Economy of the Sangam Age in South

5.1 Do you know?

Description Image Source The balance of payments is comprised of current, capital and financial accounts. The current account depicts the effects of foreign transactions, such as the trade in goods and services, primary income and Balance of Payment in secondary income, on the national income and on Courtesy: Indo-Roman Trade the balance between savings and investments in the economy.

The above concept is used in the contemporary contexts and it cannot be applied to the ancient Indo-Roman trade.

Sherd with Tamil-Brahmi Courtesy: from Quseir al Qadhim. It Roberta read ca ta n. A personal Tomber name.

A stone with the inscription found in Kuan Courtesy: Luk Pat in Thailand. It P.Shanmuga probably refers to a m goldsmith or trader.

Source: http://www.c The Map of Peutingerian olumbia.edu/ table showing the southern itc/mealac/pr parts of India, Sri Lanka itchett/00ma and the ports of Muziris plinks/early/r and Tyndis. oman300s/in diamax.jpg

Courtesy: A Potter of Indian origin Roberta with the name Panai Ori. Tomber

A jewel, pendant in the Courtesy: P.J forms of a megalithic axe. Cherian and Found at Pattanam, KCHR Kerala.

The A personal name Harappan ...Nanthai kIran on a site of pottery from Khor Rori, Binjore, Oman. Rajasthan Source: ASI

An intaglio in a precious stone of the Roman god Fortuna found at Pattanam, Kerala. Courtesy: P.J Evidence of Roman ideas Cherian and reached, perhaps traders KCHR visiting Indian coasts as well as through travelling Indian merchants

5.2 Timeline

Timelines Image Description

1940s Wheeler’s Excavation at Arikamedu Courtesy: ASI

19260s Kaveripumpattinam excavations Courtesy: ASI

Gold ring of the Early Historic period found at 1980s river bed Karur. Courtesy: R Nagasamy

Excavation at Azhagankulam. Ship on a pottery sherd. 1990s Courtesy: State Archaeology Department

Excavation at Arikamedu 1990s Courtesy: Steven E Sidebotham

Excavation at Pattanam. Glass Beads. 2007-15 Courtesy: P.J Cherian and KCHR

West Asian Jar fragments. Excavation at Pattanam. 2007-15 Courtesy: P.J Cherian and KCHR

5.3 Glossary

Staring Relat Charac Term Definition ed ter Term A Amphora An amphora ( amphorae pl.) is a jar used for carrying wine, garum sauce and olive oil. Mainly used in the Roman World. It

occurs in various shapes and many of them have double handles. A Aurei Aureus. The aureus (pl. aurei — "golden") was a gold coin of ancient Rome valued at 25 silver denarii. Source:

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary /SMIGRA*/Aurum.html A Arritine A Ceramics of Roman origin found at a few sites in India. It is

also known as terra sigillata. B Barter Exchange of commodities one against another B Balance of The balance of payments is comprised of current, capital and Payment financial accounts. The current account depicts the effects of foreign transactions, such as the trade in goods and services, primary income and secondary income, on the national income and on the balance between savings and investments in the economy.

C Cameo An ornament with the image carved in bas-relief. It is part of a Roman ornaments. It is also found in India in the Early Historic

period. The raw materials for these ornaments were exported from India. C Charition Charition is a mime, a Greek theatre play and it refers to India

mime and its people and language in the Play. C Cheras The political entity of Cheras who ruled the Kerala region and

parts of Western Tamil Nadu C Chiefdom A kinship based socio-political organization. C Cholas The political entity of Cholas who ruled the central eastern and

the delta D Denarius Denarius silver coin. Its plural is Denarii

E Exchange A mode of giving one commodity and receiving another.

G Graffito Post-firing marking found on pottery. Illustrations and scripts

were written on the pottery. I Intaglio A gemstone ornament with the figures carved in recess.

K Kurinji The hilly landscape of the Sangam Classification

M Marutam The riverine tract. Fertile land that witnessed rice cultivation.

M Mullai The forested land according to the Sangam Classification

N Noduttal The mode of exchange or barter.

