UNIT INDIAN CZTLTURE AND HERITAGE: THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT I

Structure

Objectives Introduction Culture and Heritage: Problems of Definition Culture and its Determinants 1.3.1 Culture, Society and H~story 1.3.2 Pol~t~calStructures and their Impact on Culture 1 3 3 Outs~deInfluences and Cultpre 1.3.4 Cultural Awareness and U~story 1.4 Historical Evolution 1.4 1 The Harappan Period 1.4.2 The Vedic C1mli7atlon 1.4.3 The Buddh~stEpoch 1.4.4 The Gupta Per~od 1.4.5 Early Med~evalPer~od 1.5 Let Us Sum Up 1.6 Answers to Check YGur-Progress Exercises

After reading this Unit you shall be able to learn:

the meaning of culture and heritage and the elements they consist of, . the factors which contributed to the making of our culture, how the Indian culture evolved over centuries of history, and what are the landmarks of the development of our culture and what are their identifying features.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Indian culture is unique in several ways. It has an uninterrupted history of evolution dating back in the past to nearly five thousand years. During all this period it has enriched itself by assimilating diverse kinds of influences and impacts. This has given Indian culture a certain vibrance and has saved it from a monotonous uniformity. In fact the pulsating mosaic of this culture is most vividly displayed as you go across the length and width of India. You will simultaneously discern a spirit of unity that underlies this enormous diversity.

Thus when we talk of Indian culture we actually speak of a rich plurality of cultural traditions and not a monolithic entity. This plurality in some cases is the consequence of a common origin (as in the case of the majority of Indian languages); in other cases of shared heritage (such as our music, architecture, many popular religious cults etc.); and in still others due to a common struggle against the colonial rule. Equally important is the fact that we also perceive ourselves as part of a common culture cutting across national boundaries. This common cultural heritage is the legacy of a complex interaction of various cultures through centuries of shared existence. \ We shal1,in the following sections, take you on a historical journey through the evolution of Indian culture.

\ Introducing Indian Culture 1.2 CULTURE AND HER1TAGE:PROBLEMS

OF DEFINITION -=

Let us begin this journcy by first arriving at a debate over what constitutes culture. The word is often used interchangeably with civilization, and both have a history in what they have meant at different points of time and in different societies. Both referred originally to a' process, and in some sense this meaning is still inherent in the ways these two words are used.

The term civilization is now generally used to describe an achieved state or condition of organized social life as well as the process whereby it has been arrived at. Through comparative studies we today also come across terms such as western civilization, modern civilization, industrial civilization, etc. which are descriptive.

Culture as a concept is more complicated than civilization. The word is used in various ways denoting values of general human development which today are not easily questionable, for example, freedom, democracy, equality, secularism: etc. The particularities of different communities which constitute their rights and expression also are included within the meaning of culture. There are three broad levels, with a certain overlapping, at which the meaning of the term culture can be understood:

i) The general process of intellectual, spiritual and aesthetic development. ii) A particular way of life, whether of a people, period, or a group.

iii) The works of intellectual and artistic endeavour expressed through music, literature, art, film etc.

Heritage is a similarly broad concept. It often carries the meaning of culture too. Whatever we inherit from our past can be called our heritage. In terms of contents it includes our craft traditions, music, dance, painling, architecture and other art forms, traditions of production and technology, different systems of therapies, our environment with all its bio-diversity, our systems of philosophy etc.

Our cultural heritage has a strong secular - popular content and is pluralistic in character. But it also contains many elements which inhibit our developmen' ;a nation like caste system, superstitions, discriminations against women and dalits. We, therefore, have to be conscious about what aspects of our culture we should conserve and emulate and what elements we must discard.

CULTURE AND ITS DETERMINANTS

Cullure is determined and shaped historically and socially. It, in its turn, influences the social, economic and political development of people or nation. This Section will deal in detail with this complex interaction of various factors which has influenced our culture over thousands of years.

1.3.1 Culture, Society and History

To begin with, culture is the life and mind of a society at any given time in history. The culture of a particular society or age cannot be separated from its historical context. The continuity, change or transformation in cultural traditions is influenced by the social, economic and political developments at any given time, and vice-versa.

To give a fcw examples, the growth and changes in agricultural production are inseparably linked with the emergence, development and changes within the Vedic civilization in India. The Vedic civilization which gave birth to the varnashram and the caste system has, in turn, exerted great influence on Indian culture. The caste system - an inescapable aspect of our society through history, has assumed changes, modifications, and flexibility to suit the changing needs of the various ruling groups in India. The early Dravidian civilization has been an important influence because of its cultural significance in a specific historical and social context. The flowering of art and literature as well as the Buddhist monuments of the Maurya and Gupta period would not have bcen possible without the prosperity and increase Indian Culture and in commerce during that period. The same can be said for the Chola temples or the Heritage - The Historical Vijaynagar structures. Context I

The Bhakti movement had as its basis the growth of trade and commerce, and the consequent growth of towns in the 14th and 15th centuries, which motivated a questioning of the caste restrictions in certain occupations in the name of religion. The preachings of Bhakti saints in the peoples' languages and their compilation made possible the growth of Braj, Awadhi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Marathi, Panjabi, Kashmiri and other regional literatures.

The enormous expenditure involved in the magnificent architecture of the Mughals was possible only because of the significantly increased state share in the surplus production during Mughal rule. Development of new musical forms and their popularisation in the courts, translation of important texts of the world, as well as growth of new techniques in production were immensely helped by the Court patronage generated by this increased surplus.

The concepts of equality as part of anti-caste and peasant economic struggles, the movement for women's education and emancipation, a scientific temper, secularism, a democratic culture and the culture of democracy took shape in the context of modernity that came with the development of capitalism in India, as a result of the impact of British conquest.

1.3.2 Political Structures and Their Impact on Culture Political structures have also had an impact on our culture throughout its history. For example, the periods of political decentralization, as after the disintegration of the Gupta Empire and, later, the Mughal Empire, resulted in the growth of regional cultures. Similarly the periods of centralization, such as the Mughal and the modern periods,helped in the development of a con$osite, syncretic tradition that has the semblance of a national culture. The religion professed by a ruler can inspire the development of art forms bearing those religious expressions. It does not, however, mean that other forms were suppressed. Similarly a more liberal, democratic and secular rule may witness the growth of non-religious art forms as seen in modern and contemporary India. An oppressive rule can also stimulate cultural expressions of protest as seen during the colonial rule.

1.3.3 Outside Influences and Culture No society has existed in isolation, or remained uninfluenced by the other societies it came in contact with. This is as true of our country as any other, and we have had contact with the outside world since the eqrliest times. We have taken much from it, and given much to it. i Our entire scientific and technological heritage is a shared heritage. f Repeated new influences as a result of trade contacts, conquests followed by settlements and ! adoption or intermixing with the native population by different tribes and races through India's history have enriched India's culture. The Aryans brought with them forms of agricultural products, new gods and beliefs. With Turkish conquest came gunpowder, cavalry i and new techniques. Stitched cloth, domes, arches, paper, glass-making techniques, and water-wheel are some of the elements of civilization which came from outside. Persian influences after the Mughal conquest brought into being new melodies, musical forms, musical instruments, dastan and ghazals as forms of literary expression, miniature painting, 5 1 etc. The composite, syncretic culture, and flowering of different regional cultures came from D the interaction that shared life gave to India. It is a culture of unity in diversity. 1c 1.3.4 Cultural Awareness and History

Even cultural awareness has a connection with history. For example, a scientific temper is possible only in the context of modernity, as are secularism and an attitude of pluralim. We cannot search for an awareness and consciousness of these values in our ancient past. The past may contain many things of great importance. At the same time, however, there are many things like slavery, caste system, ,discrimination against dalits and women, religious intolerance etc which must be seen as inimical to our development today. The past and present both must be critically examined and then the positive things be assimilated and the negative things be discarded. In this connection, the lines of a great Sanskrit poet are I particularly apt: Introducing Iudian culture All that is old need not be good All that is new need not be bad Wise men decide after a tough test

The fools tread the beaten path. I

rCheck Your Progress-1 1) What are the components of our culture? Write in 50 words......

2). What are the main factors which influence culture? ......

1.4 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION b

In this Section we will discuss how our culture has evolved historically in various stages. Starting with the Harappan Civilization from the ancient period we go into the medieval period in search of our cultural heritage and then come to the modern and contemporary period. We have dealt with in this Unit upto the early medieval period. The later medieval, modern and the contemporary periods have been dealt with in the next Unit. This is not to say that the people of the stone ages or Neolithic period had no culture. Many cave paintings depict such art forms that demonstrate the culture of those periods.

1.4.1 The Harappan Period

The chance discovery of the Harappan civilization was made during the late 19th century. The fact that it was the ancient most civilization of India and contemporary to Mesopotamian (ancient Iraq) and Egyptian civilization, however, was determined only in the early 20th century. It was a five thousand year old civilization and represented an adtranced level of cultural development during an epoch when iron was still not discovered and bronze was used for making tools, implements and arms.

The Harappan script has not yet been deciphered. So our knowledge about this civilization is based'mainly on archaeological findings. These studies show that this civilization was "mainly urbAn and was spread far and wide in what today are India and Pakistan. : Mahenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal etc. were some of the major cities of the period. .-'$here was a certain unity of conception among the various cities. AHarappan city was divided ' hto two parts - the one settled bn a raised piatform and mean$ for the rulers and the lower city meant for the common people. The houses were built, in some cases, of baked bricks Indian Culture and and in other cases of mud bricks. These bricks were of standard slze which showcd that the -The brick - making was organized on a large scale. Context I

Similar to the town-planning, the potteries made hy the Harappans were found in large areas and showed a uniform pattern. In fact, their tradition of pottery - making can, with many changes, be found cven today.

Art works in terracotta and sculptures in bronze and stone are othl r important remains from the Harappan period. The Harappan potteries and seals contair, Figurcs of bull, ram, pipal tree, fish scales etc. The Harappans also seemed to worship pipa: tree and the phallus (an image of Shiva) which remain impertant religious symbols in today's India.

About this civilization puwill learn more in Unit 18 in Block 6 of this course.

1.4.2 The Vedic Civilization

The Vedic Civilization, associated with thc coming of the Aryans to India, is said to have begun about 1500 I1S.C. and lasted abuut 600 B.C. Unlike the Hdrappan Civilization ~h~ch was city-based, it was an agricuitural civilization. It was during this oeriod that many features which we associatc with what has come to be called as Hinduism originated and took shape. It has left its imprint on our culture today in the form of settled agriculture, cattle breeding, centrality of cow (and ln~llocks)in our economy and religious beliefs, the horse, the chariot, the use of iron, domcstication of animals such as elephants, kinship and patriarchy as basis of social organi~ation,the development of kingdom and large cmpires out of chieftainships. We still have wth us the Vedic hymns composed almost 3500 years ago whish even today are used in many Hindu rituals, the sacredness of fire as interniediary between god and man, the worship of gods associated with natural phenomena, the dodrinc of transmigration, animal sacrifice etc. In tcrms of litcra~ureand philosophical thought it has given us the Vedas, the Lipanishads, Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit languages and literature, etc.

1.4.3 The Buddhist Elpoch

During the 6th century I3 C., he opposition to the domination of the society by Brahmins grew. New religious ideas, which were heterodox in nature, arose. The reasons for their enlergcnce were :he following: i) The Vedic rituals had beccjme most elaborate and cumbersonre for most social groups. There were meaningless cercmonizs and sacrifices leading to enormous expenses. ii) Since the Brahmins were the executors of these rituals, their domination over the other groups was becoming established. 'They also dcvised a hier,irchical four-tier system callzd varnashram and claimed the highest position for themselves. This led to resentment among many groups such as the Kshatriyas i~ndVaishyas who were otherwise powerful and wealthy but lacked in social importa11c.c. iii) The social status became linked to birth. The caste system which was earlier devised as occupational categories became atrophied and the social nlobjlity became rare. It was this discontent generated by the Brahminical domination and the rising political and economic power of the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas that gave nise to and supported the new religious ideas.

Mahavir and Gautam Buddha were the two great religious leaders of this period. By the strength of their ideas they can he said to he among the greatest in the world. The Jain and Buddha religions emerged as a result of teachings of Mahavir and Gautam Buddha respectively. Whiie thc followers of the Jain religion were mostly among the Vaishyas, Buddhism had its followers among all communities. Buddhism spread far and wide and, at one point of time, almost the whole of Asia, which represented the pinnacle of civilization, became influenced by Buddhism. In lndia also, Buddhism held swa) for almost one thousand years and greatly influenced Indian culture and society Many concepts and values of this period are among our most cherished cultural heritage today. We are listing below the most important contributions of these religious ideas to our cultural tradition: i) Jainism and Buddhism represented a revolt against the concept of social inequality and the hierarchidVarnashram system preached by the Brahmins. These reqions opened Introducing Indian Culture their gates to members of all castes and groups in the society. They also gave an equal status to women.

ii) They opposed the rituals and sacrifices prevalent in the society. Instead they put emphasis on Karma as deciding the fate of the individuals in the next world. Non- violence, humanism and stress on moral life were the hallmarks of these new religious orders.

iii) One of the tools of the Brahminical domination was the stress on the language of the Vedas, that is, Sanskrit. The new religions put more emphasis on the popular languages like Prakrit, Pali and Ardha Magadhi. Buddhist and Jain texts were written in these languages and nobody was debarred from reading or interpreting them. This paved the way for the development of the vernacular literature.

This period also witnessed the rise of architecture and sculpture to new heights. The temples at Jhandial (Taxila), Nagari (Rajasthan), Besnagar (Madhya Pradesh) and Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh) are some of the structures found in excavations.

