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AUTHOR Goodman, Leroy V., Ed. TITLE The Education Almanac, 1987-1988. Facts and Figures about Our Nation's System of Education. Third Edition. INSTITUTION National Association of Elementary School Principals, Alexandria, VA. PUB 'DATE 87 NOTE 343p.; For second edition, see ED 264 638. AVAILABLE FROMPublication Sales, National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1615 Duke Street, Alexandria, VA 22314 (Stock No. EA 03; $20.00 plus $3.00 shipping and handling; quantity discounts). PUB TYPE Reference Materials - General (130)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC14 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Educational Change; Educational Finance; *Educational History; *Educational Trends; Elementary Secondary Education; Enrollment Trends; Foundations of Education; Government School Relationship; Parent School Relationship; Political Issues; *Politics of Education; School Community Relationship; *School Statistics

ABSTRACT This is the third edition of the Education Almanac, an assemblage of statistics, facts, commentary, and basic background information about the conduct of schools in the United States. Features of this variegated volume include an introductory section on "Education's Newsiest Developments," followed by some vital educational statistics, a set of historical "Readings in American Education" by such notables as Benjamin Franklin and Horace Mann, emerging educational trends, and data from public opinion polls on educational issues. Other items in this potpourri include articles on elementary schooling, parent involvement, legal issues, the job market, private funding, sources of information about educational issues, recognition programs, and educational trivia. An extensive index is included. (TE)

*********************************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. * *********************************************************************** s -.,-=.--) --.-=.---- -..i4 ... k__.4f;\ (fe4Z1111,7 ,,,,m,s--.., --- feez.:-.-Irt '\. \ ,A, '' _____ '--,_.., 4..''-;: '..- -.'-a .' ----.---:,,..-4 *ge 4' '`.-.. , x ,,,-.... 0001 - THE EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987-1988

Prepared and Published by the National Association of Elementary School Principals Serving America's elementary and middle schools 4 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 84.644180 International Standard Serial Number (ISSN 0747-5772) National Association of Elementary School Principals 1615 Duke Street Alexandria, VA 22314 Executive Director: Samuel G. Sava Copyright ©1987 by the National Association of Elementary School Principals The Education Almanac 1987 -1988

Editor: Leroy V. Goodman Associate editors: Story Moorefield, Lillian M. Goodman Contributing editors: John Wherry, Virginia Ross, Mary Massey, RebeccaHutton, Eileen M. Carlton Production: Ellen Matthews, Charlotte Marson, M. Rita Brown Typography: Scott Photographics, Inc. Printing: Ken Wirsing, VMW Printing, Inc. Illustrations: Dover Pictorial Archive Series (MOO Woodcuts by Thomas Berwickand His School, Edited by Blanche Chker) Printed in the United States of America

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Herewith the third edition of the Education Almanacan assemblage of statistics, facts, commentary, and basic background information about the conduct of America's schools. The editors 21, appreciate the valuable comments and suggestions generated by the first two editions and would A welcome more. While all correspondence will be carefully and gratefully studied, staff limitations make it impossible to guarantee a response.

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6 Contents

Education's Newsiest Developments 1 The New Educational Revolution 2 The Teacher as American Hero 4 An Impressive New Carnegie Report 6 Bennett as Barnum 7 Education's Most Turbulent Issue 8 Hard Times for School Desegregation 10 Education's "Biggest Problem" 11 The Teacher Testing Controversy 13 The Beleaguered Textbook 15 No Pass, No Play 17 A Farewell to Vouchers? 19 America's Unique System of Education 21 Some Vital Education Statistics 25 Education Profiles of the States 51 A Brief History of American Education 109 Readings in American Education 118 "Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania," by Benjamin Franklin 118 "A New England School of 1810" 119

-.) E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 "The Republic and the Schools: The Education of Free Men," vii by Horace Mann 120 "A Theory of Education," by William Torrey Harris 122 Brown vs. Board of Education (from the 1954 decision) 123 1955 White House Conference on Education (from a committee report) 124 A Nation At Risk (from the 1983 report) 125 What's Right About American Education 126 The U.S. Department of Education 130 Getting Parents Involved 134 Some Emerging Educational Trends 138 Franchised Schooling 138 The Dropout Situation 139 Year-Round Schools 140 Sex Education Lives 141 Lotteries Seem a Good Bet 142 The Fading One-Room School 143 Down the Hatch (Act)? 143 What the Education Polls Say 145 High Marks in the Gallup Poll 146 Some Particular Gallup Poll Qs and As 149 Low Marks in the Harris Poll 153 Meet the Superintendent 156 First Lessons for Elementary Schools 159 Kindergarten Today 162 Head Start and Follow Through 165 The Rewards of Staff Recognition 167 Magnet Schools 169 Tomorrow's Jobs 171 Today's Library 174 TV: A Bright Spot in Children's Programming 178 Getting Private Funding for Public Schools 183 School-Business Partnerships 198 ERIC: Education's Research Storehouse 201 The National Assessment of Educational Progress 206 Recent Court Rulings Affecting the Schools 210 Major National Education Organizations 216 Selected Education Periodicals 245 8 CONTENTS viiiRecent Books About Education 254 Quotable Comments on Education 258 Some Jokes Heard at Education Conventions 263 Celebrative Occasions for 1987 and 1988 266 Pathfinders in American Education 287 Landmark Dates in American Education 295 American Education Week 301 The National Teacher of the Year Program 302 The National Distinguished Principals Program 303 The Education Flag 304 The Pledge of Allegiance 305 An Education Trivia Quiz 306 Calendars for 1987 and 1988 308 Index 311 Education's Newsiest Developments

s the nation begins to 4-year-olds, for example, or the round out the 1980s, growing resistance to the "dumbing education continues down" of textbooks. to capture headlines, Some developments give cause in marked contrast to for apprehensionthe chipping the cold shoulder it received from away of civil rights gains, for the media in the decade's initial example, and the emergence of years. bilingual education as a catalyst for Presumably the change has come divisiveness that threatens to about because education is once become as wracking as school again perceived as being at the core desegmsation was 25 years ago. of American life, as in the Republic's An there is tragedy, as in the formative years. Effective schools death of one of the most sparkling are not just desirable; they are champions of education the nation critically necessary fat the fulfillment and even survival of the

individual and for the prosperity UAACA, and safety of the nation. Most of the school-related events and developments currently drawing media coverage point to a /lb strengthened system of education in the future. There is the education revolution .....-=;,- that is extending school to 3- and iimmr 1 0 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 2has ever known, Christa McAuliffe. "The issue is no longer whether All in all, so much is going on in we will serve younger children," a education these days, there is so Massachusetts superintendent told . much of consequence to report, the New York Times. "The only that there is no way to pick out the question is how we will do it." most newsworthy developments The pressure arises chiefly from the events or movements that are continued rises in divorce rates, in currently having the greatest the incidence of single-parent impact on American education. families, and in the number of It is reasonable to suggest, mothers taking jobs outside the however, that the following home. would be good candidates. The result is an army of children whose mothers are not available to The New Educational Revolution them during the daycurrently The United States would appear to over 4 million, according to the be well embarked on perhaps the Bureau of the Census, and perhaps most far-reaching restructuring of double that number according to public education since the other reliable sources. Once the establishment of the high school in answer was to enlist a grandmother the 1850s. or neighbor to take over, but with At the heart of this educational the demand for such help far revolution is the extension of public exceeding the supplyand with schooling downward below age 5, day-care rates approaching college past age 4, to age 3.. . tuition levelsthe most inviting kindergarten meanwhile having alternative seems to be the local become standard in virtually every public elementary school. state. Before the century is out the Moreover, there would appear to repercussions seem certain to affect be an important public interest the education system at every level. involved. Social analysts point to The implications to the largest of the potential disaster inherent in those levelselementary leaving millions of young children educationinclude new forms of unsupervised during a major school organization, new kinds of portion of the day. And they point training and certification for also to the demonstrated public teachers and administrators, benefits of early schooling. significant modifications in school The latter were underscored in a buildings, perhaps a new approach report of the Perry Preschool to school financing. Project begun two decades ago in Already nearly half of the nation's Ypsilanti, Michigan, by the 3- and 4-year-olds are enrolled in High/Scope Foundation. In the some form of early childhood project a group of 123 low-IQ program. While most of these 3-year-olds from impoverished programs are conducted under backgrounds were given two years private auspices and involve a fee, of special schooling. The report the pressure on the public schools focused on what had happened to to add two additional grades seems them by the time they reached 19. to have reached the point of What had happened was impressive. irresistibility. They had graduated from high NEWSIEST DEVELOPMENTS school and gone on to jobs or "academic" achievement, thereby 3 further education at nearly twice satisfying parents who are the rate of nonparticipating determined that little Mary learn to children in a control group, and count to 50 whether the numbers they had experienced far fewer mean anything to her or not. arrests, detentions, and teenage Be careful, the experts caution. A pregnancies. few of them even contend that S- On top of that, analyses of school, and 4-year-olds are simply not ready police, and welfare records for such matters, period. Most, indicated that each child however, seem to favor a blend of represented a savings of $7,000 to cognitive and affective experiences, Ypsilanti taxpayers because they saying that children can indeed required fewer social services and absorb learning early in their less re;nedial teaching. livesthat in fact learning patterns Even without the combination of are pretty well-established by the

pressing need and demonstrable time children reach 3but that it benefits, enrollments in early is crucial that they not in effect be childhood programs were noted by robbed of their childhood. the Census Bureau to be growing at Associated with the issue of a rate of more than 80,000 annually "readiness" for schooling is the during recent yearsand primarily question of testswhat (if any) in public rather than private kinds of tests should be used to schools. With that growth has come screen children's academic and a number of questions and social development and whether in concerns. fact tests at so early an age are The first and most fundamental is reliable. whether such children are Feing Another issue is the preparation pushed too hardwhich is to say, of the teachers who work with these what the nature of their school children. Some experts argue for a experience should be. Some :pecial certification system covering programs frankly focus on those who deal with children in the

142- E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 43-7 age range. Others contend that The Teacher as American Hero given appropriate inservice training, It was the saddest day American present staff could make the education had ever known: January adjustment without problems. And 28, 1986, the day Christa still others say that if the school McAuliffea bright, lively simply provides day-care services, altogether engaging social studies trained teachers are not really teacher from New Hampshire necessary at all. perished in the crash of the And there is the matter of who is Challenger space light. to pay the cost of absorbing a Her purpose in seeking to couple million more youngsters become the first private citizen in into the nation's classrooms. space, she had said, was "to elevate Federal officials say this is strictly a the teaching profession in the eyes local consideration. Local schooll of the public." authorities note that their Reactions reported in the massive mandatesand hence their media coverage of the tragedy made budgetsdo not extend to it clear that during her six months enrolling 3- and 4-year-olds, much as a "teachernaut," she had clearly less to adding the new kinds of achieved her goal. facilities and equipment these Millions of Americans got a new youngsters need. Taxpayer groups view of the public school teacher as argue that the costs should be a courageous activist ... a borne by the parents involved. dedicated, enthusiastic instructor Since few could afford to carry the . .. a loving involved parent .. . an load, the suggestion has been made invaluable asset to the community that local and federal authorities and to the nation. bend a bit and that churches and such charitable organizations as the Community Chest also be Sharon Christa McAuliffe, 37, was brought into the financial picture. among 11,416 applicants who So, in issues ranging from the responded to President Reagan's appropriate nature of the school plan to broaden the National experience to the search for Aeronautics and Space support, the early childhood Administration's shuttle program by movement faces some tough occasionally including selected challenges. That has not slowed its private citizens in the crews, growth, however, nor dimmed its beginning with a teacher. attraction. She was a high school social The dimensions of that attraction studies instructor from the town of were suggested by Samuel G. Sava, Concord in New Hampshire, wife of executive director of the National a local attorney who had been her Association of Elementary School high school sweetheart, mother of a Principals. "Properly understood 6-year-old girl and a 9-year-old boy, and fostered," he declared, "early a Girl Scout leader, a volunteer in a childhood education colds promise family planning clinic. for producing the best educated Her students deeply admired her. generation of children in the "She brings history to life," one nation's history." said, "and she's so enthusiastic! But 1.31, NEWSIEST DEVELOPMENTS she's sure no pushover when it advances it has produced. comes to discipline." Meanwhile she was also to have Said a fellow teacher: "She documented a series of experiments exemplifies what education today to be filmed for later distribution to really needssomeone who strikes schoolsin such areas as the right balance between solid magnetism, laws of motion, subject matter and an engaging, chromatography, plant growth, and human approach. She knows her the like. subject matter inside out and she's To provide background, NASA a master at keeping the kids had produced and distributed interested and eager." various slide shows and videotapes In the months before the flight, and extensive written material people around the world saw a lot of including 2 million teacher guides. Christa McAuliffe on the TV and read a lot about her in the w newspapers and magazind. In the Christa Corrigan was a 1970 process of becoming a media star, graduate of Framingham State with all the harrassment that College in Massachusetts. In that involves, she emerged as articulate, same year she married Steven dignified, informed, intelligent, James McAuliffe and also began her level-headed, and unpretentious. career in education, in Maryland There were six other members of first as an eighth-grade history the Challenger crew, but she was instructor in Morningside and then clearly the chief attraction, and not as a history and civics instructor in only because she was a winning a middle school in Lanham. person but because she was a Meanwhile she took a master's teacher. It appeared that America degree in education at nearby Bowie liked teachers, and especially this State College. one. In 1980 the McAuliffes moved to The launch drew some 850 New Hampshire, first to the town of journalists, double that of most Bow and then two years later to such flights, and 66 busloads of Concord. There she taught courses teachers and students. It was in economics, law, and American estimated that some 25 million history, plus a course she had students from kindergarten through devised herself called "The high school witnessed the TV American Woman." In preparing broadcast of the lift-off from the the course, she said, she read a Kennedy Space Center in Florida. good deal about the brave 18th The plan had been for her to century women who were part of conduct two "live" TV lessons the pioneer movement west and saw during the fourth day of the six-day them as kindred spiritsher mission, to be beamed by satellite inspiration to fellow in the footsteps to classrooms throughout the of the pioneers of space. nation. In one lesson she would take students on a tour of the space w vehicle and in the other she would A few days after Christa discuss the purposes of space McAuliffe's death President Reagan exploration and the technological announced that in time the 14 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 6 "teacher-in-space" program would required to get a bachelor's degree be resumed. He gave no projected in the arts and sciences... date. That a new Master in Teaching NASA said the first invitation to degree be created.... be a part of that flight would be That a National Board for extended to Mrs. McAuliffe's Professional Teaching Standards be runner-up in the competition created to draw up tougher Barbara R. Morgan, 33, an certification requirements and to elementary school teacher from issue national teaching McCall, Idaho. certificates... That a teacher hierachy be set An Impressive New Carnegie up so as to provide for "lead Report teachers" paid annual salaries It was still another education report ranging up to $72,000, advanced to add to the constantly growing certificate teachers paid between

pile, but it drew far more than $26,000 and $46,000, and certified routine coverage by the news media teachers (the great majority) paid across the country. from $19,000 to $39,000... Called A Nation Prepared: That administrative Teachers for the 21st Century, the arrangements be changed so as to report was the work of a group of give teachers greater autonomy and education and business VIPs authoritypossibly with a assembled as the Carnegie Forum committee of "lead teachers" on Education and the Economy. running the schooland to make That it attracted such special the teachers accountable for attention was due in part to the student achievement, with the magic name "Carnegie" and in part school as a whole receiving a bonus to such recommendations as these: for success. That undergraduate programs That special efforts be made to in education be abandoned, with attract members of minorities into prospective teachers instead being teaching, as a response to the

15k NEWSIEST DEVELOPMENTS growing proportion of minority education, and the formation of the students. Educational Testing Service. A major curiosity of the report was noted by Secretary of Education Bennett as Barnum William J. Bennett, who pointed out For quite a while President Reagan that "there's a missing personthe used to assure his right-wing principal." He added: "You can't constituency that one of the run a school by a committee. All administration's basic domestic the research we have points to the goals is to ease the U.S. Dept-lent impol tance of a strong instructional of Education into oblivion. leader." Mysteriously, to help preside over The Forum's response seemed to the process he selected as the third be aimed at implying that the Secretary in the history of that new problem was one of fuzzy writing. Department one William J. Bennett. The intent was not that schools be Today, the ultraconservative run by teacher committees, the Heritage Foundation notes in executive director declared, but sorrow, "the Department is more rather that teachers be more heavily deeply entrenched than ever." Far involved. from being in oblivion, the federal In any case, the Forum projected agency for education has never been that implementation of its so famousdespite the fact that it suggested reforms would cost about spends less on public relations $25.7 billion over the next ten (according to the General years, meaning a 2.8 percent Accounting Office) than any other average annual increase in cabinet department. education funding compared with a The difference is Bennett, who has 1.9 percent yearly increase during proved himself to be by all odds the the last 15 years. The difference best PR man in the history of the could be handled, the report said, Department and the Office of by projected increases in the gross Education before it, and the most national product. effective drum beater in education As Newsweek noted, the report since Horace Mann. "was greeted with enthusiasm" by If he isn't making news as a governors and other state leaders "substitute teacher" in a classroom and by many educators, the latter in Atlanta or San Jose or including Secretary Bennett somewhere else across the country, (despite his reservations about he is appearing on the radio to bypassing principals) and his defend his claim to be "the predecessor, Terre! H. Bell. Cabinet expert on rock and roll." The warmth of their reception He makes as many as 10 or 11 may well have been heightened by speeches a month, and it takes a the imprimatur of the Carnegie staff of ten people working full time Foundation, which during the past to handle arrangements for his 80 years has played a major role in speaking schedule, including education innovation, including the responses to the monthly load of introduction of high school 250 invitations. academic credits, the When the Department publishes reorganization of medical a guide for parents called What 16 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8

8 Worksnot a bad PR gimmick the effect." itselfBennett manages to have its For the most part, however, debut staged at the White House. Bennett gets a very good pressin And to give the assembled media an part because the media are added fillip, he and the President delighted by his performance and illustrate the joys of memorization see him as a lively and dependable by alternatively reciting lines of source of good stories. "The Cremation of Sam McGee," an The most telling testimony old Robert W. Service poem. Any comes from one of education's most Hollywood press agent who pulled respected figuresProfessor Diane off such a stunt would get an Oscar. Ravitch of Columbia University's As a speaker Bennett has proved Teachers College. so popular that the Republican "The main role of the secretary of National Committee drafted him for education," she pointed out, "is to its speakers bureau, and several keep the attention of the country Republican candidates for office focused on education." arranged for his participation in It would be hard to imagine their campaigns. anyone doing that job better than there was even press speculation William Bennett. that Bennett himself might become a candidate when the Reagan Education's Most Turbulent Issue administration departs in 1988, and As the United States heads into the in interviews the Secretary has 1990s, the most passion-ridden never ruled the idea out. "education" issue has more to do Still, not everyone is a Bennett with politics than learningthe fanparticularly when he gets off controversy over bilingual onto such subjects as school prayer, education. textbooks, school birth control Some of its opponents darkly clinics, the teaching of morality, describe it as a "threat to national and other matters held to be the security" and call for legislation exclusive business of local boards of establishing English as the "official" education. U.S. language. OthersSecretary National columnist Garry Wills of Education William J. Bennett, for labeled him "a skilled huckster" for exampleassert that bilingual "anything the Reagan education doesn't work. administration slips into his These on the other side of the merchandise kit." William V. fence (including many educators Shannon of the Boston Globe who disagree with the Secretary) complained that although Bennett are dominated by leaders of the "has the opportunity to lead a Spanish-speaking community who successful drive to strengthen " feel the opposition is based on education, "instead he repeatedly ethnicity rather than reason. moves the discussion to sideline Thus bilingual education has issues." A Des Moines Register succeeded school desegregaten as editorial said, "One could get the the chief source of debate and impression that Secretary of dislocation in the operation of the Education William Bennett delights nation's schools. in saying outlandish things just for As the core of the controversy is 1 7 NEWSIEST DEVELOPMENTS the Bilingual Education Act, To many Latino leaders such 9 enacted by Congress in 1968 to help activities are nothing less than students of "limited English racial discrimination, and bilingual proficiency " (LEP). In 1974 the education became a symbol of U.S. Supreme Court gave new vigor defiance. to the Act when it held (in Lau v. As for Secretary Bennett's Nichols) that a "sink or swim" position, pointing to a high dropout approach to the teaching of English rate among Hispanic students, he was unlawful .. . that the schools asserted that there is no evidence were bound by the constitution to that bilingual education works. He provide special help for LEP thereupon called for amending the children. Act so as to permit other The court did not spell out the approaches beside bilingual form this "special help" should educatontotal immersi "n in take, leaving that up to the federal English, for example, or perhaps Office of Education (predecessor to the English-as-a-second-language the present Department). Its method. conclusion was that the ruling The response by Hispanic leaders required that LEP children be was bitterly negative, not taught bilinguallythat is, both in necessarily as regards the merits of their native language and in the proposal but because of what English, beginning with the former. appeared to be deep-seated and The Bilingual Education Act had irreconcilable suspicion. Typical meanwhile evoked great enthusiasm was the reaction of Congressman in the Hispanic community, being Dennis Martinez, a California seen as a signal from Washington Democrat. that Spanish-speaking people Noting that the Secretary had counted and that their heritage was previously sought to cut or freeze valued. Indeed, the new law was bilingual education funds and had taken as a means not only of loaded his bilingual education helping children learn to speak advisory council with foes of that English but o: instilling in them approach, Martinez declared that pride in their cultural roots--a the real goal was to do away with kind of Latin version of the "black the program altogether. is beautiful" movement. There was in fact a widespread Bilingual education's popularity, feeling that Bennett and the Reagan however, tends to be unilateral. administration had become part of a Outside the Spanish-speaking national anti-Hispanic backlash, community are such movements as lined up with people who see that launched L.former California Hispanics and their culture as being Senator S. I. Hayakawa to establish "un-American." The reaction was to English as the nation's official claim bilingual education as a language and campaigns in some "right," comparable to the right of states to keep the telephone free speech. In the heat of battle the company from publishing a Spanish fact that the Secretary's proposal Yellow Pages and to force addressed a legitimate educational McDonald's to stop posting issue nearly got lost. bilingual menus. However, without getting into ;_D8 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 10 the pedagogical merits of bilingual The Reagan administration education as such but simply in opposes it, the courts are shying terms of good policy, most away from it, some school districts educators said they agreed with the want to wriggle out of it, and Secretary that no one approach to despite South Africa's example of teaching LEP children should be the convulsions invited by failure to mandated by the government. find racial accommodation, there Nor, many added, was it proper appears to be no national will to to claim bilingual education or any preserve the gains that have been other learning technique as a won. "right," to the exclusion of all The administration's attitude was others. symbolized by a decision to more Meanwhile some of the steam than double the Secretary of went out of the Secretary's criticism Education's travel budget while when a research study sponsored by lopping off $119,000 in travel funds the Department, no less, was for Office for Civil Rights (OCR) reported by Education Week to investigators. have found that "students in The OCR cut came on top of bilingual education programs previous reductions that had so consistently outperformed reduced on-site investigations, 'immersion strategy' students in according to employees of OCR's reading, language arts, and enforcement offices in Atlanta, that mathematics tests conducted in investigations had become both English and Spanish." "cursory" and "compliance reviews As for the future, few see any dealing with complex or stubborn likelihood that the controversy will recipients are avoided." end any time soon. Given the A more telling blow came when growing number of ED's assistant secretary for civil Spanish-speaking voters, adoption rights celebrated his forthcoming of Secretary Bennett's proposal to retirement by issuing what The amend the Bilingual Education Act Washington Post described as "a seems dubious. Since doing so sweeping policy statement that would make sense on purely sharply curtailed the agency's educational grounds, however, ability to enforce antidiscrimination perhaps in time the Hispanic laws in school districts." community will go along with the OCR previously had operated on idea. the presumption that since schools receiving federal assistance were Hard Times for School being benefited schoolwide, they Desegregation were subject to schoolwide penalties The school desegregation if they broke the law. movement, sparked by the U.S. Under the new policy, penalties Supreme Court's landmark Brown may be impost,: only in connection v. Board of Education decision in with a particular program within a 1954 and championed by most of school, and only in connection with the nation's leaders throughout the a particular activity carried out next 25 years, has fallen on hard under that particular program. times. Phyllis McClure, director of the NEWSIEST DEVELOPMENTS

NAACP Legal Defense and Jackson Board of Education, upheld 11 Education Fund, said the new the concept of taking "affirmative policy meant that federal officials action." "would have to trace every single Contrary to the position urged by dollar down to some infinitesimally the Justice Department, the Court small unit just to see if they have held (according to reporters) that it jurisdiction." Rep. Ted Weiss is constitutional to establish plans (D-N.Y.) said the policy "will involving preference in hiring to eliminate civil rights protection for overcome past discrimination millions of students." (though the Justice Department Meanwhile the courts, urged on disputed that interpretation). by the Department of Justice, have While civil rights advocates evidenced decreasing interest in applauded the decision, they enforcing civil rights plans conceded that it dealt with only one (especially any that involve busing) aspect of the desegregation picture and several school districts have and thus represented only one ray asked to be relieved of their plans, of light in a generally bleak scene. on grounds that intentional (or de jure) segregation has been Education's "Biggest" Problem eliminated. The courts have tended Most Americans, according to the to accede. In 530 cases some 165 18th annual Gallup Poll on how the school districts were held to be free nation sees its schools, feel that the of discrimination and thus at liberty biggest problem facing public to drop their court-ordered education is drug abuse. desegregation plans (though 117 If "biggest" is synonymous with did not choose to do so). most prevalent and widespread, the The most discussed such case was majority of superintendents and that of Riddick v. School Board of principals and teachers would Norfolk, in which a Fourth U.S. (according to other polls) rank drug Court of Appeals panel ruledat abuse farther down the list, just as the urging of the Justice they did with discipline when Departmentthat this Virginia city Gallup ranked it number one. could abandon a 14-year-old busing But if "biggest" means most program and return to feared and loathesome and neighborhood schools, even though potentially most destructive, school 10 of the city's 36 elementary people and the public would schools would thereupon become doubtless see eye to eye. all or nearly all black. In any case, the public's Everyone involved agreed that perception carries some important the Norfolk ruling, made in implications for matters ranging February 1986, invited similar from school-student relations to the action by other districts makeup of the curriculum. particularly when the U. S. If the Gallup Poll respondents Supreme Court subsequently let the had their way, anti-drug instruction Circuit Court's ruling stand. programs would b: come One decision seemed to buck the mandatory, students caught using anti-desegregation tide when the drugs would be expelled, school U.S. Supreme Court, in Wygant v. authorities would be free to search 20 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

12 students and their lockers at will, The situation is complicated by and drug abuse testing would be the sparsity of documented evidence instigated not just for student on the nature and scope of the athletes but for students in general. problem, and the propensity of Newspaper reports from around some to make either false or the nation suggest that it is the unprovable statementsthe latter ideatestingthat is assertion by one political figure, for capturing the greatest attention; example, that 60 percent of the and with competency testing for nation's high school students have teachers now an established fact, tried cocaine (as contrasted with drug testing for students and staff the 17 percent found in a respected alike may lie just around the University of Michigan study). corner. Meanwhile the anxiety level That's pretty tough stuff, and continues to rise, fed by a barrage many school administrators are of stories in the press and on TV. considerably less than enthusiastic Where Gallup found Americans about it. In a poll of 1,209 high reporting drugs to be the biggest schools, for example, 55 percent flat problem in the schools, a New York out opposed testing and many Times /CBS News poll said it was others expressed reservations. the biggest in the nation. Reservations would seem to be in The response has been played out order, not only on constitutional chiefly in the media and in grounds or to avoid getting the stem-winding speeches. school's insurance cancelled but The President and Mrs. Reagan also because testing would appear make an unprecedented joint to be far less reliable than most presentation attacking drugs, people suppose. televised nationally in what the As an experiment, the White House says is part of a Washington Post reports, the "major" PR campaign ... Led by federal Center for Disease Control the Democrats, the House and then anonymously sent urine samples to the Senate dramatically enact a 13 drug-testing firms. The result: sweeping, multibillion dollar Most firms were correct less than program of prevention and half the time in identifying such punishment...Politicians of all drugs as cocaine, morphine, and stripes and persuasions proclaim barbiturates. that they are foursquare against "In contrast," the article drugs ... continued, Defense Department "Drug-baiting," a Northeastern officials declared that in military University sociology professor wryly testing, initial tests are correct noted, "is competing with about 90 percent of the time. red-baiting amung vote-hungry While 90 percent is heaven knows politicians." better than 50, few school officials For the schools it may be and few school insurance carriers debatable as to whether the danger would enjoy the prospect that at is more talked about than least ten percent of the youngsters significant, but the question is also or teachers would incorrectly be irrelevant. The pressure is on to do stigmatized as a drug user. something. 21 NEWSIEST DEVELOPMENTS 411-711111 VINE, 1.,=,110 .111.171=111,!. What shapes up as one of the teachers' salariesteacher testing 13 likeliest moves is the establishment soon became what now shapes up as of a voluntary system of drug an irresistible national movement. testing now being tried in several The teacher unions initially high schools in southern California. raised vigorous objections to the Students raking part in the entire testing concept. So ftir as program fill out a form, with their testing stew teachers is concerned, parents, that is turned over to the however, the resistance soon family doctor. Once a month a tapered off and was in any case committee at school draws names ineffective. out of a hat. The parents of those Thus today, according to an selected are notified and make American Association of Colleges arrangements for testing at a for Teacher Education survey, 37 hospitalfor a fee of $18 to $20. states require new teachers to pass The parents get the results and pay a written test before they am enter the cost; the school is not involved. the classroom and seven others For vai'...s reasons, the require would-be teachers to pass a unreliability of tests among them, test before they may enter training. such a program could not. w.. As one education college dean expected to wipe out the problem. pointed out, mandated testing of It is nonetheless seen as very new teachers is now ar accepted promising, says principal Jack fact of American HP. Kennedy of Edison High School in The testing of on-the-job Huntington Beach. Now when teachers, however, is another students are pressured by friends to matter. Here the outrage level try a drug, he says, they have a marked by lawsuits and good reason to say nobecause demonstrationsremains high, they don't want to be caught in the though some say the opposition testing program. shows signs of crumbling. The issue was joined first in The Teacher-Testing Controversy Arkansas, where 10 percent of the Of the issues facing the education teachers and administrators failed a profession today, competency test combining math, reading, and testing for teachers ranks as writing skills. Then came Georgia, probably the most pestiferous, where 12 percent failed tests in disturbing, and divisive. their specific subject areas. In With the general public, by Texas, where the test focused on contrast, the matter seems to have reading and writing, 3.6 percent been settled. People assume that failed. (In all three states those the continuing educational reform failing had an opportunity to retake movement carries the promise of the test at a later date, and assuring first-rate teachers, and exemptions also were provided for.) that assuring first-rate teachers To illustrate what teachers and means testing them. administrators were confronted Thus when state governors have with, the three-hour Texas set out to sell packages of examination covered reading and educational improvements writing and involved 85 improvements that included raising multiple-choice questionsof -22 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

