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Psychosocial Factors That Influence The Rehabilitation Of Street Children In Selected Rehabilitation Centers In Embakasi Sub-County, Kenya
by
Francis Mutua Mutuku
A thesis presented to the School of Human and Social Sciences
of
Daystar University
Nairobi, Kenya
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in Counseling Psychology
May 2019
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APPROVAL
PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE REHABILITATION OF STREET CHILDREN IN SELECTED REHABILITATION CENTERS IN EMBAKASI SUB- COUNTY, KENYA
by
Francis Mutua Mutuku
In accordance with Daystar University policies, this thesis is accepted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the Master of Arts degree.
Date
______Stephen Ndegwa, PhD, 1st Supervisor
______Dominics Ayaa, PhD, 2nd Supervisor
______Susan Muriungi, PhD, HoD, Counseling Psychology
______Kennedy Ongaro, PhD, Dean, School of Human and Social Sciences
ii
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Copyright © 2019 Francis Mutua Mutuku
iii
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DECLARATION
PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE REHABILITATION OF STREETCHILDREN IN SELECTED REHABILITATION CENTERS IN EMBAKASI SUB-COUNTY, KENYA
I declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been submitted to any other college or university for academics credit.
Signed: ______Date: ______Francis Mutua Mutuku 16-1856
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I thank the Living God, for remembering me in such an awesome way.
His mercies have been new to me, since the day I joined Daystar University. I give praise and
adoration to God for His miraculous provision, protection and grace, every day of my life. I
also thank my dear wife, Evaline Mutua and daughter Queen Esther Mutua, for their lovely
and kind support to me, while pursuing knowledge at Daystar University.
I acknowledge my Senior Pastor, Rev. S. Mwalili, for his wise advice and encouragement all
this time. To my own mother, Ann Mutuku, Sister Hellen Mwanzia and brothers, I pray that
God may increase them, for keeping me in prayer.
Many thanks also go to my two supervisors, Dr Stephen Ndegwa and Dr Dominics Ayaa for
the professional guidance that enabled successful completion of this thesis. I also wish to
thank the HoD, Counseling Psychology department, Dr. Susan Muriungi, Dean of School of
Human and Social Sciences, Dr. Kennedy Ongaro, for their un-marched passion in guiding
me every time I visited their offices. I thank brothers-in-Christ, James Kalei, Peter Kaigwara,
John Mathu and Hon. Stephen Gikonyo, for their prayers, financial and social support. Lastly,
I thank all my friends and classmates for the friendly journey together, towards this
achievement.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPROVAL ...... ii DECLARATION...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... viii LIST OF FIGURES ...... ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... x ABSTRACT ...... xi DEDICATION ...... xii CHAPTER ONE...... 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Background to the Study ...... 2 Statement of the Problem ...... 6 Purpose of the Study...... 7 Research Objectives ...... 8 Research Questions ...... 8 Justification of the Study ...... 8 Significance of the Study ...... 9 Assumptions of the Study...... 10 Scope of the Study ...... 10 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ...... 10 Definition of Terms ...... 11 Summary ...... 14 CHAPTER TWO ...... 15 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 15 Introduction ...... 15 Theoretical Framework ...... 15 General Literature Review ...... 21 Empirical Literature Review ...... 38 Conceptual Framework ...... 46 Discussion ...... 48 Summary ...... 48 CHAPTER THREE ...... 49 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 49 Introduction ...... 49 Research design ...... 49 Population of the Study ...... 50 Target Population ...... 51 Sample Size ...... 51 Sampling Technique ...... 53 Data Collection Instruments ...... 54 Data Collection Procedures ...... 54 Pretesting ...... 55 Reliability and Validity ...... 55 Data Analysis Plan ...... 57 Ethical Considerations ...... 58 Summary ...... 60 vi
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CHAPTER FOUR ...... 61 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS ANDINTERPRETATION ...... 61 Introduction ...... 61 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation ...... 61 Summary of Key Findings ...... 78 Summary ...... 79 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 80 DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 80 Introduction ...... 80 Discussions of Key Findings ...... 80 Conclusion ...... 83 Recommendations ...... 83 Areas for Further Research ...... 84 REFERENCES ...... 85 APPENDICES ...... 93 Appendix A: Center Managers’ Assent Form ...... 93 Appendix B: Informed Consent Form ...... 95 Appendix C: Questionnaire ...... 96 Appendix D: Key Informants Interview Guide ...... 102 Appendix E: Research Permit ...... 103 Appendix F: Research Authorization from the Ministry of Interior ...... 105 Appendix G: Ethical Clearance ...... 106 Appendix H: Anti-Plagiarism Report ...... 107
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Sample Size ...... 52 Table 4.1: Class at The Time of Leaving Home ...... 65 Table 4.2: Who the Children Were Living With at the Time they Left Home ...... 66 Table 4.3: Factors that Attract Children to the Streets ...... 67 Table 4.4: Parent Marital Status ...... 68 Table 4.5: Inadequate Basic Needs ...... 69 Table 4.6: Knowledge on Other Street Children ...... 69 Table 4.7: Whether the Street Children Would Go Home After Rehabilitation ...... 71 Table 4.8: Psychosocial Factors that Affect Rehabilitation Of Street Children ...... 73 Table 4.9: Relationship With Teachers and Other Staff Members ...... 75 Table 4.10: Regression Coefficients ...... 76
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 2: Conceptual Framework ...... 54 Figure 4. 1: Response Rate ...... 61 Figure 4. 2: Gender of the Respondents...... 62 Figure 4. 3: Age Bracket of the Respondents ...... 63 Figure 4. 4: Level of Education of the Respondents ...... 64 Figure 4. 5: Duration of Stay ...... 64 Figure 4. 6: Age of the Children When they Left Home ...... 65 Figure 4. 7: Whether the Children Went Back Home After Rehabilitation Process ...... 70 Figure 4. 8: Language Recommended by Street Children for Use in Rehabilitation ...... 75
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
ANPPCAN: African Network Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse
CRADLE Child Rights Advisory Documentation and Legal Center
GTZ: German Technical Cooperation
HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus
NACOSTI: National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation
NARC: National Rainbow Coalition
NCBDA: Nairobi Central Business District Association
PubMed: Public/Publisher Medline
SSPS: Statistics Package for Social Scientists
UN: United Nations
UNCRC: United Nations Convection of Children’s Right
UNICEF: United Nations International Children and Education Fund
USA: United States of America
WERK: Women Educational Researchers of Kenya
WHO: World Health Organization
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to establish the psychosocial factors that influence the
rehabilitation of street children in Embakasi, Nairobi County in Kenya. The study objectives
were to; establish factors that attract the youth to the streets, analyze psychosocial factors that
affect rehabilitation of street children and examine factors affecting successful reintegration of
rehabilitated street children back to families or communities of origin. The study utilized a
descriptive survey design, with a sample size consisted of 69 adolescent street children from
three selected rehabilitation centers in Embakasi Sub County, Nairobi County. Respondents
were selected using random sampling technique. Data was collected using questionnaires and
key informant interviews. Data was analyzed using SPSS (version 23). The results showed
that factors that were responsible for the increase of street children included socio economic
status of the parents at 83%. The study revealed that the factors that attracted children to the
streets were poor economic status of the parents at 89%. Other factors identified included
marital status of the families, as majority of the children interviewed were from dysfunctional
families marred with domestic violence (72.3%), child labor and child neglect (59.6%).
Further, the study showed that most of the rehabilitated street children would avoid going
back to their families of origin. They cited lack of confidence and fear of being arrested by
police who are given permission by their own family members. Lack of appreciation, feeling
of sadness and hopelessness at the rehabilitation centers were among the top psychological
factors that street children experienced at the rehabilitation facilities in Embakasi Sub-County.
The study concluded that street children faced challenges when enrolled in rehabilitation
centers from unfriendly teachers and staff of the centers and various emotional challenges that
affected their rehabilitation process. The study recommended that there need to establish
reasons why former street children fail to be reintegrated with their communities of origin
after rehabilitation process.
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DEDICATION
First, I dedicate this work to all street families worldwide, and especially those in Kenya, due
to the great support and encouragement they need from us all. Secondly, I dedicate this work
to my dear wife, Evaline Mutua and daughter Queen Esther Mutua, loving mother Ann
Mutuku, Sister Hellen Mwanzia and brothers led by Charles Mutuku. My mother together
with my late father, Joseph MutukuNgundu, laid a strong foundation for me both morally and
spiritually. This thesis is a true manifestation of culture of hard work and Godly values you
instilled in me as I grew. My brothers, you have supported me during the challenging times of
my studies.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Introduction
The phenomenon of street children is a constantly growing global challenge with over tens
of millions of them found across the world (UNICEF, 2009). Globally, street children are
considered as children in need of special focus. Street children are a worldwide concern
especially in Africa and other developing countries (Nyamai & Waiganjo, 2014). According
to Droz (2006) children in the streets are vulnerable to exploitation, victimization and abuse
of their economic and civil rights with the international indifference worsening the problem.
In 1996, the United States of America (USA) had about 5.5 million children living in
extreme poverty, with at least one million living as street children (Nalkur, 2009).
Unemployment, poverty, migration to the cities, high fertility rates, lack of social services
and abandonment of formal support of the poor by governments has led to increase of
children in the streets (Salokangas, 2010). According to Orme and Seipel (2007), there are
various reasons causing street children menaces like; death of parents, sexual abuse, poverty,
violence at home, divorce, neglect etc. Salokangas (2010) argued that due to harsh living
conditions, street children often endure poor health and addictions to alcohol, drugs, glue and
tobacco. Although the problem of street children is worsening in both developing and
developed countries, little effort seems to be done to address it with UNICEF warning that
these children face a very obscure future (UNICEF, 2006). Rev Mwalili, who has been
involved in rehabilitation work for over twenty years now, says that it has become necessary
to include psychotherapy, medical interventions and reintegration at the budgeting stage in
the rehabilitation programs of the newly recruited street children. At the end of rehabilitation
program, reintegration of the children back to society should be such that it helps the
children recover and become useful to their families and communities of origin (Mwalili,
2018). Library Archives1 Copy
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This chapter explored the background to the study, the statement of the problem, purpose
and objectives of the study, research questions, justification, significance and assumptions of
the study, the scope, limitations and delimitations of the study, definition of terms and the
summary.
Background to the Study
UNICEF (2013) defined a street child as one who basically depends on the street for his or
her daily chores like begging, stealing, working, alcoholism and drug abuse, etc. It is in the
street where his or her social ground is found. Agarwal (2010) noted that the problem of
street families is global one. It is approximated that there are close to 100 million children
living in the streets globally (Backer, 2011). Furthermore, the United Nations Fund for
Population Activities (2003) pointed out that the problem of street children has continued to
worsen in the last four and half decades with the result being that in many countries children
are found to roam aimlessly in towns without permanent homes to live in.
The report by UNFPA reveals how the problem of street children that has reached alarming
proportions has attracted huge concern from different stakeholders worldwide. UN-Habitat
(2013) report indicated that although 100 million people are currently being categorized as
being homeless, close to 1.6 billion people worldwide lack adequate housing. Most of the
homeless people comprise of those living in temporary shelters and who receive government
aid in addition to those who maybe living in settlements that are inadequate such as slums,
squatting in structures not meant for housing, couch surfing with family and friends, and
others who frequently relocate to new places.
Due to the widespread recession, sexual exploitation, civil unrest, family disintegration,
natural disasters, rural to urban migration, effects of rapid industrialization, and child abuse,
the number of street families has rapidly increased in recent years (Mohamed, 2012).
According to UNICEF (2013), only 20 million out of the 100 million street children spend Library Archives2 Copy
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their lives in the streets without their families. In Europe and Asia combined, it is estimated
that 25 million children live in the streets with a further 40 million found living on the streets
in different towns in South America. Findings of a study Ngaku (2011) in India revealed
how traditional practices such as polygamous marriages among most rural communities have
contributed to an increase in the number of street children within the major cities since many
of these children drop from schools due to financial problems thereby being forced to the
streets.
According to the findings of a study conducted by Batliwala (2014), Brazil as a country is
estimated to have between 200,000 and 1 million children who are categorized as street
children while Pakistan is home to 1.2 million street children. The said street children are
mainly found in the big cities working as vendors, beggars and parking lots attendants, shoe-
shining, selling candy etc. A study by Chambers (2011) revealed that countries such as
Mexico and Colombia despite having made good success in rehabilitating the street children,
more needs to be done in this area. Inadequate resources and appropriate administrative
skills have been cited as challenges encountered in the process of rehabilitating street
families (Chambers, 2011).
In the African continent, the process of rapid urbanization resulting from increased rural-
urban migration led to an increase in the number of street families which has in turn caused a
severe strain on infrastructure in many countries causing increased poverty levels (UNICEF,
2013). This has translated to higher levels of unemployment and crime in the cities. Those
tragically affected are forced into criminal habits like substance abuse, sexual abuse and
other forms of illegal habits.
Africa alone is estimated to have 30 million children living in the streets of various towns,
with many countries struggling with rising numbers every other day (The Daily Observer,
2011). According to this report, all the countries of Africa are struggling with the menace of
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increasing street families causing more poverty and food crisis. In all the countries there is
one general observation: the number of homeless people is believed to be rising, and floods
and natural disasters seem to worsen the problem. Inter-ethnic conflicts are making more
people homeless who end up living in the streets of major cities and other smaller towns (UN
Habitat, 2015).
Reports from UNCHR (2006) and UNICEF (2009) indicated that although many African
countries have enacted good legislative laws, with some specifically for street children, they
are often not well implemented. In Africa, much as the psychosocial factors have negatively
impacted on the work of the street children rehabilitation organizations, the nature and
management of the centers themselves have worsened an already poor situation (Migai,
2013).
Delap and Wedge (2016) emphasized on the importance of the process of careful
reintegration of the street children with their families or communities of origin after the
rehabilitation programs. Although international law and policies value the importance of
proper reintegration of separated street children into families and communities of origin, a
comprehensive approach has been lacking due to incoherent policies, programming practice
with variable quality and inadequate investment in reintegration (Pais, 2013). Maximum
efforts need to be applied in reintegrating the millions of rehabilitated street children and
their families because lack of family care poses fundamental reaction on the child’s
physiological and psychosocial development (Delap & Wedge, 2016).
In Kenya, Cradle (2017) describes “a street family” as one whose children and parents live in
streets. They are commonly referred to as scavengers or “chokora” easily recognized through
their trademark of sacks hanging over their backs searching through dustbins. There are
approximately 300,000 children living and working on the streets of Kenya (IRIN News,
2007). According to this report, these are the people who live in illegal temporary structures
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usually demolished at any time by local authorities. Other estimates given were 250,000
children countrywide with a total of 60,000 living in Nairobi alone (UNICEF, 2013).
Homeless World Cup Foundation (2017) estimated that in Nairobi County, over 50% of
street children are within the capital city. In a study commissioned by The Nairobi Central
Business District Association (NCBDA) (2001), it was realized that boys out-number the
girls (9:1). In another research by Women Educational Researchers of Kenya (WERK) and
German technical Cooperation (GTZ), 25% of the street children are girls.
These alarming figures have pushed the national government, county governments and other
organizations to establish strategies to address the plight of street families. In Kenya, when
the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) government took office in 2003, a new initiative on
rehabilitation of street families mainly targeting the youth was commenced (Nzomo, 2004).
Due to free primary education that was hastily introduced, this government project did not
succeed as planned because a lot of children ended up in the streets of major towns. Agarwal
(2010) inferred that even though the young people were put into the National Youth Service
program, these government initiatives have not been sufficiently handled to cause enough
impact to the youth in the street families.
In spite of extensive data from recent empirical research on Kenyan street children, there
seems to be consensus that various psychosocial issues such as hunger, poverty, child abuse,
insecurity, domestic violence that originates from communal clashes like post-election
violence in 1992 and 2007, death of parent (or both parents), inadequate care, inability to
continue with education, unemployment of parents, illiteracy, housing challenges, drug use
by children and peer influence are the major factors behind the children menace in the streets
of major towns and cities (Onyango, Orwa, & Kariuki 1991).
According to Orphans Foundation (2012) and Migai (2013), different factors influence
successful rehabilitation of street children. Kopokaet al. (2000) presented physical factors
including challenging conditions of sleeping in abandoned buildings, public parks and in Library Archives5 Copy
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doorways and hostility through physical assault as being key to the process of the
rehabilitation of street children. UNICEF (2012) reported physical injuries and accidents like
cuts, sprains, amputations, burns, bruises from street fights, and accidents from moving cars
and motorcycles to influence rehabilitation of these children. These injuries affect the street
children especially during the rehabilitation programs if not given the proper medical
attention. On the other hand, Gilbert et al. (2018) reported biological factors that include
physiological health challenges due to abandonment, to be affecting the rehabilitation of
street children.