The Buddhist Stupas, in which the mortal remains of important personalities are to be found, are distributed in Bodh Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi and Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Arnaravati and Nagarjunkonda (Andhra Pradesh) and Taxila (in Pakistan).

Cave architecture and cave paintings reached new heights and the Mathura, Gandhara and

Amaravathi schools of art produced figures of great beauty during this period. All these : places, monuments and figures are of great touristic interests even today and every year thousands of pilgrims or tourists visit these sites.

It was during this period that South India witnessed the rise of Satavahanas, one of the greatest Indian rulers, in the 1st century B.C. They were also called the Andhra dynasty. They held sway in most of the Deccan and on their. collapse, other powers like the Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras etc arose.

The celebrated sangam poetry in Tamil was collected and classified by an academy of scholars. This provides us with one of our greatest literary traditions.

'1.4.4 The Gupta Period

After the collapse of the Mauryan empire in the 2nd century B.C., there was no large political structure in India. The Kushanas ruled the North India and the Satavahanas in the South. Many small kingdoms ruled over large parts of India. With the emergence of the Guptas in the 4th Century A.D., there was again an attempt to build an all India empire.

Established by Chandra Gupta I in 319-20 A.D., the Gupta power reached its peak during the reign of Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta 11. The process of decline started during the reign of Skanda Gupta and by the middle of the 6th Century A.D. it seems to have collapsed. In the beginning of the 7th century A.D. Harsha tried to revive the imperial tradition but after his death by the mid-7th century his empire declined.

Gupta period is often described as representing the highest forms of Indian culture. So far as the literary and philosophical achievements are concerned, there is truth in this statement. The sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, though composed in earlier times, are said to be collected during this period. This period also saw the resurgence of Hinduism and the initiation of the great debate between Buddhism and the Brahminical religion (Hinduism in current parlance). The codification of the Hindu social and family laws was done by Manu, Yajnavallcya, Narada, Brihaspati and Katyayana. The caste-system, the joint family system and the subordinate position of the women in the family and society were formalised during this period. The Brahmins reacquired their dominant and privileged position in society.

In Hinduism the emphasis shifted from sacrifices to idol worship. The trinity of godheads (Brahma - Vishnu - Mahesb) became established. Devotional worship (Bhakti) was encouraged. A division between Vaishnavism and Sbaivism occurred. The Hindu thinkers developed a cyclic theory of time according to which the Kalpa was divided into 4 ages (Satyug, Tretayug, Dwaparyug and Kaliyug) and at the end of which the Universe is recreated. Indlan Culture and This period also witnessed the composition of six great systems of Hindu philosophy - Nyaya, Herilage - The ~itorica~ Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta. Context I

The Puranas (the Hindu religious texts and historical sources) were also composed in this I period.

Great developments took place in the fields of Indian astronomy, astrology and mathematics. t Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were some of the great astronomers of the period. i Kalidas, the greatest of the Indian literary figures, composed his poetic and dramatic works during this period. His epic poems, Kumarsambhava and Raghuvamsha, the lyrical poem Meghaduta and the great drama Shakuntala are considered among the greatest of the world literature. Later on Shudrak (Mrichchha Katika) and Banabhatta (Harsha Charita) contributed to this great literary tradition. The fables of Panchatantra were collected and scripted. Vatsayayan's Kamasutra, the world - famous text on sexual enjoyment was also written during this period.

In terms of architectural or sculptural developments also the Gupta period was significant. In Block-5 of this Course these features have been discussed in detail.

? 1.4.5 The Early Medieval Period If we take the period from the decline of the empires of Guptas and Harsha to the early 16th century, we frnd the following developments in the cultural spheres.

i) The period saw the decline of Buddhism and rise of Hinduism led by the great South Indian religious figure, Shankara (788-820 A.D.). He was born in Kerala and developed the philosophy of Advaita (Monism) which, many scholars say, assimilated many features of Buddhism. He travelled extensively in the country, engaged the Buddhist scholars in debates, founded a religious order and established four seats or mathas in Badrinath in the north, Shringeri in the South, Puri in the East and Dwarka in the West to uphold his teachings.

ii) While Shankara upheld the orthodoxy in Hidnuism, there were many streams emerging which preached a child like devotion to God. This came to be called as Bhakti movement and had its origins in South India. The Nayanars and Alvars, considered to be the first Bhakti saints, were already spreading their movement in the 8th and 9th centuries at the same time when Shankara was evolving his monistic philosophy. These saints rejected monism, Brahmin dominance, caste system and the ritual worship. Among them were many from the non-Brahmin castes, mostly peasants and traders, some even from among washermen, potters, fishermen, hunters, toddy tappers etc. Right from its beginnings the Bhakti movement was popular in its origins and conception. Hymns were composed in the honour of Vishnu, Shiva and later Krishna. In Maharashtra, the Bhakti movement started with Jnanesvara and Namdev (1270 - 1350). Eknath (1533-99), Tukaram (1598 - 1650) and Ramdas (1608 - 81) carried forward this tradition and built a strong popular base for the Bhakti tradition.

In Bengal the Bhakti movement was inspired by the Vaishnavites. Jayadev, Chandidas and Chaitanya were some of the influential figures of this region. From the Chaitanya tradition developed the baul movement with following both among the Hindus and muslims of the region. In North India, particularly in the Hindi land, the Bhakti tradition was inspired by Ramanand. He was probably born and brought up in South India and was among the followers of Ramanuja's sect. Later he travelled all over India spreading his teachings. Kabir and Raidas were famous among his disciples.

Kabir Das, considered to be one of the greatest reformers and poets in the Hindi area, was born in a Muslim family of Banaras. He interacted with many saints and Sufis of his time. He was very harsh in his criticism of both the orthodox Hindu and Muslim religious practices. He believed in Nirguna Brahma and equated Ram with ;Rahim,Krishna with Karim and Hari with Hazrat. With him the Bhakti movement not only transcended its caste boundaries but also the religious boundaries. His verses collected in Adi Granth, Kabir Granthawali-and Bijak are among the priceless jewels of our anti-orthodox and syncretic traditions. Inlroducing Indian Culture Raidas, Nanak and Dadu were part of the tradition which Kabir represented. After them, however, it was channelised into Saguna and non-critical streams of Mirabai, Nand Das and Surdas and culminated with Tulsidas (1532 - 1623) whose Ramcharitmanas became the most popular text of the Hindus in north India. He tried to synthesize the existing trends of the "Bhakti movement and poetry. But he represented a more orthodox tradition which was different from the anti-caste, homogenising tradition of Kabii, Nanak and Dadu.

The Bhakti movement also gave riseto important regional literary development. Tamil, Kannada, Marathi, Bengali, Oriya, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Awadhi and Braj were some of the Indian languages in which Bhakti literature was composed and written. These regional languages made the Bhakti movement even more popular and provided a vehicle to the saints to reach the masses. It is through them, therefore, that this grcat movement became ingrained in the popular memory.

iii) It was during this period that India came in touch with Arabs and,through them, with Islam. Trade relations had existed since ancient times between Arabia and India. From the 7th -8th century, Arabs had established their principality in Sindh. Since then a vital interaction existed between the two cultures. The urban population knew both Arabic and Sanskrit. The Quran was translated into Sindhi, while the Sanskrit works on astronomy, medicine, ethics and administration were translated into Arabic. It was, however, after the victory of Mohammed of Ghur on Prithviraj in 1192 and later conqucsts by his generals that the Turkish rule was established in India. With headquarter in Delhi, the Turkish chieftains spread in various parts of India and by the beginning of thc 13th ccntury managed to establish a strong central kingdom called Delhi sultanate under the suzerainty of Qutbuddi Aibak and later lltutmish (1210-36). Slowly by the 14th century the Turks reached most parts of India and forced the local rulers to accept their suzerainty. They had settled in India and considered themselves as Indians. They coopted many local Hindu chieftains in the ruling hierarchy and recruited Hihdus in their armies. Theirs was as much an Indian rule as any which preceded or succeeded them.

One of the great religious movements within Islam, Sufism, camc to India during this period. Even beforc the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate some Sufi saints had come to India. There were three chief orders (silsila) of Sufis in India: a) Chisti which was more popular in and around Delhi and western V.P.; b) Suhrawardi, which was popular in Sindh and c)Firdausi, with followers in Bihar.

Sufism, like the Bhakti movement, was the popular side of religion. The Sufis opposed the Islamic orthodoxyand kept themselves aloof from the seats of power. They respected the original Islamic doctrine of equality of all followers and criticised the ulema for not being loyal to Islam. They remained non-conformist both in relation to the state and organized religion and were sometimes persecuted for heterodoxy and heresy.

Sufism and the Bhakti movement influenced each other. Both believed in spiritual guide (guru) and in mystical union with god. The chisti Sufis and the Nathpanthi Yogis were intermixing during the sultanate period. In fact both Sufism and the Bhakti movement represent the popular face of religions in India. The shrines of the Sufi saints like Muinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi are revered by people of all religions.

iv) It was during this period, particularly between 10th and 13th centuries that the tradition of Hindu architecture and sculpture as witnessed in temple-budding reached its ciimax. The Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho (around 1002 A.D.), the Rajarajeshwara Temple at Tanjore (around 1012 A.D.), the Udayeshvara Temple at Udaipur, Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneshwara (around 1060 A.D.), Jagannath Temple at Puri (1135 a.D.) and the Sun Temple at Konark (1250 A.D.) represent the best that any civilization can have.

v) This period also witnessed the synthesis in art forms that the sultanate period brought about. The style of architecture that evolved is termed as Indo-Islamic and is shown in Alai Darwaza (built in 1325) at the Qutub complex and the Jamat Khana Masjid (built in 1325) at Nizamuddin.

Similarly in music, the popular qawwali was introduced for the first time; khayal was developed; ragas like zilaph, sazgiri, sarparda etc. were created; and a new musical Indian Culture and instrument sitar was developed by combining the old Indian Veena and the Iranian Heritage - The Historical tambura. Context I

Other important monuments from this period are Qutub Mirsar, Quwwatul Mosque, lltutrnish Tomb, Balban's Tomb, Khirki Masjid etc in Delhi.

This period was, therefore, extremely important for the development of composite cultural forms, achievement in architecture and sculpture, evolution of popular religious movements and growth of regional literatures.

EIzlCheck Your Progress-2 1) Buddhism is considered to have originated as a religion of protest against Hinduism. Critically Examine this statement......

2) List the contributions made by the Gupta period to our cultural tradition......

3) Write short notes on the Bhakti movement and Sufism...... Introducing Indian Culture 1.5 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we have discussed the various factors which had influenced our culture through thousands of years. The cultural heritage has also been examined by tracing its development through history. In this Unit we have limited ourselves from the Harappan period to the early medieval period and shown that the Indian cultural tradition has advanced by internal and external dialogues and by incorporating features from diverse religious, ethnic and regional traditions. In the next Unit we will discuss its historical evolution from the Mughal period to the present day.

1.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

EEIlCheck Your Progress-1 1) For answer see Sec. 1.2

2) For answer see Sec. 1.3

CIzlCheck Your Progress-2 1) See the Sub-sec. 1.4.3

2) See the Sub-sec. 1.4.4

3) See the Sub-sec. 1.4.5 UNIT 2 INDIAN CULTURE AND HERITAGE: THE HISTONCAL CONTEXT I1

Structure

2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Historical Evolution 2.2.1 Late Medieval Period 2.2.2 Modern Period 2.2.3 Contemporary Period 2.3 Science and Tcchnology Through History 2.4 Environment and Culture 2.5 Features of Indian Cultural Heritage 2.5.1 Assimilation 2.5.2 Unity in Diversity 2.5.3 Patriarchy and Women 2.5.4 Syncretic 'Tradition 2.5.5 Religious Tolerance 2.5.6 The Cultural Traditions of the Elite and the Masses 2.6 Let Us Sum Up 2.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

2.0 OBJECTIVES

In this Unit we will discuss the historical evolution of our culture and analyse the characteristic features of our cultural heritage. After reading this Unit, you will learn about the:

a cultural heritage during later medieval, modern and contemporary period, a role of science and technology in enriching our culture, a relationship between environment and culture, . a assimilating qualities of our culture, and the underlying unity in our visibly divetse cultural traditions, a syncretic trends and religious coexistence in our culture, and a position and role of women in the cultural tradition of India.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

A country is not a mere land mass. It denotes a territory with people. The people define a country - its past, its present, its future. They have their traditions which are part of their environment, and their interaction with each other. The identities of the different people who constitute the generic term Indians have been achieved through their cultural and political expressions in history. Cultural advance is a continuous process - reformulation and redefinition in the context of the demands that history makes on human beings is its hallmarks.

For thosc involved in tourism industry, it is significant to understand the historical context of our cultural heritage. A part of tourism industry is 'heritage' tours, and there are invariable cases of tourist guides at historical sites presenting a vcrsion of India's heritage that is not truly representative of the people. This Unit aims at giving you anidea of our cultural heritage: its secular basis and its popular character.

In this Unit, we will continue our discussion from the point where we left it in the last Unit. In terms of historical evolution we will discuss early medieval, modern and contemporary periods of our history. After a discussion on historical evolution we will talk about science --

Introducing Indian Culture and technology througl~history. environment and culture. The nature of Indian cultural heritage will also find a place. In the last section of this Utnit, we will discuss some divisive tendencies in our culture which though part of our heritage represent negative aspects of it.

2.2 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION

In the previous Unit, we discussed the historical evolution of our culture and heritage upto early medieval period. In this Unit, we will talk about late medieval, modern and contemporary period. In terms of timeframe in later medieval period we are including 16th to 18th century, in modern we will include the period from 19th century to the independence of India (1947) and contemporary will include post independent period of history. Let us now begin with late medieval period.