14 which 75 percent (64) had to be permission from the publisher for answered correctlyplus a short duplication is obtained. composition. Here is a typical C. Copyrighted workbooks. question from the reading section: D. Materials that are not copyrighted. Adapted from a school board policy statement. Those taking the test were supposed Section Ilb: Regulations Regarding to check item C. In the writing Duplication of Materials. section of the test, typical questions 1. Materials that are not called upon the teachers to copyrighted may be copied for recognize that "forem" is not the nonprofit educational purposes. way to spell "foreign" and that the 2. Copyrighted materials including word "English" is supposed to be books, reprints, or periodicals shall capitalized. not be copied without written In the three states that now test permission from the publisher if on-the-job teachers and in others

- these materials could otherwise be where similar programs are under purchased. consideration, there is a strong and 3. "Consumable" materials (that often bitter hostility among most are copyrighted) shall not be teachers and administrators mixed copied. Workbooks, exercises, and with approval by some (with the test booklets fall under the category latter including a teacher who said of consumable materials. "If we can't pass a test like this we 4. Students shall not be charged shouldn't be teaching."). more than the price of the copies. To some extent the opposition is a matter of pride, as when the head According to this selection, which of the Association of Texas of the following materials may not Professional Educators complained be copied? that Texas officials "assumed that A. Periodicals that can not be 200,000 tenhers were incompetent purchased. until they proved otherwise." B. Materials for which written The three other chief objections 93' NEWSIEST DEVELOPMENTS

are more universal: Standards that would identify the 15 Such testing is unfair. Both skills and knowledge basic for National Education Association first-rate teachers, and then issue President Mary H. Futrell and certificates to those evaluated as American Federation of Teachers possessing them. President Albert Shanker charged No new or on-the-job teacher that to test those already in the would berequiredto take the tests profession is to change the rules in involved in obtaining these the middle of the game. Carnegie seal; of approval; the A paper-and-pencil test is no certification process would be adequate measure of a good "completely voluntary." teacher; as one pointed out, "A test The report pointedly notes, cannot measure motivation, however, that certificate holders dedication, and caring." could expect to be "eagerly sought," Testing works special harm on perhaps particularly by districts members of minorities, and with attractive "compensation especially on graduates of systems." The stick would be firmly traditionally underfinanced black affixed to a carrot. colleges. In Arkansas the failure Neither the Carnegie approach rate in predominantly black Lee nor an: of the other proposals for a County was 34 percent as system of national teacher testing contrasted with 2.6 percent in will be in place by next Wednesday, mostly white Carroll County; and in but the tide appears to be running. Texas, two-thirds of those who It would seem a good bet that failed were members of minorities. one day there will be a national Cogent though these objections system of teacher and administrator may be, they failed to prevail in testing, perhaps run by educators Arkansas, Georgia, and Texasas themselves, after the fashion of did lawsuits, for that matterand tests for lawyers, physicians, in the long run seem unlikely to architects, engineers, and other prevail in the rest of the nation. professionals. Testing may be unfair and evoke damaging morale problems, but The Beleagured Textbook public opinion is on the other side. What former Secretary of Education According to a recent Gallup poll T. H. Bell described as the chief (see p. 147), eight out of 10 obstacle to educational reform, the Americans believe that teacher "dumbing down" of school testing is an important step toward textbooks, just may be abating. strengthening the schools. At least some resistance has A foxy approach to the fairness emerged, an important issue popped up with the development for at least two publication ofA Nation Prepared: reasons: Teachers for the 21st Century,the First, between 75 and 95 percent report of a panel assembled by the of what is taught in the nation's prestigious Carnegie Foundation. classrooms, researchers say, stems Among other things it called for directly from the textbook being the establishment of a National used. And second, as reading expert Board for Professional Teaching Jeanne Chall of the Harvard Center 94 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 textbooks usually are composed not 16 for Learning has reported, there :s a clear relationship between low by individuals but by teamsteams quality textbooks and low Scholastic that slavishly follow "readability" Aptitude Test scores. formulas calling for very small The resistance has been especially words and very short sentences, noteworthy in the two states, thus theoretically making them California and Texas, that have the easier to read. The result can be most powerful role in shaping something like this: textbook content and quality (because they are the largest of the Rabbit said, "I can run. I can run 24 states that purchase textbooks fast. You can't run fast." Turtle said, on a statewide basis). "Look, Rabbit. See the park. You and California recently stunned the I will run. We'll run to the park." publishing world by flatly rejecting every 7th and 8th grade science text This is an "improved" version of submitted for consideration, on ;op's fable about "The Tortoise grounds that their discussions of the Hare" (neither of which is evolution were so inane as to be ever mentioned). Its trouble is that worthless. while the words are easily grasped, Texas took a tentative step in the the overall effect is numbing. same direction when it abandoned a Readability formulas, critics say, 10year-old requirement that tend to turn youngsters away from evolution be presented as only one reading rather than toward it. possible explanation of the As for emptiness of content, a development of life, a policy that major problem is of course posed by had been adopted at the urging of self-appointed censors who fundamentalist proponents of persuade school officials, selection "creationism." committees, and publishers that And the prestigious National evolution is heretical, Romeo and Academy of Science launched a Juliet prurient, Huckleberry Finn national campaign to persuade racist, and the Civil War too science teachers to resist efforts to controversial to risk description. require them to teach the creationist approach. Meanwhile, however, textbooks remain under vigorous assault, with the onslaught tending to take two _...A11114111a. major formsone concerned with learning and the other involving a potpourri of personal beliefs, most (but not all) of which seem based I.. fundamentalist religion and/or right-wing politics. In the "learning" category the chief complaints are that textbooks are abysmally written and too often superficial. The former is said to reflect in part the fact that today's NEWSIEST DEVELOPMENTS

The various state and local 'live short shrift to religiona 17 textbook committees compouni the complaint registered by several problem by drawing up long lists of sources, including Americans subjects they deem vital to cover. United for Separation of Church Anxious to sell lots of copies, the and State ... publishers try to please everyone by fail to stress the roles that at. least mentioning all of these conservatives played in shaping U.S. subjects. That means elucidating history (contained in a study fewsimply as a matter of space. performed under a Department of And meanwhile there are taboo Education grant). words and phrases to avoid Some observers say they sense "birthday cake," for example that such complaints have become (opposed by the anti-sugar lobby) less influential and are even and hamburgers, hot dogs, and becoming less frequent, and that pizza (condemned by nutritionists publishers have become sufficiently as junk foods). impressed by the "dumbing down" As such censorship suggests, criticism that they are now many of the complaints about toughening up. textbooks bear not on the quality of At least some textbook editcy' are the writing or the meaningfulness said to no longer regard reading of the content but on a wide range formulas as inviolable, and the of fervently held beliefs. As a Pittsburgh Post-Gazette reported sampling, there have been heated :hat a third-grade reading text there objections to textbooks and other contained such words as school materials that: "astronaut" and "nodule," once portray boys as enjoying considered heavy even for fourth cooking (contrary to the graders. male/female roles indicated in the Perhaps the most definitive word scriptures) or encourage children to comes from a panel of experts who use their imagination or to reason reviewed the 31 most frequently things out (rather than relying on used junior and senior high school the Bible)... American history textbooks. As involve magic, witchcraft (e.g., reported in the New York Times, Halloween), or the supernatural ... the panel felt that most of the new "gloss over" the evils of texts coming out are "very good" Communism and fail to present and that "some are excellent." American institutions in a All in all, said the group's sufficiently favorable light (this chairman, University of Texas from a Department of Education Professor 0. L. Davis, Jr., the official who was promptly attacked improvements have been on grounds that the federal "dramaik. government has no business messing around with textbooks) ... No Pass, No Play stereotype women and H. Ross Perot tends to make a deep members of minorities ... impression. portray conflict between When a couple of his employees children and established authority, were imprisoned in Iran, the especially parents ... billionaire Dallas computer 96 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 18 magnate made an impression on and stiffened academic the Ayatollah Khomeini by hiring requirements. his own strike force to rescue them. One of its sections banned public More recently Perot made an high school students from impression on the citizens of Texas participating in any extracurricular by championing a "no pass, no activity if they were failing in any play" eligibility rule that has subject. No one paid much decimated public high school attention to the new law during the football teams and sharply curtailed basketball and track seasons. And other extracurricular activities. then came football. In a state where the people of one By October coaches were town built a $6.1 million stadium complaining that 15 percent of for its team and those in another their varsity players had been felled chartered a couple of 727s to see by the law and 40 percent of their their team play for a championship, junior varsity and freshmen players. the impact was convulsive. Similar carnage was reported for The rule was promptly challenged such other activities as bands (a in the State Supreme Court. When director in San Angelo declared that that move failed, opponents turned the rule had "wiped out my entire to the highest court in the land, the tuba section"), debate teams, and U. S. Supreme Courtfirst 4-H clubs. claiming denial of free speech; and 4-H had in fact figured in Perot's when that also failed, claiming vigorous campaign for "no pass, no racial discrimination (on grounds play." In one speech after another that the law particularly hurts he told of a 4-H student who missed blacks and Hispanics). 35 days of schoolwhile taking his Meanwhile the state's high school prize rooster to stock shows. A football coaches formed a political Houston reporter who checked into action committee to raise funds to the story found another 4-H-er who oppose Perot's collaborator in his had traveled with his prize sheep for "war on ignorance," Governor Mark no less than 44 days. White. While what he felt to be mixed-up The "no pass, no play" rule is school priorities were part of Perot's part of a broad educational reform thinking, he and Governor White law enacted by the state legislature and the state legislature had an that became effective in 1985. economic motive as well. Among other things it raised They noted that at a time when teacher salaries, required teachers traditional Texas job opportunities and administrators to pass a test, were fadingwhen the state was moving from an oil/agriculture- based economy to a knowledge- based economysomething had to be done about the proposition that Texas high school students ranked near the bottom in the nation on Scholastic Aptitude Tests. The opposition nonetheless remained stiff and relentless, and c7 NEWSIEST DEVELOPMENTS may '.iave contributed to Mite's Education Act) and more downfall in his bid for re-election. particularly its Chapter I (formerly "No pass, no play" became a Title I). major issue in the 1986 Commanding annual outlays of gubernatorial election. Coaches and about $3.5 billion and serving some some parents wrote letters, made 5 million "educationally deprived," telephone calls, and staged low-income children in public and demonstrations. And a crack private schools, Chapter I is seemed to develop when the generally regarded as having been Speaker of the Texas House of so successful that its Representatives, a leader in getting reauthorization would normally be the bill passed, allowed as how routine. maybe the penalties were too stiff. Then into the breach stepped the Still, "no pass, no play" seemed U.S. Secretary -sc Education, destined to survive. William J. Bennett, spurred by a In Texas, opinion polls July 1985 U.S. Supreme Court consistently show support for the church-state ruling in the case of idea, California passed a law Aguilar v. Felton. banning extracurricular activities to This ruling prohibited public senior high students who fail to school teachers from providing maintain at least a C average, and Chapter I instruction to children in in Georgia the state board of private and religious schools and education and the General Assembly touched off considerable got into a competition to see which dislocation. could enact such a program first. Himself a graduate of such a And beyond that, it would not be school, Bennett had consistently wise to count out H. Ross Perot. gone to considerable lengths to assure that private education was A Farewell to Vouchers? treated with what he regarded as The exasperating debate over proper respect, and he was outraged tuition vouchers, noteworthy by the Court's "misguided" decision chiefly for elevating bloodpressures and its "fastidious disdain for and lowering the level of education religion." chitchat, is blessedly destined for The Department of Education's some sort of settlement during response was contained in proposed 1987-88. legislation that resurrected tuition Odds-makers say the voucher vouchers, a notion the idea probably will go back where it administration had previously came froma dark cave in a proposed in 1983, evoking minimal desolate part of the outback enthusiasm. leaving greater room for discussion Waggishly tagged The Equity and of more constructive educational Choice Act (TEACH), the bill aimed matters. at converting Chapter I into a The catalyst for this resolution is program of tuition vouchers for the the expiration in 1987 of the parents of children eligible for Education Consolidation and Chapter I assistance. The vouchers Improvement Act (nee the would be worth an average of about Elementary and Secondary $600 each (the amount would vary 9 8 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

20from state to state) and would be member called it a "swindle." redeemable at any public, private, So general was the criticism that or parochial school. it was only to be expected that there Bennett blandly declared that the might be some backing away from measure would give poor families TEACH. It came in the form of some of the same options enjoyed CHOICEfrom a group of House by wealthy and middle class parents Republicans who proved that they, when they enroll their children in too, could produce dubious private schools. acronyms by introducing the The proposal seemed to have Children's Options for Intensive struck a chord, for the Gallup Poll Compensatory Education Act. on education subsequentlyrevealed Among other things the bill that the voucher concept had provided for individualized considerable popular support (see instruction plans (IEPs) and for p. 148). vouchers for children whose IEPs As proposed by Bennett, however, called for special instruction at vouchers also drew considerable another public or private school. opposition. While preferring CHOICE to The Wichita Eagle-Beacon said it TEACH, the great majority of was "the administration'slatest education leaders were vastly more effort to subsidize private schools," inclined toward HOC! (Hands Off the Houston Chronicle called it Chapter I) and toward laying tuition "misleading and mischievous," the vouchers to rest for a while. Los Angeles Times said the proposal "might well be unconstitutional" and in any case "would simply siphon funds out of a program for the poor," and the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette said it "would enfeeble the public schools by transferring funds to private schools that are not required to educate children of all abilities and those with physical and mental handicaps." Said New York Commissioner of Education Gordon Ambach on behalf of the 'Thuncil of Chief State School Officers, "The administration has advanced no sound reason for gutting one of the most effective federal education programs." Speculating on how much education $ 6 0 0 would buy, a Republican member of the House Education and Labor Committee said the proposal was a case of "teasing the poor," and a Democrat America's Unique System 21 of Education

he most basic, most people increasingly moved to cities, compelling, most and as costs steadily rose, distinctive consolidations dramatically reduced characteristic of the number of school districts. American education Today there are fewer than 16,000. is its exemplification of the In any case, the United States democratic ideal. approach to public education American schools educate all remains unique. Many observers youngsters, irrespective of their have marveled not only that the background, however disadvantaged system works so well but that it they may be, whatever handicaps manages to work at all. they may have, whatever their gifts The world's nations have or problems or their plight. In this developed three basic administrative respect the American system of styles in providing free public education is like no other. education for their people: It is novel also in the lengths to (1) centralized authority vested in which it has carried the national government, (2) joint decentralization. In the 1930s, in national-local control whereby the fact, the "system" actually consisted central government enacts school of 127,000 separate, independent laws and disburses funds but leaves systems. That's how may local administration to loalities, and school districts, each with its own (3) decentralized control under school board and decision-making which most of the authority is held authority, were charged with by political units below the national educating American youth. As level. 0 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8

22 Centralized Systems though it has proved highly National control is to be found in effective there. London sets school democratic and authoritarian states policy but allows local authorities to alike, but for different reasons. interpret it to meet local needs, Sweden and Denmark have preferences, and school conditions. egalitarian schools, centrally Central government inspectors controlled to assure that every periodically visit schools to make student has an equal opportunity to sure funds a1,1 wisely spent and advance solely on merit. France has national policies followed. a central system in order to Japan has a similar national-local equalize the quality of education partnership, but the tradition of nationwide. Italy stresses vocational local citizen involvement in school and religious training, controlling affairs is not as strong as England's. the curriculum in private as well as public schools. Belgium, the Decentralized Systems Netherlands, Greece, and most State and local control is usually Middle Eastern nations use the found in countries where public centralized approach because they schooling began at the grass roots are small and it's the most practical level and political unity was fostered and economical way. In Latin by a confederation of sovereign America, the centralized schooling states. authority deals with illiteracy, the Following World War II, West isolation of communities in rugged Germany delegated education terrain, inadequate funding, and authority to its 11 states, including political instability. West Berlin. States exercise close The Soviet Union controls supervision of local schools, though schools from Moscow to assure that financing is shared with local no religious or non-Marxist districts, which have full doctrine is taught and to responsibility for maintaining accommodate mitiethnic physical pk.nts and providing for populations in its far-flung student health and welfare. republics by providing instruction India's 1947 Constitution, in more than 100 languages as well adopted at independence from Great as Russian. Major decisions Britain, charged the federal affecting education are made not by government with providing public the government but by the education to children up to age 14. Communist Party. Like the Soviet However, New Delhi has lacked the Union, China prohibits private funds to provide a national system, schools and colleges; it relies on and responsibility has been assumed public education to produce good by the states. They in turn confront citizens and train specialists in the task of educating a population fields that advance the central speaking 12 major languages and government's economic and 200 dialects. India has 300 million cultural goals. illiterate citizens. Public education in Canada is a Joint National-Local Systems joint function of the ten provinces Few nations follow England's lead and local districts. The Dominion and use joint administration, government retains authority to .31 AMERICA'SSYSTEM overrule any provincial school law. dramatically. By the early 1980s, 23 It also guarantees the education the state share was up to more than rights of minorities and operates 47 percent, with localities paying 44 the schools in the Yukon and percent. The state and federal Northwest Territories and those for shares were somewhat lower for Indians and Eskimos. education as a whole, including Australia's 1900 Constitution colleges and universities. delegated school responsibility to Nevertheless, states vary in the the six states, each of which has a degree of responsibility delegated to ministry of education and requires local authorities, though no state marked conformity of curriculum board of education has the and procedures in all schools within authority of state ministries in its jurisdiction. Since 1968, the other countries. Massachusetts, for Commonwealth government has instance, delegates nearly all operated the schools in the Capital authority. New York, in contrast, and Northwest Territories. has considerable control over education standards through state The American System examinations for all students, and As a decentralized enterprise, public Delaware also tends toward education in the United States is an centralization. anomaly. The U.S. Constitution, State financial support for unlike those of many nations, made schools also ,ties. Some states no mention of education in setting have less vigorous economies than forth the functions of the federal others and thus lower tax revenues government. Thus, under the Tenth to help support public schools. For Amendment, Article X, education example, New York in 1984-85 was was one of many functions left by able to spend $5,219 per pupil, default to states. Public schools while Mississippi spent only $2,205. from colonial days onward were founded and largely supported by The Federal Role local initiative. While not constitutionally States through the years have mandated, federal support for continued to give local residents a schools has been public policy since major voice in school operations, the republic's founding. The along with a major responsibility Founding Fathers recognized that for supporting them, primarily struggling young states and through local property taxes. Towns and cities well into the 20th century provided nearly all school funding. As recently as 1920, local taxes provided 83.2 percent of public elementary and secondary schcol expenditures, with states picking up 16.5 percent, the federal government a miniscule 0.3 percent. After World War II, both state and federal support for public schools began to increase -, 2 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

24 territories lacked the resources to schools for remedial and provide the quality of education for enrichment activities focused on all children demanded by a disadvantaged, handicapped, Indian, democratic society. non-English-speaking, and other Congress in the Ordinances of children with special needs. 1785 and 1787 set aside land for However, federal financial schools in the Northwest Territory. support has declined in the last few In 1$62, with the Civil War dividing years, even as education costs have the nation, Congress nevertheless soared. By 1985-86, overall looked to the future by providing expenditures for public elementary public lands that states could use or and secondary education reached an sell to support land-grant colleges. estimated $159.3 billion, an all-time These colleges offered research and high. Federal funds paid only 6.2 training in new agricultural percent of the bill, down from 9 practices to help the nation's percent in the early 1980s. This was agrarian economy prosper. the smallest federal contribution in Federal aid to improve the school 20 years. curriculum began in 1917 with Reduced federal support in part programs to upgrade high school reflected the efforts of Congress to vocational training. In the late lower the national debt by cutting 1960s President Lyndon Johnson's all federal nondefense programs. Great Society programs opened the More serious cuts were directed flood gates of federal aid to specifically at education by the education. By the late 1970s, well Reagan administration, which over a hundred federal programs advocates a less active federal role channeled billions of dollars into in assisting public schools.

-r Some Vital Education 25 Statistics

In the United States today, education is the primary activity of nearly one out of every four of the nation's 241,000,000-or-so citizensas students or as members of school or college staffs. That remarkable fact is part of a special portrayal of American education as seen in statistical tables and charts such as those to be found on the following pages. Their source (see page 50) is the U.S. Department of Education and more particularly the department's Center for Education Statistics.

General Table1: Participants in American educativ, fall 1985 27 Table 2: National enrollments, 1983 27 Table 3: Estimated enrollments for 1985 vs 1990 28 Table 4: Percentage of 3- to 24-year-olds enrolled in school, 1983 29

Public education structure Table 5: School districts by state, fall 1983 30 Table6: Number of public schools, by type, 1970-71 to 1982-83 31 Table7: K-12 schools by size of enrollment, 198"-83 32

Enrollments Table8: Enrollment trends, 1980 to 1993 33 Figure 1: Public school enrollments, 1970 w 1994 34 Figure 2: Change in enrollments by state, 1980 vs 1984 35 Figure 3: Trends in preprimary enrollments, 1970 to 1993 36 Table 9: Compulsory attendance ages by state 37 Table 10: Higher education enrollment, 1979 to 1983 38 Tale 11: Women vs. men enrolled in higherAducation, 1963 to 1983 39 r ..- 4 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 26Instructional staff Table 12: State public school staffs, 1983 40 Table 13: Trends in staffing patterns, 1970-71 to 1984-85 41 Figure 4: Trends in staffing patterns 1970-71 to 1984-85 42 Table 14: Trends in numbers of K-12 teachers, 1981 to 1993 43 Table 15: Demand for K-12 teachers, 1981 to 1993 44 Table 16: Average classroom teacher salaries, 1959-60 to 1983-84 45 Table 17: Trends in pupil/teacher ratios, 1959-60 to 1934-85 46

Expenditures Table 18: Expenditures by schools and colleges, 1899-1900 to 1985-86 47 Table 19: K-12 expenditures per pupil, 1929-30 to 1983-84 48 Table 20: Revenue sources for K-12 schools, 1919-20 to 1983-84 49

The source of the numbers 50

-;-,;111: It 'i 0, I VITAL STATISTICS

Table 1.Participants in American education, fall 1985 27

[In thousands)

Public Private Institutions of Participants elementary and elementary and AU levels secondary secondary higher schools schools education

Total 83,883 43,280 8,248 14,135 Enrollment 57,200 39,350 5,700 12,160 Teachers 3,183 2,160 343 890 Other professional'staff. 845 300 80 486 Nonprofessional staff 2,435 1,480 126 830

'Includes full-time aid part-time faculty withhe rank of Instructor or above. NOTEThe enrollment figures Include full-time and part-time enrollees at all levels of education. (Practically all elementary and secondary pupils are enrolled on a full-time basis) The data for teachers and other staff In public and private elementary and secondary schools are reported In terms of full-time equivalent'. The 'toff data for Institutions of higher education Include full-time and part-time professional, administrative, and nonprofessional personnel. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Sta- tistics, Pro /#ctions of Education Statistics to 7992 -93; and unpub- lished data (March 1986).

Table 2.National enrollments, 1983

Publicly Privately Private as Level of instruction All schools controlled controlled percent of schools schools enrtotalollment

MI levels 67,507,458 49,010,631 8,496,927 14.8

lemantary and secondary school' 45,042,797 39,327,797 5,715,000 12.7 Preprimary 2 3,558,541 2,857,541 1 701,000 19.7 Grades 1-8 27,729,789 24,115,789 3,814,000 13.0 Grades 9-12 and postgraduate 13,754,487 12,354,487 1,400,000 10.2

Higher education 4 12,484,881 9,882,734 2,781,927 22.3 Undergraduate 9,707,171 7,733,184 1,973,987 20.3 First-professional 278,529 113,422 185,107 59.3 Graduate 1,104,808 893,028 411,782 37.3 Unclassified 1,374,153 1,143,102 231,061 16.8

II:wird:re enrollments In local public school systems and in most private schools (religiously affiliated and nonsectarian). Excludes subcolleglate de- partments of Institutions of higher education. residential schools for excep- tional children, and Federal schools. 'Includes kindergarten and a relatively small number of nursery school pupils. 'Excludes preprimary pupils In schools without elementary grades. 'Includes and part-time students enrolled In degree-credit and nondegree-crodit programs. SOURCES: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, "Fall Enrollment in Colleges and Universities. 1983:" unpub- lished data from the Common Core of Date; and preliminary data from the Private School Survey. 19A3-84. E D U C A T I O N ALMANAC1 9 8 7 - 1 9 88

Table 3.-Estimated enrollments for 1985 vs 1990

(In thousands]

Level of Instruction and type of control Fall 1985 Fall 1990

AU 'evils (elementary, secondary, and higher education) 57200 57,782 Public 48,780 49,387 Private..., 8,420 8,396 Elementary and secondary schools , 45.050 45,809 Public.. 39,350 39,889 Private... 5,700 5,800 Preprimary' 3,898 4,159 Public.. 3,158 3,319 Privatt... 740 840 Grades 1-8 27,322 29,388 Public 23,782 25,608 Private. 3,580 3,760 Grades 9-12 13,830 12,144 Public 12,430 10,944 Private 1,400 1,200

1110.3r education' 12,150 12,093 Public 9,430 9,498 Private 2,720 2,595

1 Includes enrollments In local public school systems and In most private schools (religiously affiliated end nonsectarian). Excludes subcolloglate de- partments of institutions of higher education, residential schools for excel). tional children, and Federal schools. Excludes preprimary pupils In schools without elementary trades. ' Includes kindergarten and a relatively small number of nursery school pupils. I Includes full-time and part-Urne students enrolled In degree-credit and nondegree-eredit programs In colleges, universities, professional schools, teachers colleges, and 2-year colleges. SOURCE U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Sta- tistics, r'actions of Education Statistic., to 7992 -93; and unpub- lished tabulations (March 19813). VITAL STATISTICS

Table 4.-Percentage of 3- to 24-year-olds enrolled in school:1983 29

3 and 4 5 and 6 7 to 13 14 to 17 18 and 20 and 22 to '44 Year years years years years 19 years21 years years

1965 10.6 84.9 99.4 93.2 46.3 27.6 13.2 1966 12.5 85.8 99.3 93.7 47.2 29.9 15.2 1967 14.2 87.4 99.3 93.7 47.6 33.3 13.6 1968 15.7 87.6 99.1 94.2 50.4 31.2 13.8 1969 16.1 88.4 99.2 94.0 50.2 34.1 15.4

1970 20.5 89.5 99.2 94.1 47.7 31.9 14.9 1971 21.2 91.6 99.1 94.5 49.2 32.2 15.4 1972 24.4 91.9 99.2 93.3 46.3 31.4 14.8 1973 24.2 92.5 99.2 92.9 42.9 30.1 14.5 1974 28.8 94.2 99.3 92.9 43.1 30.2 15.1

1975 31.5 94.7 99.3 93.6 46.9 31.2 16.2 1976 31.3 95.5 99.2 93.7 46.2 32.0 17.1 1977 32.0 95.8 99.4 93.6 46.2 31.8 16.5 1978 34.2 95.3 99.1 93.7 45.4 29.5 16.3 1979 35.1 95.8 99.2 93.6 45.0 30.2 15.8

1980 36.7 95.7 99.3 93.4 46.4 31.0 16.3 1981 36.0 94.0 99.2 94.1 49.0 31.6 16.5 1982 36.4 95.0 99.2 94.4 47.8 34.0 16.8 1983 37.5 95.4 99.2 95.0 50.4 32.5 16.6

