa] tks Hkkjrh; bfrgkl dh egÙoiw.kZ QyLo:i ;g 'kSyh fodkl dh ,d ubZ fn'kk dh dM+h dgs tk ldrs gSaA vksj mUeq[k gks xbZA vkSj 16oha 'krkCnh ds vkjEHk ls blh izdkj ^dkydkpk;Z dFkk fp=ksa* ds vUrxZr gh bl 'kSyh esa lkSUn;Z vkSj lthork ds ubZ izfreku vafdr dFkk,sa] tSu èkeZ ds Hkkjr dh lhekvksa ls tqM+rs pys x;sA ;|fi ^dkydkpk;Z dFkk* ds xzUFkksa ckgj vU; ns'kksa esa izpkj ds izkphu fo'oluh; lzksr ds fp=ksa esa rSewjh os'kHkw"kk dk iz;ksx 14oha 'krkCnh esa ekus tk ldrs gSaA dkydkpk;Z vkSj lkxj Je.k ds gh gksus yxk Fkk] vkSj blesa bZjkuh dyk dk uDdk'kh lqo.kZHkwfe xeu dk o`ÙkkUr gekjs jk"Vªh; bfrgkl esa tSlk izHkko Hkh n`f"Vxkspj gksus yxk FkkA rFkkfi bu vkSj tSu èkeZ ds bfrgkl esa ,d egÙoiw.kZ lHkh fons'kh rRoksa dks vkRelkr djrh gqbZ tSu 'kSyh] lkfgfR;d funsZ'k gSaA blls ,d vkSj rF; Li"V 16oha 'krkCnh ds mÙkjk)Z o 17oha 'krkCnh ds izkjEHk gksrk gS fd bZlk dh igyh&nwljh 'krkCnh esa Hkkjr rd viuk Lo:i cny ysrh gS vkSj ifj.kkeLo:i ds iwoZ ds izns'kksa ¼nf{k.k&phu] fl;ke] fgUnh phu] jktLFkkuh 'kSyh dk tUe gksrk gSA ftlds izkjfEHkd cekZ] dEcksfM;k] eyk;k] tkok] lqek=k vkfn½ ls y{k.k voèkh Hkk"kk ds xzUFk ^ykSj&pUnk* rFkk ^cky ?kfu"B O;kikfjd lEcUèk FksA13 xksiky Lrqfr* vFkok ^clUr foykl* vkfn ds fp=ksa ^dkydkpk;Z dFkk fp=ksa* ds }kjk vkpk;Z esa Li"V n`f"V xkspj gksrs gSaA dkyd dk tks O;fDrRo mtkxj gksrk gS mldh 16oha 'krkCnh esa gq, bl ifjorZu us Hkkjrh; egÙkk blls igys izdk'k esa ugha vkbZ FkhA ;gh fp=dyk dk Lo:i gh cny fn;kA ;g uohu dkyd ikjl dqy tkrs gSa rFkk ;gh ckn esa lqo.kZ ifjekftZr ^jktLFkkuh 'kSyh* èkhjs&èkhjs tSu 'kSyh Hkwfe Hkh tkrs gSaA vr% bl ,sfrgkfld n`f"Vdks.k ls dks vius esa vkRelkr~ dj ysrh gS vkSj vc ewyr% Hkh ^dkydkpk;Z dFkk fp=ksa* dk egÙo Hkkjrh; dyk jktLFkkuh 'kSyh gh jg tkrh gSA12 vkxs ds dkyksa esa bfrgkl fl) gksrk gSA tSu xzUFkksa esa fo'ks"k :i ls ^dYilw=* vkfn ds fp= tksèkiqj fLFkr fofHkUu tSu&xzUFkkxkjksa esa jktLFkkuh o eqxy fefJr 'kSyh esa gh cuk;s x;sA izkIr lfp= ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkkvksa* ij