2.2.1 - Late Medieval Period The late medieval period witnesseu a fresh wave of foreigners descending on lndia in the form of Mughals. Though Mughals came as invaders, they settled here and made lndia their home. During this period, the culture and heritage of India came in contact with the new arrivals. The Mughals brought with thcm different political, socio-cultural and economic traditions and institutions. The contact and interaction between the two cultures contributed significantly to Ind~anheritage and enriched the culture. During the period, the cultural traditions of early medieval period (about which you read in the previous Unit) also gained morc ground and reached different parts of the co~mtry.

As political masters the Mughals created a centralised and uniform political structure. It was for the first tirne that such large parts of India followed a uniform political and administrative system in far off regions. The Mughals also created a remarkably composite ruling class with nobles of Irani, Turami, Afghani, Turk, local Muslims, Rajputs, Marathas and other Indians. The laws of the state were also independent of religious laws.

In the cultural sphere, new styles of architecture, painting, literature andlanguages, and music and dance forms were developed which are still with us today. The same is true of our food habits and dress, social customs and religious beliefs, marriage rituals, amusements and ways of thinking.

Literatures and languages developed in various parts of the country during this period reflect a diverse yet unified consciousness. Rather than cataloging the entiie corpus of literary activity, we will try to point out its main features. Our effort will be to note in what way they advanced our cultural heritage, and to that extent they facilitated cultural interaction. Translation was an important field for literary activity. Translations of important texts, religions and secular, created a composite consciousness among the elite. Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Vedas and Upanishads were translated into Persian and into regional languages. Tutirlama was translated from Persian to Turki, Babarnama from Turki to Persian, Rajtarangini into Persian. Works on music and dance, as well as various scientiiic treaties of ancient India and of the Arabs were also translated.

This period also saw the growth of regional languages with the Bhakti movement. These languages then dcveloped as vehicles for popular literary activities. There emerged a rich literature in Bengali, Oriya, Marathi, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Braj, Awadhi, and a ncw languagc Urdu was born. New genres were created in literary activity such as Kafi and qissas (romance and development of the novel form) in regional languages. Poetry developed on religious as.well as secular themes. There was inter-religious and inter- regional integration in terms of subject matter and language of literature. Keshav, Bihari, Rahim, etc. were some of the significant Hindi poets. Rahim and Tansen composed their lyrics around Krishna leela. In the South, Malayalam, Tclugu, Tamil and Kannada, the older languages produced a new kind of literature linked to Bhakti, and in the new context of mcdieval social changes. There alsoemergcd a kind of Dakhni literature centred in Gujarat, Bijapur, Golconda, Aurangabad and Bidar. Some of the important names in various languages, cutting across communities and based in their regions are well known. In Hindi we have Malik Mohammad Jaisi's Padmavat, Tulsidas' Ramcharitmanas, Surdas, Mirabai, Raskhan, Rahim. In Bengali Chandidasa, Jayadeva, Manikdatta. In Assamese Hema Saraswati, Sankardeva, Mahadeva. In Gujarati Narsimha Mehta, Bhalana, Akho, Premananda. In Marathi Jnandeva, Eknatha, Tukaram, Ramadasa. In Sindhi Shah Abdul Latif. In Urdu Gesu Daraz, Mohammad Quli Indian Culture and Shah, Wali Dakhani. In 18th century, the tradition was followed by Mir, Sauda and Nazir Heritage -The Historical Akberabadi. In Puniabi Sheikh Farid, Bulhe Shah, Waris Shah. In Persian Abul Fazal, Faizi, Conte.xl 11 Utbi and Naziri. ~r&ceDara Shikoh was a great patron of classical Indian literature and got it translated from Sanskrit to Persian. Moreover, contrary to popular belief the mcdieval period was rich in the production of Sanskrit literature in the North, South and East. Raghunath Nayak, Nilanatha Dikshit and Chakra kavi contributed significantly to Sanskrit literature. We have detailed historical accounts and also some important travel writings, memoirs, and political treatises: all of which are important historical sources, as well as of literary value. Also works on astronomy, music and statecraft were written.

But it was the popular religious movemcnts that represented the most advanced thought, in I 1 medieval India. Bhakti and Sufism were of great cultural significance. In challenging the ! religions monopoly of the Brahmans and the ulema, they also challenged social hierarchies. They ignored traditional barriers of caste and creed and emphasized universal brotherhood. We have already discussed it in thc previous Unit and will not go again into details here.'

Another significant features of medieval period was rise of important religious thoughts. The most important of these was Sikhims. The foundation of Sikhism rests on the teaching and philosophy of Guru Nakak. Nanak attcmpted to establish a true religion which could lead to salvation. This philosophy comprised of three basic elements: a leading charismatic personality (the Guru): ideology (Shabad) and organisation (Sangat). He opposed ritualism and believed in universal brotherhood. After Guru Nanak his preachings were carried on by his disciples. A total of 10 Gurus are recognised by Sikhism. The last one was Guru Gobind Singh. Sikhism cnriched Indian society's plurality and today occupies a prominent place in Indian culture.

Medieval architecture is the finest example of the blending of various talents and styles and forms. In the previous Unit, we discussed the architecture of the early medicval period. During the Mughal period, the elements of the various temple styles together with the true domes and the arches which came with the Turks reached all parts of India with new improvements. The best examples are Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, Kerala and other parts of Snuth India. In the process new forms with distinct regional flavour emcrged. Under the Mughals, the architecture reached new heights Humayun's Tomb (Delhi), Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar's tomb at Sikandara (Agra), Red Fort, Jama Masjid (Delhi) and Taj Mahal (Agra) are finest examples of stylc, technique and craftsmanship. We will read in detail about architecture in Block-5 of this course. Persian and Central Asian influence can be seen in the form of glazed tiles used for decoration in most rnedicval architecture, the motifs on them being the designs, the flora and fauna of this country. The entire medieval Rajput architecture - its forts and palaces - is a blend of the pre-medieval and Persian elements. Architecture of public use such as sarais, step-wells, bridges, canals and roads showed the adoption of new building techniques and had great implication in terms of possibilities of shared cultures. Building technology advanced rapidly during this period.

Painting was a well developed art in ancient India as is evident from the frescoes in the Ajantha - Ellora caves, but this was soon lost. With the Moghuls we are introduced to 3 dimensional painting. Portrait painting becamc widespread. The paintings done at the Mughul courts represented folk tales, stories from Ramayana, Krishnalila, and the festivals, animals and landscapes of this country combined with the new 3 dimensional, miniature form of painting. The Rajasthani andPahari paintings combined the themes and earlier traditions of their areas with Moghul forms and styles. Tllustrations in manuscripts and calligraphy were significant areas of art production. Illustrated manuscripts Babarnama, Akbarnama and Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri contain beautiful illustrations of thc flora and fauna, tools and techniques of the period, as well as lives of the people.

In music and dance too the medieval period has given us much that constitutes our cultural heritage today. Hindusthani music as we know it today is a fusion of Persian and folk forms of music. New ragas were composed, new forms like the Khayal, thumari and dadra and ghazal evolved; the singcrs belonged to all communities; the theme-words were diverse, and audiences were not always limited to the elite. New instruments like the sitar and sarod were invented and became part of the classical and folk repertoire. Kathak as a dance form is also a mix of folk form adapted to court culture. In fact it is in dance and music that the older popular traditions interact very closely to create our well known genres of classical dance and music today. The contribution of the Bhakti and Sufi preachers has a big role in this as they come from among the people. Carnatic music was similarly transformed, although it remained distinct from,Hindustani classical music. We will discuss music, dance and paintings at leneth in Block-3 of this course. Introducing Indian Culture EzzlCheck Your Progress-1 1) How the Mughal style of painting contributed to Indian tradition of painting ? 1 i ...... 1

2) In column 'A' we are listing names of some important literary figures of medieval period. Match their names with column 'B' of languages they wrote in. i 'A' 'B' i) Wali Dakhani a) Persian ii) Raghunath Nayak b) Urdu iii) Tulsidas c) Marathi iv) Narsimaha Mehta d) Awadhi v) ~a~adeva e) Gujarati vi) Abul Fa~l f) Bengali vii) Eknatha g) Sanskrit

2.2.2 Modern Period The impact of the British rule released new, contradictory social and cultural forces, 4 impressed with the general nationalist awakening and the all-India communicational network and market. The two fold struggle against the British and against the vested interests within the country had its corresponding cultural aspects. At an intellectual level it resulted in movements for social and religious reform among all the communities, as well as a revivalism based on a search for and pride in the country's cultural roots. At a popular levelit assumed the form of struggles for social equality, temple entry, anti-caste movements, and against untouchability. Movements for women's education and equality was a significant aspect of national awakening and an Indian cultural identity i.e. a national identity based on cultural diversity. The construction of cultural heritage from the 18th century onwards took the form of introducing modern values into our ancient and medieval heritage. These modern values are now part of our cultural roots. Rather than artistic endeavor, the efforts of the Indian people were geared towards re-thinking their own society, redefining their heritage, their collective personality, and the place of every section of Indian society in the collective life. In the 19th century this took the form of social reform expressed through campaigns aimed at creating a critical consciousness.

The important organizations and movements through which these were expressed was the Bengal Renaissance, Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Derozians, the Aligarh movement and several organizations all over the country.

A major transformation took place with the growth of mass politics. Social equality, women's equality, religious tolerance, scientific temper, rational thought and democracy became issues of general concern. These values found expression in anti-caste movements, popular struggles against colonial and feudal interests, against untouchability, for protection of traditional rights over resources. The important movements were the self-respect movement in Tamilnadu and Andhra, the non-Brahman movements in Karnataka and Maharashtfa which challenged the traditional social order, and projected a new collective identity for lower castes. We will have a detailed discussion on social structure and caste in India in Block-2 of this course. .

In formal cultural expression this took the form of growth of nationalist literatures invarious languages, the standardization of the regional languages, the emergence of new genres and a new context expressing anti-imperialist sentiments. Bankimchandra, Bharatendu, Indian Culture and Govardhanram Tripathi are pioneering novelists, whose work exposed the detrimental Heritage - The Historical effects of British rule in India and inspired patriotism. A really secular democratic Context I1 literature comes with Premchand, whose works are not only anti imperialist in sentiment, but also pro,ject great sympathy for the rights of the peasantry and the working people in general against feudal, vested interest within the country. Issues like poverty and exploitation formed the content of 20th century nationalist literature inspired as it was by the Russian Revolution and the left movements of the world. Other significant writers include Tagore, Saratchandra, Subramaniyan Bharti etc. The formation of mass fronts of students, youth, peasants and workers realised consciousness. The Indian Peoples Theatre Association and Progressive Writers' Association became the cultural expression for sentiment of freedom and popular rights. The modern values and cultural awakening found an expression in various art forms during this period. Besides, literature the trend is visible in cinema, theatre, painting, sculpture etc. All these have been discussed elsewhere in this course. The values and cultural expressions of modern period which developed duringfreedom struggle provided a solid base to Indian culture in contemporary India which we will discuss next.

2.2.3 Contemporary Period

In fact it would not be wrong to say that Indian cultural identity was forged in the struggle for freedom and social justice. The national movement was a pro,ject for modernity. Democracy, secularism and a struggle for a scientific temper bccame expressions of attempts to foster a modern culture. It was reflected within the Bengal Renaissance, the women's movement, the social and religious reform movements, literature, the forging of a struggle between regional and national identity, the arena of education and family, and in the class struggles.

All these struggles created a great churning in Indian society and growth of new values at the popular level. The central role of the popular struggles in our national movement gave a qualitativelynew basis to nationhood; Culturally it implied not simply a territory, one country and one civilization, but the right of the people to collectively decide their own destiny. It becomes necessary to dcfine the nation in terms of its millions, who began their journey from being subjects (of various rulers through history) to citizenship. This culture of citizenship is a valuable heritage of the modern period in our collective cultural personality.

Independent 'India adopted all the modern values and accepted equality of all citizens through the establishment of a democratic sovereign republic of India. Secularism, equality before law, freedom of thought and expression, protection to minorities and deprived sections of society were the salient features of independent India.

A voluntary acceptance of diversity and the right of all people to free and equal expression in all spheres of life becomes a cardinal, consciously expressed principle of the nationhood. The search for civilizationalroots assumed the expression of regional cultural/religious forms. National plans for development noted regional inequalities and planned on the basis of diversity of resources.

Now the pluralism was defined in moie positive and egalitarian terms than co-existence which has a long history in our country. Conscious respect for difference was not a value in society. This came only with modernity, the critique of modernity and the forging of an alternate modernity and a new dimension to the ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. It is this new definition of pluralism which made religious tolerance a value in itself, the separation of religion and politics a necessity, and caste and degradation of women an anathema. They have given to us the culture of democracy and democratic rights as values, mass debates and definition of identities. They made possible an all India platform for the articulation of diversity as collective-life and unity, and are as much a part of our heritage as the cultural components of our tradition created in the ancient and medieval periods.

The early independent India found significant expression of social consciousness through . literature, theatre, film and such art forms which gained enormous popularity, acceptance and empathy rrom the Indian people. Unfortunately this mdmentum has been lost, without the corre~por~dingpolitical momentum that inspires progressive cultural expression. The contemporary India faces serious threat from caste, communal and ethnic conflicts, discrimination against women, unequal economic development and some separatist movements. These affect the cultural tradition and heritage and need to be tackled within a democratic secular framework.of Indian society and polity. ' Introducing Indian Culture

1) Write a brief note on the social concerns developed during National Movement......

2) List four main socio-cultural movements in modern India......

3) In what ways did modern culture fmd a place in independent India?