Includes enrollment In any typo of graded MSc.parodiat aMho( private ach901 in the regular school stom. Includes nursery schools, lursdergartens.elo e&o ools. ecrboom. ocllegos. univoratbes. and professional schools. Attendame may be on eller a full. me c parlbme basis and dung the day c night Enrol ants h -speelarschools, such as trade schools or business col. loges.Innot Included. NOTE -Cataare based uponsample surveysof the civAan noninstgtubonal pop. utshon. SOURCE: U.S. Departme:4 of Commerce. Bureauof the Census. Current Poputs bOnReports, Series P-20. No 294 and No. 394. EDUCATION ALMANAC1 987- 1 988

30 Table 5.School districts by state, fall 1983

School districts. fall 1983 Change in numbcr of operating State or other area Non- districts. 1982 Total Operating operating to 1983 ( denotes decrease)

United States 16.747 15,398 349 101 Alabama 128 128 0 Alaska 53 53 0 Arizona 221 202 19 4 Arkansas 367 364 3 7 California 1.030 1.027 3 8 Colorado 181 181 0 Connecticut 18.5 185 0 Delaware Id 17 2 District of Columbia 1 1 0 Florida 67 67 0 Georgia 187 187 0 Hawaii 1 1 0 Idaho 115 114 1 1 Illinois 1.009 1.007 2 2 Indiana 305 304 1 Iowa 439 437 2 3 Kansas 305 304 1 2 Kentucky 180 180 0 Louisiana 88 86 0 Maine. 282 230 52 Maryland 24 24 0 Massachusetts 404 348 58 Michigan.. 574 573 1 Minnesota 437 435 2 Mississippi 154 153 1 Missouri 545 544 1 2 Montana... 581 551 10 10 Nebraska 994 930 64 38 Nevada 17 17 0 New Hampshire 169 158 11 New Jersey ...... 604 581 23 4 New Mexico 89 89 0 New York 720 713 7 2 North Carolina 142 141 1 2 North Dakota 321 288 33 Ohio ...... 818 614 2 1 Oklahoma 815 815 0 1 Oregon. 309 307 2 1 Pennsylvania 500 500 0 Rhode Island 40 40 0 South Carolina. 92 92 0 South Dakota 195 187 8 Tennessee 143 141 2 5 Texas 1.075 1,072 3 4 Utah 40 40 0 Vermont 273 245 28 Virginia ...... 138 134 4 Washington 299 298 1 2 West Virginia 55 65 0 Wisconsin 432 431 1 2 Wyoming 49 49 0

SOURCE. U.S. ()apartment of Education. National Center for Education Sta. tist!cs, "Common Core of Data" nunday. 9 VITAL STATISTICS

Table 6.Number of public schools, by type, 1970-71 to 1982-83 31

School year Type of school 1970-71 1974-75 1978-79 1980-81 1982-83 Schools with elementary grades only: Total.. - 64.020 81,759 80,312 69.326 68.051 Middle schools...--- ...... 2.080 3.224 5,879 6.003 6,875 Oneteacher schools-....----. 1.815 1.247 1.056 921 798 Other elementary schools...... -...... 60.125 57.288 53,377 52,402 50.378 Schools with secondary grades only To..... --.--- ..... ----- 23.592 23.837 22,834 22.819 22,383 Junior high schools' --...... 7,750 7,590 6.282 5,890 5.943 3.year or 4-year high schools ...... 11.265 11,480 11,410 10.758 11.678 lyear or &year high schools ..--. 3.887 4,122 4,429 4.193 4.067 Other schools s.--.--.....--.. 670 545 713 1.778 690 Combined ...... --..-..----...... 1,780 1.860 1.670 1,743 1,605

2 Normally Includes grades 7 and 8 or grades 7 through 9. s Includes schools with other grads spans. Incomplete high schools. and vocationst/tischnical high schools when separately Prom./ SOURCES: U.S. Department of Education. National Censor for Education Statistics. Statistics of Public Elementary and Secondary Day Schools: and special tabulations from the 'Common Cora of Data" Survey. EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987-1988

32 Table 7,-K-12 schools by size of enrollment, 1982-83

Schools by type Enrollment by type of school Enrollment size Corntined Corn' ined Elementary Secondary elementary/ Other' Elementary Secondary elementary/ Other' secondary secondary

Total 58,051 22,383 1,605 2,701 23,117,601 15,917,952 765,890305,500 Percents - 100.00 100 00 100 00100 00 100.00 10000 100 00 100.00 Under 100 7.94 8.64 19.46 62.81 1.01 071 183 18.92 100 to 199 12 63 10 30 9.79 19.01 4.82 2.10 291 18.81 200 to 299 16.10 8.39 10.04 8 37 10.16 2.90 5.22 14.12 300 to 399 ...... 19.07 7.83 10.42 2.79 16 68 7.71 6.75 400 to 499 15.70 7.70 10 29 209 17.60 4? 964 661 500 to 599 11.35 8.04 9 67 1.21 15 55 6..4 11.02 4.68 600 to 699 7.16 7.40 7.55 0.56 11.58 6 68 10 26 2.50 700 to 799 4.20 6 A5 530 0 93 7.86 6.72 8 24 490 13 96 3.80 800 to 999 . 3.76 10.32 7.55 0 60 8 32 12.79 1,000 to 1.499. 1,86 14.55 7.30 0.79 5.38 24.59 18 35 6 42 1,500 to 1,999. an 643 1.75 0.46 0 89 15 31 6 26 5.68 2,000 to 2,999. 502 3.49 0.75 028 0.13 11.25 3.70 4 60 2.22 3.003 or more ( s ) 043 0 12 0.09 003 2.19 0.89

Average size... 399 719 478I 142

Includes special educabon, alternative, and other schools not classified by Trade span. *Data by size of school for those schools reporting enrollment. *Less than .005 percent - -- Indicates data either not reportod, not available. or not applicable. NOTE.-These wolfram% data should be ,awded as approximations only. Totals differ from those reported in oth.s tables because this table repro. ants data reported by schools rather than by States or school districts. Be. cause of rounding. details may not add to totals. SOURCE U S. Department of Education. Nabonal Center for Education Stet :Mks, special tabulation from the "Common Core of Data" survey.

41 VITAL STATISTICS

Table 8.-Enrollment trends, 1980 to 1993 33

Thielschool enrollment Publicschool enrollment (In thousands) (In thousands)

Pre- Pre- ?re- ranprimary 9th to primary 9th to primary 9th to of to ith 12th to ith 12th to ith 12th year &rads grade grade grads grads jrads ... 19E0 31.666 14.652 27.674 13.313 3.992 1.339 19E1 31.345 14.255 27.245 12.844 4130 1.400 19E2 31.356 13.196 27.156 12.496 4.200 1.400 1913 31.2E1 13.754 26.997 12.355 4.315 1.400 1 19E4 31.229 13.776 26.929 12.376 4.300 1.400 Proje ted2 19E5 31.227 13.859 26.927 12.459 4.300 1.400 19E6 31.515 13.743 27.215 12.343 4.300 1.400 1987 32.060 13.371 27.660 12.071 4.400 1.300 19EE )2.592 12.972 21.192 11.672 4.400 1.300 1919 33.259 12.656 28.759 11.356 4.500 1.300 1990 33.977 12.413 29.377 11.213 4.600 1.200 1991 34.599 12.50E 29.899 11.308 4.700 1.200 1992 35.206 12.6E3 30.406 11.483 4.000 1.200 1993 35.764 12.996 30.064 11.696 4.900 1.300 1994 -- -- 31.129 12.10E -- - -Not available 'Total enrollment based on actual public school enrollment figures and projected private school figures because actual private school data for 1984 are not available. 2Projections of public school enrollment are based on current data, whereas the most recent data on private schools are for 1983. NOTE: Details may not add to totals because of rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Statistics of Public Elementary and Secondary Day Schools, various years: "Private Elementary and Secondary Education, 1983: Enrollment, Teat ers, and Schools," CS Bulletin 85-102b, De- cember 1984; Projections of Education Statistics to 1992-93, 1985, and unpublished tabula- tions (December 1984).

42 Figure 1.Public school enrollment: 1970 to 1994

'411i:::.z:::Flz

1990

SOURCE U.S. Department of Education, Center for Statistics,c.npublished tabulations. VITAL STATISTICS

Figure 2.Change in enrollments by state, 1980 vs 1984 35

Decline

V Increase less than 3 percent Increase greater than 3 percent

SOURCE. U.S. Department of Education, Center for St.itistics, unpublished tabulations.

4 4. EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987-1988 36 Figure 3.Trends in preprimary enrollments, 1970 to 1993

Enrollment 8,000,000 Projected

Total 7,000,000

6,000,000

5,000,000

4,000,000

3,000,000

2,000,000

1,000,000

0 19701973 1076 1983 1988 1993 Fall of year

Li5 VITAL STATISTICS

Table 9.Compulsory attendance ages by state 37

State Compulsory attendance'

Alabama 7 to 16 Alaska 7 to 16 Arizona 8 to 16 Arkansas 7 to 17 California 6 to 16 Colorado 7 to 16 Connecticut 7 to 16 Delaware 5 to 16 District of Columbia 7 to 17 Florida 6 to 16

Georgia 7 to 16 Hawaii 6 to 18 Idaho 7 to 16 Illinois 7 to 16 Indiana 7 to 16

Iowa 7 to 16 Kansas 7 to 16 Kentucky 6 to 18 Louisiana 7 to 16 Maine 7 to 17 Maryland 6 to 16 Massachusetts 6 to 16 Michigan 6 to 16 Minnesota 7 to 16 Mississippi 6 to 14 Missot.ri 7 to 16

Montana 7 to 16 Nebraska 2 7 to 16 Nevada 7 to 17 New Hemp t.ire 6 to 16 New Jersey 6 to 16 New Mexico 6 to 18 New York 6 to 16 North Carolina 7 to 16 North Dakota 7 to 16 Ohio 6 to 18 Oklahoma 7 to 18 Oregon 7 to 18 Pennsylvania 8 to 17 Rhode Island 7 to 16 South Carolina 5 to 17 South Dakota 27 to 16 Tennessee 7 to 17 Texas 37 to 16 Utah 6 to 18 Vermont 7 to 16 Virginia 5 to 17 Washington 8 to 18 West Virginia 6 to 16 Wisconsin 6 to 18 Wyoming 7 to 16

' During these years (inclusive) a child must attend school unless some approved basis for exempticn exist,. 'May leave anytime after completing 8th grade. 'Must complete academic year In which 18th birthday occurs. Source: Education Commission of the States, ''Compulsory School Age Re quirements, July 1984" 41 6 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987-1988

38 Table 10.Higher education enrollment, 1979 to 1983

Percent Type and ccntrol of 1979 1981 change, institution 1983 1978 to 1983

All Institutions 11,569,899 12,371,672 12,484,881 10.7 Universities 2,839,682 2,901,344 2,888,813 3.9 Other 4-year institutions 4,513,851 4,754,117 4,852,382 9.0 2-year indtutions 4,218,888 4,718,211 4,723,488 17.3

Public Institutions 9,036,822 9,647,032 9,682,734 10.2 Universities 2,099,525 2,152,474 2,154,790 4.5 Other 4-year Institutions 2,880,487 3,013,850 3,088,814 7.7 2-year institutions 4,058,810 4,480,708 4,459,330 15.1 Private institutions 2,533,077 2,724,840 2,781,927 12.4 Universities 740,057 748,870 734,023 2.2 Other 4year Institutions 1,833,184 1,740,287 1,783,708 11.4 2-year institutions 159,858 235,503 284,138 /1.0

'Large percentage Increase is due primarily to the addition of co loges accredited by the Natior.si Association of Trade end Tezhnical Schools in 1980 and 1981. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Sta- tistics, "Fall Enrollment In Colleges and Universities" survey.

7 VITAL STATISTICS

Table 11.Women vs men enrolled in higher education, 1963 to 1983

Attendance status Sex of student Control of institution Year Full-time LParttime Men Women Public Private

1983 (I ) (I ) 2,955,217 1,810,650 3,085,848 1,700,019 1984 (` ) (I ) 3,248,713 2,031,307 3,467,708 1,812,312 1985 (I ) (I ) 3,630,020 2,290,844 3,989,596 1,951,268 1986 4,438,606 21,951,266 3,856,216 2,533,656 4,348,917 2,040,955 1967 4,793,128 '2,118,820 4,132,800 2,778,948 4,816,028 2,095,720 1968 5,210,155 2,302,936 4,477,649 3,035,442 5,430,852 2,082,439 1969 5,498,883 2,505,777 4,746,201 3,258,459 5,896,868 2,107,792 1970 5,816,290 2,764,597 5,043,642 3,537,245 6,428,134 2,152,753 1971 6,077,232 2,871,412 5,207,004 3,741,640 6,304,309 2,144,335 1972 6,072,389 3,142,471 5,238,757 3,976,103 7,070,635 2,144,225 1973 6,189,493 3,412,630 5,371,052 4,231,071 7,410,516 2,182,607 1974 6,370,273 3,853,456 5,622,429 4,601,300 7,988,500 2,235,229 1975 6,841,334 4,343,525 6,148,997 5,035,862 8,834,508 2,550,351 1976 6,717,058 4,295,079 5,810,828 5,201,309 8,853,477 2,358,660 1977 6,792,925 4,492,862 5,789,016 5,496,771 8,846,993 2,438,794 1978 6,667,657 4,592,435 5,640,998 5,619,094 8,785,893 2,474,199 1979 6,794,039 4,775,860 5,682,877 5,887,022 9,036,822 2,533,077 1980 7,097,958 4,998,937 5,874,374 6,222,521 9,457,394 2,639,501 1981.... 7,181,250 5,190,422 5,975,056 6,396,616 9,647,032 2,724,640 1982.... 7,220.618 5,205,162 6,031,384 6,394,396 9,698,087 2,729,693 1983.-- 7,261,050 5,203,611 6,023,725 6,440,936 9,682,734 2,781,927

'Data not available. *Includes part-time resident students and all extension students. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Sta. tistics, -Fall Enrollment in Colleges and Universities" surveys. EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987-1988

40 Table 12.-State public school staffs, 1983

(In fullbme equivalents)

School staff Other School State or other area School Instruction. Gudance adrninistrarand library Classroom Librarians teachers al aides counselors staff tors KIPPOn staff

United 122,321 167,532 2,125,756 278,119 62,540 46,756 $62,696

2.040 2.268 35,819 2,930 659 1,155 18.381 Alaska 341 980 5,747 978 191 142 2.081 Artzona 1,204 520 26268 3.700 685 586 12.477 1.145 1,423 23,698 2,131 547 691 12.469 13.098 28.472 174,290 47,639 4.558 1.140 80,381

Colorado 2.190 3,981 28,421 3,490 928 717 12.420 Connecticut 1,400 32,317 0 1,795 566 0 Mtwara 341 418 5,429 579 151 107 2.397 District of Colurnbia ...... 300 371 5.569 534 244 180 2,287 Florida 4.848 - - - 85,028 14,877 3.152 2.191 49,213

3,455 3,659 56.491 9,100 1.183 1,833 27,817 Hawaxl 361 7.007 785 383 248 6.010 Idaho 520 508 9.847 819 243 173 2,631 4,089 1,489 102.130 9.166 2,231 2.211 53.994 Indiana 2.663 5,408 50,509 8.172 1,299 1,142 31,126

1,468 3,913 31,779 2.626 907 679 15.513 1.449 1,794 28.098 2.204 936 885 9.627 1.892 2.031 32.458 2,758 807 1.100 18,786 Louisiana. 2,316 3.118 42.179 6,501 884 1,200 26.189 Maine 799 169 13,492 1,960 352 207 4,854

Maryland 2,197 5,014 37,275 4.770 1,231 972 18,699 klassacht.setts 2,030 3,005 56.873 8,095 1.955 660 19,844 Mdhigan.. 10.838 4,551 79.982 9,987 3.196 1.547 38,392 Min *sots 1.626 3,215 39.392 8,193 858 720 13,681 Mississippi 1,334 2.755 242% 3.951 702 730 15,280

Missouri 3.458 48,761 3.347 2.068 1,209 30,344 Montana 497 9,479 1.109 002 323 414 Nebraska 1,031 17.548 2,043 509 505 7,042 Nevada 352 7,368 0 229 151 203 New Harrpshire 494 756 9,821 1,363 375 151 2.633

4,963 8,281 73,593 4.811 2.254 1.605 9,404 New Mexico 729 8,278 14,532 2.099 520 287 831 New N'ork 6,434 8,308 145,647 19,078 4,462 2.694 85,498 North Worms 3,278 3,928 55.126 16,011 1,602 2.019 21,241 North Dakota., - .... 143 395 7.067 661 158 178 2.820

Ohio 4,712 13,718 96,927 6,118 2.733 1.697 41,670 Oklahoma 1,742 2.466 34,999 3,317 1.092 649 13,674 Oregon 1,420 2,409 24,409 3,557 933 765 9,930 Pennsylvania 3.819 7,043 102.207 9,110 3,224 1.983 49,028 Rhode Island. 542 594 8.849 804 352 216 2,082

South Car:5m. 1,888 2,617 32.323 4,027 974 1,089 12.666 South Dakota 418 2,018 8,355 1,040 219 171 1,852 Tennessee - 4,442 3,608 39,409 4,018 828 1266 22,032 Texas 7,774 12,514 170,629 23,580 3,973 3,171 4,835 Utah 781 1,279 15,850 1,624 371 318 5,544

Vermont 837 880 6,242 1,065 191 178 2,343 Virginia 2,077 4,942 58,388 7,384 1,954 1.726 25,225 Washington. 2,191 3,027 34,757 3.878 1,122 1,064 12,221 West...... 1,269 683 22,503 2,705 505 357 10,106 Wisconsin 1,973 4,166 45,311 4,727 1,348 1,079 15,282 S19 800 7.010 882 157 147 3,198

Support staff not reported. - Indicates data either not reported, not avadble. or not applicable. NOTE .-Some data have been revised from previously published figures. SOUhCE: U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statisbcs. "Common Core of Data" survey.

'l9 Table 13.Trends in staffing patterns, 1970-71 to 1984-85

Illentsatary S000adary Principals Other aokool school Total and supervisory aoasupe misery Total Average School classroom elaseroon classroom taatructlonal tastructloaal lastructional daily year teachers teachers teachers staff alai f staff memborehlp1

1970-71 1.130.347 931.496 2,062.243 125,260 112.311 2,299,114 44,719.200 < 1971-72 1.123.879 962,322 2,016.201 121,094 120,124 2,335.119 45,393.630 II 1972-73 1.142.938 965.901 2.108.146 128.311 135.198 2.372.355 45,175.900 1973-74 1.162.181 916,103 2.141,214 132,359 131.074 2.411,717 45.131.610 1974-75 1,169.300 1.00095 2,170.695 140,279 144.909 2,455,113 44,91%989 > 1975-76 1,170,036 1,021.114 2,191,450 141.241 139,541 2.472,239 44.442,070 t-' 1976-77 1.175.532 1.010.769 2,114.301 157,363 149,591 2,473,255 43,975.419 1977-78 1,176,340 1,019,505 2,195,145 136.913 145,449 2,471.277 43,610.204 5971-79 1.193.268 1.012.645 2,205,913 143.654 161,723 2.511.290 42.934.327 1979-80 1.209.356 1.001,129 2.117,415 141.427 168,764 2.527.676 41.934,900 1910-11 1.195,725 996.431 2.192,163 138,194 153,686 2.484.743 40,839,295 1911-82 1117.987 969,115 2,157,102 131,665 157,439 2,453,905 40,126,444 1 r 1912-83 1.176.299 959.953 2.136.257 136.605 151.094 2,'30.956 39,294,027 1913-14 1.171,462 966,004 2.144,466 131.374 155.371 2,437.211 38.803.420 cn 19:4-115 1.199.232 967,671 2.16i.910 137,619 153,601 2,451.130 38,416,995 II Average daily membership la defined as the average number of students belonging to a school. those present plus those absent. c-) when schools are actually in section. Cs) SOURCB: National Education Association.Bstitnates of School Statistics,various years

50,

Tr MIMMISS1 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987-1988

42 Figure 4.Trends in staffing patterns, 1970-71 to 1984-85

Instructional staff (in millions)

1.2 - Elementary school teachers

Secondary school teachers

0.8 -

0.6 -

0.4 -

Other instructional staff 0.2 9==.4.___..atier---fati=6=8-0--3=8=8=8==8 Principals and supervisors

0.0 I I 1 1970 1975 1980 1984

Fall of year

SOURCE. National Education Association, Estimates of School Statistics.

51 Table 14.-Trends In numbers of K-12 teachers, 1961 to 1993

(In Thousands)

Total Teachers Public School Teachers Private School Teachers Fall Preprimary Preprimary of Preprimary to 12th Grade Elementary Secondary to 12th Grade Elementary Secondary to 12th Grade Elementary Year - Secondary

1981 2.430 1,376 1,054 2,117 1,155 962 '313 221 92 19832 .....,. 2,462 1,415 1,047 2.125 1,175 950 337 240 97

Projected

1985 2,467 1.425 1,042 2,124 1.179 945 343 246 97 1987 2,505 1,486 1,019 2.151 1.227 924 354 259 95 1988 2,517 1,521 996 2,162 1,258 904 355 263 92 1989 2.543 1.560 983 2,179 1,288 891 364 272 92 1990 2,580 1,603 977 2,209 1,321 888 371 282 89 1991 2,630 1,645 985 2,253 1.353 900 377 292 E5 1992 2,687 1,681 1,006 2,299 1,379 920 388 302 86

1993 2,737 1,705 1,032 2,336 1.397 939 401 308 93

1Eatlmated. 2Preilminary. NOTE Details may not add to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Dopartment of EoucatIon, National Center for Education Statistics, Statistics of Public Elementary and Secondary Day Schools, various years; "Private Elementary and Secondary Education, 1983: Enrollment, Teachers, and Schools," NCES Bulletin 85-10213, December 1984; Projections of Education Statistics to 1992.93, 1985; and unpublished tabulations (December 1934). t Table 15.Demand for K-12 teachers, 1981 to 1993

(Number in Thousands)

New Supply as Percent Total Estimated of Demand Fall Estimated Estimated Demand for Additional Teachers Supply of for of Teacher New Teacher Additional Total Secondary Year Demand Public Private Elementary Graduates Teachers

1981 2,430 115 85 30 71 44 141 122.6

1983 2,462 164 132 32 98 66 146 89.0 Projected

1985 2.467 158 134 24 96 62 146 92A

1987 2,505 171 144 27 125 46 142 83.0 1988 2.517 162 140 22 124 38 139 85.6 1989 2,543 177 146 31 130 47 139 78.5 1990 2.580 188 160 28 136 52 139 73.9 1991 2.630 204 1'6 28 138 66 138 67.6 1992 2.687 215 181 34 135 80 137 63.7 1993. 2.737 211 175 36 125 86 133 63.0

'Estimates for 1980 and 1981 are from National Education Association, Teacher Supply and Demand in Public Schools. 1981-82. 1983. Other estimates developed by the National Center for Education Statistics. 2For methodological details, see Projections of Education SfailJtics to 1992.93, 1985.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Projections of Education Statistics to 1992-93, 1985. and unpublished tabulations (January 1985); and National Education Association, Teacher Supply and Demand in Public Schools, 1981-82, 1983, copyrighted. "' VITAL STATISTICS

Table 16.-Average classroom teacher salaries, 1959-60 to 1983-84 45

Unadjusted dollars Adjusted do Ian (1983-84 purchasing power), School yes/ All Elementary Secondary All Elementary Secondary teachers teachers Wachers teachers teachers teachers 1959-80 $4,995 44.815 45.276 417.804 1116.680 $ 18,277 1961-82 5.515 5,340 5.775 18.668 18,076 19.548 1963-84- 5.995 5.805 6,266 19.774 19.147 20,668 1985- 68 6.485 6,279 6,761 20.671 20,014 21,551 1967-88 7,423 7.208 7,692 22.210 21.566 23.014 1989-70. 8.635 8.412 8.891 23.270 22.669 23.960 1970 -71 9,269 9.021 9.568 23.755 23,119 24.521 1971- 72.._.._ 9,705 9,424 10.031 24.008 23,311 24.813 1972-73 10.176 9,893 10.507 24,194 23.522 24,981 1973-74 --- 10.778 10.507 11,077 23,521 22.929 24.173 1974-76 -. 11,890 11,334 12,000 22.972 22,272 23,581 1975-76.--- 12,591 12.280 12.947 23,103 22.533 23,756 1976-77--- 13.353 12.990 13.776 23,159 22,530 23.893 1977- 78,....._ 14,198 13.846 14.603 23.075 22,503 23.733 1978-79...... -. 15,032 14.680 16,450 22,333 21.810 22.954 1979-80 15.970 15.569 16,459 20.940 20.414 21,581 1980-81-...... - 17.6,14 17.230 18,142 20,735 20.249 21.320 1981- 82....._ 19 276 18.803 19.858 20.847 20.335 21.476 1982- 83...... _ 20,70.) 20.211 21.326 21.464 20,957 22,113 1983-84- ..... -- 7.1.935 21,465 22,570 21.935 21,485 22.570

, Bowl on the Consumer Pik. Index, prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department 01 Labor. NOTE.- Data for some recent years have been revised slightly since origi- nally published. SOURCE: National Education Association. annual Estimates of School Sm. tisecs. (Latest edition 1984-85 copyright 0 1985 by the National Edu- cation Association. All rights reserved.)

5 4 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987-1988

46 Table 17.Trends in pupil/teacher ratios, 1959-60 to 1984-85

For For Year Total slementr sscoadryiy schools schools

1959-60 26.0 28.7 21.5 1961-62 25.6 28 3 21.7 1963-64 25.5 28 4 21 S 196566 24.7 27.6 20.8 1967-68 23 7 26 3 20 3 1969-70 22.7 248 200 1971-72 22.3 24 9 19.3 1973-74 212 22.9 19.3 1975-76 20 4 21.7 Id 8 1977-78 19 9 211 Id 2 1979-80 19 0 20.9 16 8 1930-81 190 23 5 17.1 1981-82 18.9 20 6 16 9 1982-83 18.7 20 4 16 6 1913-8: 18 S 20 6 16 0 1984-85 18 3 20 4 15.7

'For 1971-72 and subsequent yea s. the data by level were estimated by taking the proportion of elementary or seer- "sty teachers reported separately by the National Education Auociation and ',nyang these proportions to the Center for Statistics data on total numbers of teacher. SOURCE: US Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Statistics of Public Elementary and Secondary Day Schools.various years. and unpublished tabulations, VITAL STATISTICS

Table 18.Expenditures by schools and colleges, 1899-1900 to 1985-86 47

Expenditures for education (amounts in millions)

School year Elementary and secondary Colleges and universities Total Public Private' Public Private 1839-1900 $215 1909-10 426 ------1919-20 1.036 ------1929-30 2,317 $292 $341 1939-40 2.344 392 367 1949-50 $8,91 1 5.838 8411 1,430 1.233 1951-52 10,735 7,344 517 1,565 1,309 1953-g4 13.147 9,092 641 1,912 1.502 1955-56 15,907 10.955 772 2,348 1,832 1957-5C 20,055 13,569 956 3.237 2,293 1959 -80 23,860 15,613 1.100 3,904 3,244 :961-62 28.E03 18,373 1.300 4,919 3.911 1963-64 34.449 21.325 1.500 6.558 5.057 1965 -86 43.682 26,248 1.800 9,047 6,588 1967-68 55.652 32.977 2,100 12.750 7.824 1969-70 68,459 40,683 2,500 16,234 9,041 1970-71 75.741 45.500 2.700 18,028 9,513 1971-72 80,672 48,050 2,300 19.538 10,184 1972-73 86.875 51.852 3.100 21,144 10.779 1973-74 95.396 56,970 3,400 23.542 11,484 1974-75 108,664 64,846 4,000 26,966 12,852 1975-76 118.706 70,601 4.500 29.736 13.869 S976-77 126,417 74.194 5,000 31.997 15,226 1977-78 137,042 80.844 5.700 34.031 16,467 1978-79 148,308 86,712 8,300 37.110 18,187 1979-80 165.627 95,962 7.200 41,434 21,031 1980-81 182.849 104,125 8.200 46,559 23,965 1981-82 197.799 111,188 9,300 .0,o13 26,600 1982-83 211.368 118,425 10,300 53.840 28,803 1983 -84! 228,597 127,500 11.500 58,124 31.473 1984-85 ' 244.400 136.500 12,400 82.000 33.500 1985 -86' 260,200 146,000 13,300 65,600 35,300

' Estimated. Preliminary. NOTE.Because of rounding, details may not add to totals. SOURCES: U.S Department of Educatic,. National Center for Education Statistic:, Statistics of State Schou Systems; Revenue: and Even& tUMS for Public Elementary and Secondary Education; Financial Statis- I tics of Institutions of Higher Education; and unpublished data (March 1986).