National Mission for Manuscripts 21 vkèkkfjr fp=kadu dh foLr`r Ük`a[kyk jgh gS] izHkkoksa dks LFkku nsrs gq, vkSj tSu èkkfeZd fo"k;ksa dks ftlesa Lo.kkZ{kjh] jkSI;k{kjh xzUFk foiqy ek=k esa viuk fo"k; cuk dj dyk dk tks :i izLrqr djrs lax`ghr gSaA dkyZ [k.Mkykokyk ,oe~ eksrhpUnz us gSa muesa ladh.kZrk dk ugha oju~ tSu èkehZ ohrjkxrk jktLFkku ds bl izns'k ds xzaFkkxkjksa esa lax`ghr dk ifjp; izkIr gksrk gSA17 ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkkvksa* dk fp=kadu dk;Z vr% tksèkiqj fLFkr fofHkUu tSu&xzUFkkxkjksa esa djus okys fprsjksa ds fo"k; esa mYys[k fd;k gS fd lax`ghr lfp= ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkkvksa* dh bUgha dykdkjksa ds oa'kt os dykdkj gq, ftUgksaus dkxth; ik.Mqfyfi;ksa ds vUrxZr izkIr fp=ksa dk jktLFkkuh 'kSyh ds fp=ksa dh ltZuk djds Hkkjrh; Hkkjrh; fp=dyk ds bfrgkl dh n`f"V ls cgqr fp=dyk bfrgkl dks dbZ Åpkb;k¡ iznku dhA14 egÙoiw.kZ LFkku gSA ftl izdkj tSu èkeZ us Hkkjrh; dyk vkSj Meenakshi Bharati is HoD, laLd`fr ds {ks= esa egÙoiw.kZ ;ksxnku fn;k gS] mlh Deptt. of Drg. & Ptg., izdkj tSu fp= 'kSyh ds dykdkjksa ds vonku dks Kanoria P.G. Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Jaipur Hkh Hkkjrh; dyk bfrgkl dh n`f"V ls Hkqyk;k ugha lUnHkZ tk ldrkA 10oha 'krkCnh ls 15oha 'krkCnh ds chp 1 iz-la- ujsUnz Hkkukor( tSu laLd`fr vkSj jktLFkku] lE;XKku vkSj mlds vkxs ds dkyksa esa Hkh Hkkjrh; fp=dyk izpkjd e.My] t;iqj] 1975&76] izdk'kdh; dh le`f) ds fy, lokZfèkd mYys[kuh; ;ksxnku 2 MkW0 lR; izdk'k( tSu dykdkjksa dh Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dks tSu dykdkjksa dk gh jgk gSA ;fn mudk ;ksxnku vuqie nsu] egkohj t;Urh Lekfjdk] t;iqj 1971] i`-97 3 deyk xxZ( fpf=r tSu ik.Mqfyfi;ksa dk Øfed fodkl] u gksrk rks Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dk bfrgkl vLi"V egkohj t;Urh Lekfjdk] [k.M 2] t;iqj] 1977] i`-la-85 ,oe~ vèkwjk gh jg tkrkA bu dykdkjksa dh fuiq.krk 4 MkW0 ,e-,l- ekoM+h( Hkkjr dh izeq[k fp= 'kSfy;k¡] fnYyh] ds n'kZu mu iksFkh fp=ksa esa gksrs gSa tgk¡ LFkkukHkko 1989] i``-la-38 5 MkW0 lR; izdk'k( tSu fp=dyk dk Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dks ds gksrs gq, Hkh vfr lw{e js[kkvksa esa mu fojkV Hkkoksa ;ksxnku] egkohj t;Urh Lekfjdk] t;iqj 1962] i`-96 dks lekfo"V fd;k x;k gS] ftldk mnkgj.k vU;= 6 'kqdnso Jksf=;( Hkkjrh; xzUFk fp=.k dh lkexzh ,oe~ i)fr] ns[kus dks ugha feyrkA eqt¶Qj uxj] 1997] i`-la-53 7 ;w-ih- 'kkg( eksj MkWD;wesUV~l vkWQ tSu isfUVaXl ,.M xqtjkrh blh izdkj vfgalk&izèkku tSu èkeZ esa thon;k isafUVaXl vkWQ flDVhUFk ,.M ysVj lsUpqjht] vgenkckn] vkSj yksdksipkj dh tks egrh Hkkouk loZ= O;kIr 1976] i`-la-9&12 gS] tSu 'kSyh ds dykdkjksa us mlls izsj.kk izkIr dj 8 okpLifr xSjksyk( Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dk laf{kIr bfrgkl] ,slh dykd`fr;ksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k] ftuesa vikj bykgkckn] 1985] i`-la-49 9 ekfj;ks cqlkfXy( bf.M;u fefu;spj] feyku] 1969] 'kkfUr vkSj vikfFkZo foJkfUr dk Hkko èofur gksrk i`-la-43] 51 gSA bu d`fr;ksa dks bruh ekU;rk izkIr gksus dk ,d 10 okpLifr xSjksyk( Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dk laf{kIr bfrgkl] dkj.k ;g Hkh gS fd muesa egku ekuoh; vkn'kksZa dks bykgkckn] 1985] i`-la-51 MkW0 ,e-,l- ekoM+h( Hkkjr dh izeq[k fp= 'kSfy;k¡] fnYyh] 15 izLrqr djus dk ljkguh; m|ksx gqvk gSA 1989] i`-la-39 ^dYilw=&dkydkpk;Z dFkkvksa* dh ;s d`fr;k¡ 11 MkW0 t;flag uhjt( jktLFkkuh fp=dyk] t;iqj] 1994] tSu 'kSyh dh LFkk;h ,oe~ egÙoiw.kZ fufèk;k¡ gSa vkSj i`-la-22 12 jkeukFk( eè;dkyhu Hkkjrh; dyk,¡ vkSj mudk fodkl] dsoy ek= Hkkjrh; gh ugha fo'o dyk ds {ks= esa Hkh jktLFkku fgUnh xzUFk vdkneh] t;iqj] 1973] i`-la-4&10 mudk viuk ,d fo'ks"k LFkku ekuk tkrk gSA bl 13 ;w-ih- 'kkg( lqo.kZ Hkwfe esa dkydkpk;Z] cukjl] 1956] i`-la-2]4 dFku dh iqf"V Jh ijekuUn pks;y ds bl okD; 14 dkyZ [k.Mkykokyk ,oe~ eksrh pUnz( , dUlhMjs'ku vkWQ ,u byLVªsVsM eSU;qfLØIV~l ÝkWe e.Mi nqxZ ¼ek.Mw½ MsVsM] 1439 ls Hkh gksrh gS & ^^bl 'kSyh us Hkkjrh; dyk dks ,-Mh-] yfyr dyk fnYyh] i`-la-6 u;s vk;ke fn;s gSaA os vk;ke ftlds fy, ;wjksi ds 15 okpLifr xSjksyk( Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dk laf{kIr bfrgkl] dykdkj 19oha 'krkCnh ds vfUre pj.k esa o 20oha bykgkckn] 1985] i`-la-52 16 16 ijekuUn pks;y( tSu fp=dyk% tSu laLd`fr vkSj jktLFkku] 'krkCnh ds izkjEHk esa iz;Ru djrs jgsA** t;iqj] 1975&76] i`-la-209 bl izdkj tSu fp=dyk ds vUrxZr izkIr fp= 17 MkW0 lR; izdk'k( tSu fp=dyk dk Hkkjrh; fp=dyk dks 14oha 'krkCnh ls 19oha 'krkCnh rd vusd lkef;d ;ksxnku] egkohj t;Urh Lekfjdk] t;iqj 1962] i`-98