2.3 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY THROUGH HISTORY

Even as growth of scientific knowledge and technology and scientific temper and rational thought are part of our cultural heritage, from antiquity to the frontiers of scientificknowledge we are participants in a culture that constitutes the common heritage of mankind. We have not only absorbed and transformed the knowledge that has come to us, we have alsc transmitted the knowledge that has been generated here. There is an integral link between development and openness. Social exchanges are central to the growth of scientific knowledge, new techniques and processes. As in other aspects of culture 'outside' influences have given us a great deal in scientific knowledge. With the Greeks came the Shears, the scissors, the rotatory grain mill and the early mortar and pestle mill (200 BC) Astronomy was in the earlier years influenced by Mesopotamia. Ayu~vedaabsorbed a great deal from the Greek system of medicine. Paper, gunpowder, cannon, glass blowing, drawloom, the Persian wheel, new techniques of metallurgy employed in brassware and bidriware, rockets employed by Tipu Sultan in the Carnatic wars against the British troops, domes and arches and lime mortar all came from outside. All these were adopted by Indian craftsmen and further improved.

India also had a great deal to give: it transformed knowledge in other countries, and contributed to cultural advance of our civilization. The first expression of scientific advance Indian Culture and was the systematization of Sanskrit grammar in the 4th century BC by Panini. By the 3rd Heri(age - The century BC mathematics, astronomy and medicine began to develop separately. The Context II contributions of our country include the notation system,the decimal system and the use of zero - (2nd century BC). There were important developments in algebra and geometry, Aryabhatta (5th century AD) and Varamihira (6th century AD) contributed to knowledge of the lunar and solar eclipse to the world. Charaka (2nd Century AD) laid the foundations for Indian medicine. Ayurveda, a system of medicine was developed in ancient period.

The medieval period saw great advance in textile technology - weaving, dyeing and printing. European technology and scientific knowledge also contributed in different fields. Scientific activity continued though not at the pace it had come to acquire in Europe, as did applications of military technology. It manifested itself mainly in the productive field of agriculture and - textiles. It contributed to cultural expression in precisely these fields: each region had its own design, style, and weave in textiles. During the medieval period textiles and various other crafts - glassware, bidriwork, brassware, carpet weaving, etc - become the soul of Indian people's cultural artifacts. A shared heritage with the rest of mankind, produced a very specific cultural expression, specific in relation to world civilization, diverse within itself: every region in India had its own face to show to the world in terms of craft production.

2.4 ENVIRONMENT AND CULTURE

Environment had a major role in determining the identity and cultural personality of the communities rooted in it. The struggle over control of environment and against nature and then with vested interests has always been a source of cultural conflict in our land. An effort to combine environmentalism with development has been another issue. Forests and rights over forests have shaped cultural expression through history. The lives of the tribal population has been specially linked with such rights. Besides, India is rich in bio-diversity, which has provided rich resources for the development of traditional medicine, Unani and Ayurveda. The rich flora and fauna have been an asset in the context of the modern need for preserving the ecological balance and the self - preservation of traditional tribal communities and their cultural expression. The rich variety of seeds in all crops within regions is testimony to the skills and knowledge of traditional communities. Unfortunately this entire heritage is in danger of being destroyed as a result of lop-sided economic developments, with their undue and unequal pressures of market for selected high - yielding crops. The cutting of forests, excessive use of chemicals and pestisides, displacing the tribals from their natural habitats are all endangering the environment. Neem and the controversy over patents relating to its products are the most well known examples of denying to Indian people the fruits of their own natural wealth.

nCheck Your Progress-3 1) List important contributions made by India in the field of science...... IntroduciAg Indian Culture 2) What were the main technological devices brought to India from outside?

3) How does environment affect culture ?

2.5 FEATURES OF INDIAN CULTURAL HERITAGE

In this section we will try to evaluate our cultural legacy in its totality. Until now, by going through the historical account, you must have noticed many characteristic features of our tradition. In this section, we will try to conceptualize them.

2.5.1 Assimilation The quality for assimilation is a very strong element in Indian culture. This is evident not only in the adoption of new cultural forms and symbols through history, but also in food habits, particularly in North India, and dresses, building styles, marriage customs, gods and goddesses, rituals etc. Tea and coffee have become staple drinks of north and south India respectively. Potato, chilies, pineapple, tobacco and many other agricultural products have come from foreign lands and become part of Indian food. Bread, chinese chow-mien and tandoori food are quite popular. Salvar-kameez, pants and shirts are now Indian dresses. New melodies which came from Persia with the Muslims became part of the repertoire of Hindustani classical music. There are countless other examples, apart from the assimilation of techniques and inventions. Older customs, rituals and cults were also not altogether destroyed. In fact, many of themwere taken over, adapted or transformed during later periods of the country's history. Assimilation has cut across regions, religious communities, and rules and regulations of specific castes. Indian Muslims and Hindus have so many customs and rituals and cultural practices of everyday life in common today that it is difficult to tell who took what from whom. The growth of capitalism and the process of 'sanskritization' have led to adoption and transformation of a lot of cultural practices of the tribal people and the lower castes as well as of the upper castes. Popular religion has created its own groundwork for assimilation of many popular cults into the religious practices of organised religion and vice versa.

2.52 Unity in Diversity

Our cultural profile today bears testimony to the diversity and secular basis of our culture forged by popular cultural expression through history. It underlines the central role of the common people in determining the nature of our cultural unity as well. A great deal of information about this has come out in the form of a survey by Anthropological survey of India, envisaged in approximately 20 - 30 volumes of data.

According to the conclusions of this massive survey we are one of the most diverse peoples in the wnrlrl Thprp dh?< rnmrn~~niti~cin thic rnnntrv rliffer~ntint~dnmnno themcplvec Indian Culture and in terms of biological traits, dress, language, forms of worship, occupation, food habits and Heritage - The Historical kinship patterns. It is all these communities who, in their essential ways of life, express our Context I1 national popular life.

Nobody is a 'foreigner' in this country and there is no pure Aryan. Most Indian communities have a mixed ancestry, and it is today impossible to separate our roots. Genetic and morphological traits within religious communities vary more than those between communities. Homogeneity is along lines of region, not caste or religion, and it has been scientifically disproved that upper and lower castes have a different racial ancestry. For example Tamil Brahmins have little similarity of racial traits with Brahmins in the North. The Brahmins and people of the lowest caste in the same region almost everywhere show remarkable homogeneity in this respect.

There are few communities which do not consider themselves as migrants or 'outsiders'. Every community recalls its migration in its folklore, history, and collective memory, and all have, with time, accepted the regional ethics of the area they settled in, contributing to its local traditions. Even invaders become migrants eventually, and it needs to be emphasized that Indian culture has benefited from migrations. Many settlers professing Islam and Christianity actually settled here earlier than many of those professing Hinduism. Many segments of the Muslim population, in fact, do not show any characteristic that can be called migratory, having descended mainly from the local population.

In terms of their identification 85% of the communities are rooted in their resources. Experts say that "rootedness in the eco-cultural zone is an outstanding characteristic of our communities, no matter what religious labels are attached to them". In fact, it is not possible to separatc the lives and livelihood, the occupations, food habits and dress patterns, the songs and the hut settlements of the different communities from their landscape, climate and occupations deriving from their resources and environment. Even the migrant groups seek to identify themselves with their local environment except in the matter of languages they speak at home or in marriages. 71.77% of the migrants live within a single regional or linguistic boundary and are rooted in its ethos. For example, those in Kerala and Lakshwadeep, inspite of religious difference, share a great number of traits, while those in Kerala and Punjab do not.

Fifty five per cent of the communities derive their names from the traditional occupations they pursue - for example, Bhiyar (peasant), Alvan (saltmaker), Churihar (bangle maker), Chitrakar (Scroll - painter) and also Gaddis, Gujjars, Julahas, Dhobis, Sapera, Nai etc. 14% have their names associated with their environment is. mountains, plains, rivers etc.; 14% from their places of origin such as Ahluwalias, Kanpuria, Chamali, Arandan, Oswal, Shimong. Only 3% of the communities derive their names from religious sects. The communities are divided into various caste and sub-castes which are also derived from occupations, and cut across religion. Many surnames also derive from occupations or offices traditionally hcld, such as Patel, Naik, Prasad, Gupta, Sharma, Deshmukh, Chaudhary, Khan etc. Clans bearing names of animals, plants or inanimate objccts also cut across religion, language, region etc.

Popular cultural expression is also basically secular. Markings or identification by different communities are mainly non- religious. In disposing of their dead 3059 communities cremate them, approximately 2000 bury them, and many follow both practices. Marriage symbols, food habits, dress, dance and musical forms also cut along religious lines. Our identification of community as a religious identity primarily is thus a myth strengthened through media and consistent wrong usage, and not rooted in objective reality.

Another interesting finding of the Anthropological Survey data is that of the 775 major traits identified by expert - relating to ecology, settlement, identity, food habits, social organizations, economy, and occupation, linkages, and impact of change and development - show sharing of traits across religious categories in the following manner: Hindus share 96.77% traits with Muslims, 91.19% traits with Buddhists, 88.99% with Sikhs, 77.47% with Jains. Language is an important source of diversity and cultural expression. There are as many as 325 languages and 25 scripts, deriving from various linguistic families. At least 65% of the communities are bi-lingual, most tribal communities are tri- lingual, and language contact through bi-lingualism is a major instrument for social and cultural interaction. Introducing Indian 2.5.3 Patriarchy and Women

Our cultural heritage has not given an equal place to women. It has not been kind to them. Women's subordination and social oppression have had strong religious and social sanction throughout our history. Crimes against women have been perpetrated against women without any widespread social disapproval right up to the modern times. Most of the traditional crimes against women such as widow-burning (sati) female infanticide, child marriage, have their roots in ancient India and have been reinforced by the modern roots of inequality.

The religious texts of the ancient period have derogatory references to women. Women alongwith the Shudras were denied access to participation in religious ceremonies, education, and often to many scriptures. They did not have any inheritance rights. The first instances of Sati are in the 6th century AD. The Gupta period, otherwise rich in culture, was especially harsh on women. As economy became complex with a division of labour women were systematically relegated into subordinate roles. Manusmriti reflecting laws of the time, and very cruel to women, became the b'asis for women's position in society for a long time. --

The Medieval period was a continuation in this respect, and so was the early modern period.

The fight against women's oppression and for social equality was an important component of our national movement. The movements against sati and child marriage and for women's education were part of the general 19th century social reform movement. The entry of women into the national movement, their equal contribution to freedom, transformed the nature of the women's movement as well. The women's movement began to define the ferment and women's role in society in opposition to the revivalist aspects of the definition of Indian identity. Pandita Ramabai, involved in pioneering education for women, was the first woman delegate to the Congress session, and it was only in 1890 that women delegates were allowed to speak in these sessions. Sarala Devi Ghosal, Madame Bikaji Cama, Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, Aruna Asaf Ali, Kamaldevi Chattopadhyaya, Lakshrni Sehgal are well known names. Thousands of women from all classes participated in the salt satyagraha in breaking of forest laws, confronting the police, in 'terrorist' activities, in the civil disobedience and Quit India Movements, in the peasant struggles, in the Telagana movement. There was hardly anywhere or any moment in nationalist struggle where women remained unrepresented. Their contribution to the creation of artifacts, popular cultural forms such as dance, music, crafts of all kinds as well as in economy is equal to men.

In fact, as in the case of all working people women have contributed more to the creation of ., our cultural heritage than they have gained from it.

2.5.4 Syncretic Tradition Composite culture has been the hallmark of the Indian tradition. Starting with the Aryan migrations to India, the fusion of cultures has constantly taken place giving rise to new cultural forms both at the elite and the popular levels. Examples of this are to be found in the Indo-Greek styles in architecture, sculpture and painting in ancient India, Indo-Islamic architectural styles in medieval India as witnessedin many tombs and mosques erected during this period. In music, this tradition found expression in Qawwali, Tabla, Sitar, Khayal etc. At thc level of language, urdu developed as a medium of literature and state-craft. This language today represents one of the finest expressions of our syncretic tradition. At the popular level, we have Bhakti and sufi movements. Both thesemovements had followers from all castes and communities, although the Bhakti movement had more following among the Hindus and sufism among the Muslims. Some of the Bhakti saints like Kabir and Dadu had almost equal following among the adherents of both the religions. ~ndeven today we witness people of all communities going to the urs melas, celebrated in the memories of thesufi saints. The sufi dargahs at Ajmer and Delhi and other places are visited by members of all castes and communities.

In fact, the compositeness of our culture has reached such heights that the most undesirable feature of our cultural heritage - caste system - is almost equally prevalent among the followers of all religions in India. Indian Culture and Heritage - The Historical 2.5.5 Religious Tolerance Context I1 Religious Tolerance is an important characteristic of our culture. Since ancient times, this spirit has prevailed and the religious issues were sorted out more by debate than by violence. The earlier theory that the Aryans destroyed the civilization and culture of the Harappans is now discarded. In fact, the Aryans and the Harappans existed together as their specific remains have been found from the same period. The Aryans took many features from the Harappan mode of worship. The images of phallus (shiva), bull (cow) and pipal are used by the Hindu religion. In fact the Vedic religion, particularly in the later period seemed to have incorporated many features of the Harappan mode of worship.

Jainism and Buddhism were, in any case, non-violent religions. Throughout its thousand year old history in the sub-continent Buddhism existed side by side with Hinduism. The Hindus were present in the courts of the Buddhist rulers and the opposite was also true.