N Neytal The coastal land according to the Sangam Classification

P Palai The dry region in the classification of the Sangam Age P Punch Coins of the Early Historic India. Produced with punched Marked symbols. Found in South India as well and used in the Sangam Coins Age P Papyrus A kind of paper made from papyrus plant. Vienna Papyrus is a

source document for Indo-Roman trade P Pandyas The Vendars who ruled the southern part of Tamil Nadu with as capital and they are identified with "Pada" mentioned in the Asokan Inscriptions P Peutingeria A Map of Roman times copied during the later times available

n Table at a Vienna Museum. R Rouletted A fine dish with flat base and incurved sides. It is an Indian

Ware ceramics S Sesteres Ancient Roman coin was known as sestertius (plural sestertii), or sesterce (plural sesterces). In the Republican age it was a

small silver coin issued rarely. In the time of Roman Empire it was a large brass coin. S Solidi Plural of solidus. S Solidus It is a pure gold coin of the Roman Empire and its plural is

solidi. T Terra Terra Sigilatta earlier known as Arretine is a fine red slipped

Sigilatta ware of Roman origin T Torpedo Torpedo Jars are of Mesopotamian and Southern Persian Gulf

Jar origin and they are found in the sites of Indian coast.

5.4. Weblinks

Web links https://www.britannica.com/art/shangam-literature https://sangamtamilliterature.wordpress.com/book-list/ http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank- article/sangam_literature_as_a_source_of_evidence_on_indias_trade_with_the.pdf http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/84069/6/06_chapter%201.pdf http://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol45_1_2_JDeloche.pdf http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/ragh/ccs/CCSPublications/GR/Gurukkal%20Jun%202013-EPW.pdf http://www.epw.in/journal/1967/20/book-reviews/indo-roman-trade.html http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank- article/roman_contacts_with_tamilnadu.pdf https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/indoroman-trade-the-ceramic- evidence-from-egypt/CDA47C699DF12B02954DDFD32FFC4FB6 http://ignca.nic.in/mausam/ProfOsmund_presentation.pdf http://eprints.nmlindia.org/5805/1/92-103.PDF http://www.archeologia.univ.rzeszow.pl/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/analecta_5/4_Sudyka.pdf http://www.ijssh.org/papers/606-C10015.pdf http://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/ad/chinnian.pdf http://download.nos.org/srsec315new/History%20Book_L06.pdf https://sol.du.ac.in/mod/book/view.php?id=1611&chapterid=1637 http://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/SecICHCour/English/CH.06.pdf http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Aurum.html

5.5. Bibliography

Abdul Majeed, A., D. Thulasiraman and S. Vasanthi (1992). Alagankulam-A Preliminary Report. Madras, State Department of Archaeology. Allchin, F.R. (1960). Excavations at Piklihal. Andhra Pradesh Archaeological Series No. 1. Hyderabad, Government of Andhra Pradesh. Allchin, F. R. (1995). The Archaeology of Early historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Allchin, F.R. (1997a). Poor Man’s Thalis: A Deccan Potters Techniques, in F.R. Allchin and D.K. Chakrabarti eds. A Source Book of Indian History: Settlement, Technology and Trade. Vol. 2, pp 420-427. New , Munshiram and Manoharlal Allchin, F.R. (1997b). Textile Impressions from South Indian Iron age, in F.R. Allchin and D.K. Chakrabarti, eds. A Source Book of Indian History: Settlement, Technology and Trade. Vol. 2, pp. 427-430. New Delhi: Munshiram and Manoharlal. Ardika, I. W., and P. Bellwood (1991). Sembiran: The beginnings of Indian contact with Bali. Antiquity 65: 221-232. Ardika, I.W., P.S. Bellwood, R. A. Eggleton and D.J. Ellis (1993). A single source for South Asian export-quality Rouletted Ware. Man and Environment 18(1).: 101-109. ARE, 1918. Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy. Archaeological Survey of India.

Athiyaman, N. (2000). Pearl and Chank Diving of South Indian Coast. Thanjavur, Tamil University. Begley, V. (1983). Arikamedu Reconsidered. American Journal of Archaeology 87: 461-481.