22 National Mission for Manuscripts Human Rights in Buddhism

Dr. C. Upendra Rao

The issue of human rights is indeed an The United Nations’ Charter reaffirmed important one. But when we refer it to the faith of international community on Buddhism, we have to, in fact, understand fundamental “Human rights, in the dignity it as the human dignity in Buddhism. and worth of human beings, in the equal According to most of the scholars, rights of man and woman and of nations, Buddhist position is clearer on the basic large and small.” On 10th December 1948 the issues of human nature. Thus, human U.N. General Assembly, at its Paris session, nature is the ultimate source, the basis adopted the universal declaration of human from which all other characteristics are rights, which constitutes a landmark in the to be defined. They are the reflections and even consequences of it. The reason history of the human race. for assigning human nature as the The Universal Declaration of Human basic position is very simple. It is to give Rights boldly declares that all human beings human relations a firm grounding in the are born free and equal in dignity and rights. truly existential nature of things: that They should treat all other human beings is, the concrete and dynamic nature of like their own brothers and sisters. The interpersonal relationships. As we all live Declaration says that everyone is entitled to together so it has become a fact that there human rights without distinction of any kind, should be “mutual respect of fellow beings.” such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, The doctrine of Buddha-nature or political, or of any other opinion, national or inherent Buddhahood is unique in Mahayana social origin, property, birth or other status. Buddhism. The Nirvana Sutra states that “all This is how modern social scientists have sentient creatures possess Buddha-nature.” defined the human rights. From the doctrine of Buddha-nature we can derive the relation to the concept of human When we approach the Buddhist dignity. First, it is important to make people literature to find the whereabouts of human aware that they themselves possess Buddha rights as mentioned in it, we notice that nature. Furthermore, because the doctrine the Buddhist literature has not explained of Buddha-nature maintains that all people human rights in modern terminology. On possess an inherent Buddhahood, it may be the contrary, when we open the Buddhist described as a doctrine of true equality. It is scriptures we find that the concepts of proverbial that the Buddha condemned the human rights as enshrined in the Universal social discrimination and caste system of his Declaration of Human Rights are very much period. The Buddhist scriptures state that available in the teachings of the Lord Buddha. “People are not born as brahmins. But by the actions one becomes a shudra, and by his Philosophical and ethical are two main actions the same becomes a brahmin.”1 The categories of the Buddhist view of human Vajrasuchi, a small treatise questioning the rights. “All human beings are born with authority of brahmins is to be referred in complete freedom” is a Buddhist philosophical this context. concept of human rights; the destinies

National Mission for Manuscripts 23 of human beings are in their own hands, one can find the extension of rights from that is what told in Dhammapada “attā hi human to the animal kingdom. The attāno nātho2” One should note that all same could be perceived through Cakkavatti human beings aspire for happiness. “sukha Sihanāda Sutta in which emperor had made it kāmāni bhutāni3” Therefore we find that the compulsory to observe the ‘pañcaśla’, which Buddhist approach of human rights is a more provides the protection to beasts and birds humanistic one, than legalistic. (migapakkisu).5 Here one can notice that not Buddhism considers man quite only the rights of human beings, but the competent for the task of ensuring for rights of all other creatures on the land and himself and for his fellow beings happiness in in water should be protected. the world. This is the Philosophical category The modern concept of animal rights of Buddhist view of human rights. We can is not very old. It is only in the 20th century also find the humanistic approach of Buddha that animal rights groups have brought this by his reaction to the social problems, which issue into the light in few countries. Buddhism were prevailed in his times. The complete advocates the protection of both man and religious and social climate of North India beast. In Buddhist historical context emperor during and after the rise of Buddhism is Aśoka was the first monarch to adopt originally the reaction against limitations many interesting measures in this direction. imposed on human beings. The entire Buddhism suggests that human rights would activities of Buddha and his early disciples be protected through the fulfillment of one’s in this context do direct us towards the duties towards his fellow beings. Therefore acceptance and practice of principles of we never find the importance to the term human rights in a very practical manner. ‘rights’ in ancient Indian literature including the Buddhist literature. The noble eight-fold path, and other fundamental Buddhist concepts such as While the term ‘rights’ has expressed pañcaśla, the 5 precepts, and the admirable strongly in western context because the metta (loving kindness), ahimsa (non-injury) rights of humans were denied mostly in dāna (benevolence), kataññutā (gratitude), that hemisphere. This was perhaps due to gārava (reverence), peyyavajja (courtesy), an outlook nurtured on values which breed samānatata (equanimity and humanity), khanti individualism and ethno-centricism and which soracca (toleration) sacca (sincerity), all these therefore treats the world having been given qualities constitute the fundamental moral to one group of people to exploit others for basis of human relation with their fellow human their own gain. Buddha’s discoveries which beings. This will lead to accept all human rights dealt with the social relationships [6] have the as per the U.N. Declaration of Human Rights. prime importance in this connection. In Buddhist pañcaśla we can find: C. Upendra Rao is Associate Professor,  The right to life and Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies,  The right to property Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi These are two broad divisions within which all human rights could be reckoned. 1 Vasalasuttam in ‘Uttanipata’ edited by Bhikshu Dharmarakshita, P. 28–36. The Cakkavatti (ideal ruler) has to 2 Dhammapada, V. 160 recommend the practice of this Buddhist 3 Dhammapada, V 131, 132 4 Cakkavatti Sihanāda Sutta, Dīghanikāya, III. P. 62 ff pañcaśla which means the observant of 5 Dīghanikāya, III. P. 61 ff human rights4. In Metta Sutta of Suttanipāta 6 Sigalovadasutta of Dīghanikāya, III. P. 180 ff