The resurgence of Hinduism occasionally witnessed acts of persecution against the Buddhists. For example, Pushyamitra Shung, who became the king of Magadha after the fall of the Mauryan empire, is said to have offered 100 gold coins for the head of one Buddhist monk. Similar acts of persecution were reported from south India as well in the later period. But these things were rare and in between. The Gupta kings never persecuted the Buddhists and during their reign the Buddhist art forms developed apace. Similarly, Harsha, the Buddhist king, accommodated Hindu religion and philosophy in running his kingdom. In fact, debate was a more significant way of converting the people than violence. During the early years of Indian contacts with the Islam, we do find some instances of either forced conversion or destruction of the temples and the idols. Mahmud of Gazani was perhaps the most notorious figure in this regard. But he was more interested in plunder than religion, although he used the religious symbol of jihad to carry out his plunder. Mahmud of Ghazani, however, was never interested in ruling India. Some of the Turkish invaders also indulged in some activities of religious intolerance but these instances are not many. Once they got settled in India and established their rule, they became extremely tolerant and sensitive to Hindu and other Indian views and sensibilities. They nowhere resorted to forced conversions.

The Mughals, particularly Akbar, consciously set new parameters of religious co-existence and cooperation. His Din-i-Ilahi professes the worship of the supreme God without religious sectarianism. The example set by him was followed by his successors and even Aurangzeb, contrary to the popular perception of his as a bigoted king, with some digressions, stuck to the basic Indian ethos of religious tolerance.

In the modern period, if we put aside some instances of the Portuguese rule in some pockets, neither the French nor the British engaged in forced conversions. In fact, after the revolt of 1857, the British greatly restricted even the private missionary activities in India.

In the entire course of the Indian history, most of the religious conversions occurred by consent rather than by force. The discrimination against the lower castes and strict religious practices of Hinduism forced many to convert to other religions. There were, of course, some exceptions to this rule. But they were extremely rare.

2.5.6 The Cultural Traditions of the Elite and the Masses The Indian culture has been enriched by the contributions of both the elite and the masses. The poetry of Kalidas and the Grammer of Panini, alongwith the verses of Kabir and ecstatic dances of the Bad artiste are parts of our cultural heritage. But there has been a tendency either to ignore the contribution of the popular culture to our national cultural heritage or to subordinate it to the elite tradition. In fact, the popular cultural tradition has contributed more towards the unity and upliftment of the country. The Bhakti and sufi movements illustrate this point amply. It is important to remember that Kathakali, Madhubani paintings, Pandavani, Nautanki, Kaliyeri - pattu, dandi dance, the folk music of Rajasthan, Khuja pottery, paper-machie, bandhini work, patta chitra, traditional toys, are as much creations of beauty and pleasure as cultural expressions of the elite. In fact, they also contribute much to our national wealth. We should not forget either that the impressive architectural heritage of our country is the gift of the work and sweat of our labouring people, or that the cultural expressions of the elite stand on the edifice of the extraction of surplus labour of the poor. Well known Indian festivals have their origins in the agricultural cycles of the peasantry. Introducing Indian Culture Check Your Progress-4

1) Give a few examples which show assimilating character of Indian culture.

2) Write a brief note on Anthropological Survey of India data.

3) Briefly comment on the tradition of religious tolerance in India. -a

2.6 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we discussed the historical evolution of culture during later medieval, modern and contemporary periods. We notice that in the process of evolution of our culture we assimilated a lot of things introduced from outisde. This process of assimilation gave rise to new forms and enriched our cultural heritage.

In the area of science and technology also a lot of advancement was acheived during this period which contributed to the development of culture. We also discussed some specific features of India Culture. These include assimilation, syncretic tradition and religious coexistence. We notice that our diverse cultural trend also has a unifying thread running all through. Woman's role and position in Indian culture also Ends a place in this Unit. We have also drawn your attention to the important role played by secularism, democracy, and scientific temper in the growth of modem culture in India. Indian Culture and .2.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES Heritage - The Historical Context 11

nCheck Your Progress-1 1) See Sub-sec 2.2.1.

2) i) b, ii) g, iii) d, iv) e, v) f, vi) a, vii) c

ICheck Your Progress-2 1) Women's equality, reforms in Indian society, upliftment of depressed castes etc. were some of the concerns. See Sub-sec 2.2.2.

2) You can list reform movements of Bengal, Maharashtra or south Indian states which were more prominent. See Sub-sec 2.2.2

3) In independentIndia the Indian constitution provided a base for modern culture through democracy, secularism, equality, freedom of expression etc. See Sub-sec 2.2.3.

ICheck Your Progress3 1) See Sec. 2.3

2) Textile technology, water lifting devices and building material and military technology were a few areas. See Sec. 2.3.

3) See Sec. 2.4

Check Your Progress4

1) See Sub-sec 2.5.1.

2) See Sub-sec 2.52. 3)- See Sub-sec 2.5.5. UNIT 3 CONSERVATION OF CULTURE

Structure Objectives Introduction Culture of Tourism versus Tourism of Culture Conservation of Culture Conservation of Natural Heritage/Resources and Environment. Conservation of Historical Heritage, Archaeological Sites and Monuments 3.5.1 World Heritage List 3.5.2 Main Problems in Conservation of Monuments 3.5.3 Available Expertise Conservation and Preservation of Artistic and Cultural Heritage Conservation of Socio-Economic Heritage Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.0 OBJECTIVES

In this Unit we will discuss some aspects related to the conservation of culture. After reading this Unit you will be able to :

understand the concept of preservation of culture, appreciate the importance of conserving the culture,

' know the main areas where efforts for conservation need to be made, and know how the conservation can be effected.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In the first two Units of this Block we gave you an introduction to Indian culture and heritage in the historical context. In this Unit we will discuss the importance of the conservation of culture. The conservation of culture and heritage enriches a'society and helps people appreciate its richness. In the sphere of cultural tourism also the main idea is to familiarize people with Indian culture so that their effortsat "selling" it do not warp its content.

In the International tourism parlance India is perceived as a Cultural Destination and the foreign tourists visiting India for the first time find it so fascinating that quite a few of them come again and again to enjoy the "Indian Experience". No wonder India is one such destination in the world where international tourists spend maximum days once they arrive in the country.

India is replete with heritage resources in the form of art, architecture and archaeology besides other cultural expressions like performing arts, dance, drama, fairs, festivals and the like. These cultural expressions constitute potential recreation resources. These resources, coupled with heritage, contribute to the richness of any landscape which can attract innumerable tourists looking for the "cultur4experience".

3.2 CULTURE OF TOURISM VERSUS TOURISM OF CULTURE

Thanks to the launch of Jumbo Jet Air crafts and phenomenon of Organized and Mass Tourism a very large number of travellers cross their nationaVregional boundaries annually for the purpose of tourism and this results in the following:-

i) Spurt in the economic activities and growth of the host countryldestina'tion. - -

Conservation of Cullure ii) Employment generation.

iii) Easy marketing of local arts and crafts.

iv) Image projection of host destination and 'exposure' of locals to the aliens, resulting in cultural assimilation.

v) Familiarising the tourists with the heritage of a regiodcountry. The negative impact of unregulated, unchecked and increasing number of tourist arrivals begins with the following results:-

i) Excessive burden on the goods and services of the host destination.

! ii) Taxing the ecological carrying capacity of the host eco- system. 0 b iii) Rise in the cost of goods and services because of gradual increase in demand and in the process locals who are not well to do find difficult to survive.

iv) Excessive dose of aliedforeign tourists in a culturally fragile society may at times result I in cultural-pollution and cultural perversions. i v) Once this phenomenon of cultural pollutiodperversion starts then it is extremely difficult to check it at once because of predominance of vested commercial interests in prevailing

I socio-economic milieu.

33 CONSERVATION OF CULTURE

Cultural Tourism, on the one hand helps in earning foreign currency and developing tourism. It, at the same time is also endangering the rich cultural tradition and heritage of India. The question is being hotly debated between the people who gain through this tourism and those who are worried about the destruction of this heritage. The people who 'tend to gain from the development of tourism are tourists and travel agencies, the state earning foreign currency and other taxes, the local beneficiaries and trading groups etc. The groups who are womed with this growing tourism include conservation groups, voluntary agencies advocating responsible tourism and the state agencies responsible for conservation in different areas. Now a consensus is emerging that a balance has to be worked out between tourism and the threat to culture. However, it is not an easy task to maintain the balance. It is also felt that the conservation of one area of heritage and culture cannot be achieved in isolation. It has to be a concerted effort. The most important aspect of conservation is the participation of the local population. The state with vast resources is definitely in a better position to help in conservation efforts. Besides, nongovernmental organizations, travel and tourism industry and other local bodies can also contribute in a positive way. We will refer to these at relevant places in the Unit. Before moving to the efforts made to conserve the culture let us first have an idea about the areas where conservation is needed. Indian heritage is vast and wellspread. It is difficult to include everything in this Unit. In brief we will include environment and natural resources; historical heritage including archaeological sites and monuments; Indian literature and languages; Indian sculpture and painting; music, dance tradition; theatre and folk art; handicrafts and crafts tradition; socio-economic heritage etc. For the convenience of study we will discuss these in four broad Sections.

1) Conservation of environment and natural rehurces.

2) Conservation of historicalkeritage, archaeological sites and monuments

3) Conservation and preservation of our artistic and cultural heritage

4) Conservation of socio- economic heritage with special thrust on protecting culturally, sociologically and economically sensitive/fragile communities like tribals and people living in hills, deserts and coastal areas.

Now let us discuss in detail how we can promote conservation of our culture in its broad sense. Introducing Indian Culture 3.4 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL HERITAGE / RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT

The kind of geographical diversity that we have in India is perhaps unique in the world. No other country can boast of offering such a variety of landscapes as India with its beautiful mountains, deserts, coastal areas, rivers and lakes and rich variety of fauna and flora. Goa is one of the best known tourism destination for the sea-beach lovers in the world and the desert of Rajathan attracts domestic and international tourists by thousands every year. Himalayan tourism is also a unique experience but the best of our natural heritage is our National Parks and Wild Life Sanctuaries.

Whether it is Uni-horn Rhino in Kaziranga or a Tiger in Ranthambore or Kanha National Park; an elephant in Perriyar or a Siberian Crane in Bharatpur, the sheer number and variety of fauna and flora available in our country is mind boggling and it is one of our major strengths in marketing our tourism products.

But excessive interference caused by ever increasing number of domestic and foreign tourists to our ecosystem is proving counter .productive. Large number of tourist arrivals result in noise and air-pollution of the host eco-system which in turn affect the well being of its flora and fauna. Hence it is essential that experts should work out the carrying capacities of thcse host eco-systems and tourism authorities in consultation with forest authorities should work out the number of visitors to be allowed per day. This has already been in practice in many

wild life sanctuaries of thc world and ev& in India at places like Ranthambhore, Sawai A Madhopur (Rajasthan) whcre thousands of tourist come annually to see the Tiger.

Eco-tourism aims at promoting that kind of responsible tourism which is eco-friendly and which does not destroy the subtle environmental balances 1 linkages thriving between flora and fauna of a given habitatlmicro eco-system.

If we fail to conserve our environmental heritage then we will not be able to conserve our other heritage because these are mainly dependent on the environment for their survival. Any imbalance in the ecological equilibrium would upset the tender linkages resulting in major catastrophe and ecological disasters.

The managing authorities of these ecological sensitive host eco- systems should formulate DOs and Don'ts for the visitors and the tour operators which should be enforced strictly. There is a great need to educate the visitors about frugal natural resources of the area and fragile carrying capacity at the destination.

Our natural and environmental heritage is such a wonderful resource which gets regeneratedlreplenished by 'Mother-Nature' periodically and visitors can really have a once in a life time experience provided that the influx of visitors is eco-friendly and sustainable.

Another aspect of natural heritage conservation/management is that the income generated by charging entry fee from the visitors should be ploughed back into the system and long term scientific methods/step~are undertaken to preserve/conserve the landscape and all its constituents. There is a great need to invest in R & D (Research & Development) Sector for various eco-tourism destination to ensure their proper care, proliferation and environmental health.

We can replicate the successful models of eco-tourism and management of National Parks available in U.S.A., Europe and South Africa, after suitably altering them to suit our'specific problems/needs.

We have discussed at length all aspects of environment and tourism in our course TS-5 - Ecology, Environment and Tourism. Consenation of Culture EIIlCheck Your Progress-1 1) Write three main negative impacts of unregulated growth of tourism......

2) Write two lines on each of the following. i)Cultural Destination ii)Eco-tourism

3) Write five lines on our natural heritage.

3.5 CONSERVATION OF HISTORICAL HERITAGE, ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND MONUMENTS

India's historical heritage includes not only the secular and religious monuments dedicated to various faiths but also archaeological sites, rock cut caves, palaces, havelieb, homes and the living heritage developed over the centuries.

The cultural heritage in'terms of historical relics and standing monuments could be broadly divided into following groups:

1) Prehistoric remains 2) Prehistoric and early historic sites 3) Religious edifices 4) Megalithic remains 5) Rock-cut caves 6) Temples of different faiths 7) Mosques and tombs 8) Palaces, Havelis, Houses and Gardens 0) Miscellaneous buildings

The above classification is by no means perfect. We have divided them into these categories for the convenience of the present study. Most of these monuments are of visitors interest onlywhile some of these are part of living culture and are used by people as places of worship. Introducing Indian Culture In the category of living culturc may be included Puri temple, Delhi's Jarna Masjid, tomb of Muinuddin Chisti and Nizamuddin Aulia and many more. Need for a separate conservation treatment in respect of these has been brilliantly pointed out by A.G.Krishna Menon in a recent article 'The Dilemma of Cultural Tourism in India' (The Eye, Vol. 11, NoA).Efforts are made all over the world for the protection of historical heritage. You will read in detail about the monuments and sculpture in Block-5 and archaeological sites and antiquities in Block-6.