Besides, Nugent and Pam (2013) talked about environmental factors including social
relationships, health care, lack of resources and very harsh treatment by both government
and private security agencies, while living in the streets. There is however scanty
information regarding psychosocial factors determining successful rehabilitation of street
children. It is in view of the above that the current study seeks to establish and analyze the
nature of psychosocial determinants of successful rehabilitation of street children in Kenya
using selected rehabilitation centers in Embakasi Sub-County.
Statement of the Problem
The number of street children has been rising daily, despite a lot of rehabilitation work in
many countries of the world (UNICEF, 2005). A study by Kenya Children of Hope (2013)
revealed that there are approximately 300,000 street children countrywide with an estimated
50% in the capital city, Nairobi. The New Times, a leading newspaper in Rwanda, reported
that once children begin to live in the streets, they perceive home like more of torture and
confinement center, where they cannot live again. Many children even after rehabilitation
refuse to be reintegrated back to their families due to the harsh experiences they had with
family members unless proper counseling is done before they are released.
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In an interview with the Capital FM News (26th, January 2017) about the perennial problem
of street children opting to go and live in the streets after rehabilitation exercises, the County
Executive for Education, Social Services and ICT, Anne Lokidor, said that life in the streets
of Nairobi was very hard. She said that due to the pathetic economic and social situations in
most families, the street children many times refuse to go back to their homes and it was why
the problem appeared to remain perennial since it originates from the families.
Report by Standard Newspaper stated that children in the four government rehabilitation
centers, Bahati Boys, Kayole Girls, ShauriMoyo and Joseph Kang’ethe reception Center
escape back to the streets after being round up. This is due to the poor conditions of these
facilities, and especially about guards and attendants mistreating the street children in their
custody (Standard Newspaper 12thMarch 2014). According to this report, a Nairobi City
council employee testified of the deplorable conditions in the rehabilitation centers forcing
the children to escape and go back to the street again.
Boakye-Boaten (2006) gave personal, socio-political and economic factors as being causes
of children preferring to live in the streets. Family conflicts and violence push children to the
streets (Bradley, 1997). Veale et al. (2000) gave abandonment by the parents as a reason why
children would prefer to live or go back to the streets even after rehabilitation. NACADA
(2011) gave drugs and substance abuse as reason many children opt to live in the streets
either before or after rehabilitation in Kenya. The cravings are too strong to be managed
while at home because these drugs are said to be readily available in the streets.
Although much has been documented about physical, biological, environmental and cultural
factors, there are very few studies on psychosocial factors that affect successful
rehabilitation of street children. Many organizations have tried to solve the problem of street
children in Nairobi but statistics available portray a dismal achievement as far as actual
rehabilitation is concerned (Chambers, 2011).
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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate psychosocial factors affecting successful
rehabilitation of street children.
Research Objectives
The study specifically sought to:
1. Establish factors that attract children to the streets.
2. Analyze psychosocial factors that affect rehabilitation of street children.
3. Examine factors affecting successful reintegration of rehabilitated street
children back to families or communities of origin.
Research Questions
1. What were the factors that attract children to the streets?
2. What were the psychosocial factors affecting the rehabilitation of street
children?
3. What were the factors affecting successful reintegration of the rehabilitated
street children back to families or communities of origin?
Justification of the Study
Reports from many institutions of rehabilitation portray very disturbing figures about many
children going back to the streets even after going through rehabilitation programs. For
example, according to the director of Uzima rehabilitation center, almost 50% of the
rehabilitated street children go back to the streets after the trainings (Mwalili, 2018).
This study sought to answer that fundamental question asked by stakeholders in this area of
training i.e. why do these children choose to go and live in the streets after going through
rehabilitation training programs. These events that impact negatively on the street children
include; sexual abuse or violence, physical abuse, natural or man-made disasters, such as Library Archives8 Copy
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fires, hurricanes, or floods, violent crimes such as kidnapping or school shootings, and motor
vehicle accidents.
It is therefore important that studies are done to help both the foreign and local stakeholders
understand what is ailing the work of rehabilitation in the centers with an aim of providing
proper knowledge with the purpose of improving the same. The centers should also have
better ways of handling children from the street families to enable them train more and
ensure that they leave the streets for better lives.
Significance of the Study
Street children rehabilitation work may improve when the reports of the study are sent to
various stakeholders for implementation purposes. Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs) could benefit from the study by being helped on how to deal with the global
phenomenon of street children. County governments and national government may also have
the advantage of improving the way they deal with the menace of street children in various
cities of the world. Generally, this study may help scholars in further research work on why
street children go back to the streets even after going through rehabilitation process. The
tutors and other social workers maylearn better methods to successfully enable them handle
the street children in the centers and during time of reintegration.
The organizations involved in rehabilitation work of street families may use both the
research findings and further recommendations of this study. The residents of the various
towns and cities may live better lives with less crime if the rehabilitation of the street
families is successful. Finally, the rehabilitation centers may develop better working
relationships with their donors if the budgeted funds are utilized in a professional and
mutually acceptable manner.
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This study is anticipated to be significant since it directly confronts the increasingly alarming
poor rates of success in most of the rehabilitation centers within our country. Reports given
by many NGOs show lack of capacity in the rehabilitation work since only about 35% of the
children get to successfully rehabilitated (Mwalili, 2018). The above corresponds with
findings of studies by Mehta (2000) Orphans Foundation Trust (2012), Jennifer (2011) that
many children leave their homes and choose to live in the streets due harsh living conditions
at home and society at large. However, a gap still seems to exist as to how the success rate of
the rehabilitation of street children can be improved in the institutions. This study therefore
targets to investigate the psychosocial factors affecting successful execution of rehabilitation
activities to reduce the number of children who go back to streets.
Assumptions of the study
i. The researcher will get clearance from various authorities to carry out the study
including rehabilitation centers.
ii. The former street children undergoing rehabilitation will give truthful information
about their lives in the streets.
iii. The study will have adequate respondents for interview.
iv. Recommendations meted from this study would be useful in most of the
rehabilitation centers in Kenya.
Scope of the Study
The study concentrated on psychosocial factors affecting rehabilitation of street children;
analyze factors affecting reintegration of rehabilitated children back to society and strategies
to enhance rehabilitation of street children in Kenya. The focus was on adolescent children
within the age bracket of 11 – 19 years from the street families already in rehabilitation
centers in Embakasi Sub-County. The study only involved the vulnerable children from
street families only. Library Archives10 Copy
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Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
After the researcher conducted a literature review on the study, it was realized that there was a
limited literature material locally. To delimit this occurrence and noting the interest on this
topic, the researcher referenced literature from other countries. Secondly, there was a limitation
that a good number of these children tended to leave the center even long before the right time
to do so. Most of them broke bounds and ran away while those who attended classes during the
day went back to take drugs and hence did not report back the following morning. To delimit
this, the researcher tried and shortened the duration for data collection from two months to at
least two weeks.
Thirdly, with most street families having no proper parenting style, most of the children may
not even know who their parents are, which may pose a challenge to this study due to
inability to get the basic demographic facts about the children. Without a well-documented
clinical intake, it is likely that an informed-consent may also not be well executed. To
delimit this challenge, the researcher had the center management and the county social
welfare management departments give and sign a well written consent form on behalf of the
children before dealing with them. Finally, for the children who were totally illiterate and
unable to fill in the forms themselves, the center staff members and tutors assisted them.
Definition of Terms
Abuse: WHO (2006) defined abuse as treating a person with cruelty or violence
especially regularly or repeatedly; means misuse; violence, cruelty and
assault. In this study, abuse was used to mean any wrongful treatment of
street children for either economic or financial gain.
Adolescent: According to WHO (2016), adolescence was described as the period
between 9 and 19, after childhood and sometime before adulthood,
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characterized by some speedy rate in growth similar to the infancy period
of human development. In this study, the term adolescent will mean
former street children in rehabilitation centers aged between eleven and
nineteen (11-19).
Sexual Abuse American Psychological Association (2012) describes sexual abuse as the
main chance of an adult allowing him or her to coerce or manipulate a
child into the act of sexual activity. Included here is masturbation, digital
penetration, anal and intercourse. In this study, sexual abuse was taken to
mean seeking for sexual relationship without the consent of the children.
Parental According to Straus and Kantor (2005) parental negligence means failure
Negligence to provide basic needs like clothing, food, education, medical attention \
or even leaving the child in violence prone area. Straus and Kantor
(2005, p. 20) state: „Neglectful behavior is behavior by a caregiver
that constitutes a failure to act in ways that are presumed by the culture
of a society to be necessary to meet the developmental needs of a and
which are the responsibility of a caregiver to provide‟. In this study,
parental negligence will mean failure of the parent to protect and provide
for his or her child.
Psychosocial PsychologyDictionary.org journal (April 28, 2013) defines psychosocial
factors factors as the social, cultural and environmental influences that affect an
individual’s or group’s mental health and behavior. In this study,
psychosocial factors will mean factor associated with stress, hostility,
depression and hopelessness
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Poverty According to the Cambridge Dictionary (2013), poverty means a lack of
something or when quality of something is extremely low. In this study,
poverty will mean the condition of the street children, taken to be
extremely poor.
Reintegration: Delap & Wedge (2013) defined reintegration as, “ The process of a
separated child making what is anticipated to be permanent transition
back to his or her family and community (usually of origin), in order to
receive protection and care and to find a sense of belonging and purpose
in all spheres of life”( p.1). In this study, reintegration will take to mean
the physical reunification of a former street child with the family of origin
and the emotional attachments that follow this exercise.
Rehabilitation: Collins English Dictionary (2018) rehabilitation as helping a person who
has acquired a disability or addiction or just been released from prison to
re-adapt to society or a new job, as by vocational guidance, retraining or
therapy. In this study, rehabilitation will be taken to mean restoration of
the street children back to normal behavioral state expected by society.
Rehabilitation will not be complete unless a child formerly living in
streets is reintegrated with family or community of origin.
Street children Refers to children below 19 years living in streets usually without
adult supervision or care (Collins English Dictionary, 2018).
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Summary
This chapter gave an overview of street children, and some of the challenges that affect them
during and after their rehabilitation programs in Kenya. It has the introduction, background
to the study, statement of the problem, purpose and objectives of the study, research
questions, and the significance of the study, scope, the study limitations and delimitations
and finally definition of terms. The next chapter will review relevant literature by other
scholars resulting to the researcher developing both theoretical and conceptual frameworks.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter presents the theoretical framework, general review, empirical literature review,
and conceptual framework of this study. The literature review gives the reader an overview
of related writings concerning the psychosocial factors that influence the rehabilitation of
street children in Kenya. The literature was reviewed in two categories: general and
empirical literature. The chapter was also guided by some theoretical and conceptual
frameworks. The chapter ended with a summary of key highlights.
Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework includes concepts together with their definitions in reference to the
relevant academic literature and already existing theories used in a specific study. They
exhibit a general understanding of the chosen theories relating to the wider areas of
acceptable knowledge in consideration (Akyol & Garrison, 2012). Psychosocial theories
useful in rehabilitation of street children differ depending on the extent to which they agree
with other societal theoretical factors. This study was strictly guided by two psychosocial
theories: Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986) and Social Development Theory
(Erikson, 1963).
Social Cognitive Theory
According to LaMorte (2018) of Boston School of Public Health, Social Cognitive Theory
(SCT) began as Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. In 1986, it
developed into Social Cognitive Theory, basically explaining how learning is able to take
place in a social context with a changing and reciprocal interaction of a human being, the
environment they live in, and behavior. This study will specifically explore how the
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principle of self-efficacy can be used to encourage the street children while being trained in
rehabilitation centers. According to Bandura (1986), self-efficacy refers to beliefs of people
in their abilities to mobilize the motivation, mental resources, and courses of action that are
needed in meeting specific situational needs. It is not about the skills one has, but the
judgments of what can be achieved using the available skills. Being behavior specific, self-
efficacy emphasizes use of particular types of cognitive and performance strategies. Self-
efficacy theory is also perceived to be futuristic with some behavioral orientation. It is thus
predictive, that a person’s efficacy for particular behavior is used to predict the actual future
happening.
Past studies have shown how intervention alters self-efficacy and an alteration in self-
efficacy brings about behavioral changes and status of health (Lorig, Deborah, & Elaine,
1989). Having reliable applicability to both health promotion and patient education, self-
efficacy has four empirically verified ways of enhancing it: skills mastery, modeling,
reinterpretation of psychological signs and symptoms and persuasion. Appearing best
powerful means of enhancing self-efficacy, skills mastery is generally realized first by
dividing skills into very small and achievable tasks and ensuring that each task is duly
accomplished. The best way for client to achieve goals is by setting specific tasks for him or
herself targeting to change a specific behavior based on some form of a personal contract.
The goals give direction and motivation for behavior change and should be set by the client
to increase effectiveness (Bandura, 1986).
Modeling enhances efficacy and behavior change, by allowing the client attempting change
of behavior to interact with a person who has already overcome behavioral challenges in the
same area. Bandura (1986) gave this as a principle used by several homogenous self-help
groups and organizations.
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Bandura (1982) said that people rely on knowledge about their physiological positions when
it comes to judging their own capabilities and affects clients‟ self-efficacy to manage their
health challenges. As professionals, psychotherapists should seek to understand clients‟
belief system to enable them help them re-interpret or change their insights. In many
instances, the challenge is in identifying the belief a client has about their health challenge.
A good example is how a client may wrongly interpret fatigue as a disease in itself although
may actually mean physical manifestation of a disease or depression.
If it is a physical sickness, rest would be the best thing to do while for depression, exercise is
the best thing to undertake regularly. A professional can therefore decide that all clients
feeling fatigued could exercise first then advise them further depending on the results. Some
would be advised to continue with exercise while others would have to take rest. The
reinterpretations that help clients view their challenges differently and effectively change
their judgments about their self-efficacy and capabilities to manage health challenges.
Persuasion is applied regularly for patients to believe in their capabilities to achieve goals.
Bandura (1982) inferred that though persuasion has limited capacity to create enough
changes in self-efficacy, it contributes a lot to meaningful performance especially with
realistic persuasion.
By asking clients to slightly set more goals than they are doing currently, professionals can
use persuasion without arousing fear in them. However, these kinds of goals are meant for
short term plans and should be realistic, making the task more manageable.
Persuasion could be used in programs involving small groups, to solve problems and set
objectives to persuade clients at individual levels. An individual becomes more convinced to
succeed after observing his or her peers successfully participate in similar activities in a
group set-up. In this way an individual begins to master specific skills. Resilience is a key
element for the successful restoration of the street children, if they can learn how to fall
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down and rise up again as they try to go back to their old way of life before going to the
streets.
According to Rev. Mwalili (2018), daily bible devotions where each of the boys is
encouraged to testify about their past and current state of their lives, can help a great deal.
Just encouraging them to talk about their daily experiences in the centers of rehabilitation
and introduction of extra-curriculum activities like music and drama activities at least once
every week will help in creating new insight and focus on other useful habits.
Children going through rehabilitation process are usually surrounded by influential models
like teachers, peers, parents, social workers and community employees, whose behaviors can
determine their future and therefore this study will strongly consider modeling as being able
to help street children. The study also takes cognizant of the fact that the social learning
theory is also based on the fact that behavior is learned from the environment through the
process of observational learning (Bandura, 1963). The study will also use this theory to
show how learning can either be enhanced or discouraged through use of rewards and
punishments.
Mwalili (2018) stated that these activities would occupy them when not in class and avoid
them relapsing into habits of drugs and substance abuse. Activities that are athletics in nature
will also help in learning some of the coping methods in any social set up where these
children may live even after the leaving the rehabilitation institutions. He further advises the
teachers and other staff members to partner with the children in the extra-curriculum
activities after their normal classes to help them learn and develop the aspect of social
support and the culture of accepting to fit and harmoniously live in their families and
communities of origin, especially after the rehabilitation programs.
Application of self-efficacy and can have tremendous results in restoring the power of
resilience in street children during and after the rehabilitation programs. A study by Asante
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(2015), reported that the principle of resilience amongst homeless children has become a key
concept of scrutiny from many researchers in the last two decades. Asante (2015) as cited in
Masten (2001) defined resilience as outcomes that are positive despite adversity experience,
effective functioning in circumstances that are adverse, and recovery following some serious
trauma. The concept of resilience has become important in understanding what makes
homeless children cope and survive adverse conditions. Asante argued that a resilient young
person possesses protective factors or strengths helping them to cope with adversity (Barton,
2005; Theron, 2004).