24 National Mission for Manuscripts Taxation in Kauţilya’s Arthaśāstra

Sudhir Kumar Lall

There was peace, goodwill, tranquility and region (Punjab) and Vişņugupta is the name prosperity in ancient India, though many his parents christened him with. It would be mighty dynastic rulers ruled over this out of context to discuss the whole lot of country. Conspicuously, the rulers were legends that have cropped up around this never been despotic and exercised self great personality, but it can be taken for imposed restraint and in this way ensured sure that he was a master statesman and rule of law, the bulwark of civil liberty and that he was the one who was instrumental welfare of the state. It was also an efficient in getting the throne of Magadha to system of governance, which had a very well Chandragupta, the Maurya. Chandragupta knit economy designed to ensure welfare of was made king in 321 B.C. Hence most the subjects. The king was benevolent and scholars agree that Chāņakya must have the state, oriented towards the welfare of written his treatise somewhere between 321 the subjects. In fact there was the rule of and 300 B.C. As we read through its pages, wisdom and that wisdom emanated from we find that literature on the science of some treatises, authored by some eminent governmental administration had been there saints and statesmen. well before the times of Kauţilya. Kauţilya iztklq[ks lq[ka jkK%] iztkuka p fgrs fgre~A has quoted the views of nearly ten of his predecessors in the Arthaśāstra. The biggest ukRefiz;a fgra jkK% iztkuka rq fiz;a fgre~AA contribution of Kauţilya can be defined Arthaśāstra (AS.1.19.34) as that he brought order to the chaos of In the happiness of the subject, lies the happiness of earlier writings. He summarizes, criticizes the king and in what is beneficial to the subjects is in and improves upon them, rightly so as his his own benefit. That which is dear to the subjects is beneficial for him and not that which is dear to him. treatise is very well planned and executed. The work consists of 15 adhikaraņas, 180 There were several arthaśāstras and prakaraņas, 150 adhyāyas, and 380 kārikās, dharmaśāstras dealing with the subject of all of which add to 6000 ślokas (i.e. 32 statecraft and administration, but it was in syllabic units including prose portions). It the Arthaśāstra of Kauţilya that the topic is not possible to give the contents of this was dealt with in detail. voluminous work in a nutshell as the range of Kauţilya, like all other Sanskrit literary the subject-matter is far too vast. However, figures is silent about his date and time. it can be said that it is a ‘complete’ guide However, all the sources of Indian tradition, book of statecraft, giving minutest details viz. Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina, of acquisition and sustenance of the state, agree that Kauţilya destroyed the Nanda seemingly fortified with real-life experiences. dynasty and installed Chandragupta, the Its importance is also reflected from the Maurya, on the throne of Magadha. Kauţilya fact that ever since Dr. R. Shama Shastri denotes that he is of Kuţila gotra, Chāņakya brought this text to light in 1909, it has been introduces him to be native of Chaņaka extensively translated, edited, commented