6

.11111mIlrisimill=.1=1.W.01610111=1111111.=111 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7- 1 9 8 8

48 Table 19.-K-12 expenditure; per pupil, 1929-30 to 1983-84

Adjusted dollars (1983-84 Unadjusted dollars purchasing power) ' School year Total2 Current3 Total' Current3

1929-30 $108 $87 $642 $517 1931-32 97 81 685 572 1933-34 76 67 584 515 1935-36 88 74 652 548 1937-38 100 84 711 597 1939-40 106 88 772 641 1941-42- 110 98 719 640 1943-44 125 117 731 684 1945-46 145 136 810 759 1947-48 203 179 886 782 1949-50 259 209 1,113 898 1951-52 :213 244 1.212 945 1953-54 I 265 1,328 1,003 1955-56 308 294 1,469 1,113 1957-58 449 341 1,559 1,214 1959-60 472 375 1,635 1,299 1961-62 530 419 1,794 1,418 1963-64 559 460 1,844 1,517 1965-66 654 537 2,085 1,712 1967-68 786 658 2,352 1,969 1969-70 955 816 2,574 2,199 1971-72 1,128 990 2,790 2,449 1973-74 1,364 1,207 2,977 2,634 1975-76 1,697 1,504 3,114 2,760 1976-77.. 1,816 1,638 3,150 2,841 1977-78 2,002 1,823 3,254 2,963 1978-79 2,210 2,021 3,283 3,003 1979-80 2,491 2,272 3,266 2,979 1930-81 2,714 2,487 3,189 2,923 1981-82 42,962 2,726 *3,203 2,94£ 1982-83 5 3,192 2,948 3,310 3,057 1983-84° 3,430 3,173 3,430 3,173

' Based on the Consumer Price ndex, prepared by the Bureau of LaborStatistics, U.S. Department of Labor. 'Includes current expenditures or day schools, capital outlay, and interest on school debt *Includes day school expenditures only; excludes current expenditures for other programs. Includes an estimate for capital outlay and interest on school debt. 'Preliminary data. SOURCES: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Statistics of StateSchool System, Revenues end Expenditures for Public Elementary and SecondaryEducation, and unpublished data. National Education Association, Estimates of School Statistics.(Latestedition, 1984-85. Copyright el 1986 by the National Education Association. All rights reserved ) VITAL STATISTICS

Table 20.Revenue sources for K-12 schools, 1919-20 to 1983-84 49 Total Sourer School severities* Tear (In thousand:I Local1 State Federal

1919-20 5970.121 83 2 165 03 1929-30 2.086.557 12 7 169 04 1939-40 2.260.527 68 0 303 18 1949-50 5.437.044 573 398 29 1959-60 14.746.618 56 5 391 44 1969-70 40.266.923 521 399 1979 -80 %.$81.165 43 4 468 98 1980-81 105.949.087 43 4 42.4 92 1981-82 110.191.257 45 0 47 6 7.4 1912-83 117.205.793 44.9 480 71 1983-84 126.377.395 451 480 68 3 1984-85 139.634.982 437 496 6 6 1985 -863 14 9.687.997 43 5 501 64

1In current dollars. 2Datafor local and State revenues are preliminary. December 1985 ;Estimated by the National Education Association NOTE: Data beginning in 1959-60 include Alaska and Hawaii. SOURCES: US Department of Education. Center for Statistics. Discst of EducationiStatittics. 1915-16National Education Association. Estimates of Schor: Statistics:1915-86:April 1986 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 ... . EDUCATION ALMANAC - 50 The Source of the Numbers the Bureau of the Censlic startv.a The tables and charts on the tracking illiteracy rates. preceding pages come from the The chief effort was not 1986 editions of the two chief launched, however, until 1870. That publications issued annually by the is the year in which the Congress U.S. Department of Education's created a Department of Education Center for Education Statistics (which a few years later became a The Condition of Education and the Bureau and then an Office and in Digest of Education Statistics. 1980 a Department again). Representing a new venture into Although the present Department of the field of "indicators," The Education has Cabinet rank, the Condition of Education focuses on tiny original existed only to collect, 45 carefully selected measures evaluate, and disseminate designed to provide a concise gauge information concerning the of the health and progress of condition of public and private American schools and colleges education in the United States. roughly an education version of the In carrying out that mission economic indicators that make up today the Department's Center for the Gross National Product. Education Statistics assembles data The Digest, which has been in from state agencies, such entities as existence for a quarter of a century, the National Assessment of provides an abstract of statistical Educational Progress, its own information covering surveys, and other federal agencies. pre-kindergarten through graduate Besides the Bureau of the schoolschtiols and colleges, Census, the other federal agencies teachers, enrollments, graduates, that gather facts about education educational attainment, finances, most prominently include the federal funds, employment and National Science Foundation, the income of graduates, libraries, Interior Department's Bureau of aspects of international education, Indian Affairs, the Department of and more. Agriculture, the Labor The federal government has been Department's Bureau of Labor collecting national information Statistics, and the Department of bearing on education for nearly 150 Defense. years now, beginning in 1840, when

"Ccc Education Profiles 51 of the States

ALABAMA states, Alabama long had separate schools for blacks and whites. The Chief state school officerWayne U.S. Supreme Court ruled Teague, Superintendent of segregation unconstitutional in Education, State Department of 1954; Alabama began its Education, 501 Dexter Avenue, 481 desegregation effort in 1963. State Office Building, Montgomery 36130. (205) 261-5156. State mandatesCompulsory school attendance for students aged Education historyFirst 7-16; provision for home constitution (1819) echoed the instruction by parents who want to wording of the U.S. Congress in its educate their own children. 1787 Northwest Ordinance: "Schools and the means of Number of schools-130 school education shall forever be districts with 773 elementary encouraged." The state's public schools, 117 junior high, 234 senior school system was established in high, and 163 schools with 1854. The Civil War and kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). Reconstruction slowed school growth and educational standards Student enrollment-730,460 suffered. The county high school elementary and secondary; 396,803 system was created in 1907. A 1919 kindergarten-grade 6; 333,657 state education survey resulted in grades 7-12 (1985-86). laws governing the state's basic school code. Like most southern Per pupil expenditures$2,508 F_ 60 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

52elementary and secondary Education historyAfter the United (1985-86). States purchased the land from Russia in 1867, education was Staff-41,656 total instructional; provided by various religious 19,055 elementary teachers, 17,858 bodies. Although public schools secondary teachers, 1,909 other were mandated under the 1884 nonsupervisory instructional, 2,834 Organic Act, parochial schools principals and supervisors. Average continued to play the prime role salary of instructional staff, because of limited public funds. In $23,643; elementar' teachers, 1900, Congress passed laws $22,934; secondary teachers, establishing schools for white and $22,934; elementary principals, mixed-blood children within $35,782; junior high/middle school incorporated towns. When Alaska principals, $37,611; senior high became a territory .n 1912, the principals, $42,487 (1985-86). federal government assumed responsibility for native education, State profilePopulation (1984): leaving education 4 white children 3,990,000. Per capita income to the territorial government. After (1984): $9,981. Entered statehood statehood in 1959, the U.S. Bureau December 14, 1819. Motto: We of Indian Affairs continued to Dare Defend Our Rights. operate many schools for natives. In Nicknames: "Heart of Dixie," 1976, state control of education was "Cottoii State." Flower: Camellia. regionalized with regional boards of Bird: Yellowhammer. Tree: elected officials. Southern Pine. Song: "Alabama." State mandatesCompulsory Excellence activities: A school school attendance for students aged reform plan is being implemented 7-16; kindergarten; provision for by the State Board of Education and home instruction by parents who ti., legislature, including want to educate their own children. mandatory kindergarten, more student testing, tougher standards Number of schools-55 school to enter teacher-training programs, districts, with 191 elementary and temporary certification of schools, 22 junior high, 69 senior non-education majors. The state high, and 160 schools with board has increased graduation kindergarten -grade 12 (1985-86). requirements and created an honors diploma. New teacher testing for Student enrollment-107,452 state certification began in 1981. elementary and secondary; 61,453 kindergarten-grade 6; 45,999 grades 7-12 (1985-86).

ALASKA Per pupil expenditures$8,044 Chief state school officerMarshall elementary and secondary (1985-86) Lind, Commissioner of Education, State Department of Education, Staff -7,135 total instructional; Alaska Office Building, Juneau 3,438 elementary teachers, 2,775 99811. (907) 465-2800. secondary teachers, 700 other

q:,.1) STATE PROFILES nonsupervisory instructional, 222 1d-,rmal School was created at 53 principals and supervisors. Average Flagstaff. Manual arts training was salary of instructional staff, added to the curriculum in 1905. In $43,474; elementary teachers, 1907, measures were taken to $41,240; secondary teachers, consolidate schools for more $41,640; elementary principals, efficient system operations. $57,272; junior high/middle school principals, $63,777; senior high State mandatesCompulsory principals, $65,102 (1985-86). school attendance for students aged 8-16; kindergarten: provision for State profilePopulation (1984): home instruction by parents who 500,000. Per capita income (1984): want to educate their own children. $17,155. Entered statehood January 3, 1959. Motto: North to the Number of schools-224 school Future. Flower: Forget-me-not. districts with 625 elementary Bird: Willow Ptarmigan. Tree: Sitka schools, 105 junior high, 139 senior Spruce. Song: "Alaska's Flag." high, and 8 schools with kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). Excellence activities: In 1984, Alaska increased high school Student enrollment-596,200 graduation credit requirements to elementary and secondary; 420,600 21, including four years of English, kindergarten-grade 6; 175,600 three of social studies, two each of grades 7-12 (1985-86). mathematics and science, and one of physical education. In addition, Per pupil expenditures$2,829 all districts are new required to elementary aryl secondary develop a curriculum for each (1985-86). school grade. Staff-33,060 total instructional; ARIZONA 17,800 elementary teachers, 7,400 secondary teachers, 6,600 other Chief state school ofi7cerC. Diane nonsupervisory instructional, 1,260 Bishop, Superintndent of Public principals and supervisors. Average Instruction, State Department of salary of instructional staff, Education, 1535 West Jefferson, $27,300; elementary teachers, Phoenix 85007. (602) 255-4361. $24,530; secondary teachers, $24,990; elementary principals, Education historyOnly parochial $39,935; junior high/middle school schooling was available before 1863, principals, $41,915; senior high reflecting the region's strong principals, $43,994 (1985-86). Catholic influence. Building of an effective education system began State profilePopulation (1984): under Governor A.P.K. Safford's 3,053,000. Per capita income administration (1869-77). The first (1984): $11,629. Entered statehood public schools opened in Tucson in February 14, 1912. Motto: Ditat 1871. In 1885, a uniform course of Deus (God Enriches). Nickname: study was adopted for public Grand Canyon State. Flower: schools. In 1899, Northern Arizona Blossom of Seguaro Cactus. Bird: 621 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

54 Cactus Wren. Tree: Paloverde. there was no law against teaching Song: "Arizona." black children to read or write, but most black children were not given Excellence activities: Arizona has an opportunity to learn. General for years been making a systematic Curtis of the Union Army helped review of state educational establish schools for black children leadership and servicea during the Civil War. As late as comprehensive assessment of 1920, there were 5,118 school curriculum, certification of teachers districts in Arkansas, with blacks and administrators, testing of pupils and whites attending separate and teachers, and staff development schools. Today there are 341 for educational personnel. Special districts, all desegregated. The projects that have encouraged beginning of desegregation was excellence include recognition marked with the 1958-59 closing of programs, career ladders, teacher Little Rock schools to prevent incentive programs, principals' integration. The schools were academy, and vocational- technical reopened in 1959 due to citizen education. New teacher testing for demand. Sparked by the agrarian state certification began in 1980. revolt of the early 1900s, educational improvements came with the following laws: school ARKANSAS attendance (1909); equalization Chief state school officerTommy fund (1927); free textbooks (1937); R. Venters, Director of the kindergartens included in public Department of Education, Little funding (1979); standards reform Rock 72201. (501) 371-1464. (1983); home schools regulation (1985). The reform movement, Education historyThe first which began with 1983 legislation, Arkansas law bearing on public has been a controversial issue, with education, passed by the territorial teachers and administrators being legislature in 1829, required each required to pass a basic skills test in township to maintain a school order to have their certificates building and hire a teacher. Schools renewed. nonetheless remained scattered in the sparsely populated territory. In State mandatesCompulsory 1836, when Arkansas became a school attendance for students aged state, the legislature again 7-17; provision for home designated certain portions of land instruction by parents who want to for education. County judges were educate their own children. in charge until 1853, when the office of county common school Number of schools-341 school commissioner was created. An 1867 districts with 592 elementary law provided for the first schools, 119 junior high, 274 senior superintendent of public instruction high, and 101 schools with and established a licensing process kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). for teachers. The state board of education was formed in 1874. By Student enrollment-433,410 custom, during pre-Civil War times, elementary and secondary; 234,287 632 STATE PROFILES

kindergarten-grade 6; 199,123 one-cent sales tax for education, a 55 grades 7-12 (1985-86). new funding formula, and a package of reform legislation covering Per pupil expenditures$2,642 teacher and administrator testing. elementary and secondary New teacher testing for state (1985.86). certification began in 1983. Staff-26,461 total instructional; CALIFORNIA 11,592 elementary teachers, 12,107 secondary teachers, 1,408 other Chief state school officerBill nonsupervisory instructional, 1,354 Honig, Superintendent of Public principals and supervisors. Average Instruction, State Department of salary of instructional staff, E(lwation, 721 Capitol Mall, $20,661; elementary to chers, Sacramento 95814. (916) 445-4338. $18,995; secondary t%.1ners, $20,060; elementary principals, Education historyOriginally $29,568; junior high/middle school inhabited by Indians, California principals, $35,053; senior high was controlled first by Spain and principals, $35,140 (1985-86). then by Mexico. Neither provided a public school system, although State profilePopulation (1984): Spanish priests educated some 2,349,000. Per capita income Indian children in the missions. In (1984): $9,724. Entered statenood 1848 Mexico ceded California to the June 15, 1836. Motto: Regnat United States, and new settlers Populus (The People Rule). brought with them a tradition of Nickname: "Land of Opportunity." education. In 1849 the framers of Flower: Apple Blossom. Bird: California's first constitution Mockingbird. Tree: Pine. Song: provided for a public school system "Arkansas." and app )priate support. In 1860 a system of county and district boards Excellence activities: The State was created. The first high schools Eoard of Education adopted new were established in 1856; schools accreditation standards in February for handicapped persons in 1860; 1984 effective :wile 1:',87. and the state university in 1868. In These standards increase the 1921 the legislature created a State number of credits required for high Department of Educationa move school graduation; require aimed at strengthening the additional courses to be offered by administration of an increasingly all schools; strengthen the complex system of public schools involvement of administrators being altered by rapid increases in teachers, parents, and the the state's population and the community in planning; require displacement of agriculture as the students to pass a test before principal industry. During the entering the ninth grade; and 1960s California had the largest reduce the size of classes. Also, the public school system in the nation, state legislature, in a special 1983 with 4.5 million students. session dedicated solely to Enrollments declined during the education, passed an additional 1970s but are increasing today; R4 3 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

56those of minority students are "Golden State." Flower: Golden expected to exceed 50 percent of the Poppy. Bird: California Valley Quail. total before 1990. Throughout the Tree: California Redwood. Song: "I current decade California has been Love You, California." engaged in a reform movement that Excellence activities: In 1983, the includes a longer school day, state legislature passed a major improved textbooks, tougher school reform bill. Elements of the graduation eequirements, and package included raises for higher stark ;ards for teachers. teachers, a longer school day and State mandatesCompulsory year, expansion of the school attendance for students aged teacher-mentor program and 6-16; kindergarten; provision for increased graduation requirements. home instruction by parents who A ballot initiative was passed in want to educate their own children. 1985 creating a state lottery that provides about $540 million a year Number of schools-1,028 school in school funds. New teacher districts with 4,626 elementary testing for state certification began schools, 863 junior high, 1,238 in 1982. senior high, and 53 schools with kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). COLORADO Student enrollment-4,242,240 Chief state school officerCalvin elementary and secondary; M. Frazier, Commissioner of 2,920,125 kindergarten-grade 6; Education, State Department of 1,322,115 grades 7-12 (1985-86). Education, 201 E. Colfax Ave., Denver 80203. (303) 766-6806. Per pupil expenditures-43,573 Education historyIn 1859, 0. J. elementary and secondary Goldrick rented a cabin in Denver (1985.86). to open the Colorado Territory's Staff-197,220 total instructional; first school (for the children of gold 114,270 elementary teachers, miners), and a year later a log 62,960 secondary teachers, 8,390 house in Boulder was converted other nonsupervisory instructional, into the first school building. When 11,600 principals and supervisors. Colorado becrne a state, in 1876, Average salary of instructional staff, Joseph Shattuck of Greeley became $32,155; elementary teachers, the first superintendent of public $29,440; secondary teachers, instruction at an annual salary of i 32,060; elementary principals, $1,000. In 1953 under an $44,186; junior high principals, amendinent to the state $47,059; senior high principals, constitution, Coloradans elected $50,920 (1985-86). their first state board of education. Meanwhile a major change had State profilePopulation (1984): been taking place in how the 25,622,000. Per capita income schools were organized. Under a law (1984); $14,344. Entered statehood enacted by the First General September 9, 1850. Motto: Eureka Assembly, parents of 10 (later 15) (I Have Found It). Nickname: children of school age could STATEPROFILES petition for the formation of a new principals, $40,593; senior high 57 school district. By 1880 over 800 principals, $48,839 (1935-86). districts had been created by this method. Under a 1957 State profilePopulation (1984): reorganization act the number of 3,178,000. Per capita income school districts was reduced by (1984): $13,742. Entered statehood consolidation to the present tctal of August 1, 1876. Motto: Colorado 181. The average Colorado school Above All. Nickname: "Centennial district covers 576 square miles, State." Flower: Rocky Mountain and the largest 4,761 square miles, Columbine. Bird: Lark Bunting. more than Delaware and Rhode Tree: Colorado Blue Spruce. Song: Island combined. Under the state "Where the Columbines Grow." constitution, control of instruction rests with locally elected boards, Excellence activities: Based on and each district maintains its own reports from task forces established graduation standards. by the State Board of Education following the 1%3 publication of State mandatesCompulsory the U.S. Department of Education's attendance for students aged 7-16; A A.'ation at Risk renort the provision for home instruction by Department of Education parents who want to educate their established a new Office of Federal own children. Relations and Instructional Services. To address specific task Number of schools-177 school force recommendations, three districts with 752 elementary curriculum specialists -n loan from schools, 191 junior high, 215 senior school districtsoutstanding high, and 52 schools with teachers of English, mathematics kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). and scienceare visiting districts, helping with curriculum Student enrollment-550,642 development and special needs. New elementary and secondary; 329,347 teacher testing for state kindergarten-grade 6; 221,295 certification began in 1983. grades 7-12 (1985-86). CONNECTICUT Per pupil expenditures $3,740 elementary and secondary Chief state school officerGerald (1985-86). N. Tirozzi, Commissioner of Education, State Department of Staff 32,232 total instructional; Education, Room 308, State Office 15,318 elementary teachers, 13,500 Building, 165 Capitol Ave., Hartford secondary teachers, 1,854 other 06106. (203) 556-5061. nonsupervisory instructional, 1,560 principals and supervisors. Average Education history The state's first salary of instructional staff, free school was established in 1641 $26,884; elementary teachers, in New Haven. A 1650 law required $25,304; secondary teachers, towns of 50 or more families to $26,350; elementary principals, establish elementary schools. Towns $37,656; junior high/middle school of 100 or more families were also ,;fi 6 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

58 required to found schools to 19,475 elementary teachers, 13,650 prepare youth for the university. secondary teachers, 3,327 other School orientation was religious, nonsupervisory instructional, 2,460 and penalties were imposed on principals and supervisors. Average parents who neglected their salary of instructional staff, children's education. In 1795, the $27,850; elementary teachers, state created a school fund financed $26,260; secondary teachers, by the sale of state-owned lands. $27,210; elementary principals, Henry Barnard, the first chief state $42,578; junior high/middle school school officer (and later the first principals, $45,911; senior high U.S. Commissioner of Education), principals, $48,454 (1985-86). sparked public interest during the 1840s in school reform and State profilePopulation (1984): improvement. Today the state has a 3,154,000. Per capita income decentralized system of public (1984): $16,369. Entered statehood education, with most January 9, 1788. Motto: Qui decision-making authority vested in Transtulit Sustinet (He Who local school districts. Transplanted Still Sustains), Nicknames: "Constitution State," State mandatesCompulsory "Nutmeg State." Flower: Mountain school attendance for students aged Laurel. Bird: American Robin. Tree: 7-16; kindergarten; provision for White Oak. Song: "Yankee Doodle." home instruction by parents who want to educate their own children. Excellence activities: The State Minimal competency evaluation and Board of Education has approved 12mediation at grade 9. Education reforms including all-day evaluation and remedial assistance kindergarten, a loan-incentive involves grades 4, 6, and 8. program for education majors, Minimum 900 hours instructional tougher teacher-training time grades 1-12, 450 hours for requirements, increased graduation kindergarten. requirements, and lowering of the compulsory school age to 5. District Number of schools-165 school policies are now required on districts with 646 elementary professional development, schools, 129 junior high; 151 senior homework, attendance, and high, and 1 school with pro.notion and retention. The state kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). is considering revision of its certification law, and plans to study Student enrollment-472,427 teacher salaries, vocational elementary and secondary; 313,559 education, adult education, and kindergarten-grade 6; 158,868 early childhood education. New grades 7-12 (1985-86!. teacher testing for state certification began in 1985. Per pupil expenditures$4,888 elementary and secondary DELAWARE (1985-86). Chief state school officerWilliam Staff-38,912 total instructional; B. Keene, Superintendent of Public STATE PROFILES Instruction, State Department of principals, $48,617 (1985-86). 59 Public Instruction, P.O. Box 1402 - Townsend Building, Dover 19901. State profilePopulation (1984): (302) 736-4601. 613,000. Per capita income (1984): $13,545. Entered statehood Education historyEarliest schools December 7, 1787. Motto: Liberty were run by churches of Dutch and and Independence. Nickname: Swedish colonists and then the "First State," "Diamond State." English. Public education started Bird: Blue Hen Chioiea. Tree: after the Revolutionary War; public American Holly. Song: "Our school funding by the state began in Delaware." 1792. While the legislature established the public educational Excellence activities: The State system in 1829, it remained under Board of Education adopted passing local control until the 1920s. scores for new Delaware educators taking the Pre-Professional Skills State mandatesCompulsory Test, not required for certification. school attendance for students aged It also changed standards for high 5-16; kindergarten; provision for school graduation, doubling home instruction by parents who mathematics and science want to educate their own children. requirements beginning with the class of 1987. The legislature raised Number of schools-19 school school funding by 10 percent, with districts with 93 elementary money going to increase teachers' schools, 24 junior high, 28 senior salaries and reduce class sizes in the high, and 1 school with primary grades. It also required kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). 5-year-olds to attend kindergarten. A governor's task force proposed 75 Student enrollment-92,901 recommendations for change, elementary and secondary; 48,814 including a 25 percent increase in kindergarten-grade 6; 44,087 grades time spent on core academic 7-12 (1985-86). subjects. The Department of Public Instruction is seeking to add 30 Per pupil expenditures$4,517 minutes to the school day and plans elementary and secondary to write standards for all courses of (1985-86). study and issue guidelines on how to allocate elementary instructional Staff-6,444 total instructional; time. New teacher testing for state 2,691 elementary teachers, 3,054 certification began in 1983. secondary teachers, 379 other nonsupervisory instructional, 320 principals and supervisors. Average DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA salary of instructional staff, $25,537; elementary teachers, Chief state school officerFloretta $23,903; secondary teachers, McKenzie, Superintendent of Public $25,260; elementary principals, Schools, D.C. Public Schools, 415 $43,153; junior high/middle school 12th St., N.W., 20004. principals, $45,784; senior high (202) 724-4222. 8 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

60Education historyD.C.public the system of ability grouping of schools originated with an act students known as the "track passed by the City Council in 1804 system," and a 1971 ruling "to establish and endow a mandated that the school system permanent institution for the equalize citywide expenditures in its education of youth in the city of elementary schools. The Washington." The board of trustees Washington schools have since created by the act, with Thomas expanded curricular emphases to Jefferson as its first president, include an academic high school, a resolved that the Capital City school of the arts, and a broad schools should be a model for the range of special schools, largely nation, a complete educational funded through public/private system that should embrace corporate partnerships. primary, grammar, and high schools with a collegiate course and District mandateCompulsory a public library. Two elementary school attendance for students aged schoois for boys opened in 1805, 7-17. followed in 1812 by a school admitting girls as well as boys. Number of schoolsOneschool Between 1812 and 1838 Congress district with 128 elementary passed 14 joint resolutions schools, 27 junior high, i9 senior authorizing lotteries for school high, and one school with financing. A true public school kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). system did not develop until after the Civil War, and it was a Student enrollment-87,092 segregated system. A high school elementary and secondary; 50,030 for white girls was established in kindergarten-grade 6; 37,062 grades 1876; a high school for white boys 7-12 (1985-86). opened the following year. A high school for blacks (the M Street School) opened in 1891. Separate Per pupil expenditures$5,020 boards for schools serving black and elementary and secondary white students were abolished in (1985-86). the early 1900s in favor of a single board with both black and white Staff -6,253 total instructional; members, and a partial unification 3,212 elementary teachers, 2.053 of white and black schools secondary teachers, 710 other occurred. After the 1954 Supreme nonsupervisory instructional, 278 Court decision holding segregated principals and supervisors. Average schools unconstitutional, the salary of instructional staff, District of Columbia moved quickly $38,085; elementary teachers, to comply, becoming the first major $33,990, secondary teachers, city to fully desegregate its school $33,990; elementary principals, system, Additional landmark $40,436, junior high/middle school judicial decisions had major impact principals, $40,436; senior high upon the course of public education principals, $40,436 (1985-86). in the Nation's Capital. A 1967 court ruling resulted in abolishing ProfilePopulation(1984):

1 P 9 STATE PROFILES 623,000. Per capita income (1982): own). Interest was renewed when 61 $14,550. Motto: Justitia Omnibus Florida became a state, in 1845, but (Justice for All). Flower: American little progress was made until 1868, Beauty Rose. Bird: Wood Thrush. when a new constitution established ree: Scarlet Oak. a statewide school tax, with each county required to raise an amount Excellence activities: Prior to the equal to one-half of the state's 1983 publication of the U.S. contribution. By 1900 a system of Department of Education's study of public education was well education, A Nation at Risk, the established. By 1905 the state District of Columbia had increased legislature established a graduation requirements and three-institution university system established a competency-based (University of Florida, Florida State, curriculum. Since then, a task force and Florida A &M) and in 1957 a has recommended development of a system of junior /community teacher incentive program that may colleges, there now being 34. In include career ladders. The task 1969 the legislature placed all of force's study also recommended Florida's state-supported schools school and teacher incentive from kindergarten through awards, which were implemented. universityin a single, unified system of public education. A statewide test for high school seniors was adopted in 1977, and FLORIDA nassing it is a criterion for receiving Chief state school officerBetty a diploma. In 1981 the State Board Castor, Commissioner of Education, of Education adopted a goal of State Department of Education, assuring that educational Capitol Building, Room PL 116, attainment in Florida rank among Tallahassee, 32301. (904) 487-1785. that of the top 12 states in the nation. Education historyThe first schools were begun by Spanish State mandatesCompulsory priests in the 1600s, for Spanish school attendance for students aged and Indian children. In the 6-16; provision for home mid-1700s, English colonists instruction by parents who want to provided education for children of educate their own children. New the wealthier settlers. Public mandates added in 1984 Eiclude education had its beginnings in kindergarten; assessment testing in 1822, when Florida became a U.S. grades 3, 5, 8 and 10; 22 credits for territory. At that ti r^ every graduation as of 1984-85; five net sixteenth section c .id in each hours of instruction each school township was reserved for primary day; 150 hours of instruction for schools. However, no action was high schools, 135 of which must be taken on this or two subsequent attended for credit; grade-point provisions adopted by the territorial average of 1.5 (out of 4.0) required government to establish a public for high school graduation, same school system (though Franklin and average required to take part in Monroe counties did so on their extracurricular activities. :7° E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 62 Number of schools-67 school sophomore year to be admitted to districts with 1,255 elementary upper-level study. A beginning schools, 364 junior high, 286 senior teacher program is being high, and 36 schools with implemented, and a statewide kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). academy for school managers has developed guidelines for identifying Student enrollment-1,559,429 and rewarding outstanding elementary and secondary; 823,016 principals. Out-of-school learning kindergarten-grade 6; 736,413 activities and academic recognition grades 7-12 (1985-86). programs are promoted. Both master-teacher and merit-pay Per pupil expenditures$3,731 programs reward outstanding elementary and secondary teachers, and a merit-school (1985-86). program honors the entire staff at qualified schools. New teacher Staff-102,299 total instructional; testing for state certification began 48,641 elementary teachers, 40,332 in 1980. secondary teachers, 8,166 other nonsupervisory instructional, 5,160 GEORGIA principals and supervisors. Average salary of instructional staff, Chief state school officerWerner $24,055; elementary teachers, Rogers, Superintendent of $22,696; secondary teachers, Schools, State Department of $21,767; elementary principals, Education, 2066 Twin Towers East, $38,437; junior high/middle school Atlanta 30334. (404) 656-2800. principals, $40,189; senior high principals, $44,323 (1985-86). Education historyEarly schooling occurred in cabins built by farmers State profilePopulation (1984): and known as "old field" schools. 10,976,000. Per capita income Traveling school teachers ran them. (1984): $12,553. Entered statehood Wealthier planters hired private March 3, 1845. Motto: In God We teachers, mostly from New Trust. Nickname: "Sunshine State." England, for their children. The Flower: Orange Blossom. Bird: first public schools were established Mockingbird. Tree: Sabal Palmetto by legislation in 1870 under the Palm. Song: "Swanee River." leadership of Gustavus J. Orr. He became state commissioner of Excellence activities: An schools in 1872 and is considered educational reform package the father of Georgia's public school included special attention to grades system. State supported high 4 and 5 as well as enhancement of schools came into being in 1912. learning in grades 6-8 and strengthened mathematics, science, State mandates, Tuts ory and computer programs. High school attendance for students aged school graduation and college 7-16; kindergarten. admissions standards were raised, and college students required to Number of schools-187 school pass a test at the end of their districts with 1,201 elementary 71- STATE PROFILES ".1 schools, 217 junior high, 328 senior skills promotion test which third 63 high, and 25 schools with graders must pass ..o be promoted kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). to fourth grade; and a basic curriculum content to be used Student enrollment-1,064,660 statewide to establish uniformity elementary and secondary; 656,800 and consistency in curriculum kindergarten-grade 6; 407,800 offerings at each grade level and grades 7-12 (1985-86). course. New teacher testing for state certification began in 1980. Per pupil expenditures$2,980 elementary and secondary HAWAII (1985-86). Chief state school officerFrancis Staff-59,990 total instructional; M. Hatanaka, Superintendent of 35,400 elementary teachers, 21,970 Education, P.O. Box 2360, secondary teachers, 2,620 principals Honolulu 96804. (808) 548-6405. and supervisors. Average salary of instructional staff, $23,070; Education historyAmerican elementary teachers, $21,710; missionaries set up Hawaii's secondary teachers, $22,460; education system in the 1820s. elementary principals, $36,997; Compulsory school attendance was junior high/middle school required as early as 1824. By 1832, principals, $39,429; senior high there were 900 schools with 53,000 principals, $44,524 (1985-86). pupils, mosEy adults, who comprised 40 percent of the StateprofilePopulation (1984): population. Government support of 5,837,000. Per capita income public schools began in 1843. (1984): $11,441. Entered statehood Hawaiian was the language of January 2, 1788. Motto: Wisdom, public instruction until 1854 when Justice and Moderation. English was adopted and American Nicknames: "Empire State of the teachers, textbooks, and methods South," "Peach State." Flower: became common. Reflecting Cherokee Rose. Bird: Brown centralized control under the native Thrasher. Tree: Live Oak. Song. monarchy and later territoria; "Georgia On My Mind." status, public education today is operated entirely by the state, with Excellence activities:Four the result that Hawaii has only one improvement efforts were adopted "school district" the state itself. by the State Board of Education and are now being implemented StatemandatesCompulsory statewide: strengthened graduation school attendance for students aged requirements (from 20 to 21 units 6-18; provision for home and additional required courses in instruction 14 parents who want to English, mathematics, science, and educate their own children. social studies); a limit of 10 days on the number of days a student may Number of schools-1 school miss school because of district Nith 165 elementary school-sanctioned activities; a basic schools, 24 junior high, 31 senior ?'2,, E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8