France was the first country to enact a law in the year 1809 for the protection of cultural property. India enacted Indian Treasure Trove Act in 1878. Greece enacted a law in 1887 for excavated property and Egypt for regulation of excavation in 1897.

Again in the year 1904, Ancient Monuments Preservation Act was passed in India for preservation of monuments, excavation, protection and control of antiquities. The Indian Legislature also passed the Antiquities (Export Control) Act in 1947 underwhich no antiquity could be exported outside the country without permission of the Government of India.

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was established in the year 1861. Besides other functions, it was made responsible for the preservation of monuments, archaeological sites and remains and other important antiquarian and artistic vestiges. The concept to declare historical monument as of national importance was introduced by Government of India in the year 1951.

The AS1 is also the implementing agency of two central legislations viz:

i) Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958. ii) The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972.

The total number of centrally protected monuments and sites are now 3517 in India. Archaeology being a concurrdt subject, other states of India also enacted similar legislation based on the Central Act and protected monuments and antiquities which have been in existence for not less than 100 years. In case of paintings and manuscripts, it is 75 years for declaring them as an 'antiquity' under the Act.

3.5.1 World Heritage List

The general conference of UNESCO adopted a resolution in 1972 creating thereby a convention concerning the protection of world cultural and natural heritage. The main objective of this forum was to define the world heritage, enlist sites and monuments from the member countries, the protection of which is the concern of mankind. The convention defined world heritage and drew a list of world heritage which included 378 cultural propertieslsites. In India it has identified 16 cultural sites and 4 natural sites. These sites arc star attractions for international and domestic tourists. There is a great need to protect, preserve and conserve these cultural propertieslsites for the posterity and allow conducted and regulated visitors to these sites so that excessive influx.of visitorsltourists should not endanger the survival of these relics of our glorious past.

The 1979 Tourism and Heritage Conference organized by Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) reflected the concern and desire of tourism industry for co-operation in this field.

3.5.2 Main Problems in Conservation of Monuments

Some of the problems in this regard are:'

i) Lack of awareness amongst general public about the importance of saving the monuments and preserving them.

ii) -~ackof sufficient infrastructure and manpower.

iii) Apathy of local civic authorities.

iv) Damage and defacement by visitors/tourists.

v) Lack of coordination between Governmental and Non - Governmental agencies. Conservation of Culture 3.5.3 Available Expertise

There are very few agencies avail~lblewith proper technical expertise to undertake the work of resioration,repair, maintenance, development and comprehensive management of monuments. Leading agencies are as follows:- i) Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) ii) State Departments of Archaeology & Musepm iii) National Research Laboratory for Conservation (NRLCS, Lucknow

) Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) v) Hindustan Charitable Trust sf Birlas vi) International Centre for the Study of Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Properties (ICCROM) at Rome, Italy vii) National Trust of England

Gii) National Museum, Delhi

The monume~ts/sitesof cultur al and heritagr tmpor'lancehave to be protected from sxcessive burden of visitors and consequential defacement of the monuments.

The number of visitors should be worked out keeping in view the condition of monuments/sites and their visit should be properly regulated and conducted.

Visitors and Tourists should be educated by the managers of these cultural properties and the guides so that they behave responsibly once allowed entry inside the monuments. The way very large number of visitors/tourists are conducted and regulated at internationally known tourist places like Tower sf London and Palaces at Versailles (Paris). This is very exemplary and we could devise our own methods incorporating ideas from these successfill modelsof heritage management.

The money collected as entry fee from these monuments should be ploughed back for the conservation activities for these monuments. There have been cases like the Fort in Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) where excessive use of water by the inmates of the fort has caused irreparable damage to this madcent fort popularly known as Sonar-Qila built in the year 1158 A.D.

The threat of environmental pollution to world famous Taj Mahal at Agra is also another cxample of susceptibility of these monuments to the external polluting and damaging factors lieair, noise, water pollution and negative impact of a positive economic activity like tourism.

A large number of historical monuments, houses and buildings have not been declared under the list of protected monuments by the Archaeological Survey of India or State Government agencies. These are being regularly plundered by people and commercial interests. Their stones, doors, decorative motifs and sculpture are taken out and sold. A case to point is of houses, in Rajasthan and Gujarat, whose doors and windows have been taken out and are sold as antiqucs. In the process hundreds of houses have been pulled down. Here the efforts of local bodies, voluntary agencies and local population are urgently required to extend the protective hand to save them from unscrupulous traders.

rCheck Your Progress-2 1) List two main acts passed by the Govt. of India for the protection of monuments and antiquities. 3) List four main agencies which undertake the restoration and preservation of monuments in India......

4) How can local initiative help in the protection of heritage

3.6 CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION OF ARTISTIC AND CULTURAL HERITAGE

Our artistic and cultural heritage is used as a Unique Selling Point (USP) in the international tourism market. India is known as a cultural destination and tourists coming to our country are very keen to watch our artistic and cultural expressions in following forms: i) Architectural relics ii) Sculptures/temples iii) Paintings iv) Folk Music vi) Fairs and Festivals vii) Rites and Rituals viii) Literature and Poetry ix) Handicrafts x) Cuisince and our life-style

While visitors are welcome to observe and understand and even participate in our celebrations but efforts should be made to insulate our heritage from getting 'affected' by 'visitors' lifestyle or thinking.

Most of our fairs and festivals, extremely popular with international tourists, now are gradually being exposed to these extefnal factors like excessive flow of outsiders/tourists. Conservation of Culture Many of these fairs and festivals are already showing signs of change like the Pushkar Fair in Rajasthan. This cattle fair with religious fervour has now almost become a tourist fair and there are negative impacts because of large number of tourists. Spread of the prohibited drugs is one of the negative features which has been noticed ever since it became so popular with tourists. At the same time liberal lifestyle of these foreign tourists is adversely affecting the sociological equations and behavior in a small place like Pushkar.

Another example of cultural pollution is distorting the authentic Indian Styles of paintings, music and dance to tailor-made it to suit the taste of the visitors/tourists. The poor artists fall t I prey to the lure of money and change the style of their presentation to suit the market needs I rather than keeping in view the traditional artistic considcrations. Handicrafts, under the i pressure of market demand are also undergoing change. Mass production and L commoditisation have adversely affected the crafts and craftsmen. You will read more about I it in Block-7.

I The authorities should initiate steps to educate thevisitors about the finer points of these art forms and allow the tourists to enjoy the art form without tampering with it.

There has been an alarming increase in the number of beggars and lepers especially around tourist places. These elements not only conjure up a bad image of our country but also harass the visitors/tourists for the doles and their pestering at times spoils the mood of the tourists leading to avoidable unpleasant situations.

There is a great need to plough back atleast the part of tourism earnings for the preservation and development of our traditional art forms and our cultural heritage.

I i t 3.7 CONSERVATION OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC HERITAGE

In a bid to attract large number of tourists to new areas many states are opening those areas which are sociologically speaking very fragile and susceptible zones like: .

i) Desert Areas ii) HillAreas iii) Tribal Area iv) Coastal Areas

One glaring example of the negative impact of tourism was spread of Hippy Culture in late seventies in Goa which was vehemently resented by the locals. Similarly, the spread of drug-use in places like Kathmandu (Nepal), Benaras (U.P.) and Pushkar (Rajasthan) is another phenomenon which is causing concern. Ecologically and culturally sensitive zones like Desert of Rajasthan and in places like Jaisalmer there have been cases of AIDS reported recently. It is believed that this virus of AIDS reached Jaisalmer because of excessive movement and stay of foreign tourists in the countryside of Jaisalmer whilc 'enjoying' the popular tourism activity like Camel Safari.

In places like Jaisalmer where number of tourists visiting annually is more than four times of locals then gradually even the behavioral pattern of the new and young generation shows some unwelcome signs of change which are causing concern amongst village elders.

Another example is of famous tribal fair at Beneshwar (Dungarpur, Rajasthan). Attracted by the large congregation of tribals and because of wide publicity and aggressive marketing hundreds of foreign tourists started visiting the fair. Due to lack of instructions and proper briefing to the tourists by their travel agents some of the tourists took photos of young tribal girls while they were bathing in the holy-river at Beneshwar. This invited criticism by the people and in the press lot of articles appeared against encroaching upon the sanctitylprivacy of this fair, as a result authorities stopped promoting the Beneshwar fair for the tourists.

While promoting tourism is such sensitive areas the authorities must keep in mind the following points.

i) Carrying capacity of host eco-system.

ii) Special nature of fair s/festivals. Introducing Indian Culture iii) Sensibilities of locals.

iv) Educating the visitors about the Dos and Don'ts

v) Discourage longer stays of foreign tourists specially in close proximity to tribals. vi) Only special interest groups and serious tourists should be allowed to visit these areas; proper regulation has to bc ensured.

vii) Efforts should be made to gainfully associate the locds in tourism activities so that locals derive economic benefit of the activity without being adversely affected by it.

vii) In a sensitive tribaVdeserVcoasta1 area we should define Heritage Zones and open areas which are open to visitors so that the influx of visitors does not disturb the normd pace of life of the host society.

Keeping the fragile ecolou and sensitive local population in mind a number of steps have been taken to preserve local culture. Certain remote areas have been declared restricted areas ( in North-East and other hill region). Special permits are rquired to visit these areas. There are restrictions in buying the property by outsiders. In Lakshwadeep and Andaman Islands also the tourist flow is highly regulated. These steps have certainly helped in preserving the local culture.

rCheck Your Progress3 1) Write Five lines on adverse affect of tourism on Pushkar Fair and Jaisalmer ......

2) List four main points to be kept in mind while promoting tourism in sensitive areas.

...... I ......

3) What steps have been initiated to preserve ecologically fragile and sensitive areas...... Conservation of Culture 3.8 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we discussed some aspects of tourism of culture and the significance of conservation of culture. We also discussed various areas of our culture and heritage that need conservation. Important of these are our natural resources, historical heritage, artistic and cultural heritage and socio-economic heritage. You must have realized that for the conservation of culture concerted efforts are required by piople in general, government, voluntary agencies, tourism trade and local bodies.

Tourism like any other economic activity has positive and negative impacts in a given arealsituation. Our efforts should be to monitor the growth of tourism and initiate steps to regulate the activity by enforcing reasonable restrictionslcode of conduct for the tourists.

Our culturt: has survived for more than 5000 years and it has withstood the onslaught of all types. It can certainly endure the marginal impact of movement of internationaVdomestic tourists provided we all join hands and ensure proper and scientific management of tourism which is eco and culture friendly and we evolve a living culture which is tourism friendly.

3.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

EIzIlCheck Your Progress-1 1) See Sec. 3.2

2) i) A place which is to be visited as a place of some cultural interest ii) Tourism which takes into account the potential of ecology and environment to attract people and at the sametime protects the ecosystem from harmful effects of tourism.

3) See Sec. 3.3.

1) See Sec. 3.5.

2) See Sub-sec. 3.5.1.

3) sek sub-sec. 3.5.3.

4) See Sub-sec. 3.5.3.

1) See Secs. 3.6 and 3.7. 2) See Sec. 3.7.

3) See Sec. 3.7 Introducing Indian Culture UNIT 4 TOURISM AND CULTURE : SOME VIEWS

Structure

4.0 Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Some International Case Studies 4.2.1 Spain 4.2.2 Indonesia 4.2.3 Greece 4.2.4 Mexico 4.2.5 Summing Up 4.3 Some Indian Examples 4.4 Let Us Sum Up 4.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

4.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will learn:

the impact of tourism on local cultures in various countries based on some anthropological case studies; and the views of a few Indian writers on the relationship between culture and tourism.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The onset of mass tourism, in the nineteen eightees especially, and the institutionsit has given rise to, are producing more deterministic forms of culture. In general cases there come into being new forms which are different from the earlier phase of tourism activities. The focus today is on the exotic cultures which figure as key attractions. Here the approach too differs methodologically. The effort is to satisfy the touristic demand and in the process even contrive a cultural identity. This is continually proving to be quite troublesome for the relationship between 'tourism' and 'culture'. Of late this relationship has been subjected to some important anthropological scrutiny both at the international and the national levels.

In this Unit, we shall discuss the interface between culture and tourism. For this purpose, some case studies have been selected and extensive quotations have been used from the original articles to bring to you the fist hand views of the authors. A list of the articles used here is given at the end of the Unit.

4.2 SOME INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES

This Section contains case studies conducted from the economic- anthropological perspective to gauge the impact of mass tourism on the indigenous people and cultures.

4.2.1 Spain

The following account is derived from a study by Davydd J Greenwood given in Valene L Smith, (edited) Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism.

In Spain, Fuenterrabia is a town which used to celebrate a major public festival named as Alarde. It was celebrated to comrnemmorate the town's victory over the French forces which had laid seige to the town in 1638 A.D. It has been celebrated for hundreds of years and involves almost all the men, women and children of the town. It was an elaborate public ritual Culture and Tourism: in which the was voluntary and general. But while the entire town participated Some views in it, its symbols, rituals and meanings did not usually relate to the outsiders.

In 1989, the Spanish government threw the Alarde open to the tourists in an attempt to create an added tourist attraction and insisted that "the Alarde should be given twice in the same day to allow everyone to see it." This move, in the words of the author, caused "a great consternation among the people of Fuenterrabia and a vaulting sense of discomfort. Soon this became the mask of cynicism that prefaces their attitudes toward the motives behind all business ventures in Fuenterrabia. Little was said publicly about it. But two summers later, I found that the town was having a great deal of difficulty in getting the participants to appear for the Alarde. No one actively or ideologically resisted, but in an event that depends entirely on voluntary compliance, the general lack of interest created serious organizational problems. In the space of two years, what was a vital and exciting ritual had become an obligation to be avoided. Recently the municipal government was considering payments to people for their participation in the Alarde. I do not doubt that they ultimately will have to pay them, just as the gypsies are paid to dance and sing and the symphony orchestra is paid to make music. The ritual has become a performance for money. The meaning is gone."