In his study, Rew (2001) said that resilient youths portray less hopelessness, loneliness
finding them less likely to involve themselves in dangerous behaviors. Kidd and Shaher
(2008) in their study concluded that, resilience and risk factors were to a large extend related
to status of subjective health, mental health or substance use, meaning that if the level of
resilience is low, they become physically and mentally exposed.
Social Development Theory
Applicable also in this study is the social development theory by Erik Erikson. According to
this theory, Erikson (1963) saw people as being both rational and logical in decision making
and solving of problems. This theory puts emphasis on the psycho-historical basics that
believes that a child’s ego is developed (Erikson, 1982). He believes that every experience
by a person as he or she grows is able to determine their personality, depending on the
reaction to every crisis that comes to their lives.
In his study, Erik Erikson (1982) stated that inadequate mastery of challenges that come
early in life, limits person’s ability to tackle challenges later in life. He therefore described
the psychosocial process of growth in the lifespan of a person as the interplay between
intrapersonal needs and interpersonal relationships at important stages of growth and
development in his or her life (Erikson, 1958). The relationship between an infant and the
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caregiver may determine the level of trust to significant others and their peers in future. This
particularly, informed Erikson’s conclusion that the more developed the sense of trust is the
more hopeful a person will be throughout his or her life.
The theory insists on the fact that every crisis a encountered, results to both a negative and
positive attribute to the person’s life. If a problem is handled satisfactorily, the ego tends to
enjoy the achievement and the person achieves formal trust and autonomy in life. Likewise,
if the problem is handled in an unsatisfactory manner, the ego suffers damage and negativity,
mistrust, shame and doubt affect a person’s ego (Erikson, 1958).
Erik Erikson’s theory infers how a person must learn how to deal with most of the
challenges, to allow them move to the next level in life. Erikson observes how stages of life
fall into chronological staircases of hierarchy, whereby each successive stage builds upon the
resolution of previous psychological conflicts. According to this theory, inferiority complex
may crop up in a child if he or she discovers that religion, sex, race, socio-economic status
may determine the direction of their life in future. This may actually cause a person to lose
both confidence and interest in daily effort to positively change their lives (Erikson, 1958).
According to Erikson, if there is wrong behavior in a child, the blame should be put squarely
on the care giver and not the child. Someone else should take responsibility for the deviance
character, but not the child in consideration, since society plays a key role in shaping
personalities of people. Erikson’s theory is optimistic in demonstrating how each stage of
psycho-social growth bears both weaknesses and strengths, whereby failure in one
developmental stage does not necessarily imply failure in a future stage of development
(Erikson, 1963).
Erickson described a psychosocial process of development across the lifespan that examined
the interplay between intrapersonal needs and interpersonal relationships and the key
emotional responses this interplay might typically evoke within the person at key milestones
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of development throughout their life. For example, an infant’s relationship with their primary
caregiver will influence their level of trust in others and the world. The more established this
sense of trust becomes the more hopeful a person will feel throughout their life (Erikson,
1982). Another example is that of a preschooler who can easily de-motivated to take tasks
initiatives if they sense some guilty consciousness while trying things out but making
mistakes. These feelings of guilt, and not feelings of motivation, could easily inhibit the
child from attempting to take initiatives their entire lives.
The two examples above in regard to psychosocial development give an overview of how
life-long cognitive and emotional dispositions can develop and impact a person throughout
their whole life due to important psychosocial interactions (Erikson, 1963).The Erik
Erikson’s model of theory will be useful to this study by presenting a helpful schema to
integrate wide recovery concepts into useful clinical strategies for providers of
psychotherapeutic care in the rehabilitations centers during the process of rehabilitation. This
study also takes note of the fact that recovering children will not recover in isolation, since
they will need to engage other people in their recovery plans (Ridgway, 2001).
General Literature Review
The narrative of street families has been in existence as from the 18th century. In 1848, Lord
Ashley is said to have referred to street children as naked, roaming, filthy, deserted and
lawless children in and around London, United Kingdom (Cooper, 2009). In Russia alone,
there were more than seven million children in the streets due to the effects of both Russian
Civil and World War 1(Cooper, 2009). These abandoned children went ahead to form gangs
engaging in theft and children prostitution.
Mercer (2009) inferred that street children worldwide either scavenge or beg to earn an
income. They work as guards in parking lots, carrying luggage, cleaning market stalls,
selling sweets and cigarette, robbing shops, pick pocketing, drugs trafficking, shoe shining
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and prostitution. White (2004) says that domestic disintegration, conflicts, famine and
overpopulation amongst others have caused number of street families to increase globally.
This has increased poverty levels in the entire world.
As much as the streets present minimal work and growth opportunities to these children,
they go against their dignity and negatively affect their mental, emotional and physical lives
(Kaime et al., 2008). These children live in harsh conditions including, severe poverty,
hunger, disease and lack of proper shelter. Most of them live in street verandas, pavements
and dumpsites. They lack basic utilities like clean water, food, toilet facilities, shelter and
health care facilities. Due to these innumerable harsh living conditions, the street families are
forced to form gangs to protect themselves from other members of society and the
administrative bodies of government. Scheper-Hughes and Hoffmans (2005) said that when
a child is exposed to street life, the situation becomes almost unbearable since they lack
support and care given in the normal families. This denies them proper healthcare and basic
education and finally incapacitated due to inability to access psychosocial benefits of the
wider society.
To either overcome or relieve themselves of these challenges, virtually all the street children
result into use of readily available drugs and alcohol in their towns of habitation. Although
gangs are used as social groups to offer protection and affection offered in normal families,
they strengthen dangerous habits like drug abuse, gambling, mugging, and robbery with
violence and prostitution (Kaime et al., 2008). Muya (2009) concluded that use of drugs and
prostitution leads to increased HIV/AIDS infection within the street families. This sex is
mainly unprotected exposing the children to high risk of STIs and HIV/AID (Patel et al.,
2010).
The children engage in unsafe sex for money to get shelter and feed themselves together
with other family members. Migai (2013) gave several reasons that cause children to end up
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in streets; abandonment, abuse, neglect by families and being orphaned. This worsens an
already terrible situation when a child living in the street has to feed him or herself on daily
basis expecting no support from anyone. In Kenya, when these children from street families
are brought to the rehabilitation centers, they are already badly hurt spiritually, physically
and health wise (Mwalili, 2018). This means that even long before the center managers think
of pushing them into vocational training classes, they need to be considered for some form of
either medical or therapeutic intervention. According to Rev. Mwalili, currently a PhD
student and with over fifteen years experience in practical rehabilitation work, infers that the
street children should not be rushed into vocational training classes together with other
children from normal families before serious assessment is undertaken first. Some even lack
appetite for food and even lose their lives because of not accepting their new home
environment and abrupt discontinuation of drugs and other substances, which they take in
the streets (Mwalili, 2018).
Global, Regional and National Conventions on Children Rights
UNICEF (2010) came up with a very clear agreement on child rights applicable worldwide. The
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) is a treaty for human rights giving
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) legal position in overseeing the implementation of
the relevant article (Article 45a). In article 1, a child is defined as “every human being below the
age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.”
There are many rights of children guaranteed in this chapter including; right to life, dignity,
education, protection from exploitation and abuse, freedom from discrimination, participation in
civil, political and socio-economic activities.
According to Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), a specific reference is made on the
approach for rehabilitation of street children (Article 3). Proper assistance should be given to
parents and guardians in the undertaking of their responsibilities while developing institutions
and facilities that promote the rights of the children (Article 18). The government is expected to Library Archives23 Copy
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give protection to a child who lacks family environment and even offer institutional placement if
available (Article 20).
According to CRC, every child has a right to good health including accessibility to health
services and institutions particularly for primary, preventive health care and education on public
health. Every child has a right to adequate living standard including cognitive, physical, social
development and spiritual nourishment. The person living with the child has the basic
responsibility to ensure within his or her economic capacity, the living conditions important for
the necessary socio-economic and physiological growth. Provision of support programs and
material assistance like relevant nutrition, clothing and shelter is key (Article 27).
UNICEF (2007) acknowledged that a regional treaty, The African Charter on the Rights and
Welfare of the Child (ACRWC) dealing with economic, political and socio-cultural dynamics of
children in Africa was began by the Organization of African Union in 1990. The treaty
recognizes a child as a human being below 18 years of age and who occupies a special and
privileged place in the African continent. Article 16 outlines clearly the framework for
rehabilitation of street children, with the charter calling for their legal protection, health care,
mental, physiological and cognitive developmental fitness. This article also reflects on what
should happen in instances where child abuse and neglect are reported to authorities and where
protection measures need to be effectively followed.
Onyango et al. (1999) said that post-independent Kenya has not changed much in the children
policy compared to the colonial days. With the policy largely based on law colonial days, it
focused mainly on issues of employment, responsibility on crime and education (1937 Act). The
Kenyan government further signed both the UNCRC and ACRWC for the protection of its
children with the parliament enacting the Children Act 2001 that enhanced the implementation
of agreement of the Hague Convention. In this Act, the plight of the street children and other
vulnerable children is clearly articulated with keen concern placed on abuse and their possible
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exploitation. According to the Children’s Act 2001, segregation of street children in
rehabilitation centers is not allowed as directed by sections 47, 48 and 49 (GOK, 2010).
Factors that Attract Children to the Streets
According to a study by Joan Barsulai of Standard Newspaper, the phenomena of children
running away from their homes and communities of origin has become terrible and has been
posing serious challenges to governments in this region (Standard Newspaper, 2014). According
to the report, post-election violence of 2007 worsened the situation, when hundreds of children
fled from Eldoret and came to live in the streets of Nairobi exceeding the capacity of the already
struggling government, church and private institutions of rehabilitation. Okello (2012) classified
reasons for children in rehabilitation centers as those abused psychologically and emotionally,
sexually, physiologically, orphaned, children from street families and those both mentally and
physiologically challenged. He further underscores the importance of safety in these centers
failure to which the children will continue going back to the streets after rehabilitation.
Family and parental conflicts cause a lot of children to go and live in the streets of major towns
(Bradley, 1997). This is because conflicts become major causes of children abuse. The decision
to disappear from home is a reaction to stressful or depressive circumstances and conflicts based
on beliefs that are not rational (Miller et al., 1990). Most of these children perceive the street to
be places of freedom while forgetting the harsh consequences associated with it. A majority of
street children interviewed, gave conflicting situations with their parents as main causes for
them to run away (Lundy, 1995).
According to study by Boakye-Boaten (2006), 79.3% of children in the streets report some
history of physical abuse promoting rebellious thoughts among the adolescents. These children
then consider running to the streets as the only emancipating opportunity for their lives. In many
developing countries, customary practices are constantly clashing with the modern practices
resulting into serious family conflicts. This is because the traditional practices are perceived to
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have authoritarian orientation whereas the post-modernism approach supports individual rights
and freedoms (Russell, 1998). Structurally, factors identified with the phenomenon of street
children are; civil wars, social turbulence, displacement either internal or external as refugees
(Aptekar, 1994). Rising military costs, global falling commodity prices, World Bank’s and
International Monetary Fund (IMF) structural adjustment programs (SAPs) and rising debt
crises have worsened the situation of street children (UNICEF, 1996).
These challenges have caused incomes of about eight hundred million people worldwide to
drastically reduce. In the developing countries, the IMF structural adjustments programs
prompted reduction in provision of key basic social services like health care, early childhood
education, sanitation and environmental issues triggering an increase of people living below
poverty line, causing an influx of children in the streets (Creuziger, 1997; Le Roux 1996). The
belief held by these children of being abandoned by their families and society poses great
instability (Veale et al., 2000). There is therefore the need to keenly examine this idea of
abandonment usually held by the street children to give them some new insight.
According to a study by Sakolangas (2010), children usually lack both cognitive and intellectual
abilities to make decisions to leave parents and other siblings back home, since their choices are
more of forced reactions than autonomous personal choices. Schimmel (2006) inferred that the
limitation on street families social and cognitive growth because of their difficult upbringing and
little or no education, takes away their ability to make rational life choices. According to a study
by Kieni (2015) Miraa or Khat has attracted many children to the streets of Meru, with a lot of
children in the Miraa producing areas leaving schools to serve as laborers in these farms. After
earning some quick money, the children buy drugs and alcohol after which they run from home.
Bookye-Boaten (2006) argued that in Africa and other developing nations, lack of accessibility
to resources for decent livelihood is taken as the main cause of children mobility from rural to
urban centers with the hope of getting these resources. Reasons luring children into the streets
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are also viewed into two perspectives; micro and macro approaches. Macro perspective is one
experienced by a country as it engages in the global enterprise economically while the micro
causes are those resulting from internal dynamics within a country including civil wars, family
structure and responsible social organs. In Africa, street children are victims of massive social
disorganization and family disintegration caused by forces of industrialization, modernization
(Chama, 2008). Besides these, poverty aggravates an already awful situation (Orme & Seipel,
2007).
Barrette (1995) specified three key reasons why children end up in streets: society level,
community level, and family level. At the society level, the reasons are mainly economic
challenges, social challenges like high population growth, quick urbanization, high
unemployment, cultural challenges, political unrest and natural disasters like floods and drought.
At the community level there is uneven distribution of resources, services and opportunities
including land, insufficient opportunities of employment, poor working conditions, and
inaccessibility to basic services like transport, electricity, housing and water. At the family level,
we have reasons like high unemployment levels, death of parents, large poor families, mental
and physiological abuse, high divorce and separation in families, low education standards,
alcoholism and lack of emotional and care support.
Sakolangas (2010) quoted Stephenson (2002) who gave reasons for children leaving home in
Russia as, unbearable conditions, lack of enough food, lack of parental care, violence and
hoping to find better living conditions elsewhere. In Brazil, children leave home due to, violence
at home, insufficient care and support, imagined liberty and fun with friends in streets and
independent spending of money (Pare, 2004). A South-African study gives poverty and home
violence as the biggest causes of children preferring to live in streets, followed by lack of
documentation for children to go to school (Porteuset al., 2000).
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According to Aptekaret al. (2005) a big number of children end up in streets due to war, civil
conflicts and HIV/AIDS. They further gave need for belonging as another reason without which
children are forced to look for socialization in the streets. Arguing from the Maslow’s
psychological theory of the hierarchy of human needs, Schimmel (2006) explained that children
run away due to needs that are unfulfilled at home. If the basic needs of survival like food,
safety and shelter are not met, the child will definitely try and access them from the streets. This
forms the basic reason why children join street families or gangs, getting community where their
needs can be realized. In addition to needs of survival, esteem needs and love account greatly to
a child’s ability in actualizing their full potential in life. According to Schimmel, streets offer
some sense of possibility in achieving some life dreams of these children, by escaping from
oppressive tendencies back home (Schimmel, 2006).
In Uganda, the main pull factors that force children to live in the streets include the glamour and
excitement of town life, hope of better standard of living and hope of upgraded financial status
(Mwebaze, 2007). The study indicated that these children survived by way of forming groups to
search for food in garbage dumpsites and also asking for help from strangers because in many
instances, the government has failed to come with projects of improving the lives of these
children. To him, the street children in Uganda are likened to sheep lacking shepherd, with some
NGOs taking advantage of them.
Study by the Government of Rwanda, through the ministry of Gender and Promotion of family
(2012) found that use of very strict rules and disciplinary styles by the management of the
rehabilitation centers, easily triggers fear in the children, and they opt to live freely in the streets
where they do what they think is right for them. Majority of the children interviewed talked of
very harsh tutors and irreconcilable rules in the institutions of rehabilitation. The children
narrated how in most cases they would be given corporal punishment for mistakes which to
them could be handled differently.
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Psychosocial Factors that Affect the Rehabilitation of Street Children
Psychosocial factors include the following; depression, hostility, stress, hopelessness,
helplessness, and desperation. Psychosocial factors may easily increase stress leading to mental
distress. Due to the challenging psychosocial factors in the streets, families living there get
predisposed to mental disorders. Sleeping in abandoned buildings, public parks and in doorways
is by itself quite traumatizing to make anyone mentally disturbed (Kopoka et al., 2000).
This paper will therefore help to show how therapists can work to help the children from street
families overcome negative repetitive thoughts to help them positively change their mood, and,
hence, behavior in Rehabilitation Centers (DSM, 2003). Nugent and Pam (2013) gave
psychosocial factors as the social, cultural, and environmental influences that affect a person’s
mental health and behavior. Social situations, relationships, health care and lack of resources
affect the way a person behaves in a society (Nugent & Pam, 2013).