Begley, V. (1986a). From Iron Age to Early Historical in South Indian Archaeology, in Jacobson ed., Studies in the Archeology of India and Pakistan, pp. 297-320. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH. Begley, V. (1986b). Rouletting and Chattering, Decoration on Ancient and Present-Day Pottery in India. Expedition 28 (1): 47-54. Begley, V. (1988). Rouletted Ware at Arikamedu: A New Approach. American journal of Archaeology 6:93-108. Begley, V. (1996a). Changing Perceptions of Arikamedu, in Begley, et al., The Ancient port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992. pp.1-39. Pondicherry, Ecole Francaize D’Extreme-Orient. Begley, V. (1996b). Pottery from the Northern Sector, 1989-1992, in Begley et al. The Ancient port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992. pp.115-286. Pondicherry, Ecole Francaize D’Extreme-Orient. Begley, V. (2004a). Pottery from the 1992 Excavations in the Southern Sector, in V. Begley et al. The Ancient Port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992. Vol 2.104-324. Paris, Ecole Francaize D’Extreme-Orient. Begley, V. (2004b). Critique of V.D. Gogte’s Interpretations of X-Ray Diffraction Analyses of Arikamedu Pottery, in V. Begley et al. The Ancient Port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992. Vol 2.631-642.. Paris, Ecole Francaize D’Extreme-Orient. Begley, V. 1994. Are there Imported Fines at Alagankulam, South India?, in J.M. Kenoyer From Sumer to Meluhha: Contributions to the Archaeology of South and West Asian in Memory of

George F Dales, Jr. Wisconsin Archaeological Reports 3. Madison: The University of Wisconsin. Begley, V. et al. (2004). The Ancient port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989- 1992. Vol II. Paris, Ecole Francaize D’Extreme-Orient. Begley, V. n.d. The Dating of Arikamedu and its bearing on the archaeology of Early Historical South India. Unpublished Manuscript. Begley, V., et al. (1996). The Ancient port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992. Vol I. Pondicherry, Ecole Francaize D’Extreme-Orient. Begley,V. (1996c). Some Fine Ware Pottery from the Pondicherry Museum in the Pondicherry Museum, in Begley et al. The Ancient port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992. pp.369-387. Pondicherry, Ecole Francaize D’Extreme-Orient. Casal, J-M. (1949). Fouilles de Virampatnam-Arikamedu. Paris, Imprimerie Nationale.

Francis, Peter, Jr. (1987). Bead Emporium: A Guide to the Beads from Arikamedu in the Pondicherry Museum, Museum Publications 2. Pondicherry, The Pondicherry Museum, Government of Pondicherry. Francis, P. (2004). Beads and small finds from the 1989-92 Excavations. The Ancient Port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992, (V. Begley, N.Karashima, K.V. Raman, S.E. Sidebotham, & E.L. Will, pp. 447 – 604). Paris: École Française d'Extrême Orient. Casson, L. (1997). A Note on the Ship Graffiti from Alagankulam. Indian Express. As cited in Begley n.d. Chakraborty, Sharmi. (2000). Chandraketugarh: A Cultural and Archaeological Study (500 BC to 500 AD). Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune, University of Pune. Champakalakshmi, R. (1978). Archaeology and Tamil Literary Tradition. Puratattva 1975-76 8:110-122. Champakalakshmi, R. (1996). Trade, Ideology and Urbanization, South India 300 BC-AD 1300. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Comfort, H. (1991). Terra Sigillata at Arikamedu, in V. Begley and R.D. de Puma, eds. Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade. pp.134-150. Madison, The University of Wisconsin Press. Deraniyagala, S.U. (1972). The Citadel of Anuradhapura 1969 Excavations in the Gedige Area. Ancient Ceylon 2:48-169. Deraniyagala, S.U. (1992). The Prehistory of Sri Lanka: An Ecological Perspective. Colombo, Department of Archaeological Survey. Francis, Peter, Jr. (1987). Bead Emporium: A Guide to the Beads from Arikamedu in the Pondicherry Museum, Museum Publications 2. Pondicherry, The Pondicherry Museum, Government of Pondicherry. Ford, L.A., A.M. Pollard, R.A.E. Coningham and B. Stern (2005). A geochemical investigation of the origin of Rouletted and other related South Asian fine wares. Antiquity 79: 909-920. Ghosh, A. (1948). Taxila (Sirkap) 1944-45. Ancient India 4: 41-84.