National Mission for Manuscripts 25 upon and utilized by scholars of Indology as (III.22) employ the word bali in the sense of well as various other disciplines. the sixth part of the produce of the land Kauţilya identified seven constituents or that the king levied as tax. Mahābhārata has limbs of a state as LokE;ekR;tuinnqxZdks'k large portions of statecraft where taxation n.Mfe=kf.kizÑr;%A (AS.6.1.1) or the king, as well is discussed. In the Arthaśāstra of (the group of) councillors, ministers and Kauţilya, reference is also found as to how other high officials, territory of the state this taxation came into existence. According to Kauţilya people made Manu, the Vaivasvata along with the population inhabiting it, the their king in order to put an end to the chaos fortified towns and cities, the treasury, the of matsyanyāya (i.e.; the bigger fish devoured forces and the allies. Here the discussion the smaller one/the powerful ones teasing is confined to the treasury/koşa only and the weaker one). One sixth of the agricultural more so, to the primary mode of filling it produce, one-tenth of income from trade i.e., taxation. The importance of treasury is and some gold was fixed as his share. In lieu reflected in Kauţilya’s following statement of all this, the king took the responsibilities of dks'kiwokZ% lokZjEHkk%A rLekRiwoaaZ dks'keos{ksrA security and prosperity of the subjects. Thus, (AS.2.8.1,2) with the help of taxation and punishments, All state activities depend first on treasury. Therefore the king warded off the evils and ensured the a king shall devote his best attention to it. well being of the subjects. That’s why even There were, in ancient India, three the sages residing in forests also gave one- perennial and principal sources of income to sixth of their grains to the king who in turn the state viz. king’s share of produce of land, protected them. tolls and customs duties and fines levied EkkRL;U;k;kfHkHkwrk% iztk euqa oSoLora jktkua pfØjsA from wrongdoers or defeated litigants. (Mbh. /kU;"kM~Hkkxa i.;n'kHkkxa fgj.;a pkL; Hkkx/ks;a Sānti (71-10) and Śukranītisāra (iv.2.13) izdYi;keklq%A (AS.1.13.5,9) Taxation, however, is not a novel concept. This explains the primary reasons as to The earliest reference of taxation-related why people should pay taxes to the king. terminology is found in the Vedas. Taxes were collected by a well planned /kzqoa /kzqos.k gfo"kk·fHklksea e`'kkeflA network of executives, headed by an official vFkks r bUnz% dsoyh foZ'kks cfyârLdjr~AA named samāhartā which can be understood (RV.10.173.6) as a collector. Samāhartā was responsible for all kinds of earnings to the state. ;ks nsº;ks vue;n~ o/kLuS;ksZ vFkZiRuh#"kl'pdkjA lekgrkZ nqxZa jk"Vªªa [kfua lsrqa ozta of.kd~oFka l fu#è;k ugq"kks ;âks vfXufoZ'k'pØs cfyâr% lgksfHk%AA pkos{ksrAA (AS.2.6.1) (RV.7.6.5) All these words, such as durga etc. are technical terms related to the various Here Balihŗt is used for common people; kinds of revenues, including taxes, that who bring bali (tribute/tax) to the king. were collected from the subjects and these Taittirīya-brāhmaņa (II. 7.18.3) says “the people are collectively known as the vk;'kjhje~ bring bali to him.” In the Aitereya-brāhmaņa or the body of income. Kauţilya does not (35.3) the vaiśya is characterized as balikŗt forget to mention that the king should be (payer of taxes to another) since brāhmaņas vigilant enough to observe the activities of and kşatriyas were mostly exempted from these officials as he appears to be a great taxation. connoisseur of human psychology as well. Rāmāyaņa (III.6.11), Matsyapurāņa (215.57), He says v'ol/kekZ.kks fg euq";k fu;qDrk% deZlq Manusmŗti (VII.80) and Vişņudharma-sūtra fodqoZrs (AS.2.9.3) i.e. man is like a horse, it

26 National Mission for Manuscripts goes berserk when applied (to a chariot/a one-sixth to one-twenty-fifth. It comprised job) and goes on to describe all the possible perishable items such as fruits, vegetables, ways, forty to be precise, in which the seeds, dried fish and meat etc. (which carried officials could cheat the king (AS 2.8.20). one-sixth of their value as tolls) fibrous Taxes were classified into two broad garments, cottons, silks, arsenic, vermillion, metals, sandals, wines, ivory, skins, carpets categories-regular and occasional. First the etc. (which had one-tenth or one fifteenth as regular taxes will be dealt with. These are tolls) and cotton, thread, scents, medicines, the following taxes which are collected on wood, bamboo, clay pots, sugar, salt, cooked regular basis. All of them are scattered in the rice etc. (which carried one-twentieth or body of the text, described under the duties one-twenty-fifth of their value as tolls). of those particular heads of the divisions: (AS.2.22.1-6) Octroi and other gate tolls were known 1. Śulka - Custom duty Praveśya - Import as dvārādeya which was normally one-fifth of Nişkrāmya - Export the customs duty levied. This could, however, Dvārābahirikadaya - octroi and gate tolls be reduced in the interest of the country. It 2. Vyājī - mānavyājī was prohibited to sell goods off, where they (transaction tax) for crown goods were produced. This provision was there, 3. Bhāga - şadbhāga probably, to facilitate the taxation-process share of production 4. Kara i.e., the produced goods should reach the cash market and then from there, they should be 5. Pratikara - vişţi, - āyudhīya sold with proper taxes, giving all the possible kind - labour - supply of soldiers benefits of the system to the producers as 6. Vaidharaņa well as to the state. countervailing duties or taxes 7. Vartanī road cess Transaction Tax 8. Parigha Vyājī or transaction tax: this was a very monopoly tax 9. Prakriyā important tax affecting every transaction royalty in goods. It was at the same time, a sales 10. Piņdakara tax, a revenue surcharge and a discount taxes paid in kind by villagers on payments, made by the government. 11. Senābhaktam It is often mentioned as a separate item maintenance tax for army in recording revenues. It is also described 12. Pārśvam as a charge payable on salt produced and surcharges. countervailing duty on imported salt. It was collected automatically in most transactions Custom Duty by the use of different weights and capacity Śulka or custom duty is of three kinds: Bāhya, measures. All the units of weights and Ābhyantara and Ātithya. Bāhya is duty on measures were meticulously standardized, goods produced inland, Ābhyantara is duty which ensured a fair market to the buyer as on goods produced inside the fortified well as to the seller. A unique aspect of this township and Ātithya is duty on imported system was that the standard of weights goods. All of these are further classified into and measures, used for the sale or purchase two categories ‘nişkrāmya’ and ‘praveśya’. of commodities for the king, was different Praveśya is import duty which was twenty from the common standard meant for percent ad valorum.’Nişkrāmya’ is export general consumers. This indicates that the duty which varied from goods to goods from king was quite interested in higher receipts.