Psychosocial factors such as stress, hostility, depression, hopelessness and job control seem
associated with physical health which is necessary if the street children are to be properly
trained in rehabilitation centers, with psychological effects being any exposure that may
influence a physical health outcome through a psychological mechanism. Baokye-Boaten
(2006) declared how abandonment can cause serious psychological problems to street children,
with those from Sudan and Ethiopia for example turning to the streets to fulfill needs not yet met
by their families and society. Dweck (1996) concluded how the perception of self-reliance and
efficacy serves as psychological attributes to the protection mechanisms of street children in
daily struggles. For the rehabilitation work to be successful there is need for dependable
methods of dealing with the psychosocial challenges suffered by the street children before or
during their stay in these institutions.
Psychosocial factors such as stress, hostility, depression and hopelessness seem associated with
physical health. Psychological factors are considered to be any exposure that may influence a
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physical health outcome through a psychological mechanism. According to study by Baokye
and Boaten (2006), awareness was raised on the importance of understanding how the concept
of abandonment can cause serious psychological problems to street children. This is because
from a psychosocial point of view, children from Sudan and Ethiopia for example turned to the
streets as avenues of fulfilling needs not yet met by their families and society. According to
Dweck (1996) the street children’s perception of self-reliance and efficacy, are key
psychological attributes to their protection mechanisms during daily struggles.
According to a report by UNICEF (2012) street children are classified as those in difficult
circumstances who represent a minority population which has been poorly represented for a long
time in health studies, which creates a situation of a great disease burden in the society
(UNICEF, 2012). The vulnerability puts them at high risk of experiencing health challenges,
since they roam streets of urban places begging and getting menial jobs to obtain food and the
basic necessities. They live and work in terribly poor conditions and starving most of the time.
Street children are mostly found in bus and railway stations, night clubs, and half destroyed
houses, under bridges, abandoned houses and in open fields (UNICEF, 2012).
According to UNICEF (2011), the health related challenges these children experience in streets,
usually affect them and follow them into adulthood. Growth and nutritional disorders are
reported to affect growth and both physiological development of the street children,
predisposing them to numerous health challenges like; chronic diseases, infections, anemia and
even impaired sight (Salem & Al-Latif, 2002). Physical injuries have been reported as leading
causes of mortality amongst street children, with those 16 years and above exposed to higher
risk (UNICEF, 2012). This is because they have physical, behavioral and emotional
characteristics explaining why they frequently get injured. The regularly reported accidents
include; cuts, sprains, amputations, burns, bruises from street fights, and accidents from moving
cars and motorcycles (UNICEF, 2012). These injuries affect the street children especially during
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When institutions collect children from the streets, diagnosis and treatment of these diseases
should be given the priority within the rehabilitation program and even educate them about
dangers and results of unprotected sex, HIV and STIs infection. Most street children already are
active sexually and condom use is very minimal, with many of them having multiple partners
exposing themselves to major risk factors like HIV/AIDS and other STIs (UNICEF, 2001).
Other risk factors for STIs and HIV/AIDS among street children are violence, transactional,
multiple sexual partners and other sexual abuses. Transactional sex is practice of exchanging sex
for the urgent needs of which might include; shelter, money, drugs, alcohol and protection from
danger in the streets (Muram, 2003). Although information on sexual reproductive health of
street children is scanty, few studies have revealed early sexual initiation of between 10 and 16
years, with the prevalence of unwanted pregnancies remaining significantly high, with the
children lacking steady income and knowledge on child rearing.
There is also community violence since these children work and sleep at night in the streets
because this is generally acceptable in most African customary settings being rooted in many
social and cultural practices with government officers turning a blind to these practices
(Kayembeet al., 2008). This mistreatment of street children hardens them where they develop
Post Trauma Stress Disorder (PTSD) making the work of rehabilitating them almost impossible
unless they are first carefully assessed and given the necessary psychotherapeutic treatment.
Although many empirical studies have been done in Kenya street children, different scholars
seem to agree that various psychosocial issues such as hunger, poverty, child abuse, insecurity,
domestic violence that originates from communal clashes like post-election violence in 1992
and 2007, death of parent (or both parents), inadequate care, inability to continue with
education, unemployment of parents, illiteracy, housing challenges, drug use by children and
peer influence are the major factors behind the children menace in the streets of major towns
and cities (Onyango et al., 1991).
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The government of Rwanda through the ministry of Gender and Family Promotion (2012) did a
study to establish why after rehabilitation and the reintegration effort, street children went back
to live in the streets avoiding their families or communities of origin. This study included 222
children who gave various reasons why they had chosen to return to the streets after
rehabilitation. Parents‟ poverty was mentioned by 80 children, inability to get proper care (45),
tendency of being forced to school (33) and finally juvenile delinquency (29).
The government of Rwanda was concerned with the alarming number of children loitering in the
streets even after having been taken through rehabilitation programs. In this report, the National
Commission for Children (2012) agreed that many children were against going back to their
families as a result of abuse, rape, torture, poverty, abandonment and orphaned by HIV/AIDS
and also violations of their rights as children. The report from the Rwandese ministry of gender
and family promotion (2012) said that reports from various international summits together with
African countries like Zambia, Zimbabwe and Namibia were facing similar circumstances with
street children since many countries were emerging from conflicts.
Factors Affecting Successful Re-Integration of Rehabilitated Street Children Back to Society
UNICEF (2013) classified street children as those in problematic circumstances representing
a minority population which has been poorly represented for a long time in health studies,
implying a great disease burden. According to this UNICEF report, the vulnerability puts
them at high risk of experiencing health challenges. Delap and Wedge (2013) defined
reintegration as a process of when a child who is separated making an anticipated transition
back to the family or community of origin so as to receive care and protection and finding a
sense of purpose and belonging in life. Reintegration goes beyond mere physical
reunification of street child with his family, since it involves longer-term activities of
initiation of attachments and deep support systems between the two parties. The safety and
security of a family remains as the optimal environment for the growth and development of
children (Delap & Wedge, 2016). Library Archives32 Copy
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Salokangas (2010) argued that after children leave their homes, socialization with other
street families makes them adopt street behavior which is hard to leave, causing them to
begin learning skills of survival in the streets. Since education and development of their lives
is no longer a priority, they concentrate on building new social network and consumption of
illicit drugs making it almost impossible to leave streets. Together with harming their
physical health, drugs consumption also affects their cognitive abilities to make rational
decisions and alternatives to street life (Schimmel, 2006). A study by Stephenson (2002)
inferred that the deeper the children connect with the underworld techniques of survival, the
more difficult it becomes for them to go back to normal lives.
The underworld is said to have shadowy and hidden communities in some sense providing
protection to the street children, becoming very difficult for them to leave. Unless careful
reintegration process is applied after rehabilitation programs, these children will in most
cases go back to the streets. According to Delap and Wedge (2016) families where children
come from should be at the center of the reintegration process, being involved at each step of
decision making. Much as it is vital to invest in the children during the reintegration process,
it is equally the same for the families receiving them. Governments plan and budget for
adequate funding, clear legal framework and well thought guidance on the stages of the
reintegration process, including skilled workforce on children welfare, government actors,
religious leaders and community groups.
Delap and Wedge (2016) said that effective children protection systems have seven
components; National legislation and guidance, competent child welfare workforce,
adequate resource allocations and fiscal management, service provision and case work, the
engagement of a range of actors, collaboration with others systems, supportive social norms
and monitoring and data collection. The social workers will have to develop certain qualities
to help them work well in reintegrating children including; empathy, patience, respect,
perseverance and flexibility (African Child Policy Forum, 2013). Library Archives33 Copy
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Emerging Markets Consulting for USAID (2015) said that:
An evaluation of this work has found that it is vital to hire and train social welfare personnel, as without case workers specifically working on reintegration, adequate preparation and follow-up does not take place. Here, it can be helpful to retrain staff working in residential care facilities who may have strong bonds with children, and who in some cases may otherwise block reintegration efforts as they may feel it is not in their interests to see all children returned home and facilities closed. The evaluation also found that CSOs can play key roles in reintegration in contexts where there is an underinvestment in state services. Establishing a network of CSOs can: assist in service provision for children being reintegrated across distances; enable the sharing of lessons learnt, and build relationships of trust rather than competition which help in referral processes (p 7).
According to the report by Delap and Wedge (2016) the efforts to strengthen effective and
safe reintegration of street children and community, should consider the documented range
of UNCRC rights and relevant regional laws of children regardless of their age, ability or
gender. This is because they have the right of being involved in all decisions affecting them,
especially regarding their reintegration as a basic consideration. UNICEF and NGO Friends
International have been funded by USAID in Cambodia to work with government in
developing and strengthening systems of children protection that support reintegration of
families (USAID, 2015). Changes witnessed include: policy development, guidance to
support de-institutionalization and reintegration of family; expansive mapping in helping the
residential care regulation; bringing up networks that are strong for delivery of service and
referrals for children reintegration; and assisting the capacity of the welfare of children
workforce, for reintegration support.
The process of reintegrating families should have an approach that is based on respect for
human rights (Delap & Wedge, 2016). The efforts in promoting effective and safe
reintegration should be premised on a consideration of the total range of a family’s rights
found in the UNCRC, and the suitable national laws. All children have a guaranteed right to
the upholding of family unity, without regard to gender, age, status or ability. The UNCRC
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as the most important background for raising a child, and a core part of society (UNCRC,
1990).
Rights of children are interdependent and indivisible, whereby none takes precedence above
others. Therefore, organizations involved in reintegration of children with their families
should handle them carefully throughout the process of reintegration (Delap & Wedge,
2016). However, due to inadequate resources and existence of other obstacles, it becomes
impossible to simultaneously fulfill the rights as required. The other important thing to
consider is the legality of the identity and documentation of the relevant child including his
or her family. Under UNCRC, every child in a nation, no matter their status, have right of
protection by the state officers, which includes reintegration services, with or without legal
documentation (UNCRC, 2004).
Delap and Wedge (2016) said that all the processes of reintegration should target to benefit
and never harm the vulnerable children. To rightly identify and avoid the risks associated
with the reintegration programs, the organizations involved should try and do assessment of
risk in the areas of concern. However, the realization of some form of risk should never be
used to derail reintegration of children with their families of origin. It is worth noting that all
forms of interventions and reunification assisting reintegration should endeavor to provide
benefit and never affect children negatively.
Strategies that Enhance the Success of Rehabilitation of Street Children
According to the 2010 Constitution of Kenya (Article 53), all children should be protected
from neglect, abuse, all forms of violence, harmful cultural practices, inhumane treatment
and punishment, and exploitative labor. This requires a system of child protection that is
both effective and functioning properly. Ensuring that children are protected from abuse,
neglect, and violence, exploitation and family separation requires an effective and
functioning child protection system (UNICEF, 2015).
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Proper examination of a child is important before being taken to a rehabilitation center for
the purpose of being reformed (Karanja, 2015). It is helpful for the officers and tutors in the
rehabilitation institutions to understand the child’s addiction habits, behavior, socialization
patterns, gang’s involvement and general environmental conditions in the streets. Then the
appropriate intervention strategies like psychotherapy would be formulated and implemented
in some holistic way. Karanja further stated that processes can be handled by individuals,
Churches or rehabilitation organizations.
Africa Network on Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect (ANPPCAN)
(2006) categorized several measures if successful street children rehabilitation is to be
realized. More resources like counselors and clinical psychologists, sociologists, health
workers and other professionals to offer professional and medical services through
government substituted programs. Street life forces the children to encounter many forms of
abuse and neglect which have both physiological and psychological long-term effects
examples of which are; emotional disorders, alcohol and drug abuse, mental disorders,
aggressive behaviors, post trauma disorders, somatic symptoms etc. To be able to deal with
these challenges, a World Health Organization study recommended use of psychotherapy
during rehabilitation programs (WHO, 2011).
Generally, therapists and rehabilitation assistants may include; psychologists, occupational
physiotherapists, therapists, prosthetics, orthotics, rehabilitation and technical assistants,
speech and language therapists and social workers. Therapy assistance include; exercises,
training, and compensatory strategies, support and counseling, education, modifications to
the environment, assistive technology and provision of resources, with convincing evidence
showing how therapy measures can improve rehabilitation results. If exercise therapy is for
example properly utilized in health conditions, it can contribute to increased strength,
flexibility of joints and endurance. It can improve posture, balance, functional mobility, and
minimize the risk of falling (WHO, 2011). Library Archives36 Copy
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Goleman (2000) explains the importance of different styles of management in an
organization. The present social environment of a young person is very critical and needs be
conducive with models keen as care-givers committed to preparing the child. The right
leadership behaviors and management styles should encourage at all times, since they are the
ways in which the roles of leadership are practiced for the benefit of a group under training.
Since business environment is progressive, a leader or manager should respond to situations
promptly. This report discourages authoritarian style of management or dictatorship but
recommends the democratic one highly.
Authoritarian managers lack expression of warmth and affection and set very tough
standards of achievement for children. According to Mark (2005), authoritarian managers do
not create room for discussions or negotiations since they believe that juniors should not
question what happens in the institution. Everything being about the leader including the
vision itself, it becomes a one way traffic where others are not recognized (Goleman, 2000).
The leadership functions are shared with members of the group, and the leader is more of a
member of the group. Group members have a greater say in the decision making process.
The leader asks for and uses suggestions from subordinates but still makes decisions. It is
relaxed thinking which is allowed; it is two- way- traffic, and there is recognition and
praises. According to Alexander (2005) care-givers with the democratic management style
tend to be accommodative by teaching children to be responsible through team work, active
participation, and clear instructions in the assignments given out. Psychosocially, the kind of
management style used has some direct impact on development of the street children.
Delap and Wedge (2016) declared how successful reintegration needs meticulous and
intensive work involving children and families, in determining whether reintegration is right,
preparing the child and community, join the child with community and finally give follow-
up community support. Although reintegration appears to be the last stage of rehabilitation
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process, it is definitely as important as the rest and needs to be done carefully. The report
goes further to say there is need for adequate time to be devoted to the process of
reintegration depending on the needs of the children and their families.
Empirical Literature Review
The United Nations 2030 Agenda on Sustainable development envisions a future free from
violence and fear worldwide (Delap & Wedge, 2016). Based on the UN convention on the
rights of the child, and the UN study on violence against children, it commits to giving
children a nurturing environment for the realization of their basic rights without any form of
discrimination. But according to this study, millions of children already left behind are those
separated from their families by conflict, poverty or failure to access educational facilities
near home.
These children either migrate for work or lead lonely lives in streets, with many languishing
in institutional care. United Nations estimated that the population in most of the cities in
Africa, Latin America and Asia having 500,000 or more inhabitants would double between
1980 and 2000, and triple years later (Hardoy, 1992). Between 1980 and 2000, the
population of Nairobi was projected to rise from 0.8 up to 2.7 Million (Hardoy, 1992). With
these trends extending to the year 2000 and beyond, out of every ten babies born, more than
four will be born in the urban centers, translating to six out of ten babies born by the year
2025.
Therefore, with population of the urban centers in the Third World expected to quadruple
from 959 million to 4,376 million, more than half of this number will be children (Hardoy,
1992). This translates to very high poverty levels in urban areas of the Third World countries
signaling a gloomy future for most families. According to Cairncross (1990) at least 600
million urban people in the Third World are living in life and health problematic conditions
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due to poverty and overcrowded houses, poor infrastructure, flooding, landslides and other
dangerous acts of nature.
It is estimated that approximately 35 million poor people will each year be added to the
current figure (Cairncross, 1990). These categories of population do not have access to
proper health services, adequate sanitation and water, due to low income levels. A big
number of children in these urban centers drop out of school mainly because of poor health
(Hardoy, 1992). According to a study by Debby John to YUVA in India, Street children buy
nun-nutritious cheap food from eateries on the roadside. Street children also collect food
from the leftovers dumped in the streets or fruits and vegetables at the markets which mostly
have decayed. These children mostly drug addicts, eat from begging, charity and picking up
rotten food from the dumpsites. This non-nutritious and irregular habits of eating together
with their working and living environments obviously expose them to many kinds of
illnesses.
Study by Salokangas (2010) gave four principles affecting how street children make choices:
adaptive preferences, learned helplessness, incapacity to envision a better future and lack of
information on how to achieve such a future and lack of support. Adaptive preferences are
formulated through freedom and frequent pleasures of life in streets but failing to control the
mechanism causing it. Without understanding how unhealthy street life is, these children
never think of alternatives making them get used to it. Learned helplessness is another
matter affecting the principle of choice making in street families.
A constant experience of powerlessness and inability to handle one’s environment leads to
an attitude of inability to consider risky occurrences and long term effects of their daily
behaviors (Schimmel, 2006). It is mainly government’s role to work on the last two causes
of children’s choices by developing appropriate programs and support systems for the
already rehabilitated ones. Salokangas (2010) indicates how Orme and Seipel (2007) in a
study in Ghana gave important considerations governments can make for street children Library Archives39 Copy
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world over. Governments should put more resources in rehabilitation programs of street
families, besides normal food and clothing.