Ghosh, A. and K.C. Panigrahi (1946). Pottery of Ahichchatra (UP). Ancient India 1:37-59.

Ghosh, N.C. (1986). Excavations at Satanikota (1977-80). Delhi, Archaeological Survey of India.

Gogte, V.D. (1997). The Chandraketugarh-Tamluk region of Bengal: Source of the Early historic Rouletted Ware from India and Southeast Asia. Man and Environment 22(1): 69-85. Gogte, V. D. (2002). Ancient Maritime Trade in the Indian Ocean: Evaluation by Scientific Studies of Pottery. Man and Environment 27(1): 57-67. Govinda Menon, K. (1937). Red Painted Pottery from Cochin State. Man 37(179):144-146.

Gupta, Sunil 2007. The Bay of Bengal Interaction Sphere (1000 BC – AD 500), Bulletin of The Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, vol., 25, 2007, pp. 21-30, Http://Dx.Doi.Org/10.7152/Bippa.V25i0.11911. Gurukkal, Rajan, (1989). Forms of production and forces of change in ancient Tamil Society, Studies in History 5(2): 159-175. Gurukkal, Rajan, (1995). The Beginnings of the Historic Period: The Tamil South (up to the end of the fifth century A.D.), in R. Thapar ed. Recent Perspectives of Early Indian History, pp. 237- 265. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. Gurukkal, Rajan, (1998). Characterizing Ancient Society: The Case of South India. Presidential Address, Indian History Congress, 59th Session, 1998, Patiala: Panjab University. Gurukkal, Rajan 2012

Gurukkal, Rajan 2015

Gurumurthy, S. (1981). Ceramic Traditions of South India. , University of Madras.

Gururaja Rao, B.K. (1972). The Megalithic Culture in South India. Mysore, Prasaranga University of Mysore. Hart, G. L. III. (1979). Poets of Tamil Anthologies: Ancient Poems of Love and War. Princeton, University of Princeton Press.

Jayashree Nair, K. (2005). Exploring the Megaliths of Kasaragode. The Journal of the Centre for Heritage Studies 2: 18-35. Kailasapthy, K.

Kanaksabhai Pillai, V. (1904), The Eighteen Hundred Years Ago. Tirunelveli, SISSW. Reprint 1966.

Krishnan, K. and R.A.E. Coningham (1995). Microstructural Analysis of samples of Rouletted Ware and associated pottery from Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, in Raymond Allchin and Bridget Allchin eds., South Asian Archaeology, 1995, Proceedings of the 13th International conference of the European Association of South Asian Archaeologists Vol. 2. pp. 925-937. Delhi: Oxford and IBH. Krishnamurthy, R. (1997). Sangam Age Tamil Coins. Madras, Garnet Publications.

Lal, B.B. (1949). Sisupalgarh 1948: An Early Historical Fort in Eastern India. Ancient India 5:62-105. Lal, B.B. (1954-55). Excavations at Hastinapura and Other Explorations in the Upper Ganga and Sutlej Basins 1950-52. Ancient India: 10-11: 5-151. Lal, B.B. (1962). From the Megalithic to the : Tracing back the Graffiti on the Pottery. Ancient India 16:4-24. Leshnik, L. S. (1974). South Indian Megalithic Burials: The Pandukal Complex. Wiesbaden (Germany), Franz Steiner Verlag GmbH.

Mahadevan, I. (2003). Early Tamil Epigraphy- From the earliest times to the sixth century AD Harvard oriental Series, 62. Chennai, Cre-A. Maloney, C. (1969). The Paratavar: 2000 years of Culture Dynamics of a Tamil Caste, Man in India 48(3): 224-240. Mathaiyan

Mitchiner, M. (1998). The Coinage and History of Southern India: Part 2 Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Hawkins Publishing.