National Mission for Manuscripts 27 The transaction tax is also referred to The tax was- as ‘mānavyājī’ in relation to sale of crown Animals (Slaughter permitted) 1/6th goods. In addition to the 6.25% for sales by Fish and Birds 1/10th or more volume and 5% for sales by weight, the rate of tax for goods sold by counting is given as Deer and Cattle 1/6th one-eleventh or about 9%. (AS.2.16.10) (AS.2.26.3) Compensations for inaccuracies in weights and measures were also carefully Tax in Cash and Kind done. For commodities weighed in large Kara or tax was the tax paid in cash. quantities and additional 5% was to be Pratikara was the tax paid in kind and given as trade transactions and in payment it comprised free labour (in processing to the treasury. ‘Taptavyājī’ was an extra grains, oilseeds/sugarcanes in warehouses) quantity given as ‘heating allowance’ for loss done in lieu of taxes. Text dose not usually of volume on heating-1/32nd for ghee and distinguishes between the two. (AS.2.29.1) 1/64th for oil. Also, ‘mānasrava’ or sticking allowance was given in the case of all liquids, Āyudhīya or supply of soldiers: It in lieu of the quantity which sticks to the comprised supplying soldiers in lieu of taxes measure as one-fiftieth. (AS.2.19.44) payable by villages as a whole. (AS.2.35.1)

Share of Production Countervailing Duty Regarding Bhāga or share of production it is Vaidharaņa or countervailing duty: It was stated that: countervailing duty on imported salt and on alcoholic beverages. Also, if the crown goods /kkU;i'kqfgj.;S'pSrkuuqx`Êh;kÙkkU;uqlq[ksu n|q%A were sold at a lesser rate the merchants vuqxzgifjgkjkS pSrsH;% dks'ko`f)djkS n|kr~AA were supposed to compensate the rates (AS.2.1.13-15) fixed earlier collectively. This is also called It is advisable for the king that he should give grains, vaidharna. (AS.2.12.31, 35 and 2.25.40) cattle and monetary grants to the farmers as per their requirements which they can return to him as per their convenience. He should also give anugraha and Road Cess parigraha to the farmers so that they are healthy and Vartanī or road cess: It was collected at the they contribute more to the treasury by being so. city gates by an official called antapāla, The plight of hundreds of farmers, who charged from foreign traders. Their goods go to the extent of committing suicide, would were stamped & sealed after declaration have been otherwise, had some attention of their material. Making a false declaration been paid to the aforementioned words. about the goods or tampering with seals Bhāga is referred to as ‘şadbāga’ (one- was a serious offence. Vartanī was thus sixth) and applies to tax on agricultural calculated. production in private lands and fishermen. Cartloads -1 and 1/4 paņas Private animals under crown protection paid Horse, mule etc. -1 paņa one-tenth. The royalty paid by the leasing Oxen, Bull etc. -1/2 paņa boats and lessés of mines, pearl and conch Sheep etc -1/4 paņa fishermen, leasing boats and lessés of salt pans is not specified in the text. Head loads -1/16 paņa Butchers were also taxed. Revenue here (AS 2.15.3) was collected by the Chief Protector of Parigha was a sort of monopoly tax; Animals and Controllers of Animal slaughter. applicable to the unclaimed goods. (AS 2.6.10)