64 high, and 8 schools with IDAHO kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). Chief state school officerJerry L. Evans, Superintendent of Public Student enrollment-163,899 Instruction, State Department of elementary and secondary; 89,920 Education, 650 W State St., Boise kindergarten-grade 6; 73,979 grades 83720. (208) 334-3300. 7-12 (1985-86). Education historyThe first Per pupil expenditures$3,766 schools were created by elementary and secondary missionaries for Indian children. (1985-86). For example, missionary Henry Spalding and his wife opened a Staff -9,959 total instructional; school at Lapwai Mission in about 4,470 elementary teachers, 3,892 1836. Later, homesteaders settling secondary teachers, 1,219 other in permanent communities joined nonsupervisory instructional, 378 together to build schools for their principals and supervisors. Average children. The office of territorial salary of instructional staff, superintendent of instruction was $26,687; elementary teachers, created by the legislature in 1864 $25,845; secondary teachers, and a common school system was $25,845; elementary principals, no established. By 1890, when it data; junior high/middle school became a state, Idaho had 400 principals, no data; senior high public schools. In 1913, the principals, $37,137 (1985-86). legislature established a state board of education to supervise all state State profilePopulation (1984): public education institutions, 1,039,000. Per capita income elementary through university (1984): $12,761. Entered statehood levels, including vocational and August 21, 1959. Motto: The Life of correctional schools. the Land is Perpetuated in Righteousness. Nickname: "Aloha State mandatesCompulsory State." Flower: Hibiscus. Bird: school attendance for students aged Hawaiian Goose. Tree: Candlenut. 7-16; provision for home Song: "Hawaii Ponoi." instruction by parents who want to educate their own children, if approved by the local board of Excellence activities: The State trustees. Department of Education has re-examined its organization, Number of schools -116 school functions and activities toward districts with 343 elementary upgrading the delivery of service., to schools, 72 junior high, 108 senior students and strengthening the high, and 16 schools with overall school system. Concerns kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). now being addressed include school climate, ensuring a safe and secure Student enrollment-211,425 environment, duality staffing, and elementary and secondary; 120,215 strengthening of graduation kindergarten-grade 6; 91,210 grades requirements. 7-12 (1985-86). 7 3 STATE PROFILES Per pupil expenditures$2,390 to meet state guidelines; a $20.3 65 elementary and secondary million appropriation to raise (1985-86). teachers' salaries statewide in the first year of a two-war proposal; Staff-11,455 total instructional; annual evaluation of teachers; 5,365 elementary teachers, 4,891 locally-developed discipline codes; secondary teachers, 571 other and income tax credits for nonsupervisory instructional, 623 charitable contributions to schools principals and supervisors. and libraries. Estimated average salary of instructional staff, $21,785; ILLINOIS elementary teachers, $20,2°2; secondary teachers, $21,788; Chief state school officer Ted elementary principals, $32,446; Sanders, Superintendent of junior high principals, $35,186; Education, State Board of senior high principals, $38,133 Education, 100 N. First St., (1985-86). Springfield 62777. (217) 782-2221.

State profilePopulation (1984): Education historyAs part of the 1,001,000. Per capita income Northwest Territory, Illinois (1984): $10,174. Entered statehood benefited from the federal land set July 3, 1890. Motto: Esto Perpetua aside for educational purposes by (It Is Perpetual). Nickname: "Gem the Ordinances of 1785 and 1787. State." Flower: Syringa. Bird: Free schools supported by sale of Mountain Bluebird. Tree: White these lands and by local taxation Pine. Song: "Here We Have Idaho." were established as early as 1834. An 1855 law providing for a state Excellence activities: The State school tax was the foundation for Board of Education adopted a the present public education six-period day for all secondary system. The state elected its first students; a mandated core chief state school officer in 1856. curriculum in which students must The constitution of 1870 required obtain a cumulative "C" average for the legislature to provide a credit; 90 percent attendance in thorough and efficient system of class for credit for all secondary public schools. Consolidation efforts students; district absence and tardy begun early in this century reduced policies for elementary students; the number of school districts from and requirements for recertification 12,000 in 1945 to 1,300 in the late of teachers. Statewide proficiency 1960s and even fewer today. testing has been moved from ninth to eighth grade and an eleventh State mandatesCompulsory grade testing program has been school attendance for students aged initiated. Graduation requirements 7-16; provision for home for the class of 1988 were increased instruction by parents who want to in January 1983. In addition, the educate their own children. Idaho School Improvement Act of 1984 provided locally-developed Number of schools-1,000 school career ladder programs for teachers districts with 2,672 elementary 7 4 'J EDUCATION ALM A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 66 schools, 389 junior high, 626 senior Education to study the issues and high, and 91 schools with make recommendations. New kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). teacher testing for state certification begins in 1988. Student enrollment-1,776,756 elementary and secondary; INDIANA 1.243,575 kindergarten-grade 6; 533,181 grades 7-12 (1985-86). Chief state school officerH. Dean Evans, Superintendent of Public Per pupil expenditures$3,621 Instruction, State Department of elementary and secondary Education, State House, Room 229, (1985-86). Indianapolis 46204. (317) 232-6612.

Staff -110,696 total instructional; Education historyUpon entering 67,882 elementary teachers, 32,169 the Union in 1816, Indiana became secondary teachers, 4,712 other the first state to provide in its nonsupervisory instructional, 5,933 constitution for a statewide system principals and supervisors. Average of free public schools. It was salary of instructional staff, another 35 years, however, before $28,115; elementary teachers, the General Assembly brought that 1 $26,001; secondary teachers, provision to lite through legislation $29,700; elementary principals, calling for school taxes. Meanwhile $38,558 junior high/middle school the citizenry had moved forward on principals, $41,668; senior high its own. By mid-century nearly principals, $44,264 (1985-86). every township had established log schoolhouses built by parents who State profilePopulation (1984): paid the salary and took turns 11,511,000. Per capita income providing living quarters for (1984): $13,728. Entered statehood teachers. New Harmony, an December 3, 1818. Motto: State experiment in community living SovereigntyNational Union. that had begun in 1825, was Nickname: "The Prairie State" generating such advanced Flower: Native Violet. Bird: educational concepts as the nation's Cardinal. Tree: White Oak. Song: first free kindergarten, the idea of "Illinois." educating boys and girls together, and the continuation of education Excellence activities: Stricter high throughout one's life. Elsewhere in school graduation requirements the state the tax measure adopted have been implemented. The State by the General Assembly in 1851 Board of Education has approved a was having its effect, against odds. comprehensive set of Although many suit: were brought recommendations calling for major to outlaw such a levy, more than changes in the areas of student 2,700 schoolhouses were built over learning, school finance, and the the next five y,mrs, and by the turn quality of educational personnel. of the century the number had The legislature created the risen to 10,000. In 1907 the new Commission for the Improvement city of Gary hired William A. Wirt as of Elementary and Secondary superintendent of schools and thus STATEPROFILES soon became a center of educational State profilePopulation (1984): 67 innovation. Instead of assigning 5,498,000. Per capita income students permanent desks, Mr. Wirt (1984): $11,799. Entered statehood provided them with lockers and December 11, 1816. Motto: instituted a new format for the Crossroads of America. Nickname: school day. While half the students "Hoosier State." Flower: Peony. were studying in homerooms, the Bird: Cardinal. Tree: Tulip Poplar. other half were in classrooms or "ong: "On the Banks of the activity rooms, thereby nearly Wabash." doubling the number ok students a given building could accommodate. Excellence activities: Indiana has By 1929, more than 200 cities tightened graduation requirements, across the country had adopted the including one more year in "Gary system." mathematics, science, and English; required schools to offer computer State mandatesCompulsory literacy; increased instructional school attendance for students aged time in the schools by disallowing 7-16 years; provision for home non-instructional activities to count instruction by parents who want to toward the m:nimum instructional educate their own children. school day; established on a statewide basis Project PRIME Number of schools-304 school TIME, which reduces the student/ districts with 1,212 elementary teacher ratio to 18 to 1 in schools, 258 junior high, 342 senior kindergarten through third grade; high, and 30 schools with initiated a statewide student kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). competency testing and remediation program for three Student enrollment-966,057 grade levels, beginning with third elementary and secondary; 505,845 grade students; increased funding kindergarten-grade 6, 460,212 for gifted and talented; summer grades 7-12 (1985-86). school; and adult education programs. New teaches testing for Per pupil expenditures-52,973 state certification began in 1985. elementary and secondary (1985-86). IOWA Staff-56,018 total instructional; Chief state school officerRobert 25,293 elementary teachers, 24,708 D. Benton, Commissioner of secondary teachers, 2,640 other Education, State Department of nonsupervisory instructional, 3,377 Publit, Instruction, Grimes State principals and supervisors. Average Office Building, Des Moines 50319. salary of instructional staff, (515) 281-5294. $25,178; elementary teachers, $23,849; secondary teachers, Education historyThe state's first $24,827; elementary principals, school opened in 1830 in a log $37,325; junior high/middle school cabin built by Dr. Isaac ;ialland, a principals, $38,413; senior high physician who compensated the principals, $42,261 (1985-86).. teacher by allowing him to read his

10 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 68 medical books. The territorial Liberties We Prize and Our Rights legislature created free public We Will Maintain. Nickname: (primary) schools in 1839; free "Hawkeye State." Flower: Wild public high schools followed in Rose. Bird: Eastern Goldfinch. Tree: 1911. Iowa built one of the first Oak. Song: "The Song of !cwa." public schools for the physically handicappedDavis W. Smouse Excellence activities: A legislative Opportunity Schoolin Des task force recommended that the Moines in 1931. State Board of Education adopt new standards by mid-1987 and assume State mandatesCompulsory control over any school district that school attendance for students aged fails to meet them. The standards 7-16; provision for home include full-time contracts for instruction by parents who want to educators, annual training for educate their own children. school board members, a career ladder for teachers, private sector Number of schools-436 school partnerships and more community districts with 856 elementary and parent involvement. schools, 166 junior high, 327 senior high, and 141 schools with KANSAS kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). Chief state school officerHarold Student enrollment-485,443 L. Blackburn, Commissioner of elementary and secondary; 264,113 Education, State Department of kindergarten-grade 6; 221,330 Education, 120 E. Tenth St., Topeka grades 7-12 (1985-86). 66612. (913) 296-3201. Per pupil expenditures-53,568 Education historyPublic elementary and secondary education in Kansas had its roots in (1985-86). Council Grove, where the first free school was established in 1851. It Staff-34,164 total instructional; was not until the 1870s, however, 14,516 elementary teachers, 16,381 that many log and sod schools secondary teachers, 1,786 other appeared in Kansas. For many years nonsupervisory instructional, 1,481 conditions were frightful. Few principals and supervisors. Average schools had outhouses. To become a salary of instructional staff, teacher, all you had to do was write $22,499; elementary teachers, your name, read a paragraph from a $20,863, secondary teachers, newspaper, and answer an oral $22,420; elementary principals, question or two. High schools and $36,128, junior high/middle school libraries were things of the future. principals, $41,493, senior high By 1876, the number of public principals, $40,765 (1985-86). school districts in Kansas had grown to 9,284. The idea behind State profilePopulation (1984): this huge number was that every 2,910,000. Per capita income student could walk to school. After (1984): $12,090. Entered statehood the turn of the century, junior high December 28, 1846. Motto: Our and high schools were established, P7.7 STATE PROFILES along with community colleges and elementary teachers, $22,660; 69 vocational-technical schools. secondary teachers, $22,850; Legislation dealing with school elementary principals, $33,116; libraries and other enrichment junior high principals, $37,725; programs was passed. The first state senior high principals, $42,191 financial aid began with $2.1 (1985-86). million in 1937-38. Following World War II, financial aid was increased; school districts were State profilePopulation (1984): consolidated (today there are 306); 2,438,000. Per capita income college degree requirements for (1984): $13,319. Entered statehood teacher certification were set; and, January 29, 1861. Motto: Ad Astra by constitutional amendment, a lay per Aspera (To the Stars Through state board of education was Difficulties). Nickname: 'ounflower established. In 1954, with the State." Flower: Native Sunflower. United States Supreme Court Bird: Western Meadowlark. Tree: decision in Brown v. The Topeka Cottonwood. Song: "Holm on the Board of Education, desegregation Range." began. Schools segregated by race were declared unequal and, Excellence activities: New teacher therefore, unconstitutional. testing for state certification began in 1986. As of July 1985 certified State mandatesCompulsory personnel must participate in school attendance for students aged inservice activities to have their 7-16. licenses renewed. Beginning teachers take part in an internship Number of schools-304 school program. High-achieving students districts with 923 elementary are offered a chance to parti(+ to schools, 158 junior high, 315 senior in the Kansas Honors Academy, a high, and 36 schools with four-week summer residential kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). program in mathematics, science, the humanities, and the arts. Student enrollment-410,229 Graduation requirements were elementary and secondary; 260,362 increased from 17 to 20 units for kindergarten-grade 6; 149,867 the class of 1988, including four grades 7-12 (1985-86). units of English, three of social studies, and two each of Per pupil expenditures$3,91-, mathematics and science. elementary and secondary (1985-86). KENTUCKY Staff-30,317 total instructional; 15,246 elementary teachers, 11,414 Chief state school officerAlice secondary teachers, 1,977 other McDonald, Superintendent of nonsupervisory instructional, 1,680 Public Instruction, State principals and supervisors Department of Education, 1725 (1983-84). Average salary of Capitol Plaza Tower, Frankfort instructional staff, $24,324; 40601. (502) 564-4770. E D U C A T I O N A L.411 M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 70 Education historyThe Kentucky kindergarten-grade 6; 214,512 region's first permanent settlement grades 7-12 (1985-86). was founded at Harrodsburg in 1774. Indicative of the pioneers' Per pupil expenditures$2,853 interest in education, a year later elementary and secondary Harrodsburg had a school. Others (1985-86). were soon established at McAffe's Station (1777), Boonesborough (1779), and Lexington (1783). A Staff -37,780 total instructional; century later the state was 21,940 elementary teachers, 11,660 sufficiently populous to justify a secondary teachers, 2,030 other statewide public school system; the nonsupervisory instructional, 2,150 legislature authorized it in 1883. principals and supervisors. Average The 1908 general assembly, known assalary of instructional staff, the "education legislature," $21,820; elementary teachers, enacted laws to provide for teacher $20,440; secondary teachers, training, state financial aid, and $21,850; elementary principals, other school impiswements. In $36,495; junior high/middle school 1934, the legislature reorganized principals, $37,655; senior high the state system to enhance principals, $43,016 (1985-86). academic quality and make better use of funds. Like other states, State profilePopulation (1984): Kentucky responded to the school 3,723,000. Per capita income deficiencies emphasized in the 1983 (1984): $10,374. Entered statehood federal report, A Nation At June 1, 1792. Motto: United We Risk. The 1984 legislative Stand, Divided We Fall. Nickname: session, dubbed the "accountability "Bluegrass State." Flower: session," passed 43 laws to improve Goldenrod. Bird: Cardinal. Tree: public schools. Lawmakers in 1985 Kentucky Coffee Tree. Song: "My and 1986 approved a $300 million Old qentucky Home." education improvement package, providing fo:. new instructional Excellence activities: The 1984 programs, construction of new legislature mandated statewide facilities, and pay raises for testing of students in teachers. kindergarten-grade 12 to measure their mastery of essential academic State mandatesCompulsory skills and ordered remedial school attendance for students aged instruction for students in grades 6-18; kindergarten. 1-2 who fail to master the basics. The legislature also required new Number of schools-180 school teachers to pass the National districts with 876 elementary Teachers Examination and complete schools, 139 junior high, 212 senior a one-year internship for high, and 43 schools with certification, and gave the state kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). board of education new authority to deal with academic deficiency or Student enrollment-643,903 administrative mismanagement in elementary and secondary; 429,391 local school districts. Public

rib* STATEPROFILES school kindergartens have been 7-16 provision for home 71 required since 1985. instruction by parents who want to LOUISIANA educate their own children. Chief state school officerThomas Number of schools-66school Clausen, Superintendent of districts with 856 elementary Education, State Department of schools, 182 junior high, 247 senior Education, P.O. Box 44064, Baton high, and 120 schools with Rouge 70804. (504) 342-3602. kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86).

Education historyLouisiana'sfirst Student enrollment-804,600 schools were established under elementary and secondary; 584,600 French rule in the early 1700s. kindergarten-grade 6; 220,000 Ursuline nuns started a school for grades 7-12 (1985-86). girls that still exists. The first public school opened in 1772 after the Per pupil expenditures$3,046 territory's transfer to Spanish rule, elementary and secondary but the rich sent their children to (1985-86). private schools. The effort to organize an overall school program Staff-48,000 total instructional; began in New Orleans in 1841. The 28,000 elementary teachers, 14,900 now ctnt, constitution in 15145 secondary teachers, 2,100 other established a statewide school nonsupervisory instructional, 3,000 system and the office of the state principals and s nervisors. Average superintendent. Because of his salary of instructional staff, role in bringing about the state $20,900; elementary teachers, system of schools, Alexander $20,160; secondary teachers, Dimitry, the first superintendent, $21,040; elementary principals, became known as the father of $30,491; junior high/middle school Louisiana's elementary education. principals, $32,879; senior high The state provided financial principals, $35,314 (1985-86). support for schools in 1898. Governor Huey Long in 1 vA State profilePopulation(1984): proposed legislat'on to provide 4,462,000. Per capita income free textbooks to all children, in (1984): $10,850. Entered statehood private as well as public schools. April 30, 1812. Motto:Union, State support for private schools Justice and Confidence.Nickname: was subsequently upheld by the "Pelican State." Flower: Magnolia. State Supreme Court and nonpublic Bird: Eastern Brown Pelican. Tree: schools have continued to benefit Cypress. Song: "Give Me from state assistance. In 1963-67, Louisiana." all public school systems came under federal court orders to Excellence activities:Beginning desegregate. By 1968, all had with the class of 1988, high school substantially complied. graduates must /-ave 23 credits, including four units in English and State mandatesCompulsory three each in mathematics, science, school attendance for students aged and social studies. In 1983, the 80 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 72 state opened a School for home instruction by parents who Mathematics, Science, and the Arts want to educate their own children. for grades 11-12. In 1984, students in kindergarten-grade 8 Number of schools--228 school began a 30-minute longer school districts with 532 elz:nentary day. Early childhood education schools, 70 junior high, 111 senior programs are providl.4 for "at risk" high, and 10 schools with 4-year-olds. A student incentive kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). awards program provides for competition in academic subjects. Student enrollment-206,827, New teacher testing for state elementary and secondary; 142,790 certification began in 1978. kindergarten-grade 6; 64,037 grades Principals seeking initial 7-12 (1985-86). certification must pass the administrative portion of the Pc.. pupil expenditures$3,346 National Teachers Examination. elementary, $1,955 secondary (1985-86). MAINE Staff-14,943 total instructional; Chief state school officerRichard 8,421 elementary teachers, 4,466 W. Redmond, Commissioner of secondary teachers, 686 other Education, Department of nonsupervisory instructional, 1,370 Educational and Cultural Services, principals and supervisors. Average State House, Station #23, Augusta salary of instructional staff, 04333. (207) 289-5800. $20,227; elementary teachers, $19,090; secondary teachers, Education historyThe first school $20,513; elementary principals, may have been founded by $31,496; secondary principals, missionaries fc Indian children as $34,425; senior high principals, early as 1696. The first known $37,604, (1985-86). school for white children was located in York in 1701. The first State profilePopulation (1984): school building was erected in 1,156,000. Per capita income Berwick in 1719. School funds were (1984): $10,678. Entered statehood provided by the legislature starting March 15, 1820. Motto: Dingio (1 in 1828. A law providing for free Direct). Nickname: "Pine Tree high schools was enacted in 1873. State.' Flower: White Pine Cone. The trend away from one-room Bird: Chickadee. Tree: Eastern schcols was rapid after 1940. In White Pine. Song: "State of Maine." 1957, the Sinclair Act was passed by the legislature to encourage Excellence activities: Improvement consolidation of schools operated by of public education in Maine since districts encompassing two or more 1983 includes passage of two pieces towns. of education legislation: A new certification law embracing the State mandatesCompulsory master teacher concept, and an school attend,nce for students aged education reform act that includes 7-17; kindergarten; provision for annual $2,000 stipends for teachers STATE PROFILES ...Mammon, who have taught % 31-time for at public schools. Ii,8l6, att. neral 73 least three years and a special Assembly au tiiori7-d coo school commission to study and boards, though fey, ,^11. ,.,ere recommend permanent established. A state suivto of enhancement of teacher education needs in 1825 led to the compensation. The Education Reform creation in 1826 of the Act of 1984 1):-,vides for increased administrative structure for a state revenues for Maine's public system of pr.nary schools. school system. Some key elements Baltimore City established a public call for refined accreditation education system in the 1840s. It procedures for schools, assessment was not until the Constitution of of pupil progress, additional ]R64, however, that a uniform state requirements to graduate from system of public schools began to high school, grants to teacher: become a reality supported by a for creative improvement, and state tax. Appointed as the first state strengthening the ability of the superintendent was the Reverend Department of Educational Services Libertus Van Bokkelen, who had led to make needed improvements. the effort to get the education New teacher testing for state article in the Constitution. The certification begins in 1988. 1865 school law put the plan into effect. A compulsory school attendance law was passed in 1911. MARYLAND Major changes occurred in the Chief state school officerDavid W. 1960s as the federal government Hornbeck, State Superintendent of launched efforts in compensatory Schools, State Depaitinent of education and special education. In Education, 200 W. Baltimore St., 1971 the state assumed the cost of Baltimore 21201. (301) 659-2200. school construction, and in 1973 an accountability law established a statewide testing program. x,.1977 Education historyEarly efforts to the state board approved the establish free public education were concept of the minimum made in 1631, unsuccessfully, and competency program in basic skills, again in 1694, when Governor work, and citizenship. In the 1980s Francis Nicholson received a royal new efforts were begun to improve blessing for the idea. A year later a teaching quality, to reexamine and tax was levied on the thriving fur update high school instruction and trade to support "the requirements, and to raise state aid encouragement of learning." Out of to increase the equalization of this effort came the first public resources among the 24 local school, King William School in school systems. Annapolis (now St. John's College). During the 18th century, progress was slowed by debates between State mandatesCompulsory conservatives arguing for support of school attendance for students ages higher education for the gentry and 6-16; provision for home democrats arguing for the instruction by parents who want to diffusion of learning through educate their own children. 2: EDUCATION ALMANAC1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 74 Number of schools-24 school MASSACHUSETTS districts with 776 elementary schools, 178 junior high, 170 senior Mel state school officerHarold high, and 9 schools with Raynolds, Jr., Commissioner of kindergarten-grade 12 (1985 -36). Education, State Department of Education, Quincy Center Plaza, Student enrollment-671,560 1385 Hancock St., Quincy 02169. elementary and secondary; 346,542 (617) 770-7300. kindergarten-grade 6; 325,018 grades 7-12 (1985-86). Educatfon historyBoston Latin Per pupil expenditures$4,349 (1635) was the first public school in elementary secondary (1985-86). the American colonies, established to prepare boys for college. The Staff-44,384 total instructional; Massachusetts Act of 1642 required 17,920 elementary teachers, 20,335 compulsory education of children secondary teachers, 3,078 other by parents and masters of young nonsupervisory instructional, 3,051 apprentices, though schools were principals and supervisors. Average not established. In "Ye Old Deluder salary of instructional staff, Satan" Act of 1647, the colony $28,124; elementary teachers, required towns of 5C, or more $26,010; secondary teachers, households to establish schools; $29,900; elementary principals, towns of 100 or mere households $39,387; junior high/middle school were to create Latin grammar principals $41,566; senior high schools to prepare boys for principals, $44,077 (1985-86). university. Education stressed religious training to save young State profilePopulation (1984): sluls. The nation's first vocational 4,349,003. Per capita income high schools were founded in 1921. (1984): $14,111. Entered statehood The first state board of education April 28, 1788. Motto: Fatti Maschii, was created in 1837 through the Parole Femine (Manly Deeds, persistence of Horace Mann, who Womanly Words). Nicknames: "Old became its first secretary. His Line State," iree State," Flower: campaign for school reform and Black-eyed Susan. Bird: Baltimore teacher training made him the Oriole. Tree: White Oak. Song: "Fathe: of the Common School." "Maryland, My Maryland." The state passed the nation's first compulsory school attendance law Excellence activities: High school in 1852. A free textbook statute was graduation requirements have been enacted in 1884. Other "firsts" for revised, adding one each of the state include a teacher training mathematics and fine arts credits. A institute, a graduate school of certificate of merit is given to education, and the first school students who earn a 2.6 grade point desegrer 'ion program. average and take advanced courses. New teachers must pass a test to teach; teachers are considered for State maadatesCompulsory tenure after two years and after school attendance for students aged passing a t .st. 6-16; kindergarten; provision for