Counseling services, provision of shelter and access to health care are needed by these
children. These children need education, vocational training and job opportunities during and
after their rehabilitation activities. To deal with the root cause of this problem, governments
through the relevant state agencies should enhance preventive programs to improve family
and community relationships. Once families are supported, the conditions at home and
community become friendly making the children to stop running away (Orme & Seipel,
2007). The future life of a street child growing without receiving any intervention in form of
skills is always pathetic since they end up without any meaningful income for their lives
(Rememnyi, 2010).
In his study, Asante (2015) made reference to the report of Ward and Seager (2010) which
found the death of a single or both parents as reasons in over 79% of explanations offered by
street children on why they had left their homes of origin. This was later supported by a
similar research in Uganda, concluding that more than 75% of the street children reported
the death of one or both parents as reason of them living in streets (Swahn et al., 2012).
According to a study by Edidin et al. (2012), parental alcoholism and drug addiction has
been mentioned as reasons of children leaving home, due to violence and neglect. In his
study, Ferguson (2009) said that parental drug abuse is associated with sexual abuse, family
neglect and violence.
A number of qualitative studies have been done to investigate resilience within homeless
youth and factors that make them cope with adverse conditions, with keen analysis of
homeless children narratives on resilience identifying the importance of customary values
and practices, sense of humor, religious affiliation, sense of urgency and assertiveness, as
protective factors for resilient of homeless children (Theron et al., 2011). Other qualitative
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analyses revealed development of senses of independence and mastery as resilience
protective factors for homeless children (Kidd, 2003).
Resilience as a value has been associated with individual, supportive family and wider
community perspectives. Relationships, religious commitments and culture of sharing
promote the spirit of resilience among the children in South Africa and Mexico (Theron et
al., 2011). Cultural adherence among children, families and communities of origin serves as
another important attribute in the narrative of youth resilience (Ungar et al., 2007). Research
has proved that the street children, despite the terribly difficult experiences they undergo,
harbor future aspirations (Reaffaelli & Koller, 2005). In a study among Tanzanian street
children, it was found that although the street children vaguely referred to their future, still
have hopes for some better future lives, though they mainly focus on the immediate
requirements like sense of belonging, caring relationships and physical safety (Nalkur,
2009).
A study by Kieni (2015) in Meru County revealed that together with mistreatment and abuse
by parents and other siblings, family size was identified to be among factors causing children
to prefer living in the streets, and not at home. It is in the streets where children start
experimenting on drugs, alcohol and other substances in line with what their own parents do
back at home (Kieni, 2015). The children who come from homes where local brews are
commercially prepared, it is very difficult to advise the children not to use these local
liquors. Report from the study by Kieni (2015) showed that 82.2% of the children
interviewed had dropped out of school in Meru and that they did not want to go back home.
The study shows that 61.2% lived in the streets, while 27.1% were on the streets during
daytime only.
The Kenya National Association of Probation officers has in the recent past reporting how
children as young as eight years, have fallen prey to the tactics of peer pressure and joined
others in the streets in pursuit of similar habits. KNAPO says that due to the foreign Library Archives41 Copy
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influence within the cities, the street children find the drugs readily available for them to use
(Standard Newspaper, Dec. 8, 2008). Kieni (2015) in his study report inferred that it is
important to establish who lives with the child in the streets. In this case 56.2% of children
did not divulge who they lived with while 19.4% with other children and 8.8% lived with
parents and 4.4% lived alone. About 55.6% of the children living in Meru streets said that
their mothers were still alive, with only 11.1% saying their mothers were not alive. The
study seems to point to the fact that a child will mostly chose to live with or near where the
parents are residing, in this case in the streets. This helps to explain why street children in
many cases go back to the streets after rehabilitation programs.
The study further showed that 2.4% were children abandoned in the streets, while 32.9%
were in streets to search for food and money hard to get at home. During their struggles in
the streets, these children have different sources of money including selling scrap metal,
begging, carton boxes and bottles which they pick from dumping sites (Kieni, 2015). Once
these children get used to these survival tactics, it becomes hard for them to accept going
back to their homes of origin even after rehabilitation.
Findings of a study on by Nyamai and Waiganjo (2015) showed how availability of funding
for rehabilitation homes in Nakuru municipality, can affect the success of rehabilitation of
street children and their final reintegration back to families or communities of origin. Both
education and food carried 84% of total budgets with the balance going into Medicare,
clothing and recreation. This means that more budgetary allocations are needed in the areas
of reintegration and support activities like small business startups after rehabilitation
programs of these children. The report shows that only 26% of the respondents felt that
funding was adequate for the rehabilitation homes to adequately meet their own objectives,
while 58% of respondents felt that funding of rehabilitation projects was average, meaning
there is need of redoubling budgetary efforts to make rehabilitation programs more
comprehensive in nature (Nyamai &Waiganjo, 2015).
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The impact of both formal supervisory and managerial skills on the minimum capacity of
children rehabilitation centers cannot be taken for granted any longer, because this can
directly affect their performance and hence sustainability (Nyamai & Waiganjo, 2015).
Supervisors and managers of rehabilitation homes should have relevant knowledge and
experience on how to handle children. The report on this study on indicators such as;
establishment of the levels and categories of managerial training, the experience of dealing
with children, strategic planning and finally challenges of giving better care of children. The
study indicated that 68% of managers had some basic training while 32% lacked any formal
training. This indicates a proportion that is high, since little is known about matters of
management of the children of rehabilitation centers.
In this study, management was categorized into four parts; human resource management,
project management, strategic management and financial management of an organization. It
was reported that 55% of the resources meant for the four management roles, went to project
management segment, with 45% being shared in the other three segments. This obviously
suggested that the perspective in managing the children rehabilitation centers was largely
oriented towards projects than other departments. The study also indicated that 68% of the
institutions had invested in preparations of strategic plans, while 32% of them did not have
any at all. This indicates some serious managerial gap in supervision of the rehabilitation
centers since strategic planning determines effective management (Nyamai & Waiganjo,
2015). Report from a study by Karanja (2015) indicates in Thika Sub County, only 17% of
the tutors and supervisors were university graduates, with only 15% having post graduate
degrees. Diploma holders on matters on relevant education in rehabilitation work accounted
for 20% and 7% proved to have not acquired education in this field at all. Rehabilitation
work will only improve if the teaching staff and, supervisors and managers are properly
trained to handle the street children in the centers. The number of years the tutors and
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supervisors had worked was important according to this study. This meant the extent of
experience acquired by the stakeholders in the rehabilitation work of street children.
Due to poor budgetary allocations for the salaries and other emoluments of both
management and management staff, there is a quite high turnover from one institution to
another and therefore low levels of experience in rehabilitation work. According to this
study, only 21% of the respondents had 6-9 years of experience within Thika Sub County,
with 10% giving an experience of above 12 years in their work.
The report of study by Karanja (2015) concluded that about 53% of responded agreed that
before street children are taken to class, it is important to carry out situational analysis on
their medical conditions, then give them relevant medical treatment. Only 9% of the
respondents did not take the issue of situational analysis of the medical condition of street
children seriously. The study reported that 48% rated the importance of provision of medical
services to the street children as being important to the rehabilitation services received later
by these children. Only 8% did not think that provision of medical treatment to the street
children before the rehabilitation work was important. The study concluded that once the
street children are enrolled from the outreach activities, they should first be accorded the
right medical check-ups and relevant treatment by properly trained medical practitioners.
Street children are in almost all cases exposed to drugs, alcoholism and substance abuse,
affecting their brains, leading them to problems of anxiety, fear, lack of concentration, brain
damage and even depression (Karanja, 2015). These mentioned conditions do not allow the
children to be put into classroom situations, before psychotherapeutic intervention is offered
to them. Again this concept of both physiological and psychological assessment of these
children before engaging them in any form of rehabilitation program is essential (Mwalili,
2018).
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Karanja (2015) gave the importance of psychotherapy because it leads to the improvement of
the cognitive and emotional state of the street children who are already in rehabilitation
centers. According to this study, 78% of the respondents agreed that psychotherapy is
helpful to the street children, especially before the full commencement of their training in
rehabilitation centers. His further study revealed how psychotherapy is intertwined with
reintegration of the already trained street children, with their families or even communities
of origin. This study reports that 56% of the respondents agreed that psychotherapy could
assist the reintegration process of the street children already trained. Only 2% of the
respondents did not give a strong view of the same. This study confirmed the need for
providing psychotherapeutic treatment to newly found street children, for the improvement
of their cognitive and emotional state as they meet their family members during the time of
reintegration.
A report of study by Nyamai and Waiganjo (2015) indicated that the immediate community
in the neighborhood of the family or community of origin of a street child needs to be well
involved in appreciating the integration process. 90% of those interviewed from the
neighborhood appreciated the role of the neighbors in enabling the much needed
reintegration process. According to Nyamai and Waiganjo (2015) the relationship between
the immediate communities to the rehabilitation homes and the management of the centers
needs to be taken seriously because it can affect the performance of the street children being
rehabilitated. The reports says 90% of the respondents from the communities living around
the centers were of the positive opinion about good relationship with these institutions, with
only 5% portraying lack of keenness about it. This definitely suggests the need for mutual
peaceful co-existence between the centers of rehabilitation and the communities living
around them, which become beneficial to both, and therefore essentially reducing the level
of conflicts and frictions in this important neighborhood. The good neighborhood
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relationship may also mean a high level of discipline on the staff members and children
within the centers or homes of rehabilitation.
It is important to assist the street children under rehabilitation programs, acquire some basic
education, through which they acquire simple skills applicable and useful to their lives
(Karanja, 2015). After interviewing the relevant stakeholders in Thika Sub County, 70% felt
that offering the street children some form of vocational training would somehow assure
them of success in their future lives. Only 1% of the relevant respondents did not feel that
basic education was necessary for the future lives of the street children already in the
rehabilitation centers. Basic education for the street children is relevant as far as good
behavior after rehabilitation programs is concerned.
The report on the study by Karanja (2015) said that after leaving the rehabilitation
institutions, these children should be focused towards serious behavioral change by being
trained on a structured disciplinary and behavioral improvement. About 33% of the
respondents, agreed on the need to provide some form of structure by which the children
received from the streets can be given some basic disciplinary and behavioral skills to help
them improve their behaviors even after rehabilitation programs. Only 10% rated training
towards disciplinary and behavioral change as being significantly important. Nyamai and
Waiganjo (2015) inferred that behavior change is important towards reintegration of the
rehabilitated children back to their families or communities of origin since most of them
initially run away because of disagreeing with their parents or guardians.
Mwalili (2018) said that adequate resources had proved to be a key factor for any
progressive rehabilitation program to be realized, especially within Nairobi County. He gave
95% as being the portion of the rehabilitation that needs funds to move forward, with a
paltry 5% done through volunteer initiative. Many rehabilitation street children homes have
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had to close due to serious budgetary constraints when donors fail remit the funds in good
time (Nyamai & Waiganjo, 2015).
Conceptual Framework
According to Kothari (2004), conceptual framework provides the basic model in dealing
with the phenomenon under study. A conceptual framework is composed of three variables:
Independent variables, dependent variable and intervening variables. Much as the
independent variables could be changed as many times as possible, the dependent one
mainly relies on the independent variables.
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Independent Variables Dependent variable
Improved rehabilitation program Poverty Reducing of drug usage Basic education Symptoms free lives Eagerness for self-reliance Lack of shelter/food Cleanliness responsibility Lack of clothing Physiological restoration Children receive vocational Family conditions Status of family
Poor relationships
Drugs abuse Child abuse
Child labor/abandonment
Security in the centers Physical health
County and national government policy
Supervision and financial assistance
Sponsorship by donors
Vocational training
Spiritual nourishment
Psychotherapeutic intervention
Intervening variables
Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework Source: Author (2019)
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Discussion
The study focuses on the psychosocial factors that influence the rehabilitation of street
children, with poverty, family conditions, drug abuse, child abuse, neglect and abandonment,
security in the centers of rehabilitation, and mental conditions of the children being the
independent variable (IV). The dependent variable is the successful rehabilitation programs,
exhibited by improved lives of the street children. The study focuses on the effect of
government support and enhanced financial and human resources support from donors on the
psychosocial factors that influence rehabilitation programs of street children. The
intervening variables are like better structured government support and subsidies, more
organized spiritual nourishment, better trained human resource and vocational training.
Education is imperative in the rehabilitation work especially during the time of
environmental conditioning for positive behavior change and valuable character growth
(Migai, 2013). This means that vocational training is important for street children, as they go
through the rehabilitation programs. The rehabilitation process of a street child should
include some health program to allow proper medical diagnosis and treatment of the children
even before they begin to attend the vocational courses classes (Myers, 1995). Medical
reports and the improved level of participation in extra-curricular activities serve as
indicators on the health and overall medical status of the street children in the rehabilitation
programs.
Summary
This chapter reviewed literature by other scholars related to this present research. It
presented the theoretical review, general literature review, empirical literature review and the
conceptual framework. The next chapter will discuss the research methodology.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter gives the research design and methodology explaining how the study was
conducted. It basically discusses research design, sample size, target population, research
site, sample size and sampling procedure, research instruments, data collection methods,
analysis and ethical considerations.
Research design
Williams (2001) referred to research design as the main strategy chosen for integrating the
different parts of the study in logical and systematic way to ensure that the research problem
is adequately tackled. It is the blue print for data collection. Research design serves as both
outline and scheme used in generating answers to the research problem under review
(Cooper & Schindler, 2001). This was a descriptive research, using the survey research
method. It further used the cross-sectional method as a study methodology. It used
questionnaires, with a series of written questions for participants to answer.
The method adopted was used to help determine whether changes in the psychosocial factors
affecting street children in rehabilitation centers (independent variables) significantly
influence success (dependent variable) in rehabilitation programs, and to ascertain any causal
relationship between the variables at any point in time. Using cross sectional design,
variables were measured through questions by way of interview or questionnaires hence
examining interdependence between variables.
Kombo and Tromp (2009) argued for this research method for investigating views and
attitudes of people while ensuring that variables are not manipulated. In addition, the
researcher also purposely selected 12 key informants as follows; one manager, one instructor
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and two guiding and counseling personnel from each of the three centers. This made a total
of 12 key informants, whose interview were guided by the key informants interview guide.
In many instances, a descriptive study serves as an initial inquiry into a new event, topic or
condition. A descriptive study can serve two roles; study that describes the status of
communities or populations and study that emphasizes features of a condition which is new
(Shuttleworht, 2008).
Population of the Study
Population means the whole group of individuals, cases, things of common observable
interest (Peil, 2003). Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) equally defined population as a whole
set of people, cases or objects with observable common characteristics. The study’s
population was street children already in rehabilitation centers and aged 12 to 19 years. A
good number of street children in this age group were able to understand the questions and
fill in the questionnaires as presented to them.
UNICEF (2013) gave a report indicating that there were approximately 60,000 street
children, living in the street of Nairobi. But not all of them were in rehabilitation programs
currently. According to Star Newspaper of December 15, 2016, the County Executive in
charge of Youth affairs and Gender, Anne Yokidor declared that there were 890 street
children in the four government sponsored rehabilitation centers and an approximated 355
children in privately and church owned institutions of rehabilitation within Nairobi County.
This gives a total of 1,245children residing in centers of rehabilitation in Nairobi County.
However, the study used only three selected rehabilitation centers with Embakasi Sub
County with a population of 273 street children.
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Target Population
Kothari (2014) defined target population as the total number of items about which
information is derived. An estimated number of 273 street children were targeted by the
researcher from three different rehabilitation facilities within Embakasi Sub County of
Nairobi County. However, it is estimated that of the 273 street children in the three centers,
about 90% were between the ages of 11 and 19 years. The eligibility criteria used in this
study is based on the factor of age (11 to 19 years) and those children who lived in the streets
for at least two years.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The criteria used to ensure the study was not biased were based on the duration of stay at
both the rehabilitation center and the streets and also their age. The participants needed to
have at least lived in the center for five and one year in the streets. Finally, the former
children were required to be between 11 and 19 years. With the assistance of the center
managers, the researcher put the eligible participants (according to the inclusion and
exclusion criteria) in one room, then gave each one of them ballots papers, after which the
ballot papers were picked randomly to realize the numbers needed. This happened in the
three centers where the data was collected.