Mohanty, R.K. and V. Selvakumar (2002). The Archaeology of Megaliths in India: 1947-1997. in S. Settar and R. Korisettar eds., Indian Archaeology in Retrospect – Vol I Prehistory: Archaeology of South Asia. pp. 313-352. New Delhi: Manohar and Indian Council of Historical Research. Moorti, U. S. (1994). Megalithic Culture of South India: A Socio-economic Perspective. Varnasi, Ganga Kaveri Publication House. Nagaraja Rao, M.S. 1971. ProtoHistoric Cultures of the Tungabhadra Valley. (A Report on Hallur Excavations). Dharwar. Nagaswamy, R. (1970). Excavation at Korkai, District Tirunelveli. Damilica 1: 50-54.

Nagaswamy, R. (1991). Alagankulam: An Indo-Roman Trading Port, in C. Margabandhu et al. eds. Indian Archaeological Heritage, K. V. Soundara Rajan Felicitation Volume, pp 247- 254. New Delhi, Agam Kala Prakashan. Nagaswamy, R. (1995). Roman Karur: A Peep into Tamil’s Past. Madras, Brahad prakashan.

Nagaswamy, R. and A. Abdul Majeed. (1978). Vasavasamudram (A report on the excavation in the year 1970). Madras, Tamil Nadu State department of Archaeology. Narasimhaiyya, B. (1980). Neolithic and Megalithic cultures in Tamil Nadu. Delhi, Sundeep Prakashan. Narayana Babu, P. (1990). The Problem of White painted Black and Red ware in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, in A. Sundara and K.G. Bhatsoori Eds., Archaeology in Karnataka, pp 241- 244. Mysore, Department of Museums and Archaeology. Nilakanta Sastry, K.A. 1972

Orton, N.P. (1991). Red Polished Ware in Gujarat: A Catalogue of Twelve Sites, in V. Begley and DePuma, eds. Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade, pp. 46-81. New Delhi, Oxford University Press Pavan, Alexia 2017. A Cosmopolitan City on the Arabia Coast. The Imported and Local Pottery from Khor Rori (Arabia Antica), Rome. Pavan, Alexia and Heidrun Schenk,2012 Crossing the Indian Ocean before the Periplus: a comparison of pottery assemblages at the sites of Sumhuram (Oman) and Tissamaharama (Sri Lanka). Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 23: 191–202. Plenderleith, H.J. (1930). Black Polished Pottery from Urn Burials in the Wynad. Man 30 (198): 190. Prasad, N.R.V. (1994). Bavikonda: A Buddhist Site in North Coastal Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad, Department of Archaeology and Museums, Andhra Pradesh. Rahman, Shah Sufi Mostafizur (2000). Archaeological Investigation in Bogra District : From Early Historic to Early Mediaeval Period. Dhaka, The International Centre for Study of Bengal

Art. Studies in Bengal Art Series No.3.

Rajan, K. (1991). Stratigraphical Position of the Russet Coated Painted Ware, in C. Margabandhu et al. eds. Indian Archaeological Heritage, K. V. Soundara Rajan Felicitation Volume. Vol 1. 241-246. New Delhi, Agam Kala Prakashan. Rajan, K. (1994). Archaeology of Tamil Nadu (Kongu country). Noida: Book India Publication Company. Rajan, K. (2001). Recent Advances in Early historic Archaeology of Tamil Nadu, in S. Rajagopal ed. Kaveri -Studies in Epigraphy, Archaeology and History, pp. 229-247. Chennai, Panpattu Veliyittakam. Rajan, K. (2002). Maritime Trade in Early historic Tamil Nadu. Man and Environment 27(1): 83-98. Rajan, K. 2011. Emergence of Early Historic trade in Peninsular India, in Early Interactions between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross-Cultural Contacts, P.-Y. Manguin, A. Mani, and G Wade, eds., Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.2011, pp. 177-196. Rajan, K. (2014) Iron Age-Early Historic Transition In South India: An Appraisal, Padmashri Amalananda Ghosh Memorial Lecture, New Delhi: Institute of Archaeology,25 August 2014 Rajan, K. 2015. Early Writing System. Chennai: Shanlax Publications.