R .3 STATEPROFILES home instruction by parents who of mandatory kindergarten, raising 75 want to edticate their own children. starting teacher salaries to $18,000 a year, and testing student skills Number of schools-375 school while evaluating teacher districts with 1,232 elementary con )etencies. The higher education schools, 237 junior high, 259 senior board approved new standards for high, and 4 schools with admission to state's colleges and kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). universities, including an "eligibility" index based on SAT Student enrollment-841,255 scores and class rank. A center for elementary and secondary; 553,655 teaching and learning and a kindergarten-grade 6; 287,600 mathematics/science/technology grades 7-12 (1985-86). project stress teacher training and new technologies. New teacher Per pupil expenditures$4,255 testing for state certification is elementary and secondary required. (1985-86). MICHIGAN Staff-65,055 total instructional; 21,430 elementary teachers, 34,960 Chief state school officer Phillip secondary teachers, 5,140 other E. Runkel, Superintendent of Public nonsupervisory instructional, 3,525 Instruction. State Department of principals and supervisors. Average Education, P.C. Box 30008, 115 W. salary of instructional staff, Allegan St., Lansing 48909. (517) $29,065; elementary teachers, 373-335'. $25,553; secondary teachers, $26,106; elementary principals, Education historyCatholic $38,193; junior high/middle school missionaries as early as the 1600s principals $41 166; senior high provided regular schooling and principals, $44,025 (1985-86). vocational training for Indian and white children. In 1809, the State profilePopulation (19f,4): territorial government levied a tax 5,798,000. Per capita income for support of schools, but 113 (1984): $14,574. Entered statehood attempt was made to enforce flu, February 6, 1788. Motto: Ense Petit law. In 1827, the Territorial Council Placidam Sub Libertate Quietem passed a statute requiring every (By the Sword We Seek Peace, But township with 50 inhabitants to Peace Only Under Liberty) employ a schoolmaster of "good Nicknames: "Bay State," "Old morals" to teach children to read Colony." Flower: Mayflower. Bird: and write in English and Fre h Chickadee. Tree: American Elm. and learn mathematics, spelLig and Song: "All Hail to Massachusetts." "decent" behavior. Schools were in session six months a year. When Excellence activities: The towns reached 200 inhabitants they Massachusetts lejislature passed were to establish higher schools the School Reform Act in 1985. It offering Latin. When schools were calls for additional high school organized in various towns, they graduation requirements, two years were not tax-supported; parents R4 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 76 paid for their children's education. Peninsulam Amoenam Circumspice Detroit began free schooling in (If You Seek a Pleasant Peninsula, 1842. The statewide system of free Look About You). Nicknames: public education was initiated in "Great Lake State," "Wolverine the 1870s. School district State," Flower: Apple Blossom. consolidations in the 1950s reduced Bird: Robin. Tree: White Pine. the number of districts from 4,800 Song: "Michigan, My Michigan." to 2,100, a trend that has continued in recent years. Excellence activities: Ir. January 1984 the State Board of Education State mandatesCompulsory adopted a report entitled school attendance for students aged Better Education for Michigan 6-16; provision for home Citizens: A Blueprint for instruction by parents who want to Action. The report contained educate their own children. 15 major recommendations and more than 60 initiatives that Number of schools-570 school the board plans to take by districts with 2,068 elementary 1989 to improve learning. schools, 446 junior high, 566 senior They include establishing high, and 62 schools with new high school graduation kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). requirements, lengthening the school day and year, Student enrollment-1,680,000 developing a plan of elementary and secondary; accreditation of schools, 1,124,000 kindergarten-grade 6; establishing homeviork and 556,000 grades 7-12 (1985-86). discipline policies, and creating certification classification for school Per pupil expenditures$3,789 administrators. elementary and secondary (1985-86). MINNESOTA Staff-92,270 total instructional; Chief state schoot officerRuth E. 42,500 elementary teachers, 36,470 Randall, Commissioner of secondary teachers, 9,000 other Education, State Department of nonsupervisory instructional, 4,300 Education, 712 Capitol Square principals and supervisors. Average Building, 550 Cedar St., St. Paul salary of instructional staff, 55101. (612) 296-2358. $29,990; elementary teachers, $29,960; secondary teachers, Education histovThefiat $30,500; elementary principals, teachers in Minnesota were $41,783; junior high/rr"e school missionaries who worked amoral principals $43,026; scA- nigh the Indians. About 1820, the first principals, $44,807 (198u-86). school for white children was opened at Fort St. Anthony (later Siva profilePopulation (1984): Fort Snelling). During the 1830s, 9,075,000. Per capita income the missionaries started many (193,4: $12,518. Entered statehood Indian schools. Regular grade January 26, 1837. Motto: Si Quaeris schools were established by an act R5 STATE PROFILES 1111111.=.1111 of the territorial legislature in 1849. Nicknames: "North Star, State," 77 Where the one-room schoolhouse "Gopher State." Flower: Pink and once prevailed in rural areas, it has White Lady's Slipper. Bird: disappeared as consolidation efforts Common Loon. Tree: Red Pine. have occurred. State support for Song: "Hail, Minnesota." education always has been generous, and Minnesota has been Excellence activities: known to provide up to 60 percent Outcome-')ased education is :4 new of the annual cost of operating project designed to measure what elementary and secondary schools. students learn based Son their accomplishments rather than on State mandatesCompulsory course requirements, time spent in schooi attendance for students aged class, and results of tests. This 7-16; kindergarten. involves school performance and accountability and requires schools Number of schools -432 school to individualize measurement. The districts with 771 elementary state also is implementing a schools, 125 junior high, 299 statewide program on integrating senior high, and 161 schools with technology into the classroom and a kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). school effectiveness project with 26 pilot schools. The latter seeks to Student enrollment-696,513 identify educational processes that elementary and secondary; 357,564 make education successful and to kindergarten-grade S; 338,949 help schools use those processes in grades 7-12 (1985-86). the classroom. The State Board of Education also has increased to 31 Per pupil expenditures$3,864 the number of courses that each elementary and secondary high school must offer students; (1985-86). and schools must make available instruction in career education and Staff -44,55 total instructional; technology. 19,880 elementary teacher& 20,650 con dary teachers, 2,525 other MISSISSIPPI =supervisory instructional, 1,900 principals and supervisors. Average Chief state school officerRichard salary of instructional staff, A. Boyd, Superintendent of $27,950; elementary teachers, Education, State Department of $26,350; secondary teachers, Education, P.O. Box 771, High St., $27,570; elementary principals, Jackson 39205. (601) 359-3513. $44,311; junior high/middle school principals $49,281; senior high Education history--The state's principals, $49,600 (1985-86). public school system was established by the Mississippi State profilePopulation (1984): ^onstitution in 1866. A board of 4,162,000. Per capita income education was created and free (1984): $13,219. Entered statehood schoolin, was initially provided for May 11, 1858. Motto: L'Etoile du every chifor four months a year. Nord (The Star of the North). Public schools did ,njoy instant R6 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

78 popularity. The Civil War had secondary teachers, 1,400 other caused hard times, and people had nonsupervisory instructional, 1,516 little money for school taxes. As principals and supervisors. Average conditions improved, however, salary of instructional staff, opposition decreased and by the $18,993; elementary teachers, 1890s the system had gained $18,18'; secondary teachers, general approval. A textbook $18,752; elementary principals, commission, later to become the $29,048; junior high/middle school textbook purchasing board, was principals $30,490; senior high started in 1904. Agricultural high principals, $33,584 (1985-86). schools were founded in 1908. School reorganization efforts in the State profilePopulation (1984): 1960.; were geared to academic 2,598,000.Per capita income improvement. Vocational-technical (1984): $8,857. Entered statehood training centers were started at December 10, 1817.Motto: Virtute high schools and junior colleges et Armis (By Valor andArms). during the same period. Aississippi, Nickname: "Magnolia State." which had operated separate Flower: Magnolia. Bird: schools for blacks and whites, began Mockingbird. Tree: Magnolia. gong: integration efforts in 1964. In 1982 "Go, Mississippi." ne state legislature enacted a massive Education Reform Act and Excellenceactivities: The state has in 1986 adopted a set of uniform been implementing reforms passed school laws. in the Educational Reform Act of 1982. Beginning in 1984-85, a State mandatesCompulsory testing program for grades 4, 6, 3 school attendance for students aged and 11 went into effect, along with 6-14; kindergarten; provision for a requirement that graduating home instruction by parents who seniors meet the eleventh-grade want to educate their own children. level on the test. The legislature approved mandatory kindergarten Number of schools-- -154school in 1986, beginning with a pilot districts with 500 elementary program in 1985.Loanprograms schools, 87 junior high, 177 senior help teachers retrain in high, and 105 schools with mathematics and scionce. New kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). teacher testing for state certification launched. Student enrollment-464,280 elementary arid secondary; 265,271 kindergarten-grade 6; 199,009 MISSOURI grades 7-12 (1985-86). Chief state school officerArthur Per pupil expenditures$2,305 L.Mallory, Commissioner of elementary and secondary Education, Department of (1985-86). Elementary and Secondary Education, P.O. Box 480, Jefierson Staff-27916 total instructional; State Office Building, Jefferson City 13,500 elementary teachers, 11,5011 65102. (314) 7f.;1-4446. STATE PROFILES Fducation historyMissouri's legislature enacted a comprehensive 79 first school was a private special education law, considered elementary school established in to be a forerunner of the Education St. Louis in 1774. Under the of the Handicapped Act passed by Missouri Compromise, wherein Congress in 1975. Missouri became a state in 1821, the state's first constitution State mandatesCompulsory provided that "one or more schools school attendance for students aged shall be established in each 7-16; provision for home Congtessional Township as soon as instruction by parents who want to necessary, and the children of the educate their own children. poor shall be taught free." The Geyer Act, enacted by the Number of schools-545 school legislature in 1839, established districts with 1,169 elementary the office of the state schools, 215 junior high, 403 senior superintendent of schools and a high, and 107 schools with system of state funding for kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). education, thereby laying the foundation for the state's public Student enrollment-795,107 school system. The Missouri School elementary and secondary; E 4,197 for the Deaf in Fultonthe first kindergarten-grade 6; 250,910 of its kind west of the grades 7-12 (1985-86). Mississippiwas established in 1851. The Missouri School for the Per pupil expenditures$3,155 Blind in St. Louis, established as elementary and secondary a private institution in 1851, (1985-86). became a state-supported school in 1855. It was the first school in Staff-55,650 total instructional; the western hemisphere to introduce 24,850 elementary teachers, 23,240 the use of braille in teaching the secondary teachers, 4,130 other blind. The state's first normal nonsupervisory instructional, 3,430 school for training teachers was principals and supervisors. Average established at Kirksville in 1867 salary of instructional staff, knotnow as Northeast $22,785; elementary teachers, Missouri State University. In $21,186; secondary teachers, 1873, the first public kindergarten $22,624; elementary principals, in America was started by the St. $37,376; junior high/middle school Louis public schools. W. T. principals $42,598 senior high Harris, superintendent of the St. principals, $44,601 (1985-86). Louis schools during this period, later served as U.S. Commissioner State profilePopulation (1984): of Education from 1889 to 1906. 5,008,000. Per capita income The Manual Training School was (1984): $12,129. Entered statehood established in St. Louis in 1880, August 10, 1821 Motto: Salus the first of its kind in the Populi Suprema Lex L'sto (The nation, and marked the beginning of Welfare of the People Shall Be the industrial arts education in the Supreme Law). Nickname: "Show U.S. In 1973, the Missouri Me State." Flower: Hawthorn. Bird: E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

80 Bluebird. Tree: Dogwood. Song: and urban areas grew. The state "Missouri Waltz." legislature mandated several courses of study for public Excellence activities: In 1982, schools, including pioneer history voters approved by referendum a and heritag;:, health education, one-cent sales tax increase safety, and conservation education. earmarked for education and By 1975 the state board of public teachers' salaries; half the proceeds education set minimum standards for are used to replace local district public school accreditation and property tax revenue. During oulined the means to review these 1983-84, the State Board of standards on a regular basis. Education increased minimum high Since 1975 Montana 'education has school graduation standards and seen the statutory establishment of approved a policy requiring gifted and talented programs; more students to pass a state- rnandateu stringent high school graduation eighth grade competency test to requirements; a precertification qualify for ninth grade academic teacher testing requirement; credit. New state laws require upgrading of administrators' school districts to develop certificates; the adoption of a performance-based teacher standard of educational equity in evaluation programs and eliminate all school programs, curricula, lifetime certificates for teachers, services, textbooks, counseling, effective in 1988. and other areas; and state review of teacher education programs. Montana's public school system MONTANA remains predominantly rural, with Chief state school officer Ed small enrollments in a large number kgenbright, Superintendent of of school districts spread across a Public Instruction, State Office of vast geographical area. The state Public Instruction, State C.pitol, has nearly 100 one-teacher schools. Helena 59620. (406) 444-3654. Indians are the state's largest minority; in 1972, the constitution Education historyMontana's first gave specific recognition to their formal sch.Jols were created in the unique cultural heritage. early 1860s by Catholic missionaries or privately subscribed in mining State mandatesCompulsory towns like Bannack and Virginia school attendance for students aged City. In 1865, the first territorial 7-16. legislature established a public school system. School attendance Number of schools-547 school for children aged 7-16 was required districts with 480 elementary as early as 1893, at which time a schools, 54 junior high, 116 senior state board of education was high, and 55 schools with created. Free high schools were kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). established in 1897. From 1895 to 1971, the state government's role in education increased, as many small Student enrollment 54,072 rural school districts consr:.da, ed elementary and secondary; 108,121 STATE PROFILES kindergarten-grade 6; 45,951 grades Education historyThe Army 81 7-12 (1985-86). established the first school in what. is today Nebraska, during the 1820s, Per pupil expenditures$4,337 near what was to become Fort elementary and secondary including Calhoun. During the 1830s and special education (1985-86). 1840s, missionaries of various faiths founded schools across the Staff -11,513 total instructional; Nebraska region to teach the 6,963 elementary teachers, 3,136 Indians. The first Nebraska secondary teachers, 897 other Territory legislature adopted a free nonsupervisory instructional, 517 school law in 1855, a year after the principals and supervisors. Average territory opened for settlement. The salary of instructional staff, .tate constitution, adopted in 1875, $24,000; elementary teachers, provides for the present system of $21,880; secondary teachers, public education. In 1891, a $23,660; elementary principals, compulsory school attendance law $36,478; junior high/middle school was enacted. Support for education principals $41,090; senior high in ti.e state is reflected in statistics principals, $44,313 (1985-86). indicating that in 1900 per pupil expenditures were $15.25; today State profilePopulation (1984): they exceed $3,000. 824,000. Per capita income (1984): $10,216. Entered statehood State mandatesCompulsory November 8, 1889. Motto: Oro Y school attendance for student, aged Plata (Gold and Silver). Nickname: 7-16; provision for home "Treasure State." Flower: instruction by parents who want to Bitterroot. Bird: Western educate their own children. Meadowlark. Animal: Grizzly Bear. Tree: Ponderosa Pine. Song: Number of schools-913 school "Montana." districts with 1,042 elementary schools, 61 junior high 167 senior Excellence activities: Ideas for high, and 157 schools 1,ith improvement were discussed at a kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). series of statewide forums on school reform. High school graduation Student enrollment-256,819 requirements were increased to 18 elementary and secondary; 150,898 units in 1985 and 20 units effective kinderg, rten-grade 6; 114,921 in 1986. Teacher testing also is grades 7 12 (1985-86). being considered. Per pupil ;:xpenditures$3,285 NEBRASKA elementary and secondary (1985-86). Chief state school officerJoseph E. Lutjeharms, Commissioner of Staff -19,840 total instructional; Education, State Department of 9,363 elementary teachers, 8,211 Education, P.O. Box 94987, 301 secondary teachers, 1,190 other Centennial Mall, S. Lincoln 6850^. nonsupervisory instructional, 1,076 (402) 471-2465. principals and supervisors. Average 90 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 82 salary of instructional staff, Complex, Carson City 89710. (702) $23,100; elementary teachers, 885-3100. $20,020; secondary teachers, $21,850; elementary principals, Education histuy--Plans for a $35,077; junior high/middle school tax-supported school system were principals $41,782; senior high fonulated in 1861 when Nevada principals, $43,326 (1985-86). became a territory. The legislature established the first school districts State profilePopulation (1984): in 1865, a year after statehood. In 1,606,000. Per capita income thinly populated rural areas where (1984): $12,280. Entered statehood taxpayers had to suppor schools for March 1, 1867. Motto: Equality a handful of children, the school Before the Law. Nickname: year lasted only six months. In "Cornhusker State." Flower: 1907, Nevada appointed its first Goldenrod. Bird: Western state school superintendent. Meadowlark. Tree: Cottonwood. Deputies were placed in charge of Song: "Beautiful Nebraska." five large supervision districts created at the same time. Excellence activities: The Population growth in the 1940s and legislature approved a bill raising financial problems in the 1950 standards for students and teachers prompted school consolidation and promoting innovation in the measures. In recognition of wide classroom. The State Board of Local variations in wealth and per Education was given more authority pupil costs, the state devised an for curriculum standards, and the equalization formula for financial school year was extended from 175 assistance to schools. to 180 days. Two levels of competency tests, before entering State mandatesCompulsory teacher-training programs and school attendance for students aged before certification, are mandated 7-17; provision for home for teachers. New teacher testing instruction by parents who want to for state certification begins in Aucate their own children. 1989. A governor's task force recommended doubling state aid, making all districts Number of schools-17 school districts with 184 elementary kindergarten-grade 12, and schools, 39 junior high, 44 senior expanding foreign language high, and 11 schools with instruction. Students wishing to major in mathematics and science kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). teaching can get low-interest college loans. Student enrollment-155,000 elementary and secondary; 83,200 kindergarten-grade 6; 71,800 grades NEVADA , 7-12 (1985-86). Chief state school officei' Eugene T. Paslov, Superintendent of Public Per pupil expenditures$3,142 Instruction, State Department of elementary and secondary Education, 400 W. 'Sing St., Capitol (1 985-86). 4.1411 STATE PROFILES Staff-8,810 total instructional; Education historyIn colonial 83 4,038 elementary teachers, 3,713 days, children of settlers attended secondary teachers, 646 other one-room schoolhouses, some of nonsupervisory instructional, 413 which still stand. Operations of principals and supervisors. Average today's schools are based on laws salary of instructional staff, passed in 1789 and broadly revised $26,720; elementary teachers, in 1919the year a state boar 4 $25,100; secondary teachers, education was established and glen $26,170; elementary p,'nci-ials, authority to certify teachers, $41,449; junior high/middle school enforce attendance laws, and principals $46,420; senior high prescribe school standards. The first principals, 645,632 (1985-86). public school was founded in 1830. By then a number' of private State profilePopulation (1984): academies, including Philips Exeter (1781), the ollOtAnd best known 911,000. Per capita income (1984): had been fo'utided.Vith the spread $13,216. Entered statehood October of publiC'high schools, some of 31, 1864. Motto: All for Our theWprivateCademies went out of Country. Nicknames: "sagebrush existence and others lost their State," "Battle Born State.' Flower: private character by accepting tax Sagebrush. Bird: Mountain support. In communities, Bluebird. Tree: Single-leaf Pinon. public high schools and elementary Song: "Home Means Nevada." schools are operated by regional school districts as efficiency Excellence activities: The 1983 measures. legislature appointed a special committee to study education and Slate mandatesCompulsory directed state universities and school attendance for students aged public high schools to improve 6-16; provision for home instruction in mathematics and instruction by parents who want to other subject areas. The State Board educate their own children. of Education and universities are working on a joint effort on college preparation. High school students Number of schools-158 school must have 20 units to graduate, districts with 319 elementary including two in mathematics and schools, 39 junicr high, 65 senior an extra unit of English for students high, and 12 szhools with who fail proficiency tests. kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86).

Student enrollment-160,974 NEW HAMPSHIRE elementary and secondary; 96,213 kindergarten-grade 6; 64,761 grades Chief state school officerJohn T. 7-12 (1985-86). MacDonald, Commissioner of Education, State Department of Education, 101 Pleasant St., State Per pupil expenditures$3,115 Office Park S., Concord 03301. elementary and secondary (603) 271-3144. (1985-86). 93 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

84 Staff-11,872 total instructional; legislature established a permanent 6,303 elementary teachers, 4,194 scF,l fund. In 1824, the state secondary teachers, 800 other began to add part of its tax income nonsupervisory instructional, 575 to the fund. In 1867, a state board principals and supervisors. Average of education was created and a salary of instructional staff, state superintendent of public $21,600; elementary teachers, instruction was authorized to $20,070; secondary teachers, enforce school laws. That year the $20,220; elementary principals, state constitution was amended to $35,976; junior high/middle school require the legislature to maintain principals $35,358; senior high free public schools for all youth principals, $37,167 (1985-86). aged 5-18. Compulsory school attendance for children aged 6-16 State profilePopulation (1984): and state licensing of teachers 977,000. Per capita income (1984): also were required before the close $13,148. Entered statehood June of the 19th century. Industrial S1, 1788. Motto: Live Free or Die. and vocativnal schools were founded Nickname: "Granite State." Flower: in subsequent years, as were Purple Lilac. BIM: Purple Finch. special facilities for physically 'free: White Birch. Song. "Old New impaired, blind, deaf, and other Hampshire." handicapped youngsters. In 1972, a landmark State Supreme Court ruling Excellence activities: Beginning led to passage of the Public Schorl with the class of 1988, high school Education Act of 1975. The act students will have to complete more provided for new school financing courses to graduatefnur years of methods and specified ways in which English, two each of mathematics the state must fulfill its and science, 2.5 of social studies, constitutional obligation to one year of physical education, and provide a quality education for all other requirements. New teacher children. The state delegated this testing for state certification began responsibility to local school in 1985. Curriculum groups have districts. developed teaching guidelines in mathemafir,s and science. State mandatesCompulsory school attendance for students aged 6-16; provision for home NEW JERSEY ir-struction by parents who want to zducate their own children. Chief state school officerSaul Cooperman, Commissioner of E;ducatioh, State Department of Number of schools-592 school Education, 225 W. State St., districts with 1,597 elementary Trenton 08625. (609) 292-4450. schools, 227 junior high, 321 senior high, and 2 schools with Education historyColonial New kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). Jersey relied on parochial and other private schools. The public school Student enrollment-1,116,194 system dates from 1817, when the elementary and secondary. 715,358 :r.4 STATEPROFI '1 E S kindergarten-grade 6; 400,836 has introduced graduation grades 7-12 (1985-86). standards for students of limited English proficiency. A new Per pupil expenditures$5,544 statewide program is addressing the elementary and secondary problems of urban schools. (1985-86).

Staff -89,102 total instructional; NEW MEXICO 42,736 elementary teachers, 31,074 secondary teachers, 9,120 other Chief state school officerAlan nonsupervisory instructional, 6,172 Morgan, Superintendent of Public principals and supervisors. Average Instruction, State Department of salary of instructional staff, Education, 300 Don Gaspar, Santa $29,310; elementary teachers, Fe 87501. (505) 827-6516. $27,850; secondary teachers, $28,720; elementary principals, Education historySpanish priests $46,787; junior high/middle school brought education to New Mexico principals $50,467; senior high in the 1600s when they began to principals, $54,350 (1985-86). teach the Indians. The first formal school was initiated by the Catholic State profilePopulation (1984); Church at Santa Fe in 1853. The 7,515,000. Per capita income present system of free public (1984): $15,282. Entered statehood education commenced in 1891. !n December 18, 1787. Motto: Liberty 1973, the U.S. Commission on Civil and Prosperity. Nickname: "Garden Rights recommended that the state State." Flower: Purple Violet. Bird: system address the wishes of Indian Eastern Goldfinch. Tree: Red Oak. parerts in providing education for their children. In also responding to Excellence activities: The the needs of Hispanic youth, the Education Department raised the state constitution provides that all standards of college teacher pupils be given access to bilingual preparation courses and now education. To provide qualified requires that all new teachers Hid teachers to fulfill this direcl,:ve, the a bachelor's degree and take a state education department has subject matter competency established bilingual examination for state certification. teacher-training centers. Emergency certification has been eliminated; districts may hire State mandatesCompulsory people meeting certain school -ttendance for students aged qualifications on a provisional basis 6-18; provision for home by offering them one-year, instruction by parents who want to state-approved training programs. A educate their own children. new Academy for the Advancement of Teaching and Management trains Number of schools-88 school teams of teachers and principals. districts with 386 elementary The Education Department also is schools, 96 junior high, 106 senior inamenting a more rigorous high, and 16 schools with ninth-grade graduation test, and kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). 5 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

86 Student enrollment-264,886 Education, State Department of elementary and secondary; 147,609 Education, 111 Education Building, kindergarten-grade 6; 117,277 Albany 12234. (518) 474-5844. grades 7-12 (1985-86). Education historyThefirst school Per pupil expenditures$3,374 was founded at New AmsterLm elementary and secondary (now New York City) in 1633. The (1985-86). British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts Staff-16,884 total instructional; established early schools for Indian 8,574 elementary teachers, 6,150 and poor children, while families secondary teachers, 1,350 other that could afford to do so hired nonsupervisory instructional, 810 tutors or sent their children to principals and supervisors. Average private schools. In 1784, with -12ry of instructional staff, education having come to a $23,864; elementary teachers, standstill during the Revolutionary $21,800; secondary teachers, War, the legislature created a Board $23,240; elementary principals, of Regents authorized to establish $33,241; junior high/middle school secondary schools and colleges. principals $34,812; senior high Alexander Hamilton and other principals, $39,405 (1985-86). regents proposed a public school system in 1787, but no action was State profilePopulation(1984): taken until 1795, when the 1,424,000. Per capita income legislature authorized a permanent (1984): $10,330. Entered statehood arrangement calling for nchool January 6, 1912, Motto:Crescit districts in each township. By 1828, Eundo (It Grows As It Coes). there were 8,000 such districts. Nickname: "Land of Enchantment." During the 1850s a few cities began Flower, Yucca. Bird: Roadrunner. to set up free public high schools. Tree: Pinon. Song: "0, Fair New In 1904, the legislature adopted a Mexico," "Asi es Nuevo Mexico." plan pushed by Governor Theodore Roosevelt that reorg- '7.ed the Excellence activities:High school education system ar. tab I ished a graduation requirements in commissioner of education to be mathematics and science have made responsible for elementary increased from one to two units and secondary education. Measures each. A staff accountability plan for taken since that time include teachers and administrators now institution of the nation's first state includes competencies for scholarship program in 1913, evaluation of both. Nev, teacher establishmcat of a high school testing for state certification began equivalency examination in 1947 in 1983. and an External Degree program in 1971, and adoption in 1979 of a compete..cy testing program in NEW YORK reading, mathematics, and writing aimed at early identification of Chief state school officerGordon children in need of special Help. M. Ambach, Commissioner of STATE PROFILES State mandatesCompulsory requirements for all high school 87 school attendance for students aged and junior high school students; all 6-16; kindergarten; provision for public school students starting with home instruction by parents who the graduating class of 1992 will be want to educate their own cl 'Wren. required to take at least one year of foreign language instruction Number of schools-725 school between kindergarten and grade 9, districts with 2,434 elementary and two years will be required schools, 511 junior high, 667 senior beginning with the class of 1994; high, and 177 schools with mastery of computer skills will be kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). emphasized in all grades and subjects; all new teachers will be Student enrollment-2,608,500 required to pass a certification elementary and secondary; examination and complete a 1,327,600 kindergarten-grade 6; one-year internship; and school 1,280,900 grades 7-12 (1985-86). districts will have a greater responsibility for accounting to the Per pupil expenditures$5,616 public through annual school elementary and secondary assessments presented at public (1985-86). meetings. New teacher testing for state certification began in 1984. Staff -190,450 total instructional; 78,200 elementary teachers, 91,500 secondary teachers, 7,950 other NORTH CAROLINA nonsupervisory instructional, Chief state school officerA. Craig 12,800 principals and supervisors. Phillips, Superintendent of Public Average salary of instructional staff, Instruction, State Department of $31,100; elementary teachers, public Instruction, Education $29,125; secondary teachers, Building, Room 318, Edenton and $31,325; elementary principals, Salisbury Sts., Raleigh 27611. (919) $47,219; junior high/middle school 733-3813. principal, $51,262; senior high principals, $52,423 (1585-86). Education historyThe earl'', i schools were primarily private State profilePopulation (1984): academies. By 1800 there were 40 17,735,000. Per capita income such schools, by 1860 more than (i:9H): $14,121. Entered statehood 400. In 1825, a fund was created to July 26, 1788. Motto: Excelsior stimulate public education. The (Ever Upward). Nickname: "Empire first public schools opened in 1840. State." Flower: Rose. Bird: By 1846, every county had at least Bluebird. Tree: Sugar Maple. Song: one public school and the state "I Love New York." education fund exceeded $12 million. In 1853, Calvin H. Wiley Excellence activities: The State became the first state Board of Regents has approved a superintendent of schools. Under comprehensive plan for education his direction a unified school reform that includes the following: system was started, but the Civil more rigorous academic War led to the system's collapse. 0 09 7 1111111011E1111== E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 88 Schools reopened after the war, but Staff-64,115 total instructional; as late as 1900, public schools were 32,750 elementary teachers, 23,169 in session only 70 days a year, there secondary teachers, 3,998 other was no compulsory attendance law, nonsupervisory instructional, 4,198 and only 74 percent of school-age principals and supervisors. Average youngsters attended. In 1901, salary of instructional staff, Governor Charles B. Aycock and $28,870; elementary teachers, other leaders launched a campaign $22,601; secondary teachers, that stimulated dramatic changes. $22,594; elementary principals, By 1907, an improved system was in $37,032; junior high/middle school place, and a compulsory attendance principals $40,221; senior high law had been passed. In 1933, the principals, $43,310 (1985-86). state took over the cost of operating the system on a minimum eight-month term. In 1943, the State profilePopulation (1984): school term was increased to nine 6,165,000. Per capita income months. The twelfth grade was (1984): $10,758. Entered statehood added in 1943. In 1973, the General November 21, 1789. Motto: Esse Assembly alloczted funds for a Quam Videri (To Be Rather Than kindergarten pilot program. To Seem). Nicknames: "Tar Heel Kindergarten programs were phased State," "Old North State." Flower: into the public schools during the Dogwood. Bird: Cardinal. Tree: next four years. In 1973, principals Pine. Song: "The Old North State." were employed for 12 months. While the school term for children remains at 180 days, the employment of teachers was raised Excellence activities: A state task to ten months in 1973. force recommended to the legislature that the base salary of State mandatesCompulsory certified personnel be increased school attendance for students aged 14.8 percent. It also directed the 7-16; kindergarten. State Board of Education to come up with a career-ladder plan for teachers, to establish a basic Number of schools-141 school education program with cost figures districts with 1,302 elementary to reduce class size in grades 4-6, to schools, 305 junior high, 327 senior provide a computer literacy high, and 24 schools with program, establish a system to kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). assure improving the quality of all teachers and statewide standards Student enrollment-1,091,893 and procedures of evaluation, and elementary and secondary; 752,899 to encourage entrance into 'kindergarten-grade 6; 339,994 education by the top students. The grades 7-12 (1985-86). loan-scholarship program was doubled and a recruiting program Per pupil expenditures $3,366 started. New teacher testing for elementary and secondary state certification has been required (1985-86). since 1964. .,$ 8 STATE PROFILES NORTH DAKOTA teachers worked in otie- teacher schools attended by more than half Chief state school officerWayne of all children of legal school age. G. Sanstead, Superintendent of Today such schools have all but Public Instruction, State disappeared. Department of Public Instruction, State Capitol Building, 600 State mandatesCompulsory Boulevard Ave. E., Bismark 58505. school attendance for students aged (701) 224-2261. 7-16; provision for home instruction by parents who want to Education historyThe first school educate their own children. was established by Roman Catholic missionaries in 1818, and early Number of schools--286 school schools basically served the children districts with 237 elementary of Scottish and Irish settlers from schools, 21 junior high, 77 senior Canada. Where there were no high, and 154 schools with schools, teachers traveled from kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). village to village teaching groups of youngsters in private homes. As Student enrollment-117,970 settlements grew, so did the need elementary and secondary; 83,102 for schools and teachers. In 1862, kindergarten-grade 6; 34,868 grades the first legislature of the Dakota 7-12 (1985-86). Territory passed "An Act for the Regulation and Support of Common Per pupil expenditures$3,059 Schools." At that time there was elementary and secondary only one school (its nine pupils met (1985-86). in the log cabin of Emma Bradford) in all the area now covered by the Staff -8,580 total instructional; states of North and South Dakota 4,934 elementary teachers, 2,918 and parts of Montana and Wyoming. secondary teachers, 302 other The first school building was built nonsupervisory instructional, 426 in 1875 in Pembina and still stands. principals and supervisors. Average When the state was admitted into salary of instructional staff, the Union in 1889, over 3 million $21,460; elementary teachers, acres of federal land were set aside $20,624; secondary teachers, for the support of common schools $21,124; elementary principals, and other land-grant institutions. $35,671; junior high/middle school Income from these lands was principals, $43,831; senior high eventually augmented by state principals, $39,332 (1985-86). revenues from oil, discovered in 1951. General sales taxes provide State profilePopulation (1984): additional funds for the support of 686,000. Per capita income (1984): education in the state. For many $12,461. Entered statehood years what some felt was the major November 2, 1889. Mottc: Liberty educational weak spot of North and Union, Now and Forever, One Dakota was the preponderance of and Inseparable. Nicknames: one-teacher schools. As late as the "Sioux State," "Peace Garden 1930s more than half of the state's State." Flower: Wild Prairie Rose. e.,) 89 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