Sample Size
Cramer and Howitt (2004) defined a sample as a set of items drawn from a population with a
purpose of approximating the population characteristics, in relationship to the number of
items picked for study. All street children in the three centers of rehabilitation in Embakasi
Sub County were sampled and the total number of the children administered with the
questionnaires was determined by their age bracket. It is approximated that of the 273 street
children in the three centers of rehabilitation, roughly 90% are between 11 to 19 years old in
this three rehabilitation centers.
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Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) declared that a sample size of 10-30% is acceptable in
descriptive research and therefore this study used20% as the representative population. The
20% is for the purposes of catering for attrition and the poorly handled tools. To enable the
researcher get the sample size for 273 children, a confidence level of 95.5%, and degree of
significant of 0.5%, in Fisher’s formula (Fisher et al., 1991)
The following formula was used to get the required sample size:
n=Z2 X (p) X (1-q)
Where:
Z=Standard normal deviation, usually set at 1.96, corresponding to 95%confidence level.
P=The proportion in the target population approximated to have specific characteristic, 50%
prevalence rate in this study. q=1-p (1-0.9) = 0.1 d=degree of significant, is 0.005 n=1.962 X
(0.9) X (0.1)
n= 69.
Therefore, Sample Size of each center = (Population of the center)*Total Sample. Total population
Sample Size of Njehu Children’s Home=80/273*69=20
Sample Size of Chaminade Children’s Center=85/273*69=21
Sample Size of By-Grace Rehabilitation Center= 98/273*69=28
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Table 3. 1: Sample Size Rehabilitation Center Target Population Sample Size Percentage (%) Njehu Children’s Home 80 20 28.99% Chaminade Children Center 85 21 30.43% By-Grace Rehabilitation 98 28 40.58% Center Total 273 69 100%
The researcher picked on this three rehabilitation centers firstly due to their many years
experience in handling street children ( above 10 years each) and secondly their closeness to
both Chief and administration police offices and hence ensuring some level of security to the
participants and the research assistants. The selected centers also are well populated, which fits
well with the sample size of this study.
Sampling Technique
A sampling technique is the procedure adopted in a study in selecting sample items. It is the
process through which a relatively less number of objects or individuals is selected and then
analyzed to find out some facts about the whole population it is selected from (O’Connor &
Kleyner, 2011). According to the encyclopedia of Survey research methods (2008), random
sampling technique is defined as a variety of selection techniques where sample members
are selected on basis of chance, but where probability of selection is known. Most social
sciences, agricultural and business surveys make use of random sampling techniques to
select survey participants, in form of persons, land points or different units for analysis
purpose.
For the purpose of this study, random sampling technique was used. With the assistance of
the center managers, the researcher put the eligible participants (according to the inclusion
and exclusion criteria) in one room, and then gave each one of them ballots papers to write
numbers in the order of 1, 2, 3 and 4. After collecting the ballot papers, only those bearing
odd numbers were allowed to participate. This happened in the three centers where the data
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Data Collection Instruments
Data collection instruments define the fact finding strategies, which may include
questionnaires and interviews. Bryman (2012) inferred that the appropriateness of the tool
selected is instrumental on the validity and reliability of the study findings. The
questionnaire is the most convincing instrument for data collection because of its ability to
get large amount of information within short time (Kothari, 2007). Questionnaires can have
both open and closed-ended questions, making it easier for the participants to fill in with the
right answers.
Open-ended questions help the respondents give detailed information by expressing and
giving personal opinions much freely (Kothari, 2004). In this study, questionnaires were
offered in hard copies having section A and B. Section A involved social demographic data
and section B covered questions prepared from the objectives on factors attracting youth to
streets, psychosocial factors affecting rehabilitation work, factors affecting reintegration
work and strategies to enhance rehabilitation of street children. In addition, the researcher
also purposely selected 12 key informants as follows; one manager, one instructor and two
guiding and counseling personnel from each of the three centers. This made a total of 12 key
informants, whose interview were guided by the key informants interview guide.
Data Collection Procedures
Data collection is collecting of information relevant to the study (Cooper & Emory, 1995). Data
collection procedures determine the representativeness of the sample for the purposes of
generalization. The researcher obtained permission from Daystar University to carry out the
research by way of letter of introduction from Daystar University, and also obtain permit from
the National Council for Science and Technology. Questionnaires were then administered by the
research assistant. The research assistant was trained before data collection started.
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Questionnaires were dropped and picked on a later date to allow time for the respondents to fill.
Before collecting questionnaires, they were checked for completeness.
Pretesting
Polit and Hungler (1995) inferred that a pretest should be administered for the purpose of
identifying any flaws in an instrument before use on the main study. The study undertook a
pretest of the instruments at Mlango Kubwa street children rehabilitation center in Nairobi
County to establish if the results realized gave the needed data. The researcher administered
the questionnaires personally and collected immediately the participants had completed
filling them. The purpose of the results of the pretest was to improve the questionnaire in
readiness for the actual study. Between 1 to 10% of the sample size is satisfactory for a
pretest exercise, since it helps researcher in deciding if there is need of effecting any changes
on the questionnaire before the main research is carried out (Crisp, 2006).
With the target population in this study being 243, then 2% meant 5 children from Mlango
Kubwa rehabilitation center were involved in the pre-testing exercise. The choice of 2% as
participants in the pre-testing exercise was because the street children enrolled in this
rehabilitation center had quite similar behaviors and experiences with those in other centers
of rehabilitation, having spent their past lives together in the streets. Again both
administrative and vocational training programs in Mlango Kubwa rehabilitation center were
similar to those run by the other rehabilitation centers in Embakasi Sub County.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability
Reliability of an instrument is the measure of the degree to which a study instrument gets
consistent results after severally repeated trials (Kothari, 2004). Reliability looks at the
degree to which empirical indicators are consistent across two or more attempts to measure
the theoretical concept (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). According to Wiersman (1985) it is Library Archives56 Copy
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necessary that research instruments are piloted for them to be finalized. This is important
because it helps in the determining the reliability of the instruments. In this case, reliability
had similarity with stability or repeatability. A measurement which yields consistent results
over time is taken to be reliable (Kothari, 2004).
The researcher therefore tested reliability of the questionnaire by administering them twice
within an interval of one week in the pre-test exercise. This helped check whether the
questionnaire gave the same response every other time it is used in future. This also helped
to establish the suitability of the instrument and then determine whether adjustments should
be made in the content and format of the tool. Finally, the researcher was able to make trial
on how to code and also classification system for data analysis.
Validity
In qualitative data, validity can be addressed to the depth, honesty, richness and scope of the
data achieved (Cohen & Morrison, 2007). Validity is the extent to which a test measures
what it purports to be measuring (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). It is the meaning and
accuracy of inference. Validity actually determines how truthful the results of a study are.
Patton (2002) stressed that validity is the extent to which a tool of research measures what it
is expected to measure by asking the right questions, and how meaningful and accurate are
the inferences from the study findings.
A study by Orodho and Kombo (2002) inferred that validity can be improved by way of
careful sampling and rightful instrumentation of the data. In this research, validity was
established through pre-testing the instruments on a population with similar characteristics as
the one being investigated. This was realized through a random sampling; a sample from the
street children of Mlango Kubwa rehabilitation center, and not those who were involved in
the actual research as identified in the reliability testing to establish the capability of the
study tool to collect the required data.
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Data Analysis Plan
Data analysis involves the separation of data into elements of examination of data (Mugenda
& Mugenda, 2003). It includes ideas and methods of spreading data using charts, graphs,
numeric summary and other mathematical descriptions. This helped the researcher to check
the data in ensuring accuracy, data completeness and consistency, detection of error and
finally validation.
Jablonski and Guagliardo (2016) defined data analysis plan as a detailed document outlining
procedures for conducting analysis on some given data. Plans explain the use of the analysis,
the deductions and decisions reached about the data. Once the questionnaires were coded,
the data was entered and cleaned, then analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) version 23. The quantitative data was presented using descriptive statistics
such as tables, pie charts and bar charts, while the qualitative data was coded and categorized
before the analysis.
Moreover, the study made use of multiple regression analysis. Multiple regression analysis
method determines whether a combined group of independent variables predicts a given
dependent variable (Cooper & Schindler, 2003). In this study, the independent variable is
psychosocial factors and was used to predict the dependent variable, improved rehabilitation
centers. The assumption in this model was that the error term was constant. The regression
model adopted was as follows:
Y= α + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3 X3+ β4X4 + β5X5 + β6X6 + …+ ε
Where: Y = Rehabilitation of Street Children (the dependent variable)
X1 = Poverty
X2 =Family conditions
X3 =Drug abuse
X4 =Child abuse
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X5 =Security in the centers
X6 =Physical health
β0- is the constant
β1-8are the regression coefficient or change induced in the Y by each X
ε - is the error term
Ethical Considerations
Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) defined ethics as a branch of philosophy dealing with the
conduct of a person, and serving as a guide to his or her behavior. Practice of ethics in a research
serves in ensuring that none of the participants suffers adversely from the activities of the
research (Cooper & Emory, 1995).
Informed Consent: Participants in any study are required to be fully informed and understand
the purpose, nature and the relevant outcome of the research (Tisdall, Davis & Gallagher, 2009).
The main purpose of this study was to find out psychosocial factors that influence the
rehabilitation of street children in selected rehabilitation centers.
It is advisable that where children are below 18 years, consent is taken from the relevant
authorities (Tisdallet al., 2009). The center managers gave consent for the researcher to collect
data. Consent was also sought from the children participating. Each of the former street children
participating and above 18 years signed a consent form. The researcher ensured that the
language used in the consent forms was fully clear and where need be, translation into Kiswahili
language was done. The researcher gathered the sampled former street children together after
lunch break and had verbal discussions with them, about the purpose of the study.
Benefits of the research: The benefit of creating awareness to professional counselors, tutors,
care givers, social workers, parents, law-makers, scholars, libraries and other stakeholders. All
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these categories of people and relevant institutions may learn better ways and systems of caring
and managing street children and finding interventions to help them overcome these challenges
to become dependable members of society. Risks: Being vulnerable members of society, and
some of them being minors, their rights had to be protected. Firstly, the researcher ensured that
the center managers gave assent on behalf of the participants below 18 years.
Secondly, in case of any discomfort while tackling the questions and body changes by the
participants, the researcher together with the assistants available to talk with them. The
participants were allowed to withdraw if need be. Sessions of clarifying any questions were
offered to the participants (APA, 2010). After the participants answer the questionnaires, the
researcher gathered all of them together and dealt with any situation that appeared to cause
discomfort or any distress. The participants were debriefed accordingly.
Confidentiality: The researcher ensured the former street children of their confidentiality during
and after the entire study. Instead of names of the children, codes were used to ensure that
information was not traced back to the respondents. The participants were no personal
information and answers to questions were released to their tutors colleagues or relatives,
without their consent. The participants were informed of ability to voluntarily withdraw from
the research at any time in the course of the study. The researcher and assistants also informed
the participants that there were no harmful or negative consequences for participating, not
participating and even withdrawing from participation during the time of the study. Finally, the
participants were informed that there will be no rewards for inducing any one to provide
information.
The researcher was keen on both confidentiality and privacy clauses of the ethical issues during
the formulation and analysis part of the study. Authorization from the key authorities was
sought, starting with Daystar University Psychology and Counseling department. Clearance was
sought from Daystar University Ethics Review Board (ERB). The author obtained a letter of
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introduction from Daystar University to The National Commission of Science, Technology and
Innovation (NACOSTI) and the County Social Welfare Management Team (CSWMT).
The researcher sought approval from the management of both NACOSTI and CSWMT to carry
out the study. The researcher also sought approval from the directors of the respective
rehabilitation centers for data collection in the study. The researcher also sought to obtain assent
from the participants in involved in the research. The participants were also assured of their
anonymity through omission of their specific names on the questionnaires. The study also
upheld integrity and confidentiality. Finally the research findings will be disseminated to
relevant stakeholders for possible policy considerations and implementation. Besides the above,
the study included the following considerations; informed consent, anonymity and
confidentiality concepts.
Summary
The chapter has discussed research design used, location of the study, population, sampling and
the size of sample. It has also discussed the study instrument, data collection procedure, mock
test or pretesting and finally data analysis. The following chapter tackled presentation of
findings, analysis, and interpretation of data.
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CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS ANDINTERPRETATION
Introduction
The chapter presents the study findings, analysis and interpretation of the findings of this study.
The chapter begins by presenting results on demographic characteristics of the participants,
presents findings on factors that lured children to the streets, psychosocial factors that affected
rehabilitation of street children and factors affecting successful reintegration of rehabilitated
street children back to families or communities of origin. The findings were presented using
Tables and charts.
Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation
Response Rate
The study administered a total of 69 questionnaires, out of which a total of 94% were dully
filled and returned by the selected respondents. The questionnaires that were not filled and not
returned were 6%. This response rate was considered adequate and high enough for analysis of
the data collected according to assertion by Babbie (2004).
Unreturned Questionnaires 6%
Returned Questionnaires 94%
Figure 4. 1: Response Rate
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Background Information
This section presents the background characteristics of the study respondents of this study in
terms of age, gender, level of education, among others. The study used percentage and
frequencies in analysing the demographic characteristics of the respondents and figures and
tables were used in order to represent the results.
Gender of the Respondents
The finding presented in Figure 4.2 shows that 55% of the respondents were males, while 45%
were females. The finding implied that majority of the street children from three different
rehabilitation facilities within Embakasi Sub County of Nairobi County were male compared to
female.
Female 45% Male 55%
Figure 4. 2: Gender of the Respondents
Age Bracket of the Respondents
The finding showed that 46.2% of the interviewed street children were aged between 13 and 15
years, 29.2% were aged between 17 and 19 years, 13.8% were age between 11 and 13 years
while 10.8% were aged between 15 and 17 years. The finding showed that most of the study
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participants were above 13 years and could effectively respond to the information sought by the
study. This enabled the researcher obtain detailed information regarding factors pushing the
young people into the streets as well as challenges they encounter during the rehabilitation
process..
46.2 50 45 40 35 29.2 11-13 years 30 25 13-15 years 20 13.8 15-17 year Percent Percent (%) 15 10.8 17-19 years 10 5 0 11-13 years 13-15 years 15-17 year 17-19 years
Age Bracket
Figure 4. 3: Age Bracket of the Respondents
Level of Education of the Respondents
The finding showed that 35.4% of the street children interviewed had attained certificate level of
education and higher primary level of education, 27.7% had lower primary level of education
while 1.5% had ECD as highest level of education attained. The findings showed that street
children that participated in the study have some level of basic education. However, most of
them had lower levels of educational attainment, which can be explained by the fact that they
were coming from broken and poor families that do not put keen interest on child education as a
priority.
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40 35.4 35.4 35 27.7 30 25 20
Percent Percent 15 10 1.5 5 0 ECD Lower primary Higher primary Certificate
Level of Education
Figure 4. 4: Level of Education of the Respondents
Duration of Stay in the rehabilitation center
The study findings showed that 51% of the street children had stayed in the rehabilitation
centers for between 6 and 10 years while the remaining 49% had stayed for between 1 and 5
years. The finding showed that street children in the study had adequate stay in the rehabilitation
centers to provide the information required by the study.
1-5 years 6-10 years 49% 51%
Figure 4. 5: Duration of Stay
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Age of the Respondents When Leaving Home
The study probed the street children respondents regarding the age at which they joined street
life and found out that 80% of the respondents indicated that they were aged between 6 and 10
years when they left home, while 20% indicated that aged between 11 and 15 years. This finding
indicates that the many of the respondents had spent long time on the streets and were thus much
knowledgeable about the dynamics of living on the streets thereby enabling the researcher
obtain accurate information for the study.
11-15 years 20%
6-10 years 80%
Figure 4. 6: Age of the Children When they Left Home
The study further asked the respondent to indicate the class they were in when they first left
home and according to the finding in Table 4.1 revealed that 100% of the street children
interviewed indicated that they left home while in ECD and primary school level.
Table 4. 1: Class at the Time of Leaving Home Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Primary 65 100.0 100.0 100.0
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Who the Children Were Living With At the Time They Left Home
The findings presented in the Table 4.2 indicated that 73.8% of the children in the selected
rehabilitation centers were living with a guardian at the time they left home, 16.9% were living
with a single parent, while 9.2% were living with both parents. This finding points to the fact
that majority of the street children left home at the time when parenting responsibility had been
left to guardians who may not have been as strict on them as their parents would have been. The
further probing established that majority of the children lived with their grandparents at the time
they left home. Because of the old age most grandparents are incapacitated in terms on
following up of these children and ensuring that they remain disciplined and dedicated to their
schooling.