This was a turning point for this festival and the intervention by the outsiders stripped the ritual of whatever meaning it held for the local people. We are reproducing below the conclusioa of the author :

"As an analytical perspective has finally begun to develop with regard to the socioeconomic effects of mass tourism, it has become obvious that the increasing maldistribution of wealth and resultant social stratification are widespread results of touristic development. Various remedies are proposed as an attempt to counteract these problems. While these problems are serious and must be remedied, 1 am terribly concerned that the question of cultural commoditization involved in ethnic tourism has been blithely ignored, except for anecdotal accounts. The massive alterations in the distribution.of wealth and power that are brought .about by tourism are paralleled by equallymassive and perhaps equally destructive alterations in local culture.

"The culture brokers have appropriated facets of a life-style into the tourism package to help sales in the competitive market. This sets in motion a process of its own for which no one, not even planners, seems to feel in the least responsible. Treating culture as a natural resource or a commodity over which tourists have rights is not simply perverse, it is a violation of the peoples' cultural rights. While some aspects of culture have wider ramifications than others, what must be remembered is that culute in its very essence is something that people believe in implicitly. By making it part of the tourism package, it is turned into an explicit and paid performance and no longer can be believed in the way it was before. Thus, commodization of culture in effect robs people of the very meanings by which they organize their lives."

He further adds :

"Perhaps this is the final logic of the capitalist development of which tourism is an ideal example. The commoditization process does not stop with land, labor, and capital but ultimately includes the history, ethnic identity and culture of the peoples of the world. Tourism simply packages the cultural realities of a people for sale along with their other resources. We know that no people anywhere can live without the meanings culture provides; thus tourism is forcing unprecedented cultural change on people already reeling from the blows of industrialization,urbanization, and inflation. The loss of meaning through cultural commoditization is a problem atleast as serious as the unequal distribution of wealth that results from tourist development."

4.2.2 Indonesia

In today's Indonesia there are two tourist places which are very important cultural destinations for the foreign tourists. These places are Toraja and Bali. Studies by Eric Crystal and Philip Frick McKean are used in this section extensively.

In Indonesia, the international mass tourism started in the late 1960s but rapidly picked up and by the mid 1970s, Indonesia had become an important tourist resort. While many tourists visited the country to enjoy its coastlines and beaches, its importance as a cultural destination is very marked awing to its rich, varied and syncretic traditions. In Indonesia, the fusion of Introducing Indian Cult= cultures exists in its richness and variety. Bali and 'Toraja are two of the most important places of tourist attraction. Tourists from many countries flock to these places to view the local festivals, rituds, ceremonies, dances, traditional arts and crafts and historical monuments. Initially, the influx of the tourists did not have much negative effects. But, with the passage of time and the increase in the number of tourists, many problems started emerging. In Toraja, the increase in the touribt traffic was sudden and the results more alarming. Basing on his study in 1976, Eric Crystal points out :

"Tana Toraja may be unzque, and worthy of on-going careful study, because of the dramatic change within two years. The area has passed directly from the obscurity of elite, ethnic tourism to hecome a target for cultural, charter tourism without passing through any of the intermediary stages. It is too soon to fully assess the touristic impact, but some trends are evident. 'The local T'orajas are bewildered, and uncertain as to the choices open to them, or iheir outcome :

I) If they open their villages, and their ceremonies, to tourism for the sake of economicgain, they are victimized by the compromise of cultural integrity;

2) If they exclude the tourists, they are victimized by the inflation accompanying the influx, and enterprising neighbors reap the profits. Cultural conservatism does not 'pay'. During the tourist season of 1976 it was evident that rituals were being commercialized as 'spectacles' for the foreigners, including being rescheduled at the request of foreign guides. Further, the disappearance of antiquities into the souvenir market indicated another potential cultural loss. My cautious optimism based on the 1974 data is strained, and further field research is needed. If, as anthropologists,WE have the capacity to guide, our skills should be applied here and now lest this fragile mountain community, which has o~llyits cultllral traditions to attract tourism, !oses both its heritage and the to~rists."

1

On his subsequent visits to the area, the author recorded that while in 1975, the number of 41 tourists to Toraja was only about 2500, by 1985 the number had increased to almost 40,000. This led to many changes. It has benefitted the people of the area in following ways :

i) It has generated thousands of jobs for the locals and the infrastructural facilities in terms I of roads and airstrips.

ii) The economic and socio-political isolation of the region has now ended and the Torajan Culture, "once spoken of in derogatory terms, is now featured nationally in Indonesia as a major and important component of multicultural Indonesia."

ui) The traditional Toraja crafts of weaving, ikat dyeing and he;idvr.cark haw found new and rich buyers and this has led to an improvement in the skills.

These are some of the positive effects brc~ughtabout by the growth of tourism. But the traditional culture, life-styles and monuments have been victims of an unrestricted tourist growth. Eric Crystal says:

"One of the sadder conseiuences of change in Toraja has bezn the accelerated loss of these precious heirlooms and cultural artifacts. Thert: is no doubt that tourism has played a significant role in this process. In 1969 beautiful strands of ancient beads were sold in each Toraja market by itinerant vendors. By 1976 villagers in the marketplace and the vendors themselves reported that such old beads were becoming increasingly scarce due to demand by visiting French tourists. By 1983 such beads were 'effectively' gone in the sense that they were out of the price range of the average village consumer. Tourists and itinerant international art dealers have demonstrated an insatiable appetite for old pieces of Toraja folk art. Newly crafted house panels, baskets, textiles, or carvings do not satisfy these most particular appetites; only the oldest, most weathered acd most exotic-looking pieces will do

"Most devastating to the people of Toraja is the rape of ancestral statuary that continue unabated at this writing. The carving of ancestral images is common in a numher of relative1 isolated cuiture regions of Indonesia and, indeed, was highly developed in many parts of th ancient world. Tau tau, or funerary statues, in Tana Toraja are carved of extremely durable jackfruit wood. Only the largest death ceremonies are embellished with a near life-sized wooden image of the deceased. After interment of the deceased in a limestone cave vault, the statue is placed in a gallery near the burial site. In 1969, two years before the first depredations were recorded, Tana Toraja preserved literally thousands of such statues in burial sites spread over much of its 3000 square kilometers of territory. When my fvst article Cdl&e and Tourism: was written in 1975 I did not realize that the first highly selective raids on Toraja statuary were Some views already taking place. By 1985 Toraja tau tau were bringing USS6000 sale prices in Los hgeles. During the past years agents with MOmm telephoto lenses have been dispatched from Western Europe to compose albums of 'available' statuary from which potential customers could select their desired piece. Working in league with local Toraja thieves, toreign agents spirited the statues from Tana Toraja, and transshipped them by air and sea tromDen Pasar, Bali, to overseas destinations. So sacred are these statues within Tana Toraja that no one would dare to openly sell such artifacts within the region itself." 'The other tourist destination in Indonesia, Bali, about which we made a mention at the beginning of this section, has been studied by Philip Frick McKem. He finds that the many negative effects of tourist influx which are very noticeable in Toraja have not occurred in Bali. His explanation is that the Balinese people have escaped this due to a process called "cultural ~nvolution".He explains this phenomenon in the following words:

'An ironic theme permeates this analysis : modernization in Bali is occuring; tourism introduces new ideas and is a major source of funds. Yet, the tourists expect the perpetuation of ancient traditions, especially in the performing and plastic arts, and would not visit in such numbers if Baliwere to become a thoroughly modern island. Both consewatioa and economic necessity encourage the Balinese to maintain their skills as carvers, musicians, and dancers in order to have the funds for modernization." The resilience of the Balinese culture and the strength of its artisan traditions have withstood the impad of cultural invasion normally associated with mass tourism. The local people havk achieved it by separating the realms of tourism and their own spiritual and social identity and rendering unto each what is its own. As the author explores:

"In Bali the rush toward standardization and simplification of the souvenir arts exists without the total loss of either functional fine arts or commercial fine arts, because indigenous institutions continue to demand high quality craftsmanship as appropriate offerings for the 'divine world'. Balinese could ignore this mandate only at personal and corporate peril In Balinese ethos, to offer inferior gifts to the divine powers, and incur their displeasure, would be silly and shortsighted. It is one thing to sell inferior goods to tourists who do not know or care about artistic expqrtise, but to shortchange the infinitely superior taste of the spirit realm would be foolhardy indeed. Thus, Balinese craftsmen remain responsive to the marketplace in their willingness to alter the themes of their carvings from wayang (shadow puppet) figures to animal figures - and even to busts of Sophia Loren and Raquel Welch - and also responsive to the 'market' of the 'divine world' whose tastes and expectations are believed to remain infinitely more exquisite. Graburn reported that in other non-Balinese cases, craftsmanship has suffered a loss in quality,because the quality of the spiritual realm evidently suffered from degradation, and the spiritual 'audience' was no longer significantly viable. This is not true in ' Bdi, at least not yet."

But the author says by way of caution: "Certainly there are dangers for the Balinese in embracing tourism, and as in Toraja, the misuse of scarce resources, increased stratification with the 'rich getting richer', or environmental and ritual erosion may be so damaging to the indigenous way of Iife that tourism could eventually be evaluated by both social scientists and local villager as a profound and disastrous blight. The results will depend to considerable degree on actions within the political structures."

4.2.3 Greece E. Wickens studies a village in Greece which has been providing "services" to both, the domestic and foreign tourists who come in search of "sun, sea and sand. The participati"on of the villagers in this quest has been almost total. They have willingly made available all the facilities and created ambiences which various types ~f tourists may desire.

To start with, the name of the village was changed from Kapsochora (meaning a 'burning place') to Pefkochori (meaning 'pinewoods'), "a name thought to be more appropriate to its scenic location and therefore more attractive to tourists." Introducing Indian Culture Secondly, a local colour is sought to be given by serving local cuisines, traditional dances or, for that matter, whatever was thought to be enjoyable to that variety of tourist out to seek an encounter with the local culture. The author comments :

"Intended mainly for foreign consumption, the taverna evcning is transformed from a mundanc social event into a spectacle, designed to make the evening exciting and memorable for the tourist. The taverna serves a hybrid cuisine - the traditional mezedes (a variety of salads and appetisers) bcing structured into a Western-style three-course meal with everyonc having the same. The meal itself is a combination of Greek and Western European dishes. 'The rationale for the standardization of the content of these meals is that it allows for the efficient processing of large numbers of coach parties, is. a taverna can predict the number of meals it needs to prepare and so maximise its profit. "In addition, it offers staged performances of Greek traditional dances, which have been hybridised, i.e. simplified and modernised, especially for tourists. For example the kbasapiko (a butcher's dance), and its popularizedversion the syrtaki, and the zembetico (a man's solo dance expressing a mood of melancholy and suffering) are mass-produced, to be consumed by the tourists, just like any other product. These hybrid Greek dances are performed by a small group of men and women, dressed in traditional native costumes. These groups are instructed to encourage tourists to participate in these dances, which end with the traditional smashing of plaster plates. The sound of bouzouki music played in the taverna has also been modified, in order to appeal to the tastes of Western European visitors. Tourists thkn consume what I call a 'hybridplayful experience' of a traditional evening entertainment which has bcen modified to appeal to the international consumer.

"What is quite apparent about these type of pseudo-events is that they appeal to foreign cash-customers. The 'expectation of pleasure' from a game of 'going native' seems to motivate particularly 'the touristic consciousness' of the Cultural Heritage, the Lord Byron and the Heliolatrous visitors. They are willing to play this game of being a tourist by day and a native by night, because it is fun and exciting. At the same time, thcy are aware that these sites and performances are staged, and that what they are consuming is not authentic but rather, a hybrid product."

In addition to this "staged authenticity", we find that the western-style comforts are also provided to those tourists who do not want to abandon their familiar home ambience and );st want to enjoy their holidays, in a foreign land.

The eEonomic benefits derived from the tourist influx have induced the locals to stretch over backwards to satisfy.al1 the needs and wants of the various kinds of foreign tourists. The consequences of this has been disastrous for the local cultural tradition, although the local people are quite unmindful of these effects in their pursuit of wealth. In the words of the author:

"What has emerged in Pefkochori is a hybrid culture which neither reflects the normal culture of tourists, nor the traditional culture of a Greek village. It is a cross between a heritage museum and a pleasure-seeker's paradise. ...

"In Pefkochori the concentrated presence of tourists over a 20- year period has led to the assimilation of the hedonistic consumer-oriented behaviour of tourists into the behaviour and value system of the local inhabitants. Pefkochori is a paradigm- case of a farminglfishmg community which has been undergoing a process of cultural hybridisation, of loss of traditional cultural identity. This hybridisation has lcd to changes in the,attitudes, values and the behaviour of the indigenous population, particularly that of the younger generation. It is .= in effect, a process of 'acculturation'."

4.2.4 Mexico

G Evan's study of coastal tourism in Mexico is focussed around a very important issue : the erosion of the culture, life-styles and values of the indigenous Red Indian communities due largely to the promotion of state-sponsored mass tourism. The state is controlled by the white communities who have little or no regard for the tradition and culture of the native Indian communities who were the original inhabitants of the land. The Spanish conquests and colonisation from 16th century onwards led to the extermination and marginalisation of the indigenous people. Their lands were confiscated in the rulers' quest for "modernisation", Culture and Tourism: particularly during the 19th century. Their traditions andvalues were eroded and their history, Some views because it was-based on oral tradition and had no written records, was disregarded.