90 Bird: Western Meadowlark. Tree: the state board of education with American Elm. Song: "North the power to appoint a Dakota" Hymn. superintendent of public instruction. The board developed Excellence activities: North Dakota the nation's first comprehensive has increased its high school state plan for serving handicapped graduation requirements in English students in 1970. In a 1981 and mathematics and added one first-ever joint meetii.e, the state year of U.S. history and one year of board and the Ohio board of world history. The physical regents approved recommendations education requirement has been designed to harmonize high school reduced and driver's education is no and college curricula. The board's longer required. creation of joint vocational districts in 1965 opened a wide spectrum of OHIO job-training opportunities to Ohio students. Five years later, the board Chief state school officerFranklin set the pace for the rest of the B. Walter, Superintendent of Public nation with the first state standards Instruction, State Department of for vocational education programs. Education, 65 S. Front St., Room The 1983 minimum standards for 808, Columbus 43266. elementary and secondary (615) 466-3304. education mandated student competency testing. Teacher Education historyEducation was education and certification private and local until 1825 when a standards adopted in 1985 called for statewide school tax was levied and a teacher examination and lifelong township officials were required to learning for teachers. set aside school districts on penalty of losing tax money. In 1853, state State mandatesCompulsory law placed public schools on a solid school attendance for students aged foundation with adequate revenues, 6-18; kindergarten; provision for township units of organization, home instruction by parents who school libraries, and a state want to educate their own children. commissioner of common schools. During the 1850s, high schools Number of schools-615 school developed rapidly and largely districts with 2,413 elementary displaced private academies. In schools, 510 junior high, 697 senior 1894, consolidation of township high, and 40 schools with schools was begun, but as late as kindergarten-grade 12 (198F-86). 1914 there were still 10,000 one -: oom schools. The passage of Student enrollment-1,793,400 Rural School Codes in 1914 aided elementary and secondary; the acceleration of consolidation. In 1,094,600 kindergarten-grade 6; 1935, the School Foundation Law 698,800 grades 7-12 (1985-86). caused drastic change in the school system as more state control Per pupil expenditures$3,547 accompanied greater state aid. In elementary and secondary 1953, the constitution established (1985-86). to d- STATE PROFILES AM Staff-112,120 total certificated; leaders, Sequoya, invented a 91 51,852 elementary teachers, 46,378 method of writing so simple that secondary teachers, 7,303 other many Cherokee could learn to read nonsupervisory instructional, 6,587 and write within a few weeks. The principals and supervisors. Average territorial legislature provided salary of instructional staff, schools for white children in 1890. $25,849; elementary teachers, Provisions of a 1906 Enabling Act $24,396; secondary teachers, set aside sections of each township $25,593; elementary principals, in the territory for the benefit of $37,780; junior high principals, common schools and appropriated $41,297; senior high principals, $5 million for those in the Indian $44,694; (1985-86). Territory. A law providing free textbooks was passed in 1923, and State profilePopulation (1984): state aid for weak schools was 10,752,000. Per capita income approved in 1924. Annual state (1984): $12,314. Entered statehood support of public schools was set at March 1, 1803. Motto: With God All $42 per capita in 1946, and a Things Are Possible. Nicknames: comprehensive school code was "Buckeye State," "Gateway State." passed by the legislature in 1949. Flower: Scarlet Carnation. Bird: Cardinal. Tree: Buckeye. Song: State mandatesCompulsory "Beautiful Ohio." school attendance for students aged 7-18; kindergarten; provision for Excellence activities: Since 1983, home instruction by parents who minimum standards for elementary want to educate their own children. and secondary education have mandated competency testing. New Number of schools-637 school standards for administrator districts with 1,006 elementary certification became effective in schools, 226 junior high, 394 senior 1984. Teacher certification high, and 103 schools with standards have been revised. kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86).

OKLAHOMA Student enrollment-596,000 elementary and secondary; 326,000 Chief state school officerJohn M. kindergarten-grade 6; 270,000 Folks, Superintendent of Public grades 7-12 (1985-86). Instruction, State Department of Education, Oliver Hodge Memorial Per pupil expenditures--$2,867 Education Building, 2500 N. elementary and secondary Lincoln Blvd., Oklahoma City (1985-86). 73105. (405) 521-3301. Staff-39,000 total instructional; Education historyThe first 18,300 elementary teachers, 17,000 schools in the state were established secondary teachers, 1,800 other for the Indians in the 1820s by nonsupervisory instructional, 1,900 missionaries. The Cherokee had the principals and supervisors. Average most advanced educational systems, salary of instructional staff, primarily because one of their $22,080; elementary teachers, 10;1 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

92 $20,805; secondary teachers, should be set aside for education $22,071; elementary principals, purposes. The following year, 1849, $33,579; junior high/middle school the legislature passed a law principals, $37,549; senior high providing for a free public school principals, $41,921 (1985-86). system. The first public school was opened in 1851. State profilePopulation (1984): 3,258,000. Per capita income State mandatesCompulsory (1984): $11,745. Entered statehood school attendance for students aged November 16, 1907. Motto: Labor 5-18; compulsory kindergarten Omnia Vincit (Labor Conquers All began with the 1984-85 school Things). Nicknames: "Sooner year; provision for home instruction State," "Boomer State." Flower: by parents who want to educate Mistletoe. Bird: Scissor-tailed their own children. Flycatcher. Tree: Redbud. Song: "Oklahoma!" Number of schools-303 school districts with 818 elementary Excellence activities: Beginning in schools, 160 junior high, 206 senior 1986-87, high scliool graduation high, and 24 schools with requiteillents were increased to 20 kindergarten-12 (1985-86). units, including four in English and two each in mathematics and Student enrollment-447,522 science. State universities have elementary and secondary; 283,389 upgraded entrance requirements, kindergarten-grade 6; 164,133 including requirements for teacher grades 7-12 (1985-86). candidates. School administrators must take a year's leadership Per pupil expenditures$4,123 program, and teachers must take elementary and secondary part in staff development programs (1985-86). offered by the state. New teacher testing for state certification began Staff-29,428 total instructional; in 1982. 14,691 elementary teachers, 10,514 secondary teachers, 2,505 other OREGON nonsupervisory instructional, 1,718 principals and supervisors. Average Chief state school officerVerne A. salary of instructional staff, Duncan, Superintendent of Public $27,245; elementary teachers, Instruction, State Department of $25,367; secondary teachers, Education, 700 Pringle Pkwy. S.E., $26,620; elementary principals, Salem 97310. (503) 378-3573. $36,958; junior high/middle school principals, $40,383; senior high Education historySchools were principals, $42,513 (1985-86). established as early as 1834 by a Methodist minister named Jason State profilePopulation (1984): Lee. After the Oregon Territory was 2,674,000. Per capita income organized, an act was passed in 1848 (1984): $11,582. Entered statehood providing that income from two February 14, 1859. Motto: The sections of land in each township Union. Nickname: "Beaver State." :102 STATE PROFILES Flower: Oregon Grape. Bird: superintendent of public 93 Western Meadowlark. Fish: Chinook instruction. In 1895, a compulsory Salmon. Rock: Thunderegg. attendance law was passed Animal: Beaver. Dance: Square (requiring only 16 weeks of annual Dance. Insect: Oregon Swallowtail schooling) for pupils aged 8-13. The Butterfly. Tree: Douglas Fir. Song: age later was increased to 17 and "Oregon, My Oregon." attendance was required throughout the school year. In Excellence activities: The State 1921, state appropriations were Board of Education adopted an made contingent on the "Action Plan for Excellence" in maintenance of certain minimum June 1984. Components of the plan standards in regard to curriculum, include: a comprehensive statewide teacher qualifications, and salaries. curriculum, increased graduation During the 1960s, consolidation requirements, a state honors efforts to create more effective diploma, a statewide eighth grade administrative units reduced the examinaition and expanded state number of school districts to 600, testing at other grade levels, staff down from an earlier high of 2,000. development, and the use of technology in the schools. Plans are State mandatesCompulsory underway *.o develop a more stable school attendance for students aged funding system for public schools. 8-17; provision for home instruction by parents who want to educate their own children. PENNSYLVANIA Chief state school officerMargaret Number of schools-500 school A. Smith, Secretary of Education, districts divided into 29 State Department of Education, 333 intermediate units, with 2,174 Market St., 10th Floor, Harrisburg elementary schools, 403 junior 17126. (717) 787-5820. high, 593 senior high, and 33 schools with kindergarten-grade 12 Education historyEarly laws (1985-86). provided for the free schooling of children aged 5-12 when parents Student enrollment1,673,/50 were unable to pay. These were elementary and secondary; 832,190 viewed as pauper education acts, kindergarten-grade 6; 841,260 and parents were not eager to grades 7-12 (1985-86). educate their children under such terms. The Free Public School Act Per pupil expenditures$4,235 of 1834 created local school elementary and secondary districts, permitted the levy of taxes (1985-86). for the support of free elementary schools for all children, and Staff-114,459 total instructional, provided state aid to districts 47,708 elementary teachers, 53,092; accepting the act. The constitution secondary teachers, 8,389 other in 1873 called for the education of rionsupervisory instructional; 5,270 all children above the age of six. It principals and supervisors. Average also created the position of state salary of instructional staff, (") )1,03 EDUCATION ALMAN A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 94 $26,704; elementary teachers, Education, State Department of $25,882; secondary teachers, Education, 22 Hayes St., Providence $26,113; elementary principals, 02908. (401) 277-2031. $37,338; junior high/middle school principals, $40,961; senior high principals, $43,097 (1985-86). Education historyWhile Rhode Island relied primarily on private State profilePopulation (1984): education in the colonial period, a 11,901,000. Per capital income free school for poor childrenwas (1984): $12,343. Entered statehood founded in Newport in 1640. The December 12, 1787. Motto: Virtue, state's first law establishing public Liberty and independence. schools was enacted in 1800, Nickname: "Keystone State." dropped in 1803, and passed again Flower: Mountain Laurel. Bird: in 1828, when the legislature also Ruffed Grouse. Tree: Hemlock. set up the state's first permanent public school fund. Henry Barnard Excellence activities: New became the first state commissioner curriculum regulations have of education in 1845. During his increased the number of credits tenure, the state became a national required for high school graduation leader in educational reform, and from 13 to 21 and tripled the Mr. Barnard was summoned to requirements in mathematics and Washington, D.C. to become the science, beginning with 1989 first U.S. Commissioner of freshmen. Statewide competency Education. In 1882 the Rhode testing for students in grades 3, 5, Island legislature enacted and 8 began in October 1984. New legislation requiring towns to teacher certification regulations establish free public schools, and require teaching graduates to pass compulsory school attendance was tests in subject matter, general inaugurated the following year. The knowledge, basic skills, and arrival of large numbers of Irish, French-Canadian, and ether professional knowledge in order to be certified. New teachers are immigrants with Catholic required to serve a one-year, backgrounds led to the supervised induction period, and establishment of a large parochial new teachers and administrators education system. Currently one in are required to take six five students attends a Catholic school. continuing education credits every five years. A teacher intern program allows qualified persons who have State mandatesCompulsory bachelor degrees to become school attendance for students aged full-time teachers while earning the 7-16; kindergarten available; teaching credits necessary for provision for home instruction by permanent certification. parents who want to educate their own children. RHODE ISLAND Number of schools-40 school Chief state school officerJ. Troy districts with 212 elementary Earhart, Commissioner of schools, 30 junior high, 40 senior

:41 STATE PROFILES high, and one school with twelfth graders for award of a merit 95 kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). diploma.

Student enrollment-133,450 SOUTH CAROLINA elementary and secondary; 70,020 kindergarten-grade 6; 63,430 grades Chief state school officerCharlie 7-12 (1985-86). G. Williams, Superintendent of Education, State Department of Per pupil expenditures$4,669 Education, 1006 Rutledge Building, elementary and secondary 1429 Senate St., Columbia 29201. (1985-86). (803) 758-3291.

Staff-10,180 total instructional; Education historyMost children 4,404 elementary teachers, 4,351 in the colonial period were educated secondary teachers, 798 other at home or in private school. In nonsupervisory instructional, 627 1710 the colonial government principals and supervisors. Average established semi-public schools in salary of instructional staff, which poor children were educated $29,651; elementary teachers, without cost, but tuition was $29,218; secondary teachers, charged for others. The state's first $30,335; elementary principals, major effort toward establishing a $39,544; junior high/middle school public school system came in 1811, principals, $41,854; senior high with passage of a free-school law principals, $45,609 (1985-86). providing for free schools in each district and parish in proportion to State profilePopulation (1984): representation in the House of 962,000. Per capita income (1984). Representatives. The constitution of $12,730. Entered statehood May 29, 1868 established the office of state 1790. Motto: Hope. Nicknames: superintendnent of education and "Little Rhody," "Ocean State." provided funds for schools. Two Flower: Violet. Bird: Rhode Island years later the forerunner of the Red. Tree: Red Maple. Song: "Rhode state board of education was Island." created, with authority to adopt textbooks, establish requirements Excellence activities: Improvements for teachers, and interpret school made in Rhode Island public laws. ?n1895, tax funds were schools since 1983 include provided for a statewide public tightened teacher certification school system. Like other southern requirements; upgraded high school states, South Carolina had separate graduation requirements; schools for blacks and whites under requirement of a basic an 1896 Supreme Court decision kindergarten-twelfth grade which held that public facilities may education program; governor's 13^ separate if they are equal. In technology initiative infusing $4 1964, the Supreme Court ruled that million for purchase of separate schools were inherently microcomputers; testing of all unequal and that districts operating public school students in grades 4, segregated systems should move 6, 8, and 10; option of a test for "with all deliberate speed" to -1 9 5 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 MM. 96 establish unitary systems. Activity $20,873; secondary teachers, by civil rights interests and further $22,397; elementary principals, court decisions continued the $36,043; secondary principals pressure to eliminate dual school (includes jur:Ir high schools), systems, and by 1970, all public $38,496; senit %igh principals, schools in South Carolina were $43,022 (1985-86). integrated. Meanwhile the state legislature had in 1951 reduced the State profilePopulation (1984): number of school districts from 3,300,000. Per capita income 1,220 to 109 and had strengthened (1984): $10,075. ,Entered statehood support of public schools by May 23, 1788. Motto: Dum Spiro enacting a 3 percent sales tax for Spero (While I Breathe, I Hope). education. Nickname: "Palmetto State." Flower: Carolina Jassamine. Bird: State mandatesCompulsory Carolina Wren. Tree: Palmetto. school attendance for students aged Song: "Carolina." 5-17; a 5-year old child will be exempt from the kindergarten Excellence activities: The requirement if a parent signs a Education Improvement Act, written waiver; provision for home containing about 60 provisions, was instruction by parents who want to passed by the General Assembly in educate their own children. June 1984. Funded by a one-cent increase in the state sales tax, the Number of schools-92 regular legislation addressed increased school districts (plus one composed graduPtion requirements, of schools within the state compensatory/remedial instruction, correctional institution), with 700 a high school exit examination, elementary schools, 159 junior upgraded teacher salaries, teacher high, 205 senior high, and 7 and principal incentive pay schools with kindergarten-grade 12 programs, incentive grants for (1985-86). school improvement, and a school building aid program. New teacher Student enrollment-605,790 testing for state certification began elementary and secondary; 423,860 in 1982. kindergarten-grade 6; 181,930 SOUTH DAKOTA grades 7-12 (1985-86). Chief state school officerJames 0. Per pupil expenditures$2,912 Hansen, State Superintendent, elementary and secondary Department of Education and (1985-86). Cultural Affairs, Division of Elementary and Secondary Staff 38,500 total instructional Education, Kniep Building, Pierre staff; 21,400 elementary teachers, 57501. (605) 773-3243. 12,200 secondary teachers, 2,800 other nonsupervisory instructional, Education historyThe public 2,100 principals and supervisors. school system dates back to 1856, Average salary of instructional staff, when school districts were $22,372; elementary teachers, organized. Early financial support 106 STATE PROFILES Ate came from proceeds of public land $29,245; junior high/middle school 97 sales. During the 1930s, state principals, $37,449; senior high school funding came from income principals, $34,736 (1985-86). taxes. Since then the legislature ha.s helped to fund schools through State pmfilePopulation (1984): special appropriations. The primary 706,000. Per capita income (1984): financial burden, however, falls on $11,049. Entered statehood taxpayers in the districts, who November 2, 1889. Motto: Under support the schools through God, the People Rule. Nicknames: personal and real property taxes. "Coyote State," "Sunshine State." Until the latter part of the 1960s Flower: rasque. Bird: Ringnecked there were more than 1,000 rural Pheasant. Tree: Black Hills Spruce. schools. The legislature called for a Song: "Hail, South Dakota." reorganized school system based on districts offering 12 years of Excellence activities: High school schooling, and scores of rural graduation minimum requirements schools were closed as a result. have been increased from 16 to 20 units, including four English, three State mandatesCompulsory social studies, two mathematics, school attendance for students aged and two laboratory science. All 7-16; provision for home courses designed to meet inst action by parents who want to graduation requirements must have educate their own children. a plan of study on file. All districts must offer at least two years of one Number of schuols-194 school foreign language and a program for districts with 381 elementary the gifted. Statewide achievement schools, 32 junior high, 95 senior testing is mandated in grades 4, 8, high, and 88 schools with and 11. Teacher preparation kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). program standards were upgraded, and certified staff must complete 15 Student enrollment-123,875 hours of inservice training elementary and secondary; 87,228 annually. New teacher testing for kindergarten-grade 6; 36,647 grades state certification began in 1986. 7-12 (1985-86). TENNESSEE Per pupil expenditures$2,967 elementary and secondary Chief state school officerRobert (1985-86). L. McElrath, Commissioner of Education, State Department of Staff-9,071 total instructional; Education, 100 Cordell Hull 5,607 elementary teachers, 2,546 Building, Nashville 37219. secondary teachers, 417 other (615) 741-2731. nonsupervisory instructional, 501 principals and supervisors. Average Education historyPrior to the salary of instructional staff, Civil War free public schooling was $18,826; elementary teachers, offered only to poor children. Given $18,035; secondary teachers, the re:;ulting stigma, such schools $18,192; elementary principals, were not well attended. The :1.07 EDUCATION A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 98 atmosphere began to change in $21,911; elementary principals, 1838 when a common school fund $32,032; junior high/middle based largely on land revenue was schools principals, $34,944; senior made a part of the capital of the high principals, $38,362 (1985-86). state bank. This fund, later supplemented by state and local State profilePopulation (1984): taxes, ultimately provided the basis 4,717,000. Per capita income for establishing, in 1873, a 0984): $10,400. Entered statehood statewide system of essentially dune 1, 1796. Motto: Agriculture sepaate free public schools for and Commerce. Nickname: whites and blacks. Later acts "Volunteer State." Flower: Iris. created a state board of education Bird: Mockingbird. Tree: Tulip (1875), a secondary school system Poplar. Song: "The Tennessee (1891), and a general education Waltz." fund (1909). Progress in integrating the state's schools followed the Excellence activities: A new 1954 Supreme Court decision three-level career ladder for barring segregated education. Most teachers allows eligibie teachers to schools were integrated by the late receive bonuses ranging from 1960s. $1,000 to $7,000 a year. The Better Schools Program of 1984 also State mandatesCompulsory mandated kindergarten to be school attendance for students aged offered to every child and defined 7-17; kindergarten basic reading and mathematics skills for kindergarten-grade 8. In Number of schools-141 school place is a fully funded statewide districts with 1,077 elementary computer literacy course. High schools, 180 junior high, 257 senior school graduation requirements high, and 41 schools with increased, including a doubling of kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). mathematics and science courses; and a proficiency test is require' for Student enrollment-815,414 graduation. The program also elementary and secondary; 574,692 provides for in-school suspensions kindergarten-grade 6; 240,722 and alternative schools for grades 7-12 (1985-86). disruptive students. New teacher testing for state certification began Per pupil expenditures-52,533 in 1981. elementary and secondary (1985-86). TEXAS Staff -46,933 total instructional; Chief state school officerWilliam 25,189 elementary teachers, 15,114 Kirby, Commissioner of Education, secondary teachers, 3,500 other Texas Education Agency, William B. nonsupervisory instructional, 3,130 Travis Building, 1701 N. Congress principals and :?ervisors. Average Ave., Austin 78701. (512) 463-8985. salary of instructional staff, $22,210; elementary teachers, Education historyTexas had only $21,734, secondary teachers, a few public schools when it gained STATE42171 PROFILES independence from Mexico in 1836, State mandate -- Compulsory 99 and became an independent repiblic. school attendance for students aged In fact, the refusal of Mexican 7-16; kindergarten. authorities to provide English- speaking teachers was a major Number of schools-1,092 school reason for the break. Once free, districts with 3,158 elementary Texas in 1840 set aside land in schools, 864 junior high, 957 senior every county for public schools. high, and 259 schools with Five years later, when it joined kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). the Union, Texas wrote a new constitution that created a Student enrollment-3,149,380 perpetual fund to support schools elementary and secondary; from state revenues. In 1854, the 17 "',127 kindergarten-grade 6; state established a uniform school 1,S76,253 grades 7-12 (1985-86). system. After the Civil War, a new constitution earmarked the income Per pupil expenditures$3,384 from 45 million acres of public elementary and secondary domain land for school support. (1985-86). Gradually, towns and cities were granted more freedom to establish Staff-195,160 total instructional; their own school,,, and independent 96,780 elementary teachers, 78,720 school districts developed. The secondary teachers, 10,400 other state took special measures in 1911 nonsupervisory instructional, 9,260 to create rural high schools and to principals and supervisors. Average make them as good as urban schools. salary of instructional staff, This effort was aided by a 1917 law $25,370; elementary teachers, authorizing state purchase of $23,754; secondary '.chers, textbooks. On the academic side, a $25,239; e!ementa rincipals, high school accreditation system $38,630; junior high principals, was launched in 1885, and in 1915 a $41,383; senior high principals, compulsory school attendance law $46,131 (1985-86). required 12 years of free schooling for every child. The Gilmer-Aikin State profilePopulation (1984): laws of 1949 created the Foundation 15,989,000. Per capita income. School Program to ensure the (1984): $12,636. Entered statehood maintenance of minimum standards December 29, 1845. Motto: for education programs in every Friendship. Nickname: "Lone Star school district. In line with the State." 'Flower: Bluebonnet. Bird: national school reform movement Mockingbird. Tree: Pecan. Song: generated in part by the 1983 "Texas, Our Texas." federal report, A Nation At Risk, Texas in 1984 enacted a sweeping Excellence activities: House Bill reform program. House Bill 72 gave "2, a comprehensive reform teachers a pay raise, put more package, placed the burden of money into property-poor hoot imps ved student achievement on districts, and took steps to the State Education Agency. It improve the academic achievement ofcalled for full-day, state-funded students. kindergarten and a four-level 1 0 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 100career-ladder plan for teachers, the state-controlled, tax-supported latter beginning in 1984-85. system had gained so much public Competency testing for current confidence that the Mormon teachers and administrators started Church began to withdraw from prior to the 1986-87 school year. full-time instruction and develop The legislation set guidelines for closer relationships with the public grade requirements and course schools. In 1920, the Mormon credit, examinations, promotion, Church ended its high school class sizes, attendance, and other programs altogether. activities. A discipline management program began in 1986-87. High State mandatesCompulsory school graduation requirements school attendance for students aged mandate 21 credits. New teacher 6-18; provision for home testing for state certification began instruction by parents who want to in 1986. educate their own children.

UTAH Number of schools-40 school districts with 430 elementary Cnief state school officerJames R. schools, 91 junior high, 110 senior Moss, Superintendent of Public high, and 8 schools with Instruction, State Office of kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). Education, 250 E. Fifth St. S., Salt Lake City 84111. (801) 533-5431. Student enrollment-403,305 elementary and secondary; 242,791 Education historyMormons took kindergarten-grade 6; 160,514 the precaution before leaving grades 7-12 (1985-86). Nauvoo, Illinois, in 1846 of printing a supply of books for classroom use Per pupil expenditures$2,297 in their new home. Almost elementary and secondary immediately after arriving in Salt (1985-86). Lake Valley, they built schools for their own children. The first Staff-19,029 total instructional; non-Mormon school was established 10,425 elementary teachers, 6,250 in 1867 by the Protestant Episcopal secondary teachers, 1,253 other Church. This was followed by other nonsupervisory instructional, 1,101 non-Mormon schools created by principals and supervisors, Average various other churches. In 1890, salary of instructional staff, the territorial legislature passed a $25,528; elementary teachers, law calling for a system of $21,680; secondary teachers, tax-supported schools available to $23,411; elementary principals, all children. When Utah was $36,049; junior high/middle school admitted to the union six years principals, $38,105; senior high later, its constitution called for a principals, $42,048 (1985-86). statewide educational organization that developed into a full-fledged State profilePopulation (1984): elementary and secondary school 1,652,000. Per capita income program. Although church schools (1984): $9,719. Entered statehood continued to operate, by 1912 the January 4, 1896. Motto: Industry. X10 STATE PROFILES Nickname: "Beehive State." Flower: schools, county grammar schools, 101 Sego Lily. Bird: Seagull. Tree: Blue and a state university. In 1780, Spruce. Song: "Utah, We Love Vermont's first secondary school Thee." was established in Bennington. During the early 1830s private Excellence activities: The state academies and schools were legislature has appropriated $15.2 established in the more prosperous million for career ladders, of which, villages, and 20 such academies at least 50 percent must be spent were soon in operation. The for teacher salaries. The State Board movement for public high schools of Education adopted a new core was launched in the 1840s, and by curriculum and high school 1900 the number and dominance of graduation requirements in 1984. private academies had significantly Course description standards were declined. determined, and committees refined criteria for kindergarten-grade 12 State mandatesCompulsory courses, effective with the class of school attendance for students aged 1988. A new core program has been 7-16; provision for home designated for kindergarten-grade 6 instruction by parents who want to and for the middle school level. educate their own children. Twenty-four units are required for high school graduation, among Number of schools-274 school them a half-year of computer districts with 299 elementary studies and one-and-a-half years in schools, 15 junior high, 49 senior the arts. Teachers must be fully high, and 13 schools with certified in their subject matter kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). areas. Assessment of student mastery is required at completion of Student enrollment-90,200 grades 3, 6, 8, 10, and 12. elementary and secondary; 48,500 kindergarten-grade 6; 41,700 grades 7-12 (1985-86).