28 National Mission for Manuscripts Piņdakara was fixed tax, obtained from made to the cultivators, merchants, wine- villages. (AS.2.15.3) sellers, prostitutes and those who rear pigs, Senābhaktam: This is rather an ambiguous poultry, cattle etc. term that appears to be an occasional tax The king may request the rich to give as which was levied when the army was sent to much of their gold as they can and in return a location specifically to protect it. the king, may honor them by bestowing on Pārśvam is also a doubtful term. It them a post at the court, or the dignity of appears to be a kind of monetary gain to the an umbrella, a turban or some decoration. state, due to supremacy of a king. ;Fkksidkja ok Loo'kk ok ;nqigjs;q% LFkkuPN=os"Vu foHkw"kk'pS"kka fgj.;su iz;PNsr~AA Exemptions (AS.5.2.36) A planned system of exemptions or tax relief He emphatically says that such a demand was also very much in place. Commodities for excessive taxation is to be made only intended for a marriage or taken by a bride once and not twice in the same distress from her parents to her husband, (or) lÑnso u f}% iz;ksT;% (AS.5.2.30) what follows meant as presents, (or) for the purpose of this is very captivating. If the collections are sacrifices, (or) the accouchement of women not successfully made thus, the Samāhartā or for the worship of gods, (or) for the should take resort to other means. These are ritualistic ceremonies of caula, upanayana, seemingly aimed at disgorging the wealth of godāna or for the observance of a vrata or the riches. Kauţilya says that the king can in for the consecration of a person for sacrifice these circumstances, take away the wealth and for other special ceremonies; were of the corporations (sanghas) of heretics allowed to go free of toll. and temples also; can set up all of a sudden Brahmins, ascetics, children, very old on one night a god or a platform (caitya) people, sick men, messengers, and pregnant for a holy tree or a sacred place for a man women were to be provided with free passes of miraculous powers and provide for fairs by the superintendent of ships enabling and merry gatherings there and secure the them to use the ferries. (AS 2.28.18) necessary money. Items which were of great benefit and nSorpSR;a fl)iq.;LFkkuekSiikfnda ok jk=koqRFkk; seeds which were not easily available were ;k=klektkH;kekthosr~AA (AS.5.2.39) allowed to be imported without any charges. Another was that he should get a snake charmed through some medicine or chant Occasional Taxes and show it to people. And if someone Now, the occasional taxes are discussed. disbelieves he should be administered with These were collected when the treasury was poisonous charaņāmŗta, poisoned enough to decreasing or there was danger of invasion or make him unconscious for a little while. Then some other calamity impending. Here also, the they should say “see the wrath of the snake- king could not at his pleasure or sweet-will levy god” and afterwards he should be treated taxes; the rates, which the king was entitled to for the same and when he becomes alright, levy, were fixed and varied only according to the money may be collected. (AS.5.2.44) the degree of abnormality anticipated. He also recommends many other tricks Kauţilya requires the king to beg (yāceta) and dodges for securing money; the only of the people for this heavy taxation redeeming feature of these devices being (AS.5.2.2). He employs the word ‘praņaya’ that he is careful to point out that all these (request) for such demands, which are to be are to be employed against the seditious and

National Mission for Manuscripts 29 irreligious and not against others, ,oa nw";s"o/kk automobile, its horsepower, its age, value feZds"kq p orsZrA usrjs"kqAA (AS.5.2.69) etc. Taxes today have three functions- A question may be asked; what were a) Fiscal/budgetary- to cover Govt. the means of preventing a king from being expenditure over exacting and tyrannical in his taxes? b) Economic- to promote general goals viz. Kauţilya (AS.7.5.19-27) cites at great length employment etc. the causes that lead to the impoverishment c) Social or redistributive-to lessen of the subjects, to their being greedy and inequalities in distribution of income/ disaffected. Among these he mentions “not wealth paying what ought to be paid and exacting what ought not to be exacted, not punishing Adam Smith first systematized the rules the guilty and severely punishing the guilty, that should govern a rational system of not protecting the people against thieves and taxation, in the “Wealth of Nations” (Book V. robbing them of their wealth”. He then states chap. II). He set down four general canons: that when the subjects become impoverished that taxes should be based on the individual’s they become greedy and when greedy they ability to pay, and that they should be become disaffected and voluntarily go over certain, convenient and economical. Today, to the side of the king’s enemy or destroy only the first of these is considered to be their own king. In another place Kauţilya important, others being overshadowed by (AS.13.1.20) suggests that a conqueror may the developments in the theory of taxation. employ spies who should encourage the The modern conception of social justice subjects of his enemy suffering from famine, requires that taxes should be universal, equal depredations of thieves and wild tribes to and responsive to the individual’s ability to pay. tell their king, “We shall beg the king for In the modern welfare state, furthermore, favours (remission of taxes or help in the taxes are expected to be more or less way of seeds etc.) but if he does not agree redistributive of income or wealth or both. to bestow favours we shall go to another Thus, the tax-system of Kauţilya has country”. So the threat of disaffection and been briefly discussed here. Although the migrating to another country were the rates of the taxes were a little high in regard deterrents against the tyranny of heavy to those times but in that era higher returns taxation according to Kauţilya. were needed as India had to face Greek In modern Economics, taxes are the most invasions and hence the administration left important source of governmental revenue. no chance of collecting money, but at the They are compulsory levies that are regularly same time the taxation was responsive and imposed, and as a rule, not designated for sensitive about the interests of the subjects. a special purpose; they are regarded as a Today, we do have an efficient tax system contribution to the general revenue pool but the loopholes are too many and officials from which most governmental expenditures too corrupt, hence Kauţilyan administration are financed. Tax legislation customarily stands one step ahead here. His tax-system distinguishes between the “tax object” was methodical, calculative, meticulous and “tax base”; the former may consist of and comprehensive, covering almost all goods, transactions or sum of money while the possible areas from where the taxes the latter is the physical unit or monetary could be exacted without hurting anyone’s amount to which the tax rate is applied. For interests. example, a levy on automobiles (tax object) Sudhir Kumar Lall is Research Officer, may use as the tax base the weight of the Kalakosha Division, IGNCA, New Delhi

30 National Mission for Manuscripts Case Study Conservation of Vajrayana Buddhist Manuscript from N. C. Mehta Gallery Collection, Ahmedabad Vismay H. Raval

