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DECLINE in ANCIENT EGYPT? a REASSESSMENT of the LATE NEW KINGDOM and THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD By

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DECLINE in ANCIENT EGYPT? a REASSESSMENT of the LATE NEW KINGDOM and THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD By DECLINE IN ANCIENT EGYPT? A REASSESSMENT OF THE LATE NEW KINGDOM AND THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD by EDWARD JAMES MUSHETT COLE A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Classics, Ancient History and Archaeology School of History and Cultures College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham February 2016 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract The late New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period (1215-650 BC) have been, and continue to be, interpreted as periods of decline and dramatic change within ancient Egyptian history. This thesis challenges such views through an analysis of those interpretations and the evidence used to support them. In so doing I have evaluated if these periods do reflect a decline from previous periods and if the changes were as all- encompassing as previously suggested. In order to carry out this evaluation three key processes have been examined through detailed analysis of related datasets. These will establish the complexity of the periods, and the potential for nuance within specific datasets which is masked by the current descriptions. Reference has also been made to cross-cultural comparisons and ethno- archaeological theories as many of these processes have been identified in other societies and discussed outside Egyptology. This has led to some clarity regarding the complexity of the periods, recognising the extensive level of continuity and possible explanations for the changes visible, and thus an alternative to the ‘simplistic’ interpretation of decline and decay. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my supervisor, Tony Leahy, for his guidance, patience, and encouragement throughout the whole process, and for enabling me to return to academia. I must also thank Robert Morkot for starting me along this path in the first place. I should express my gratitude to my fellow postgraduates in the department who have been a constant source of good humour, friendly criticism, and encouragement. I would like to thank my parents for their constant support and encouragement which has never wavered, and especially for that of my mother who sadly died before my corrections could be completed. To my three readers, Jenny, Katie, and Felix, who found my many mistakes and provided me with better alternatives, much praise is due. Finally, I must thank Jenny for her patience, thoroughness, and kindness, and without whose support I would not have finished this thesis anywhere near as well. CONTENTS 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................ 2 1.2 DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS AND PHRASES ................................................................................... 4 1.2.1 Collapse and Decline .................................................................................................. 5 1.2.2 ‘Libyan’ ....................................................................................................................... 6 1.2.3 Late New Kingdom ..................................................................................................... 6 1.2.4 Libyan Period .............................................................................................................. 7 1.2.5 Kushite Period ............................................................................................................. 8 1.3 OVERVIEW OF ISSUES WITH EVIDENCE AND OF THE SELECTED DATASETS ............................................. 9 1.3.1 Overview of selected datasets .................................................................................. 10 1.2 HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE LATE NEW KINGDOM AND THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD ........................... 16 2.1 LATE NINETEENTH DYNASTY (C.1215-C.1188 BC) .................................................................... 27 2.1.1 Outline of the evidence for the period ..................................................................... 27 2.1.2 Chronology of events of the Nineteenth Dynasty .................................................... 28 2.1.3 Political, social, economic, and environmental commentary................................... 35 2.2. THE TWENTIETH DYNASTY (C.1188-C.1067 BC) ...................................................................... 38 2.2.1 Outline of the evidence for the period ..................................................................... 38 2.2.2 Chronology of events for the Twentieth Dynasty ..................................................... 40 2.2.3 Political, social, economic, environmental commentary .......................................... 61 2.3 THE TWENTY-FIRST DYNASTY (C.1067-C.944 BC) .................................................................... 63 2.3.1 Nature of the evidence for the period ...................................................................... 63 2.3.2 Chronology of events for the Twenty-First Dynasty ................................................. 64 2.3.3 Political, social, economic, and environmental commentary................................... 72 2.4. EARLY TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY (C.944-C.835 BC) ............................................................... 75 2.4.1 Outline of the evidence for the period ..................................................................... 75 2.4.2 Chronology of events for the early Twenty-Second Dynasty ................................... 75 2.4.3 Political, social, economic, and environmental commentary................................... 82 2.5 THE TWENTY-SECOND AND TWENTY-THIRD DYNASTIES (C.835-C.746 BC) .................................... 84 2.5.1 Outline of the evidence for the period ..................................................................... 84 2.5.2 Chronology of events of Twenty-Second and Twenty-Third Dynasty....................... 85 2.5.3 Political, social, economic, and environmental commentary................................... 92 2.6 THE END OF THE TWENTY-SECOND AND TWENTY-THIRD DYNASTIES, AND THE TWENTY-FOURTH AND TWENTY-FIFTH DYNASTIES (C.746-656 BC) ................................................................................... 94 2.6.1 Outline of the evidence for the period ..................................................................... 94 2.6.2 Chronology of events from the end of the Twenty-Second and Twenty-Third Dynasties, and the Twenty-Fourth and Twenty-Fifth Dynasties ....................................... 95 2.6.3 Political, social, economic, and environmental commentary................................. 111 3: ECONOMIC CONDITIONS ............................................................................................ 114 3.1 STRUCTURE OF THE EGYPTIAN ECONOMY ................................................................................ 114 3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE .................................................................................................. 121 3.3 EVIDENCE FOR THE STATE OF THE EGYPTIAN ECONOMY IN THE LATE NEW KINGDOM, LIBYAN, AND KUSHITE PERIODS ................................................................................................................................. 131 3.4 COMMENTARY, INCLUDING CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS ...................................................... 149 3.5 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................ 159 4: RELIGIOUS AUTHORITY .............................................................................................. 163 4.1 THE RELIGIOUS AUTHORITY OF THE KING IN THE LIBYAN AND KUSHITE PERIODS ............................... 163 4.2 THE BUILT LANDSCAPE ......................................................................................................... 182 4.2.1 Built landscape contextualised in terms of political and religious authority ......... 186 4.2.2 Assessment of the Libyan and Kushite rulers’ modifications to the built landscape ......................................................................................................................................... 190 4.3 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................ 206 5: THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF THE LIBYAN AND KUSHITE PERIODS ........................... 212 5.1 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF THE FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (C.2160-2055 BC). .................... 213 5.2 CULTURAL LANDSCAPES OF THE LIBYAN AND KUSHITE PERIODS .................................................... 218 5.2.1 Methodology .......................................................................................................... 218 5.2.2 The cultural landscape of status and wealth in the Libyan and Kushite Periods ... 220 5.2.3 Regional and localised landscapes in the Libyan and Kushite Periods ..................
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