Rajan, K. and O. Bopearachchi (2002). Graffiti Marks of Kodumanal (India) and Ridiyagama (Sri Lanka)- A Comparative Study. Man and Environment 27(1).: 97-105. Rajesh, M. and T. Arun Raj. (2003). Some Observations on Sengamedu: A hinterland Trade Centre of Arikamedu, Tamil Nadu, India. CIAA Newsletter 17: 17-25 Raman, K. V. (1987). Archaeological Excavations in Kanchipuram. Tamil Civilization 5: 67-68.

Raman, K. V. (1991). Further Evidence of Roman Trade from Coastal Sites in Tamil Nadu, in V. Begley and DePuma, Eds. Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade, pp. 125-133. New Delhi, Oxford Univ. Press. Raman, K. V. (ed.). (1988). Excavations at Uraiyur (Thiruchirapalli). 1965-69. Madras, University of Madras. Ramanujan, A. K. (1996). Poems of Love and War (from the Eight Anthologies and Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil), pp.125-133, New Delhi, Oxford University Press. 125-133. Ray, H. P., 1994. The Winds of Change. Buddhism and the Maritime Links of Early South Asia. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Ray, H. P., 1996. Early Coastal Trade in the Bay of Bengal. In J. Reade (Ed.), The Indian Ocean in Antiquity: Conference held at The British Museum, 4-8 July 1988, London, Kegan Paul International, London: 351-364. Ray, H. P., 2003. The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia. Cambridge World Archaeology Series. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Romanis,

Sastry, V.V. Krishna (1983). The Proto and Early historical Cultures of Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad, The Government of Andhra Pradesh. Sastry, V.V. Krishna, B. Subrahmanyam and N. Rama Krishna Rao (1992). Thotlakonda: A Buddhist Site in A.P. Hyderabad, Department of Archaeology and Museums.

Sathyamurthy, T. (1992a). The Iron Age in Kerala. A Report on Mangadu Excavation. Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala State Department of Archaeology. Sathyamurthy, T. (1992b). Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala State Department of Archaeology. Sathyamurthy, T. (2005). Significance of Adichanallur 2004-05. Paper presented in the Annual Conference of the Indian Archaeological Society, December 15-18. 2005, held at Bangalore. Schenk, Heidrun The Dating and Historical Value of Rouletted Ware, Zeitschrift für Archäologie Außereuropäischer Kulturen vol. 1, 2006, p.123–152. Selvakumar, V. (2005) Arts and Crafts of Ancient Tamil Country, Journal of Arts and Ideas 1: 41-57. Selvakumar, V. (2006) Ceramic Traditions of the Iron Age-Early historic Tamil Country, in Early historic Archaeology of South Asia (G. Sengupta and S. Chakrabarty eds.). Kolkata, CASTEI. Selvakumar, V. 2008 Ceramic Traditions of the Iron Age-Early Historic Tamil Country, in Early Historic Archaeology of South Asia, G. Sengupta and S. Chakrabarty eds., pp. 421-449. Kolkata: CASTEI. Selvakumar, V. 2011. Contacts Between India and Southeast Asia in Ceramic and Boat building traditions, in Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on CrossCultural Contacts, P.-Y.Manguin, A. Mani, and G. Wade, eds., pp. 197-220. Singapore, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Selvakumar, V. 2014. Carved-grooved Paddle, cord and fabric impressions on the ceramics from Southern and Northeastern India, in Jamir Hazarika and Manjil Hazarika eds.50 Years After Daojali-Hading: Emerging Perspectives:n the Archaeology of Northeast India: Essays in Honour of Tarun Chandra Sharma, pp. 192-197.New Delhi: Research India Press. Selvakumar, V and S.B. Darsana. Genesis And Development Of Urban Processes In The Ancient/Early Historic Tamil Country. GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT OF URBAN PROCESSES IN THE ANCIENT/EARLY HISTORIC TAMIL COUNTRY Selvakumar, V., P.K. Gopi and K.P.Shajan 2005. Trial Excavations at Pattanam –A Preliminary Report. The Journal of the Centre for Heritage Studies 2: 57-66. Selvakumar, V., V. Parantaman, A. Raja, K. Mathivanan 2016 Ambal Virrirunthaperumalkoil Kalvettu. Avanam 27: 25-26. Seneviratne, S. (1993). From Kuti to Natu: A suggested framework for the study of pre state political formations in early Iron Age South India, The Sri Lankan Journal of Humanities 19(1&2): 57-77. Seshadri, M. (1971). Report on the Excavations at T. Narsipur. Mysore: Department of Museum and Archaeology. Shajan, K, P., R. Tomber, V. Selvakumar and P. J. Cherian (2004). Locating the Ancient Port of Muziris: Fresh Findings from Pattanam. Journal of Roman Archaeology 17: 312-320. Shahnaj Husne Jahan 2010 Rouletted Ware Links South and Southeast Asia through