The coming of mass tourism into the country during the 1950s and 1960s further intensified these trends. The Indian lands were confiscated for building hotels and developing tourist resorts. All the benefits derived from the tourist influx, however, went into the coffers of the outsiders who owned hotels and shops. The local people virtually have no control over the tourism business at any level. The suggestions made by the author in this case are given below:

"The choice to participate in tourism should be available and where intermediaries are still desirable, economic benefits must be retained, not just locally, but by the generators ('owners') of ethnic tourism, whether led by craft, performance or other visitor experience.

"As a corollary, tour promotion by national and international operators can ensure greater pre-tour information and guide- training (especially of indigenous representatives), consistently throughout the tour-hospitality system.

"The political and economic forces that will require both resistance and change, are substantial in the case of Mexico. Indigenous populations risk being overridden by economic imperatives and resource-exploitation,including mass and invasive tourism. The adaptation and survival of the Indian socio-cultures to date is all the more remarkable for this, and therefore tourism must learn from and mitigate these effects, and render meeting grounds places of mutual respect and experience."

4.2.5 Summing Up

In the foregoing account we have basically analysed four situations brought about by the interaction of the tourists with the local population.

i) In case of Spain, faced with the tourist onslaught on their most cherished and popular festival, the Alarde, the people of Fuenterrabia withdrew and the festival lost its charm and meaning and became a purely staged event for the purpose of tourism.

ii) In Indonesia, two tourist sites have been discussed. In the case of Toraja, we find that although the local people made and still make efforts to save their culture, they have, in effect, been completely swamped by the tourist invasion. They have defmitely derived economic benefits and socio- recognition; but they are very much in danger of losing their cultural identity and traditions.

In Bali, however, the local culture has proved more resilient. It has saved itself by the process of "cultural involution" which has reinforced the tradition just because that is what the tourists like. Moreover, the Balinese people distinguish between the demands of the tourists and those of their gods and have institutionalised this separation by making different objects for the tourists (which may involve making of some compromisesin their traditional arts and crafts) from what they make for their ritual offerings.

iii) In the case of a village in Greece we see that the lure of money has been so overpowering that the local population is willingto compromise on all aspects of their culture and values. However, they have been the beneficiary of the economic boom brought about by tourism. k iv) The red Indians of Mexico have benefitted neither economically nor culturally by the tourist encounter. They have been the losers on all counts. In their case, it is a phenomenon of internal and external colonialism ushered in by the state-sponsored tourism. Their example can be true of many oppressed and marginalised communities in the third world countries. lnlrodueidg Indian Cullure rCheck Your Progress-1 1) In what way has'tourism affected.the.local wmnnities in Toraja (Indonesia). and Pefkochori (Greeee) ? Write in 100v~ids. : .> . . a ...... ,

, ~ , - ,......

2) Discuss "cultural involution" in the case of Bali. What significance can it have in India's case? ,

3) What is the significance of the experience of the Mexican Indians ? Write your own suggestions in this regard.

4.3 SOME INDGNEXQMFLES

India is being promoted as a major tourisf destination by the planners and policy-makers. As a spokesman of the tourism industry would say, it has everything to offer - mourltains and seas, forests and wildlife, an ancient culture and modern facilities, avariety of festivals,fairs, dresses and costumes, aboriginal cave-age tribals and 21st century elite; you just name it and you have got it here. But human beings learn by experiences - of their own and of others. So before unrestricted and unmanaged tourism is given the green signal we must stop and critically examine its influences and repercussions, especially on our culture.

To begin with, we can take the example of Kovalam in Kerala. The following account is based on a study by T G Jacob.

About three decades ago Kovalam was a small coastal village growing coconuts and, on a small scale, catching fishes. The economy was mostly sustained by selling copra, oil aqd coir yarn products. Culture and Tourism: The development of Kovalam as a tourist resort led to the construction of hotels and influx views of tourists whose number has now r~ached65,000 per season. The arrival of the foreign tourists has caused an increase in the number of the domestic tourists also many of whom come just to observe the half-dressed or undressed white tourists on the beach.

Prostitution - both female and male - has accompanied the tourists and so have the drugs. Many local youths can be seen on andaround the beach peddlingdrugs. Smack addiction has also risen among the youth as a result of this. The traditional occupations have declined and the land prices have increased phenomenonally, As a result the land ownership has shifted to the outsiders who mainly use the land for speculation and not for anything productive. This has pushed hundreds of families out of their traditional occupations. The benefits of tourism in terms of jobs and wealth have gone mostly to the outsiders and mostly the menial and low-paid jobs are left to the Kovdans. Many unemployed youths have found 'employment' in peddling the dwgs. The only traditional occupation thriving "under these circumstances is stone quarrying. Land that once provided a steady and continuous income from agriculture has been permanently lost to quarrying which gives quick and high returns. Deep, ugly pits scar the earth. With the growing demand for high quality Krishna shila stone, a large number of women and children, displaced from their agricultural occupations, now work in stone quarries, breaking rocks in scorching sun or rain. They are paid a pittance for their labour, as compared to agricultural wages. Their poverty, it would seem, is yet another sightseeing 'attraction' for tourists."

It, therefore, becomes quite clear that tourism is not such an unmixed bl&sdingas it is bade out to be by many who plan and profit by it. The pursuit of money has led to degradation of culture and environment. It has not helped the local people much even in terms of their acquiring wealth by "serving"the tourists at various levels. A meaningful development of the traditional occupations and industries might probably have done more in terms of generating employment. In another study, A. G. Krishna Menon has addressed the problems and dilemma faced by cultural tourism in India today. We are reproducing extracts here :

"The other part of the mindset is clearly evident in the obsession the policymakers display for increasing foreign exchange earnings through the promotion of tourism. All the pious concerns for 'socio-economic development' notwithstanding, the tourism policy of the government is almost entirely predicated on this criteria. Thus, we find in practice, tourism in India is more considerate to the welfare of the foreign tourist than the well-being of the local population. Not surprisingly therefore, there is increasing evidence is tourism literature that the general social and economic well-being of society deteriorates with increasing tourism. Effects of this phenomenon can also be gauged by the protest movements mounted by grass-root organisations, for instance, in Goa to actively campaign against tourism development. Thus, we are confronted with the great dilemma of cultural tourism in our country: the most abundant tourism resource may be unexploitable. Why is this so? There could be several readings of this situation but one reading concerns the right of the collective - the government - to arrogate to itself the power to exploit local cultures. This backlash of popular sentiment is, of course, part of a world-wide trend towards local self-expression and promotion of local cultural identities. Any policy which is perceived to threaten or compromise these local identities is fiercely resisted. Inevitably, cultural tourism is perceived to be such a threat by local societies."

The author continues:

"Withthis background, the position of culture in the process of cultural tourismcan beviewid as both protagonist and victim, at once so strong and pervasive as to have survived millennia and yet so vulnerable to encroaching alien forces unleashed through modern tourism. .The greater tragedy of this situation is that tourism in a developing society such as ours is-reavy the thin edge of the wedge of modernism. Indian society and culture need to deve)%aqd mdernise, and must indeed recancile with the forces of modernit>, -Inthe absence, of:qtkr development initiatives, tourism is often - in places 1ik~;Jaisalqcand Goa, Shiband q&y - the prime agent for economic, social and coltural change. .It becoxys a mgrter 9f great concern, therefare, i;f@wismwere t~accqpaplisbthisad)ustmenthy transforming tbespqqe

of '.Indianess' I herder to aWue.a~g dgg~g of 4~s~.Obviously, there i,s qged &TF$i$ i, tkpz~pmitian ind m&e,tbe::bp~r&w qfj&~al,~phg{es dqterae pvpneJefq of

toutism-sltratagy4,rathr;rthasklk @her ~zg~aqggdas,&i$!&ne aPprqeni,. *.; a ,; , ,, - . . , .- ! , . ' 1 , , , .:Jk> ,.... . f., .' ~, ,.?x-!f!.:: :,;(I ,:< ;iji.*,.'?.i:l ,.:],,i-:?,,i:-

"It is on account of such 'foreign' expertise that India's tourism policy reacts to foreign demand rather than cater to indigenous needs. It is 'demanded', and strategists seek to emulate 'foreign' models to meet this demand. The models they have in mind are such 'successes' like the beach resorts of Bali or Thailand, and of course, Disneyland. Unfortunately, this overt bias to follow foreign models substitutes as tourism policy.

"This process of servicing foreign needs on their terms recreates old colonial structures in the relationship between the visitor and the host community. ... Culturally loaded images are casually used in tourism promotion literature to entice foreign tourists: Rajasthan is 'martial', Khajuraho is 'romantic' and Goa is 'fun, frolic, festivals and fen?. The tragedy that such insensitivity can result in is evident in the state of the tourism industry of South East Asia - a 'success' at a financial level, but an unmitigated disaster at the social and cultural level."

rCheck Your Progress-2 1) How has tourism affected the life of the local people of Kovalam ?

2) What is the basic dilemma faced by cultural tourism in India?

4.4 LET US SUM UP

The process of cultural exchange supposed to occur with the tourist interaction with the host communities has failed to take off. This failure is now being clearly recognised the world over. Reasons for this are many. Firstly, the lack of sufficient time at the disposal of the tourists hardly provides them the opportunity for an in-depth knowledge of the local culture. Nor can the locals interact with them fruitfully and understand them. Secondly, the economic consideration creates a misunderstanding. The locals may think that the tourist is a miser while the tourists may find the locals too greedy. Such a misunderstanding rules out any effective cultural interaction. Thirdly, the marketing of imitation cultural productsin the form of tourist- oriented staged festivals etc. effectively debars the tourists from the knowledge of genuine local cultures. The locals, in any case, have no means by which they can get to know the authentic culture of the tourists. Fourthly, the intervention of the middlemen at various levels creates barriers between the tourists and the locals. The lack of knowledge of each other's language also contributes to this. Culture and Tourism: he more important thing now is to devise ways to save the local culture from the tourist Someviews invasion. The resilience which many cultures display saves them from being overwhelmed by this mixed cross-cultural influences. But those which are more receptive very soon face the danger of gross distortion. In a country like India with dense population and varied cultures % the tourism cannot really solve the problem of unemployment and may instead create severe pressures at the social and cultural levels thereby increasing tension in many areas. The policymakers and planners, therefore, must be wary of uncritically and unrestrainedly extending tourism to all regions of the country. That is the only way by which the economic benefits can co-exist with cultural conservation.

4.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES. nCheck Your Progress-1 1) See Sub-sec. 4.2.2 & 4.2.3. 2) See Sub-sec. 4.2.2.

3) See Sub-sec 4.2.4 rCheck Your Progress3 1) See Sec. 4.3.

2) See Sec. 4.3.

wegratefully acknowledge our dtbt to the following authors and their articles :

For our discussion on the Spanish town - Davydd J Greenwood, 'Culture by the Pound: An Anthropological Perspective Jn Tourism as Cultural Commoditization' in Hosts and Guests : The Anthropology of Tourism, edited by Valene L Smith, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989. For the accounts of the Indonesian tourist resorts the following two articles from the Valene L Smith's (ed.) aforementioned book have been used: Eric Crystal, 'Tourism in Toraja (Sulawesi, Indonesia', and Philip Frick McKean, 'Towards a Theoretical Analysis of Tourism: Economic Dualism and Cultural Involution in Bali'. For an account of the impact of tourism on a Greek Village: E Wickens, 'Consumption of the Authentic : The Hedonistic Tourist in Greece' in Khan et.al.(ed.) VNR's Encyclopaedia on Hospitality and Tourism, New York, 1993. The discussion of the plight of the Mexican Indians by the colonial policies of the government and the touristic invasion has been taken from: G Evans, 'Whose Culture is it anyway ? Tourism in Greater Mexico and the Indigena'; in Khan et:al., ibid. The impact of tourism on the people of Kovalam in Kerala has been discussed by: T. G. Jacob, 'From Madrigal to Dirge - The Story of Kovalam' in The Eye, Vol. 11, No.4. For the other part of the discussion relating to cultural tourism in India in the Sec.4.3, we have quoted from: A G Krishna Menon, 'The Dilemma of Cultural Tourism in India', Tbe Eye, Vol. 11, No.4.

Apart from these articles, the Valene L Smith's (edited) book and the relevant issue of the magazine The Eye can be very fruitfully scanned by those desirous to know more about the cultural interaction between the tourists and the hosts. Introducing Indian Culture SOME USEFUL BOOKS FOR THIS BLOCK

A.L. Basham The Wonder that was India SAA. Rimi The Wonder that was India, Vol. I1 Tara Chand Influence of Islam on Indian Culture Yu~fHusain Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture

ACTIVITIES FOR THIS BLOCK

1) Make a list of historical ruins or monuments in your city/locality/regio~i.

uActivity 2 2) Visit these places or gather information and write few lines on each. Pay attention to the following aspects. i) Whether they are declared as protected monuments? ii) Historical period to which they belong. iii) State of preservation. iv) Does they attract tourists?

ElActivity 3 ,i :' .$ ,,<, 9 , ; Make a list of ten important literary works written from earliest times to the prcsent availablq

in your mother tongue. t c I, ! , A) . a *+

0Activity 4 List major witdlifelbird &cua&e3 ari~b~tio;la~FaPII~'f~ot~ctedfotestsin panrre$bh. Also gather information on rheb,h&poptanc"e as plakes bftofiri~k&tei6st. ti

Do yatr,h~;~~niaB;bnon pr~dnent,SafVBhakti saints in ymr tegion. Write a lrote on

their, contribution- .. to_:ociety.,: ip ,, :r + I, . I ", I ,

f >ci . 3", ; 4tfl ' it 4, 4 *: ,3,J; - >,!- 'i. < -*$

t i..