Gujarat Museum Society was formed as decided to put it on display because of its public cheritable trust way back in 1960 uniqueness of subject, painting style and to aesthetically exhibit the renowned N.C. to add new dimension in display by adding Mehta Collection of miniature paintings. Nepali art-work. The script of this Manuscript Initially the collection was exhibited at the is Newari and is written by golden-yellow first floor kindly provided by Ahmedabad ink on black coloured folio. Each folio from Municipal Corporation in the renowned this set has painting on one side and text Sanskar Kendra, Ahmedabad. This building on other. The manuscript folios were so was designed by worldwide famous architect brittle that even thorough assessment Le Corbusier, and exhibition was inaugurated work could was not possible because its by Shri Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime status of conservation didn’t allow handling. Minister of India. This collection remained on After conservation it was assumed that display till 1991 till some painting had started this manuscript belongs to 16th century showing severe conservation problem due and contains images of deities of Vajrayana to growth in pollutants in the surrounding. Buddhism. Hence the Board of Trustees had to transfer entire collection into the building designed by As said earlier, the manuscript was Padmshri Balkrishna Doshi at L.D. Institute of received in a very badly damaged condition, Indology campus. This collection comprises weak and very fragile, and from many places various vital and historical collection of Indian holes were noted and a few portions were Miniature Paintings. Along with early Gujarati torn out and lost. Almost all folios from this school style paintings contained in folios of manuscript were damaged in the border Kalpsutra, Sangrahanisutra, Kalkacharyakatha, areas, indicating it was not stored in proper Gitagovinda, Balgopalstuti and world famous manner. Therefore, it had been damaged Chaurpanchashika; Rajasthani paintings of severely before it came to gallery collection. sub- schools Mewar, Bundi, Kotah, Jodhpur All folios were discoloured and had a fine and Bikaner; the collection includes some layer of dust on it. Due to ageing the folios very important Mughal period portraits; and turned acidic as well in and pH was measured Sultanate style painings of the Hamza-nama as 5 by pH strips. and the Sikander-nama. The pahari painting section of the gallery contains masterpieces Problem in Conservation of Basholi, Guler, Kulu-Mandi, Nurpur, Kangra During preliminary examination it was and others. found that all the colours used in the manuscript, except black colour of support Condition before Conservation paper, were water soluable. Green and The manuscript which the author has red colours were soluable in some alcohol restored was received in alarming state medium as well. Hence before conducting of conservation from the storage. It was any solvent based cleaning treatment, the

National Mission for Manuscripts 31 painting portion of the manuscript has and text at other. The calligraphy of this been consolidated by 1% of Paralloid B72 in manuscript was so good in quality, hence it Toluene. was decided not to give full lining to those 12 folios having text at the other side. Conservation Treatment The two folios which were having neither Fumigation: First of all the document text nor painting at one side of the folios was fumigated by Thymol and Para- were decided to give a full lining by 9-10 dichlorobenzene. After the completion of GSM banana tissue paper* at the former fumigation the superficial dust and other side and accurate strip lining was done and foreign deposition were removed with soft appropriate thickness was maintained by flat headed brush. multiple strips of tissue papers. Paper Strips Removal: Paper strips were Remaining 10 folios were given only strip found in some folios, which were removed by lining from both sides to avoid any loss of solution of water and methanol (1:1). opacity on written or painted side. Here also Cleaning: The manuscript folios were the thickness of strip lining was adjusted by then required solvent based cleaning the multiple layers of the tissue papers. The which were given by cotton swabs deeped adhesive used for the purpose was made in Methyl Alcohol in water (80%). By the from the maida (flour). repetitive action of this method on in-house Mending of tears and holes: Mending of made vacuum table, desired result was the tears and holes were also done by the achieved. The remaining local stains were putty made from fibres from the tissue removed by the suitable solvents, mainly paper in the aforesaid adhesive and later it Carbontetrachloride and Dichloromethane. was retoned to the actual colour shade of De-acidification: After the removal of the folio. stains from the manuscript folios it was In the full process of the conservation given a layer of 2% solution of Barrium work on these folios it was persistently Hydroxide to neutralize the acidity and to ensured that every bit of work is performed protect the document from further threat within the ethics and principles of due to increase in acidity. conservation. Lining of Folios: Out of 14 folios, 2 folios Vismay H. Raval is Curator (Conservation), had no text at the other side, remaining L.D. Museum & N.C. Mehta Gallery, 12 folios had text and painting on one side Ahmedabad

32 National Mission for Manuscripts “One of our major misfortunes is that we have lost so much of the world’s ancient literature – in Greece, in India and elsewhere…. Probably an organised search for old manuscripts in the libraries of religious institutions, monasteries and private persons would yield rich results. That, and the critical examination of these manuscripts and, where considered desirable, their publication and translation, are among the many things we have to do in India when we succeed in breaking through our shackles and can function for ourselves. Such a study is bound to throw light on many phases of Indian history and especially on the social background behind historic events and changing ideas.”

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India

Editor Mrinmoy Chakraborty

Publisher’s detail: Mission Director Cover Image: Mother Trishala with Mahavir Vardaman National Mission for Manuscripts, IGNCA from Kalpasuj-I, preseved at Shri D.R. Mehta Collection, 11 Mansingh Road Jaipur New Delhi – 110 001 Tel: +91 11 23383894 The views, opinions and suggestions expressed in the Fax: +91 11 23073340 Kriti Rakshana are strictly those of the authors and Email: [email protected] not necessarily that of the editor or publisher of this Website: www.namami.org publication. Design: Macro Graphics Pvt. Ltd. Print: Ana Print O Grafix Pvt. Ltd. A bi-monthly publication of the National Mission for Manuscripts

Vol. 5 nos. 5-6 April – July 2010