Table 4. 2: Who the Children Were Living With At the Time They Left Home Who were you living with then Frequency Percent Guardian 48 73.8 Both Parents 6 9.2 Single parent 11 16.9 Total 65 100
Factors that Attracted Children to the Streets
The first objective of the study was to establish the factors that attract children to the streets. The
study findings showed that parent being alive was not a major factor that attracted the children
to the streets since 60% agreed that their parent were still alive, while only 40% indicated that
their parent were not alive. Therefore majority of the street children in the selected rehabilitation
centers had their parents alive.
According to the findings, 64.6% of the children indicated that none of their parents had a job,
while 35.4% said that their parents had a job. These findings implied that lack of employment
among parents caused many children to end up in the streets. When parents lack economic
power to take care of their children, they open doors for them to run away from home and prefer
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On whether the children experienced any form of child labor, 70.8% of the children agreed,
while 29.2% disagreed. The finding also implied that child labor could be another factor that
attracts children to the street since majority of the children indicated that they experience some
form of child labor. The children may have ended up in the street as a result of escaping the
child labor they experienced at home.
On domestic violence, the finding showed that 61.5% of the children agreed that they witnessed
or experienced domestic violence in their families before they left to go and live in the streets.
Since majority of these children came from poor families, the parents involved themselves in
domestic violence which led the children in streets. The finding also pointed to the fact that
domestic violence was major contributor to street children in Nairobi County, Kenya.
Child neglect came out as a key factor that caused many children to run away from home. The
finding showed that 56.9% of the children indicated they experienced neglect at home which
also confirmed that feeling of neglect was key factors that attracted children to the street life.
The information above is presented in Table 4.3
Table 4. 3: Factors that Attracted Children to the Streets Yes No Total Table N % Count Table N % Count Count Table N % Is any of your parents alive 60.0% 39 40.0% 26 65 100% Did any of your parents 35.4% 23 64.6% 42 65 100% have a job Did you experience any 70.8% 46 29.2% 19 65 100% form of child labor at home
Did you witness or 61.5% 40 38.5% 25 65 100% experience any domestic violence in your family
Did you experience form 56.9% 37 43.1% 28 65 100% of child neglect at home
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Whether Respondents’ Parents Lived Together or Were Divorced
The study further sought to establish whether parents of the children interviewed were still
married or divorced at the time of collecting data for this study and found out that 72.3% of
those who respondents indicating that their parents were divorced, while 27.7% reported that
their parents were still married. These findings also indicated that dysfunctional marriages
caused many children to be attracted to the street. These findings implied that divorce leaves
burden of child caring with one parents who is normally overwhelmed and children exploiting
that weakness to venture into street life. Further finding showed that majority of the parents at
64.6% did not have jobs at all, while only 35.4% had them. This may indicate why children run
away from home and choose street life.
Table 4. 4: Parent Marital Status Did your parents live together or divorced Frequency Percent Married 18 27.7 Divorced 47 72.3 Total 65 100
Access to Basic Needs
The study further sought to establish if lack of the basic need such as food, clothing, and access
to education and shelter attracted children to the street. The findings showed that 63.1% of the
children indicated that they lacked food compared to other basic needs. Food is essential to the
wellbeing of children and any child without food cannot go to school and concentrate like other
children. The study finding therefore established that inadequate food as a basic need for the
children can led the children to the street life. Secondly, 23.1% indicated that shelter was a
problem before going to live in the streets. Only 7.7% of the 65 children interviewed agreed that
clothing was a problem to them back home.
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Table 4. 5: Inadequate Basic Needs Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Food 41 63.1 63.1 63.1 Clothing 5 7.7 7.7 70.8 Valid Education 4 6.2 6.2 76.9 Shelter 15 23.1 23.1 100.0 Total 65 100.0 100.0
Factors Affecting Successful Reintegration of Rehabilitated Street Children Back to Families or
Communities of Origin
The study second objective was to examine the factors affecting successful reintegration of
rehabilitated street children back to families or communities of origin. The researcher asked the
respondents whether they knew children who had gone through rehabilitation process in any
center before. The finding showed that 78.2% agreed, which meant that the former street
children new other children who had gone through rehabilitation centers before. In order to
ascertain factors affecting successful reintegration, the researcher first sought to establish the
respondent’s level of awareness about the existence of other street children and found out the
information presented in Table 4.6.
Table 4. 6: Knowledge on Other Street Children Yes No Total
Table N % Count Table N % Count Table N % Count Do you know another child like you who reintegrated with community of origin before. 73.8% 48 26.2% 17 100% 65
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Whether the Children Went Back Home After Rehabilitation
The respondents were asked whether they were aware of former street children who after
rehabilitation had accepted to join their families of origin again. The finding showed that only
37% of the street children interviewed agreed that they knew fellow street children who had
gone through rehabilitation and went back home, while 63% indicated that the children they
knew did not go back home. Those who declined, cited lack of confidence and fear of arrest by
the police (see Figure 4.7). The study finding support those of Stephenson (2002) who inferred
that the deeper the children connect with the underworld techniques of survival, the more
difficult it becomes for them to go back to normal lives.
Went Home 37%
No (lack of confidence and fear of arrest by police and family members) 63%
Figure 4. 7: Whether the Children Went Back Home After Rehabilitation Process
Personal Opinions on Willingness to Rejoin their Family
The study probed the respondents from the three selected rehabilitation centers whether they
would go home after the process. The study findings showed that 61.5% of the street children
interviewed declined to join other family members after the rehabilitation exercise was over, and
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only 38.5% agreed as indicated in Table 4.7. They cited hostile family members as the reason
why they would prefer not to return home after the rehabilitation process. The findings above
are presented in Table 4.7
Table 4. 7: Whether the Street Children Would go home After Rehabilitation Yes No Total
Table N % Count Table N % Count Table N % Count Would you like to join other family members after the rehabilitation exercise is over 38.5% 25 61.5% 40 100% 65
The findings of the study established that many of the street children feel they are not wanted in
their communities even after going through rehabilitation and majority of the rehabilitated street
children would not accept to return back home. They cited lack of confidence and fear of being
arrested by police who are given permission by their own family members. The unwillingness
by family members negatively influenced successful reintegration of rehabilitated street children
back to families or communities of origin.
Psychosocial Factors that Affect Rehabilitation of Street Children
The final objective of the study was to analyze the psychosocial factors that affected
rehabilitation of street children among the selected rehabilitation centers in Nairobi County. The
study asked the respondent whether they experienced any forms of abuse while at the
rehabilitation centers and 56.9% agreed, while 43.1% disagreed.
The findings further indicated that 55.4% used drug or alcohol while at the rehabilitation center.
The findings implied that drugs still found their way into rehabilitation centers in Nairobi hence
affecting the rehabilitation programs of the street children. According to the study findings,
61.5% agreed that they felt abandoned at the rehabilitation centers and equal percentage felt that
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they were fed up with life in these centers. The findings further showed that 69.2% of the street
children wished they had another place to go and not stay in this center.
According to the findings, lack of being appreciated as represented by 69.2%, feeling of sadness
shown by 67.7%, hopelessness at the rehabilitation centers by 67.7% were among the
psychological factors affecting the street children in the selected rehabilitation facilities from
Embakasi Sub-County. About 72.3% of the street children also agreed that they were easily
irritated while at the rehabilitation centers and 80.0% indicated their wish to enjoy life like other
people do.
All the former street children (100%) mentioned how they wondered if God still loves them.
Majority of them agreed that they had sickness or serious injuries while living in the streets and
only 32.3% indicated they were treated. The study findings showed that 50.8% indicated they no
longer engage in physical fights while in the centers, and finally 50.8% indicated that they did
not engage in any form of gambling activities as shown in Table 4.8. The finding concurs with
Baokye-Boaten (2006) who declared how abandonment can cause serious psychological
problems to street children, with those from Sudan and Ethiopia for example turning to the
streets to fulfill needs not yet met by their families and society. This information is presented in
Table 4.8
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Table 4. 8: Psychosocial Factors that Affect Rehabilitation of Street Children Yes No Total
% Count % Count % Count Do you experience any form of abuse in the center 56.9% 37 43.1% 28 100.0% 65 Do you use any drug or alcohol while in the rehabilitation center 55.4% 36 44.6% 29 100.0% 65 Do you at times feel abandoned here in the center 61.5% 40 38.5% 25 100.0% 65 Do you feel like you are fed up with life here in the rehabilitation center 61.5% 40 38.5% 25 100.0% 65 Do you wish that you had another place to go and not stay in this center 69.2% 45 30.8% 20 100.0% 65 Are there times you feel that people do not appreciate you 69.2% 45 30.8% 20 100.0% 65 Do you feel sad while here in this center 67.7% 44 32.3% 21 100.0% 65 Are there times when you feel hopeless with life 67.7% 44 32.3% 21 100.0% 65 Do you feel irritated by minor things 72.3% 47 27.7% 18 100.0% 65 Do you wish that you could be happy like other people 80.0% 52 20.0% 13 100.0% 65 Do you sometimes wonder if God still loves you 100.0% 65 0.0% 0 100.0% 65 Did you have any form sickness or serious injuries while living in the streets 100.0% 65 0.0% 0 100.0% 65 If yes, was it treated 32.3% 21 67.7% 44 100.0% 65 Do you still involve yourself in serious physical fights here in the center 49.2% 32 50.8% 33 100.0% 65 Are you involved in any form of gambling here in the center 49.2% 32 50.8% 33 100.0% 65
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Form of Abuse Suffered by Street Children in Rehabilitation Centers in Nairobi
The study sought to establish some form of abuse suffered by street children in rehabilitation
centers. The results presented in Figure 4.8 showed that 73.8% of the street children interviewed
indicated that they suffered emotional abuse, 13.8% indicated they suffered sexual abuse, while
12.3% indicated that they suffered physical abuse. The finding established that emotional abuse
was among the psychological factors that affect children in rehabilitation centers in Embakasi
Sub-County.
73.8 80 70 60 50 40 30 Percent Percent (%) 12.3 13.8 20 10 0 Physical Emotional Sexual Form of Abuse at Rehab Centres for Street Children
Figure 4.8: Form of Abuse Suffered by Street Children in Rehabilitation Centers
Language Recommended by Street Children to be used in Rehabilitation Centers in Embakasi
Sub-County.
The study further asked the children in the rehabilitation centers to suggest the language they
preferred to be used in the rehabilitation centers. The study results showed that 67.7%
mentioned they preferred English as the main language to be used in the rehab centers, 20%
indicated Kiswahili as shown in the Figure 4.9. Only 9.2% were of the view that mother tongue
should be used, with only 3.1% agreeing that sheng should be used.
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67.7 70 60 50 40
30 20 Percent Percent (%) 20 9.2 10 3.1 0 English Kiswahili Mother Tongue Sheng Recommended language to be used at the Centre
Figure 4. 8: Language Recommended by Street Children for Use in Rehabilitation Centers
Relationship with Teachers and Other Staff Members
Finally, the study sought to establish the nature of the relationship that existed between the street
children in the rehab centers and their teachers and other staff members. The findings showed
that 47.7% indicated that relationship was average, 36.9% indicated the relationship was poor,
13.8% indicated the relationship was good and finally only 1.5% indicated that the relationship
was very good. The findings showed that there was no good relationship between the street
children in the rehabilitation centers and their teachers and other members of the staff at the
centers selected. This information is presented in Figure 4.9.
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Table 4. 9: Relationship With Teachers and Other Staff Members Relationship with teachers and other staff members Frequency Percent Very good 1 1.5 Good 9 13.8 Average 31 47.7 Poor 24 36.9 Total 65 100
Regression Coefficients
The regression coefficients in this study were analyzed in order to evaluate the contribution that
each psychosocial factors had on rehabilitation center. The results of this analysis were
presented in Table 4.10.
Table 4. 10: Regression Coefficients Model Un-standardized Standardized T Sig Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta (Constant) .157 .345 .256 .951 Poverty .952 .077 .922 8.781 .001 Family conditions 1.78 .052 1.818 5.000 .002 Drug abuse .691 .081 .701 4.201 .003 Child abuse .481 .075 .497 2.125 .001 Security in the centers .227 .092 .212 6.854 .004 Physical health .657 .085 .648 7.911 .000
From Table 4.17, the regression model established was:
y = 0.157 + 0.952X1 +1.78X2 - 0.691X3 + 0.481X4 + 0.227X5 + 0.657X6 + 0.345
The standardized coefficients showed that there was positive and significant effect on the
process of rehabilitation (β= 0.952, t= 8.781, p<0.05). The beta value implied that for one unit
increase in poverty, rehabilitation process increased by 0.952 and a significant value of 001. The
findings, therefore, confirmed that poverty had a significant effect on the rehabilitation process
(p=0.001).
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The standardized coefficients showed that the effect of family conditions on rehabilitation
centers was positive and significant (β= 1.78, t= 5.000, p<0.05). The beta value implied that for
one unit increase in family condition, rehabilitation center increased by 1.78. The findings,
therefore, confirmed that family conditions had a significant (.002) effect on rehabilitation
process (p=0.002)
The standardized coefficients showed that the effect of drug abuse on rehabilitation center was
negative and significant (β= 0.691, t= 4.201, p<0.05). The beta value implied that for one unit
increase in drug abuse, rehabilitation center increased by 0.691. The findings, therefore,
confirmed that drug abuse had a significant (.003) effect on the rehabilitation process (p=0.003)
The standardized coefficients showed that the effect of child abuse on rehabilitation process was
positive and significant (β= 0.481, t= 2.125, p<0.05). The beta value implied that for one unit
increase in child abuse, rehabilitation center increased by 0.481. The findings, therefore,
confirmed that child abuse had a significant effect on rehabilitation process (p=0.001).
The standardized coefficients showed that security in the centers in rehabilitation center was
positive and significant (β= 0.227, t= 6.854, p<0.05). The beta value implied that for one unit
increase in security in the center, rehabilitation center increased by 0.227. The findings,
therefore, confirmed that security in the center had a significant effect on the rehabilitation
process (p=0.004)
The standardized coefficients showed that the physical health in rehabilitation center was
positive and significant (β= 0.657, t= 7.911, p<0.05). The beta value implied that for one unit
increase in physical health, rehabilitation center increased by 0.657. The findings, therefore,
confirmed that physical health had a significant effect on rehabilitation process (p=0.000).
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Summary of Key findings
The following is a summary of key findings of the study,
1. The findings indicated that 73.8% of the children in the selected rehabilitation centers
were living with a guardian at the time they left home, 16.9% were living with a single
parent, while 9.2% were living with both parents. This finding points to the facts that
majority of the street children, left home at the time when parenting responsibility were
delegated to guardians who may not have been as strict on them as their parents would
have been
2. The study findings showed that parent being alive was not a major factor that attracted
the children to the streets since 60% agreed that their parent were still alive while only
40% indicated that their parent were not alive.
3. The study sought to establish where child labor was one of the factors. The findings
implied that 70.8% of the children agreed, while 29.2% disagreed. The finding also
implied that child labor could be another factor that attracts children to the street since
majority of the children indicated that they experience some form of child labor.
4. The study further sought to establish whether parents of the children interviewed were
still married or divorced at the time of collecting data for this study and found out that
72.3% of those who respondents indicating that their parents were divorced, while 27.7%
stated that their parents were still married. These findings also indicated that
dysfunctional marriages caused many children to be attracted to the street.
5. The study further sought to establish if lack of the basic need such as food, clothing, and
access to education and shelter attracted children to the street. The findings showed that
63.1% of the children indicated that they lacked food compared to other basic needs.
Foods is essential to the wellbeing of children and any child without food cannot go to
schools and concentrate like other children.
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6. The study findings showed that, 61.5% of the street children interviewed declined to join
other family members after the rehabilitation exercise was over, and only 38.5% agreed.
They cited hostile family members as the reason why they would prefer not to return
home after the rehabilitation process.
Summary
The study was based on three objectives; to establish factors that attract the youth to the streets,
analyze psychosocial factors that affect rehabilitation of street children and examine factors
affecting successful reintegration of rehabilitated street children back to families or communities
of origin. From the analysis carried out and presented in this chapter, the study established that
various factors that attract children to the streets, closely related to various factors that
influenced the successful reintegration of rehabilitated street children back to families or
communities of origin. These factors also identified with most of the analyzed psychosocial
factors that affect rehabilitation of street children within the selected rehabilitation centers in
Embakasi Sub-County. The summary of the key findings, conclusion and recommendation are
provided in chapter five.
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CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
The areas that are presented in this chapter include discussions of the key findings based on each
of the three objectives of the study, conclusions, recommendations made by the study and
suggestions of areas for further research. In the discussion of the findings, the study compares
the finding of this study with those of other scholars analysed in the empirical review section.
Conclusions were also based on the findings of the study on each of the specific objectives of
the study. Recommendations were then made based on the conclusions to guide policy
formulation.