Maritime Trade

Sharma, G.R. (1969). Excavations at Kausambi 1949-50. Memoirs of Archaeological Survey of India No. 74. New Delhi, Archaeological Survey of India. Sharma, Y.D. (1953). Exploration of Early historic Sites. Ancient India 9: 156-168

Shetty, A.V. (2003). Excavations at Mangudi. Madras, Tamil Nadu Department of Archaeology.

Sidebotham, S. (1996). Appendix A: The Chariot Seal Impression, in Begley, V. et al. eds., The Ancient port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992, Vol. pp. 393-396. Pondicherry, Ecole Francaize D’Extreme-Orient. Sidebotham, S. E. 2010. Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route. London, University of California Press. Sivathambi

SII = South Indian Inscriptions. New Delhi, Archaeological Survey of India.

Singaravelu, S. (1966). Social Life of Tamils. The Classical Period. Kuala Lampur, University of Malaysia. Singh, A.K. and P.K. Chattopadhyay (2004). Centrally Knobbed Vessels in Pottery and Metals of India. Puratattva 2003-04 34:176-183. Singh, H.N. (1982). History and Archaeology of Black-and-red Ware. New Delhi, Sundeep Prakashan. Slane, K.W. (1996). Other Ancient Imported Ceramics from the Mediterranean, In Begley et al.. The Ancient port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992. pp. 351-368. Pondicherry, Ecole Francaize D’Extreme-Orient. Smith, M. L. (2002). The Role of Local Trade Networks in the Indian Subcontinent during the Early historic Period, Man and Environment 27(1): 139-151

Soundara Rajan K. V. (1994). Kaveripattinam Excavations 1963-73 (A Port City on the Tamil Nadu Coast). New Delhi: ASI Memoirs 90. Soundara Rajan, K.V. 1963. The Iron Age Cultural Provinces of India, Bharatiya Vidya 23: 1-21.

Sridhar, T. S. (ed). (2004). Excavations of Archaeological Sites in Tamil Nadu (1969-1995). Chennai, Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology. Sridhar, T.S., D. Thulasiraman, S. Selvaraj and S Vasanthi (2005). Alagankulam: An Ancient Roman Port City of Tamil Nadu. Chennai, Tamil Nadu Department of Archaeology. Sridharan, K. and D. Tulasiraman (2000). Alagankulam Excavations in Ramanathapuram Dist. Tamilnadu: A Preliminary Report, in G. Kamalakar, M. Virender and A. Vijayakumara Babu, eds. South Indian Archaeology, pp. 63-67. Delhi, Bharat Kala Prakashan Subbarayalu, Y. 1973. Political Geography of the Chola country. Chennai: Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department. Subbarayalu, Y. 1984. “Report on Vallam Excavations, Tamil Civilization (Journal of Tamil University), Vol. 2(4): 1-98. Subbarayalu, Y. 2008. Pottery Inscriptions of Tamilnadu, a Comparative View. Airavati:

Felicitation Volume in Honour of Iravatham Mahadevan. pp. 209-248. Chennai, Varalaru.com.