Discussions of Key Findings
The purpose of this study was to analyze psychosocial factors affecting successful rehabilitation
of street children. The study concentrated on factors that attract children to the streets,
psychosocial factors affecting rehabilitation of street children and to analyze factors affecting
reintegration of rehabilitated children back to society. The focus was on children within the age
bracket of 11 – 19 years from the street families already in rehabilitation centers in Embakasi
Sub-County. The study only involved the vulnerable children from street families.
Factors that Attracted Children to the Streets
The first objective of the study was to identify the factors that attract children to the streets in
Nairobi County Kenya. Some of the factors identified by this study include economic status of
the parents since 60% agreed that their parent were still alive while only 40% (26) indicated that
their parents were not alive. The majority of the respondents at 89% who ended up in the streets
came from economically less empowered families where both parents did not have jobs. Lack of
jobs implied that these families could not afford basic needs such as food (63.1%) compared to
other basic needs. Other factors identified include marital status of the families, majority of the Library Archives82 Copy
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children interviewed were from dysfunctional families marred with domestic violence (72.3%),
child labor and child neglect (59.6%).
This finding agree with White (2004) who noted that that domestic disintegration, conflicts,
famine and overpopulation amongst others have caused number of street families to increase
globally. This has increased poverty levels in the entire world. Similarly, Mercer (2009)
inferred that street children worldwide either scavenge or beg to earn an income. They work as
guards in parking lots, carrying luggage, cleaning market stalls, selling sweets and cigarette,
robbing shops, pick pocketing, drugs trafficking, shoe shining and prostitution.
The study generalized these to dysfunctional families as the main factors that attracted children
to the streets. Most of the children’s 60% agreed that their parent were still alive while only 40%
indicated that their parents were not alive. These children from dysfunctional families end living
with their grandparents and often feel neglected which lead them to the streets to fend for
themselves. The study finding concurs with those of Kaime et al. (2008) who argued that these
children live in harsh conditions including, severe poverty, hunger, disease and lack of proper
shelter. Most of them live in street verandas, pavements and dumpsites. They lack basic utilities
like clean water, food, toilet facilities, shelter and health care facilities.
This finding support those of White (2004) who noted that domestic disintegration, conflicts,
famine and overpopulation amongst others have caused number of street families to increase
globally. This has increased poverty levels in the entire world.
Factors Affecting Successful Reintegration of Rehabilitated Street Children Back to
Families or Communities of Origin
The findings of the study showed that majority 61.5% of the street children interviewed declined
to join other family members after the rehabilitation exercise was over, and only 38.5% agreed.
They cited hostile family members and as the reason why they would prefer not to return home
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after the rehabilitation process. They cited lack of confidence and fear of being arrested by
police who are given permission by their own family members. Lack of preparedness by family
members to willingly receive the rehabilitated former street children made it hard for them to
return home.
The study finding support those of Salokangas (2010) who argued that after children leave their
homes, socialization with other street families makes them adopt street behavior which is hard to
leave, causing them to begin learning skills of survival in the streets. Since education and
development of their lives is no longer a priority, they concentrate on building new social
network and consumption of illicit drugs making it almost impossible to leave streets.
Stephenson (2002) also inferred that the deeper the children connect with the underworld
techniques of survival, the more difficult it becomes for them to go back to normal lives.
Psychosocial Factors that Affect Rehabilitation of Street Children
The final objective of the study was to analyze the psychosocial factors that affected
rehabilitation of street children among the selected rehabilitation centers in Nairobi County.
These finding implied that street children in rehabilitation centers in Nairobi experienced abuse
and majority mentioned they suffered emotional abuse. The findings showed that 47.7%
indicated that relationship was very average, 36.9% indicated the relationship was poor, 13.8%
indicated the relationship was good and finally only 1.5% indicated that the relationship was
very good.
The study findings support those of Okello (2012) who classified reasons for children in
rehabilitation centers as those abused psychologically and emotionally, sexually,
physiologically, orphaned, children from street families and those both mentally and
physiologically challenged. He further underscores the importance of safety in these centers
failure to which the children will continue going back to the streets after rehabilitation.
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According to the finding lack of the appreciation (69.2%), feeling of sadness (67.7%),
hopelessness (67.7%) at the rehab centers were among the top psychological factors that street
children experienced at the rehabilitation facilities Nairobi that affected the rehabilitation
process of these street children. Majority of the street children also agreed that they are easily
irritated (72.3%) while at the rehabilitation centers. A big number of others indicated how they
wished they could enjoy life like anyone else (80.0%). According to Delap and Wedge (2016)
families where children come from should be at the center of the reintegration process, being
involved at each step of decision-making. Much as it is vital to invest in the children during the
reintegration process, it is equally the same for the families receiving them.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusion were made;
Firstly, the study concluded that some of the street children were forced into the street because
of the situation and circumstances they found themselves in. Those children, who lack parents,
choose to go to the streets and fed for themselves. The study concluded that dysfunctional
families contributed a great deal in the growth of street families. During the separation of the
parents, children are left hanging and no one to look after them which make them to resort to
street life as a mean of survival. The need to survive is the significant factor that attracts many
children to the streets.
The study further concluded that street children face a lot of challenges when enrolled in
rehabilitation centers from unfriendly teachers and staff of the centers and various emotional
challenges that affect their rehabilitation process. Rehabilitation centers are also porous and
drugs are peddled which make the children to relapse in their rehabilitation process. The study
finally concluded that the feeling of being unwanted in families makes the children remain in the
street since they lack somewhere to go back even after being involved in the rehabilitation
program.
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Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made;
1. That families seeking separation or divorce should incorporate Chiefs, Sub-Chief and
Church leaders to ensure that the interests of the children are catered for, with proper
mechanism devised to ensure both parents become responsible in raising the children.
2. County governments through relevant department should work with the street children to
locate the families and help to reunite the children with their parents and stiff penalties
should be imposed to parents that neglect their child caring responsibilities.
3. Further, the study further recommended that staff and management of rehabilitation
centers should try and get in touch with the families of the former street children to
counsel them and ensure smooth reintegration of the children back to their families.
4. That the management of the rehabilitation centers should adopt a friendly approach in
handling these street children to make them feel wanted and enhance their emotional
stability. This will ensure that the children feel wanted and work hard towards their fully
rehabilitation.
Areas for Further Research
This study focused on former street children within the age bracket of 11 – 19 years from the
street families already in selected rehabilitation centers in Embakasi Sub-County. A study
targeting street children aged between 9 – 11 years should be conducted to establish the
psychosocial factors that affect their successful rehabilitation. There is need for a study to focus
on strategies that can be adopted in order to address issues related to alcohol and substance
abuse within the rehabilitation centers among former street children.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A: Center Managers’ Assent Form
My name is Francis Mutuku. I am a counseling Psychology Master’s student at Daystar
University. I am carrying out a study on psychosocial factors that influence the rehabilitation
of street children in selected rehabilitation centers in Embakasi Sub County. This study is to
find out how psychosocial factors can affect the rehabilitation of street children and how this
can be improved.
I am asking your permission to allow your children to complete a survey being administered
to children between 12 and 19 years in rehabilitation in Embakasi Sub-County. The survey
will ask questions about factors attracting children to streets, challenges of reintegration back
to families of origin and the psychosocial factors affecting children during their
rehabilitation programs. The children will answer four questionnaires which will take
approximately 50 minutes. I humbly propose to carry out the study late afternoon after their
normal tutorial classes, to ensure I do not interfere with the center’s normal daily routine. I
will also have research assistants to help your children fill the questionnaires.
The children’s responses to the survey will be anonymous and confidential, whereby no
identifiable information will be taken, to ensure that no one is able to trace the information to
the participants. Your consent and your children’s participation are totally voluntary and the
participants can withdraw at any time they may wish to do so. There will be no reward for
participating or any consequence for not doing so. The researcher will also seek your
children’s consent before they participate in the study. In any case that center children are
not comfortable with some of the questions, the researcher and assistants will avail
themselves to assist appropriately. I hope that data from this study will contribute to a better
understanding of the nature of street children in rehabilitation centers, in order to assist
stakeholders develop better intervention programs. I confirm my willingness to humbly
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answer you may have now, and even clarify further any issue during and after the process of
study. My current phone number is 0713463220, in case you need to contact me for any
clarification. In case of any questions later, contact my head of department on 0722720780.
Consent Form
I------, the manager of ------
----rehabilitation center, having been clearly taken through the nature of the study by,------
------give approval for the study to be carried out in my center.
Signature:------
Name:------
Date:------
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Appendix B: Informed Consent Form
My name is Francis Mutuku, pursuing a MA degree at the University of Daystar, Nairobi
Campus. Is underta study on psychosocial factors that influence the rehabilitation of
street children in Kenya. I am therefore asking you to participate in this research. You
will be required to sign this consent form, for you to participate in this study. You will
not be monitored while doing it. However, you will personally benefit in knowing the
psychosocial factors that influence rehabilitation of street children in Kenya, and how
this study can end up improving the same. The research is being done with openness
without evasiveness and so feel free as you participate.
Signature of Participant…………………………… Date…………………………………… Signature of witness…………………………. Date………………………………
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Appendix C: Questionnaire
Introduction and Consent
Hello, my name is Francis Mutuku. I am a Counseling Psychology student in Daystar
University, Town Campus. I am carrying out a study on psychosocial factors that
influence the rehabilitation of street children in selected rehabilitation centers in
Embakasi Sub County. This study is to find out how psychosocial factors can affect
the rehabilitation of street children and how this can be improved. I therefore request
to interview you. The interview will take roughly fifty minutes, and at your most
convenient time, depending on the advice of the center manager. You will not write
your name on the questionnaire, and it will not be possible for anyone to know the
manner in which you answered the questions. Your responses to the questions will be
totally anonymous. You can choose not to participate in the study and it will affect
you in no way. You can also choose to stop even after you start to participate.
Your participation in the study will remain highly anonymous and confidential with
on identifiable and personal information collected from you will be shared with your
tutors, colleagues or family members. Your participation and consent to participate
are fully voluntary, with an option to freely withdraw at any level of the study. In this
study, there will be no rewards for participating, and no negative effects for choosing
not to participate or even withdrawing after starting to participate. I confirm to you
that any risks associated with this study, if at all, are not greater than those of
everyday living.
Do you feel like you want to ask any questions? Then do I have permission to move
on with the interview?
Yes------No------(Tick as you wish).
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My name is ------. I am in------
------rehabilitation center, Embakasi Sub-County. I have received proper
explanation about this study by------. I
understand it properly and agree to freely participate.
Signature:------
Name:------
Date……………………………………………………………….
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This questionnaire has two sections. The first one is dealing with basic socio-
demographic data like gender and age, while the second section will involve
psychosocial factors attracting children to streets.
SECTION A: SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 1. Gender:
Female [ ]
Male [ ]
2. Kindly indicate your age appropriately
11-13 years [ ]
13-15 years [ ]
15-17 year [ ]
17-19 years [ ]
3. How long have you stayed here in this rehabilitation center?
4. Highest level of education attained
ECD [ ]
Lower primary [ ]
Higher primary [ ]
Certificate [ ]
Above certificate [ ]
5. Indicate your duration of stay in the streets
1-5 years [ ]
6-10 years [ ]
Over 11 years [ ]
6. How old were you when you left home ……………………..
7. Which class were you in when you left home ………………….. Library Archives102 Copy
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8. Who were you living with then ………………………….
SECTION B: FACTORS THAT ATTRACT CHILDREN TO THE STREETS.
9. Is any of your parents alive? Yes----No…
10. Did any of your parents have a job? Yes…No…
11. Did your parents live together or divorced? ......
Did you lack any of the following as a child back home?
Food…Clothing…Education…Shelter…
12. Did you experience any form of child labor at home?
Did you witness or experience any domestic violence in your family? ......
Did you experience form of child neglect at home?......
SECTION B: PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS INFLUENCING REHABILITATION
OF STREET CHILDREN.
16.Do you experience any form of abuse in the center? Yes…No…
17.If yes indicate which of these: Physical….Emotional…..Sexual.
18.Do you use any drug or alcohol while in the rehabilitation center?
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
19. Which language would you recommend to be used here in this center?
English---Kiswahili…Mother Tongue…Sheng…
20. Do you at times feel abandoned here in the center? Yes…No…
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21.Do you feel like you are fed up with life here in the rehabilitation center ? Yes…No…
22.Do you wish that you had another place to go and not stay in this center? Yes…No…
23.Are there times you feel that people do not appreciate you? Yes…No…
24.Do you feel sad while here in this center? Yes…No…
25.Are there times when you feel hopeless with life ?Yes…No…
26.Do you feel irritated by minor things? Yes…No…
27. Do you wish that you could be happy like other people? Yes…No…
28. Do you sometimes wonder if God still loves you? Yes…No…
29. How would you rate your relationship with teachers and other staff members
Very good…Good…Average…Poor…
30.Did you have any form sickness or serious injuries while living in the streets? Yes...No…
31.If yes, was it treated? Yes…No…
32.Do you still involve yourself in serious physical fights here in the center? Yes…No…
Are you involved in any form of gambling here in the center? Yes…No…
SECTION C: FACTORS AFFECTING SUCCESFUL REINTEGRATION OF
REHABILITATED STREET CHILDREN BACK HOME.
33. Do you know another child like you who went through rehabilitation before?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
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35. If they did not go back home, why do you think they did not go back…………………………
Would you like to join other family members after the rehabilitation exercise is over?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
38. If no, explain why…………….
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Appendix D: Key Informants Interview Guide
1.What factors attract children to live on the streets ?------.
2.Examine the social factors that hinder successful reintegration of the rehabilitated street children back to society------. 3.Examine economic factors that affect successful reintegration of the rehabilitated street children back to society------.
4.Examine psychological factors that hinder successful reintegration of rehabilitated street children back to society------. 5.Mention psychological factors that affect effective rehabilitation of street children in rehabilitation centers.------. 6.In your view, explain social factors that affect successful rehabilitation of street children in rehabilitation centers.------
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Appendix E: Research Permit
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Appendix F: Research Authorization from the Ministry of Interior
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Appendix G: Ethical Clearance
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Appendix H: Anti-Plagiarism Report
Results of plagiarism analysis from 2019-04-23 09:11 EAT
10.6%
- THESIS (FM) FINAL VOL V.docx
100 50 46 All sources Organization archive Plagiarism Prevention Pool
[0] https://archive.org/stream/ERIC_ED494209/ERIC_ED494209_djvu.txt Date: 2019-04-23 08:28 EAT Intern et sourc 4 es
[1] "Alain Ndagano Thesis 1.doc" dated 2019-04-03 1.6% 47 matches
[2] "Patricia Mwiti Thesis 23.11.18.docx" dated 2019-04-01 1.4% 42 matches
[3] https://docplayer.net/42382855-Children-s-reintegration.html 1.3% 32 matches
[4] "THEIS FINAL FINAL REDEFENSE LILIANOWEGI.docx" dated 2019-04-10 1.3% 49 matches
[5] "16-1725 Kamau Racheal_Thesis.pdf" dated 2019-04-04 1.4% 44 matches
[6] from a PlagScan document dated 2017-11-23 12:16 1.1% 48 matches
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[12] "ESTHER THESIS PROJECT FINAL 13TH APRIL 2019 (1).doc" dated 2019-04-15 1.1% 37 matches
[13] "Final Thesis - Sarah Malaki-Otieno.docx" dated 2019-04-16 1.2% 40 matches
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[14] "ESTHER THESIS PROJECT FINAL 7TH APRIL 2019.pdf" dated 2019-04-08 1.1% 35 matches
[15] "Patience Mwangi Revised 2019 Updated.rtf" dated 2019-03-05 1.2% 35 matches
[16] "DIANA KAMANDE - FINAL THESIS CORRE...ot; dated 2019-04-05 1.2% 43 matches
[17] "Christine Nyawira Proposal.docx" dated 2019-04-15 1.1% 40 matches
[18] "Sheila Awuor Thesis.doc" dated 2019-03-29 1.1% 36 matches
[19] "Sheila Awuor Thesis New.docx" dated 2019-04-03 1.1% 38 matches
[20] "SHARON THESIS FINAL.docx" dated 2019-02-21 1.0% 42 matches
[21] "FINAL FINAL THESIS GORDON- 29.3.19.docx" dated 2019-04-01 1.0% 38 matches
[22] "Joyce Mogire thesis-17th April, 2019.doc" dated 2019-04-17 1.1% 33 matches
[23] "stella osoro 041019.pdf" dated 2019-04-11 1.0% 34 matches
[24] "FINAL DEFENSE.docx" dated 2019-04-10 1.0% 41 matches
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