Subrahmanian, N. (1966). Sangam Polity: The Administration and Social Life of the Sangam Tamils. Bombay: Asia Publishing House (reprint) Subramanian, T.S. (2005). Unearthing a Great Past. Frontline 23(13).: 65-72. June 18-July 1. Fortnightly Magazine. Sundara, A. (1987). Studies in the Neolithic Cultures in Tamilnadu-Kerala. Tamil Civilization 5.2:34-47. Suresh, S. (1989). Defence Architecture in the Early Tamil Country, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 49th Session held at Dharwad, 1988. pp. 657-661. Suresh, S. Thurston, E. and Rangachari 1909. Castes and Tri 1997bes of Southern India, Vol. 5. Madras: Government Press. Tomber, R. (2000). Indo-Roman Trade: The Ceramic Evidence from Egypt. Antiquity 74: 624- 31. Tomber, R. (2002). Indian Fine wares from the Red Sea Coast of Egypt. Man and Environment 74: 35-44. Tomber, R. S. (2005a). Amphorae from Pattanam. The Journal of the Centre for Heritage Studies 2: 67-68 Tomber, R. S. (2005b). Beyond western India: the evidence from imported finds. Paper presented in the panel “Issues in Indian Ocean Commerce and the Archaeology of Western India” at the Biennial Conference of the European Association of South Asian archaeologists, organized by the institute of archaeology, University of London and the British Museum, London between 4th and 8th July 2005. Tomber, R. S. (in press). Rome and South Arabia: New Artefactual Evidence from the Red Sea, Proceedings of the Seminar for South Arabian Studies 2003, 33. Tomber, R. 2008. Indo-Roman Trade. From Pots to Pepper. London: Duckworth.

Tripati, Sila 2010. Ancient maritime trade of the eastern Indian littoral. Current Science 100(7) 10 April 2011, 10-76-1086.

Turner, P. (1989). Roman Coins from India. London: Institute of Archaeology Occasional Publications No. 12. Vanaja, R. (1983) Indian Coinage. New Delhi: National Museum, New Delhi.

Venkatasamy, Mayilai Seeni (1970). Pazhantamizhar Vanigam. Trade of the Ancient Tamils. (Tamil). Venkatasubramanian, T. K. (1988). Environment and Urbanisation in Early Tamilakam. Thanjavur, Tamil University. Venkatachalapathy, R, C. Manoharan, S Dharmapandian and T. Sundareshwaran and K. Deenadayalan (2005). Some Archaeological Ceramics from Azhagankulam,Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu, in T.S. Sridhar et al. eds. Alagankulam: An Ancient Roman Port City of Tamil Nadu, pp.98-99. Chennai, Tamil Nadu Department of Archaeology. Walker, M. J. and S. Santoso. (1977). Romano-Indian Rouletted Pottery in Indonesia. Asian Perspectives 20(2): 228-35.

Warmington, E.H. 1928The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India. London, Curzon Press. (2nd ed. 1974.). Wendrich, W. Z., R. S. Tomber, S. E. Sidebotham, J. A. Harrell, R. T. J. Cappers and R. S. Bagnall (2003). Berenike at Crossroads: the Integration of Information. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 46 (1): 46-87. Wheeler et al., R.E.M., A.Ghosh and Krishna Deva (1946). Arikamedu: An Indo-Roman trading Station on the east cost of India, Ancient India 2: 17-124. Wheeler, R.E.M. (1948). Brahmagiri and Chandravalli 1947: Megalithic and Other Cultures in the Chitladurg District, Mysore State. Ancient India 4: 181-308. Will, E.L. (1996). Mediterranean Shipping Amphoras at Arikamedu 1941-50 Excavations, in Begley et al.. The Ancient port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992. Vol.1, pp. 115-286. Pondicherry, Ecole Francaize D’Extreme-Orient. Will, E.L. (2004). The Mediterranean Shipping Amphoras from the 1989-1992 Excavations, in V. Begley et al. The Ancient Port of Arikamedu: New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992. Vol 2.325-403.. Paris, Ecole Francaize D’Extreme-Orient. Yazdani, G. (1917). Megalithic Remains of the Deccan: A New Feature. Journal of Hyderabad Archaeological Society 56-79 Zvelebil, K. (1974) Tamil Literature. Weisbaden: Harrassowitz.