Per pupil expenditures$3,554 VERMONT elementary and secondary Chief state school officerStephen (1985-86). S. Kaagan, Commissioner of Education, State Department of Staff-7 ,715 total instructional; Education, State St., Montpelier 2,875 elementary teachers, 3,495 05602. (802) 828-3135. secondary teachers, 790 other nonsupervisory instructional, 555 Education historyThe town cf principals and supervisors. Average Guilford provided funds for free salary of instructional staff, public schools as early as 1761. As $22,500; elementary teachers, an independent republic (1777-91) $19,870; secondary teachers, before joining the Union, Vermont $20,710; elementary principals, in its 1777 constitution called for a $31,877; junior high/middle school complete educational system. The principals, $34,600; senior high system included town elementary principals, $36,946 (1985-86). E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 102State profilePopulation (1984): mid-1700s there also were many 530,000. Per capita income (1984): academies, usually taking the form $10,692. Entered statehood March of combined elementary and high 4, 1791. Motto: Freedom and Unity. schools. The state assembly in 1810 Nickname: "Green Mountain State." created a fund to help poor Flo..,r: Red Clover Bird: Hermit children get an education. The Thy ash. Tree: Sugar Maple. Song: state's public school system was "Hail, Vermont." started in 1870. Like other southern states, Virginia had separate schools Excellence activities: in 1984, the for blacks and whites. With the U.S. State Board of Education adopted Supreme Court holding in 1954 the state's first comprehensive that segregation was school standards, setting goals and unconstitutional, the state began its mandating 15.5 units for high desegregation efforts in 1959. All school graduation. Summer school districts were integrated by institutes provide learning the mid-1960s. enrichment experiences for junior high and high school students. The State mandatesCompulsory Vermont Inservice Institute for school attendance for students aged Professional Development was 5-17; provision for home established to expand and improve instruction by parents who want to inservice education. Also underway educate their own children. is an "Early Education Initiative" aimed at children from age 3 to Number of schools-139 school grade 3. districts with 1,154 elementary schools, 229 junior high, 285 senior VIRGINIA high, and 16 schools with kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). Chief state school ofikerS. John Davis, Superintendent of Public Student enrollment-968,104 Instruction, State Department of elementary and secondary; 588,656 Education, P.O. Box 6Q, James kindergarten -grade 6; 379,448 Monroe Building, Fourteenth and grades 7-12 (1985-86). Franklin Sts., Richmond 23216. (804) 225-2023. Per pupil expenditures$3,210 elementary and secondary Education historyThe first free (1985-86). schools in what is now the United States were founded in Virginia. Staff -66,000 total instructional; They were the Syms Free School, 32,982 elementary teachers, 24,867 established in Hampton in 1634, secondary teachers, 4,589 other and the Eatoa Free School, started nonsupervisory instructional, 3,562 in that town in about 1640. principals and supervisors. Average Meanwhile Virginia planters and salary of instructional staff, merchants subsidized private $24,256; elementary teachers, schools for their young, called $22,625; secondary teachers, "old-field schools" because they $24,331; elementary principals, were built in open fields. By the $36,300; junior high/middle school 112 STATE PROFI ES principals, $40,346; senior high school administrators and providing 103 principals, $42,255 (1985-86). inservice training for teachers. Computer literacy objectives have State profilePopulation (1984): been defined for students. 5,636,000. Per capita income (1984): $13,067. Entered statehood June 26, 1788. Motto: Sic Semper WASHINGTON Tyrannis (Thus Ever to Tyrants). Nicknames: "Old Dominion," Chief state school officerFrank B. "Mother of Presidents," "Mother of Brouillet, Superintendent of Public States." Flower: Dogwood. Bird: Instruction, State Department of Cardinal. Tree: Dogwood. State Public Instruction, Old Capitol Dog: Foxhound. Song: "Carry Me Building, Mall Stop FG-11, Olympia Back to Old Virginia." 98504. (206) 586-6904.

Excellence activities: The State Education historyThe first school Department of Education adopted a in what was to become the state of Standards of Learning Program that Washington was opened in Old Fort includes objectives in 10 academic Vancouver in 1832 by the Hudson subjects for all grades and a future Bay Company, a British trading assessment program. School firm, for employees' children. The accreditation standards have been territorial legislature organized the revised and mathematics and public school system in 1854. It science requirements increased. authorized the creation of a school High school graduation fund, the levying of county and requirements were increased to 20 district taxes for schools, and units and include an advanced election of county school studies program. Beginning superintendents. In 1880, Dayton teachers are required to demonstate established the first high school, satisfactory performance for two offering a two-year program; Seattle years before being certified. New in 1883 opened a three-year high teacher testing for state -,chool. The state in 1895 imposed a certification began in 1980. A school tax based on the number of Governor's Center for Educational school -age children in the census Innovation and Technology has count. This was changed in 1901 to been established, and magnet the number of children actually schools for science and technology attending school. In 1948, voters and the fine arts are planned. approved an amendment to the Teachers' salaries have been state constitution permitting local increased, and a "pay-for- nroperty tax levies for school performance" pilot program started support. Concerned about low to test merit pay. The Board of student achievement scores, the Education also recommended a legislature in 1955 established a three-level master-teacher program program to raise academic tc 'irovide $5,000-$8,000 bonuses, standards and to provide more state aria a state-funded staff aid to less affluent school districts development plan calls for in order to equalize per pupil improving management skills of expenditures statewide. --113 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 104State mandatesCompulsory leaders. The law requires a school school attendance for students aged district's resources to be considered 8-18; provision for home and learning objectives to be instruction by parents who want to measured by student attainment. educate their own children. Other reforms include more funding for gifted and talented Number of szhools-298 school programs, eighth-grade testing, and districts with 998 elementary a life skills test. The state board of schools, 242 junior high, 302 senior education also called for more high, and 41 schools with emphasis on student proficiency in kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). a second language. Recommen- dations on standardizing high Student enrollment-748,662 schooi transcripts and setting elementary and secondary; 395,521 graduation and college admissions kindergarten-grade 6; 353,141 requirements are forthcoming. In grades 7-12 (1985-86). fall 1983, regional computer demonstration centers began Per pupil expenditures$3,705 operating to help school districts elementary and secondary review hardware and software (1985-86). before making purchases. The board raised graduation requirements and Staff-42,034 total instructional; funded inservice training for 19,650 elementary teachers, 16,493 teachers in mathematics, science, secondary teachers, 2,984 other and computer literacy. Testing of nonsupervisory instructional, 2,907 new teachers is required for state principals and supervisors. Average certification. salary of instructional staff, $27,166; elementary teachers, WEST VIRGINIA $25,693, secondary teachers, $26,546; elementary principals, Chief state school officer -- William $39,411, junior high/middle school Thomas McNeel, State principals, $40,791, senior high Superintendent of Schools, State principals, $44,931 (1985-86). Department of Education, 1900 Washington Street, Building B, State profilePopulation (1984): Room 358, Charleston 25305. 4,302,000. Per capita income (304) 348-3644. (1984): $12,728. Entered statehood November 11, 1889. Motto: Alki (By Education historyPioneer and By). Nickname: "Evergreen children attended schools in log State." Flower: Western cabins that served both as schools Rhododendron. Bird: Willow and churches. Parents paid teachers Goldfinch. Tree: Western Hemlock. in cash, farm products, or bed and Song: "Washington, My Home." board. In 1796 the legislature of Virginia (of which West Virginia was Excellence a "dufflesOne 1984 then a part) enacted a law providing reform requires school districts to for free district schools in counties set goals, with the help of citizens, that wanted to set them up. Few educators, community and business schools materialized, however,

-114 STATEPROFILES because most county officials secondary teachers, 1,237 other 105 believed that people should not nonsupervisory instructional, 1,560 have to pay for the education of principals and supervisors. Average children other than their own. In salary of instructional staff, 1810, the legislature created a $21,536; elementary teachers, fund for the education of $20,538; secondary teachers, poor children. Seceding from $20,733; elementary principals, Virginia during the Civil War, West $30,516; junior high/middle school Virginia joined the Union and principals, $30,478; senior high established a free public school principals, $36,542 (1985-86). system in 1863. The state constitution called for taxes to State profilePopulation (1980 support schools. Until 1875, 1,952,000. Per capita income children in rural schools were not (1984): $9,846. Entered statehood educated by grade levels. That year June 20, 1863. Motto: Montani Alexander L. Wade, Monongalia Semper Liberi (Mountaineers Are County school superintendent, Always Free). Nickname: "Mountain worked out a system to teach State." Flower: Big Rhododendron. subjects by grade level and student Bird: Cardinal. Tree: Sugar Maple. age group. In 1933, independent Songs: "The West Virginia Hills," districts were merged into 55 "This Is My West Virginia," and county units for more efficient "West Virginia, My Home, Sweet administration of elementary and Home." secondary education. Excellence activities: West Virginia State mandatesCompulsory was the first state to require school attendance for students aged students to maintain a "C" average to 6-16; kindergarten provision for participate in athletics and other home instruction by parents who extracurricular activities. More want to educate their own children. money .as allocated to teachers' salaries by the legislature. High Number of schools 55 school school graduation requirements districts with 753 elementary have been increased by the State schools, 133 junior high, 154 senior Board of Education to 21 units. high, and 8 schools with New teachers have to pass a basic kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). skills test, a content area test, and a professional education performance Student enrollment-357,923 test to obtain state certification. elementary and secondary; 209,780 kindergarten-grade 6; 148,143 grades 7-12 (1985-86). WISCONSIN Per pupil expenditures$2,821 Chief state school officerHerbert elementary and secondary J. Grover, Superintendent of Public (1985-86). Instruction, State Department of Public Instruction, 125 S. Webster Staff -25,444 total instructional; St., P.O. Box 7841, Madison 53707. 12,637 elementary teachers, 10,010 (608) 266-1771 X15 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 106Education historyIn Southport 6-18; kindergarten. (now Kenosha), newspaper editor Michael Frank led a movement for Number of schools-432 school free education that resulted in the districts with 1,259 elementary establishment there in 1845 of schools, 205 junior high, 365 senior Wisconsin's first public schools. high, and 66 schools with With that precedent, the state kindergarten-grade 12 (1985-86). constitution adopted in 1848 made free schooling available for all Student enrollment-768,000 children between the ages of 4 and elementary and secondary; 453,000 20. In 1856, Mrs. Carl Shurz kindergarten-grade 6; 315,000 opened the nation's first grades 7-12 (1985-86). kindergarten (for German-speaking children) in Watertown. Mandatory Per pupil expenditures$4,168 school attendance was first enacted elementary and secondary in 1879, when children between the (1985-86). ages of 7 and 14 were required to attend at least 12 weeks of school Staff -50,860 total instructional; later extended to a full school year 26,100 elementary teachers, 19,600 for youth 6 through 18. A law secondary teachers, 2,760 other enacted in 1911the first of its nonsupervisory instructional, 2,400 kind in the countryrequired all principals and supervisors. Average cities and towns with populations of salary of instructional staff $27,400; 5,000 or more to set up vocational elementary teachers, $26,300; schools. Today the Milwaukee secondary teachers, $27,450; Vocational School ranks as one of elementary principals, $36,667; the largest trade schools in the junior high/middle school United States. In 1915 a state board principals, $42,016; and senior high of education was established, only principals $41,666 (1985-86). to be abolished eight years later. Wisconsin is today the only state State profilePopulation (1984): without a state board of education, 4,766,000. Per capita income and the elected state superintendent (1984): $12,309. Entered statehood is part of the state government's May 29, 1848. Motto: Forward. executive branch. Consolidation of Nickname: "Badger State." Flower: smaller school districts began in Wood Violet. Bird: Robin. Tree: 1949, with the result that the 7,777 Sugar Maple. Song: "On, districts existing at that time have Wisconsin!" been reduced to 432. In 1984 legislation was enacted to set Excellence activities: A voluntary standards for high school statewide teacher competency graduation, and two years later program stresses a state-local rules were adopted to set partnership. Participavng school comprehensive standards for the districts undergo a rigorous review education of teachers. of their instructional programs and make decisions on the kinds of tests State mandatesCompulsory they will administer. A 1984 report school attendance for children aged of a statewide task force included 116 STATE PROFILES recommendations for upgrading redistricting and resulted in 107 teacher preparation and teacher extensive school reorganization, as inservice training, and ways to approved by a state committee on increase the attractiveness of the reorganization. teaching profession. Many of the recommendations are being State mandateCompulsory school implemented, including a attendance for students aged 7-16. requirement for a teacher test. The legislature passed the first state law Number of schools-49 districts establishing high school graduation with 243 elementary schools, 41 requirements. These include four junior high, 54 senior high, and 18 years of English, three of social schools with kindergarten-grade 12 studies, two of science, two of (1985-86). mathematics, one and one-half of physical education, one-half of Student enrollment-102,779 computer science, and one-half of elementary and secondary; 58,669 health education. kindergarten-grade 6; 44,110 grades 7-12 (1985-86). WYOMING Per pupil expenditures$5,479 Chief state school officerLynn 0. elementary and secondary Simons, State Superintendent of (1985-86). Public Instruction, State Department of Education, Staff -8,155 total instructional; Hathaway Building, Cheyenne 4,950 elementary teachers, 2,345 82002. (307) 777-7675. secondary teachers, 460 other nonsupervisory instructional, 400 Education historyThe first school principals and supervisors. Average in what was to become Wyoming salary of instructional staff, was founded at Fort Laramie by $27,930; elementary teachers, Chaplain William Vaux in 1852. In $27,237; secondary teachers, 1860 another school was built at $29,201; elementary principals, Fort Bridger. The territorial $42,156; secondary principals, legislature in 1869 passed a law $44,427; senior high principals, providing tax support for the $45,357 (1985-86). schools, and in the years immediately thereafter district State profilePopulation (1984): schools were established in many 511,000. Per capita income (1984): communities. The first high school $11,969. Entered statehood July 10, opened in Cheyenne in 1875. Two 1890. Motto: Equal Rights. years later, school attendance for at Nickname: "Equality State." least three months a year was made Flower: Indian Paintbrush. Bird: compulsory. After the attainment of Meadowlark. Tree: Cottonwood. statehood in 1890, Wyoming's Song: "1"yoming." education department was headed by an elected superintendent. A law Excellence activities: A Quality enacted in 1969 mandated county Education Committee committees to arrange for recommended g:eater emphasis on 1 1 7 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 108attendance and school improvement mathematics, three of social research, and that more time be studies, and two of science. For spent on professional development college -bound students, an and more recognition be given to additional year of mathematics, two educators. High school graduation years of foreign language, and a requirements were increased to four laboratory science are required. years of language arts, two of

118 A Brief Nistory of 1091 American Education

ublic education diverse as America's multiethnic began in New population; and they include England less than a youngsters whose learning potential generation after the can be impeded by physical or Pilgrims landed on mental handicaps or propelled by Plymouth Rock in 1620. The exceptional intellectual gifts. Pilgrims viewed education as an America's schools serve all. *nstrument of their strong Puritan Public education has been largely faith to save the immortal souls of responsible for the intellectual and children. technical training that enables In three centuries, long since Americans to enjoy the world's severed from religious aims and highest standard of living. influence, public education in the United States has evolved as the free In the Beginning world's largest and most democratic America's public school and college social institution. systems are the direct outgrowth of Employing 2.1 million teachers citizen commitment to education and 300,000 administrators and that surfaced in New England other professional staff in almost as soon as the initial needs 1985-1986, public schools spent of food and shelter had been met. $147.6 billion to educate some 39 The Boston Latin School (1635) was million children. Another 5.7 created by local initiative as British million children attend private America's first tax-supported schools. These students have school, offering boys seven years of backgrounds and interests as instruction in Latin and Greek. It .. 119 E D U C A T I ON A L M A N A C AMM11MIMO. 1 9 8 7- 1 9 8 8 110 remained for theMasfszhusetts Bay Colony to establish the inoculating, etc., be taughtand principle, practiced?" unique amongEnglish-speaking people, that the state could require National Support for towns to build andmaintain schools Schools at public expense. A After the Revolution, thenew 1742 law made national government parents and masters ofyoung under the Articles of Confederationmade a apprentices responsib$:.;,,-.- providing an educa'aon precedent-setting commitmentto sufficient to public education. enable children to Congress, in a understand the 1785 Ordinance setting tenets of Puritanismand colonial forth law. Finding that governance procedures for the some parents and public domains beyond masters were unwillingor too the unskilled to take Alleghenies, set aside landin each on this task, the township for a public colony in 1647 orderedtowns of 50 school. The households to hire Northwest Ordinance (1787) a teacher to reaffirmed federal instruct pupils in readingthe support, directing Scriptures and thus be that "schools and themeans of able to education shall be forever thwart "Ye old deluderSatan." Towns of 100 households encouraged" in the vastterritory were that subsequently required to establisha school so formed the Ohio that youth might be Valley and Great Lakesstates. "fitted for the When the Constitution university," either in replaced England or at the Articles of Harvard College (1636),then Confederation in 1789, it madeno menti,n of America's only institutionof higher education. education as a federalcharge, by inference leaving the A similararrangement schooling of the population to prevailed amonggovernment states and, leaders in the southern through delegation bythe states, to colonies, localities. Thus, the where wealthy plantationowners United States hired tutors departed from theEuropean or had their children systems of nationally educated in England,though some controlled effort was made to public schools. Localcontrol of teach poor and public schools still orphaned childrenas a form of sets us apart charity. from most othernations. By the mid-1700s, a growing Common School mercantile society disavowed Movement From the 1820s onward, classical grammar schoolsand as demanded a more practical immigrants from Europeincreased the population and the education for boys. Theresult was young the private tuition-charging republic grew andprospered, a academy. As a founder of society long dominatedby landed the gentry and prosperous Philadelphia Academy (1751), merchants became a society concerned Benjamin Franklin expressedthe with new concern for practicality, the rights of thecommon man. Pressure built for asking: "While they(students) are common schools to replace the costlyprivate reading natural history,might not a little gardening, grafting, academies and providea free, nonsectarian education forrich and 120 HISTORY

poor alike. The common school progress statewide. Although its 111 movement was nonetheless oppo' 1827 law mandating public high by many who still favored a schools was ignored by most religious orientation and feared the communities for many years, it rise in taxes that free schools would spurred other states to pass similar surely bring. laws. In the 1874 Kalamazoo Common schools found a Decision, the Michigan Supreme persuasive champion in Horace Court upheld the community's Mann, a lawyer and member of the right to tax residents for the Massachusetts legislature who in support of high schools, declaring 1837 became the first secretary of them a logical bridge between the the Commonwealth's state board of common school and the state education. In his 11-year tenure, he university. pushed for reforms that increased German immigrants, fleeing the state and local support for teachers, 1848 revolution in their homeland, introduced compulsory school founded the first U.S. kindergarten, attendance, unified curriculums based on the technique of Friedrich and textbooks among schools, and Froebel, the movement's founder. created the precedent and German was the language of foundation for statewide school systems. Henry Barnard, later the first U.S. Commissioner of Education, worked concurrently to in titute similar reforms in RI, ode Island and Connecticut. By 1848, when Mann left the Massachusetts state board, 24 of 30 states in the Union had named chief school officers as a prelude to establishing statewide public school systems. instruction. Elizabeth Palmer Expanding the Years of Schooling Peabody established the first The first public high school opened kindergarten for English-speaking in Boston in 1821, the same year children in Boston in 1860. Its Emma Willard founded the Troy success stimulated the national (N.Y.) Female Seminary, the first kindergarten movement. In 1873, women's college. St. Louis became the first city to The Boston high school offered add kindergartens to its public three years of free instruction in school system. By the century's English, mathematics, navigation, end, kindergartens were an integral history, logic, civics, and other part of public education. subjectsfor boys only. Boston's State-supported colleges, effort to establish a high school for beginning in 1795 with the girls failed to gain public support. University of North Carolina, were Other New England towns soon augumented by federal support for a had high schools, but it was again sr .cial kind of college under the Massachusetts that tried to legislate First Morrill Act (1862). Sponsored 4;21 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

112 by Justin Morrill of Vermont, the interests and abilities and offer a law gave public lands to states to flexible classroom environment use or sell for the establishment of where they could do their own colleges devoted to research and thinking and where the teacher training in modern agricultural would be able to be guide and methods and mechanical arts. helper rather than taskmaster. Morrill sponsored a second act in Education, he said, should foster all 1890 to provide annual support for the facets of the child's growth. these land-grant colleges. Almost a Virtually all subsequent innovations century later there are 72 in teaching are refinements of land-grant colleges receiving federal Dewey's ideas. support. Increasing Federal Aid Serving the Immigrant Tide Just as public schools were the America's role as the "melting pot" ladder of opportunity for reached a peak between 1880 and immiints at the turn of the World War I as 20 million people century, the Servicemen's fled hunger and political oppression Readjustment Act (GI Bill) enacted in Europe to start over in the New by Congress in 1944 gave two World. The task of Americanizing million World War II veterans the them fell to the schools. Public funds to go to college or get eaucation gave them proficiency in technical training, enabling many using English, job skills, and the to enter America's professional and citizenship training necessary to entrepreneurial middle class. compete in an increasingly Counting similar benefits for industrialized society. Congress veterans of the wars in Korea and assisted by providing high school Vietnam, 27 million ex-servicemen vocational training under the and women received college or Smith-Hughes Act of 1917. The new technical training at federal citizens provided labor for factories, expense. mines, and railroad construction as The quality of American the nation pursued its Manifest education was seriously questioned Destinythe belief that the United in 1957 when the Soviets launched States had an obligation to expand Sputnik, the first earth-orbiting its territory and economic base. satellite. How, Americans asked, could such a remarkable Dewey's Revolution breakthrough have been possible by Meanwhile, John Dewey was another nation when the United revolutionizing pedagogy. The States was supposed to be the greatest educational philosopher of world's scientific and technological the 20th century, he sought to end leader? The public outcry led the routine drill and rote Congress in 1958 to pass the memorization that had dominatA National Defense Education Act. education from the start. In The act funded a crash program to lectures and writingfirst at the give students intensive preparation University of Chicago and later at in mathematics, physical science, Columbia Universityhe held that and certain infrequently taught education must build on children's foreign languages. Both the public .122 HISTORY .... furor and support for the program approval to discontinue the busing 113 dwindled after the United States of elementary school children under landed the first man on the moon a court-ordered desegregation plan in 1969, and school achievement in dating back to 1971. these areas similarly suffered a As an alternative to busing, many long-last;ng setback. school systems in recent years have created magnet schools, offering an Desegregating the School enriched curriculum to attract a Addmssing an inequity dating back racially mixed student enrollment to Reconstruction, the U.S. on a district-wide basis. Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) found Serving the Most Needy inherently unequal the separate The struggle for school schcol systems operated for black integration raised larger questions and white children in many states. about the obligation of government Ordering desegregation, the Court to provide special assistance for held that dual schools violated the children from low-income families rights of blacks to equal protection who were achieving below national under the Constitution's norms. As part of his Great Society Fourteenth Amendment. Massive program, President Lyndon southern resistance to school Johnson supported major new desegregation resulted. In 1957, educab.;n initiatives. The Governor Orval Faubus used the Elementary and Secondary Arkansas national guard to deny Education Act of 1965 was admittance of blacks to Little Rock's watershed legislation. It Central High School. acknowledged a federal Most southern school districts in responsibility to help states and the ensuing qi:-rter century communities provide catch-up achieved greater school integration programs for children in poor than many larger cities in other neighborhoods. Title I of the act parts of the nation where de facto (now called Chapter I) provided up segregation (based on economic to $3 billion annually to serve more conditions rather than on law or than 5 million children. The Head social prejudice) was the rule. Start program, authorized by the Southern school districts did this by Economic Opportunity Act, also was closing many small rural schools launched in the mid-1960s to serve and busing children to larger, low-income preschool children, as integrated schools, often some was the Follow Through program to distance from their homes. provide enrichment programs for By the 1980s, busing was no Head Start graduates in the early longer a viable option in many primary grades. places. White flight to the suburbs Congress through the years has had left inner-city school districts strongly supported Head Start and, with a predominately minority to a lesser degree, Follow Through. student body that no amount of In 1986, the House and Senate busing could racially integrate. In passed bills reauthorizing both 1986, Norfolk, Virginia, became the programs for another four years. first city to win U.S. Supreme Cc .rt Similarly, Chapter I, now E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 3 8

114standing at $3.5 billion annually, is children in California, the Supreme regarded in Congress as one of the Court ruled that school districts most successful of the Great Society must provide appropriate programs programs. With its enabling to help these children take full legislation up for reauthorization in advantage of their schooling. The 1987, the program has faced Carter administration proposed continuing opposition from the regulations requiring schools to Reagan administration, which hoped begin educating the children in to use the reauthorization process their native language until they to seek to dismantle the program achieved English proficiency. The and capture its billions in order to Reagan administration withdrew give low-income parents vouchers of the proposed regulations in 1981. about $600 apiece to theoretically In 1984, Congress created the send their children to public or Special Alternatives Program to private schools of their choice. help school districts develop Congress in the Rehabilitation instructional methods not involving Act of 1973 provided equal rights a child's native language. However, protections for handicapped Congress specified that only 4 individuals, including school percent of bilingual education's children. The Education for All $140 million appropriation could be Handicapped Children Act of 1975, used for this purpose. The Reagan known as Public Law 94-142, administration has since sought to spelled out the educational remove the 4 percent cap in order entitlements of these children. It to channel more money into the directed all school systems program. In 1986, more than half of receiving federal aid to locate, test, all bilingual education funds still and evaluate them in the least went into traditional programs restrictive environment, preferably where native-language instruction in a regular classroom with is combined with English-language nonhandicapped pupils. preparation. Today some 4.3 million children are being served. in 1983, Congress Crisis in Public Confidence added a new program specifically to Confidence in public schools fell help handicapped students succeed significantly in the 1970s. Lack of in high school and in the transition discipline topped the list of public to adulthood. And there is new concerns through the decade. Polls emphasis on the use of - showed that discipline, drug use, microcomputers and other poor curriculums, and integration technologies to individualize (including busing) continued to be learning programs for disabled major concerns into the 1980s. pupils. More subtle challenges included Bilingual education became an declining enrollments, tighter issue in the mid-1970s as thousands financing, and a rising demand for of Mexican, Southeast Asian, and services to special students. other non-English-speaking Drop-offs in student achievement children flooded the nation's scores in reading, writing, and classrooms. In Lau v. Nichols, a mathematics contributed to the case argued on behalf of Oriental public's view that schools rated only 324 HISTORY a "C" grade on quality of the state and national levels alike. performance. By 1984, only a year after the With the onset of the 1980s it national debate began, the Reagan became clear that the nation needed administration announced that a a thormgh reassessment of its tidal wave of reform was under-way. educational system, especially at the Many reforms, as the elementary i.nd secondary levels. administration conceded, had been The challenge was to determine initiated some years earlier by state how to get the country's schools legislatures, local governments, and and colleges back on track, to teacher training institutions already return to the academic rigor that concerned about the decline in had marked education's earlier academic rigor and student years. At the same time, updated achievement. curriculums and teaching Perhaps the administration's approaches were needed to prepare most important contribution was to students to live and work in a pro"ide a national scoreboard, to society where the computer, count and publicize the efforts of information processing, and a individual states, communities, and service-oriented economy were schools of education. The rapidly replacing traditional cumulative effect was indeed industries. impressive, as the Department of In 1983 the various imperatives Education reported early in 1984 in for improvement formed a critical The Nation Responds: Recent mass that resulted in an explosion Efforts to Improve Education. of reports on the theme expressed As the 1984-1985 school year by the National Commission on began, Secretary Bell reported that Excellence in Education, formed by 41 states and the District of Secretary of Education Terre! H. Columbia had raised their high Bell. Its report (titled A Nation At school requirements in the last Risk: The Imperative for three years. Involved were schools Educational Reform) was soon serving 35 million of the 39 million followed, by several others of children enrolled in public similarly impressive stature elementary and secondary schools notably the report of a Task Force nationwide. on Education for Economic Growth In addition, 29 states employing formed by the Education almost two-thirds of the nation's Commission of the States (Action teachers began requiring for Excellence), and that of the competency tests as well as regular Twentieth Century Fund (Making certification for new teachers the Grade). entering the classroom. Although long opposed to teacher Education Responds competency testing, the National Public debate sparked by these Education Association and the various statements projected American Federation of Teachers, education into the national the two national teachers unions, limelight to a degree reminiscent of bowed to public pressure in 1986 the days of Sputnik. Education and not only endorsed competency became a major political issue, at testing but supported the creation 125 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

116of a National Board for Professional Congress in each year since 1981 Teaching Standards. The board has elected not to reduce education would set nationwide certification spending but to increase it. For standards and administer an fiscal 1985, the administration examination to all new teachers asked for $15.5 billion to fund similar to the bar examination for Department of Education programs; lawyers. The board proposal was Congress approved $17 billion. In one of many steps to improve 1986 the President requested $15.7 teacher education, pay, and billion; Congress voted more than professional status advocated by the $18 billion. For 1987, the Carnegie Forum on Education and President's request dropped to the Economy in its report, A Nation $15.2 billion. Prepared: Teachers for the 21st In December 1985, this pattern Century, issued in early 1986. was thrown into disarray when Congress passed legislation to force Public Confidence Grows a balanced federal budget by 1991. That the reform movement sparked The Balanced Budget and a resurgence in public confidence Emergency Deficit Reduction Act, was shown by the eighteenth better known for its congressional annual Gallup Poll of the Public's sponsors as the Gramm-Rudman- Attitudes Toward the Public Hollings Act, mandates increasingly Schools, released by Phi Delta deep budget cuts not only in Kappa in September 1986. The domestic programs but military percentage of Americans giving programs as well. Education's schools an "A" or "B" rating has mandated cut in 1986 was $170.9 consistently risen, it revealed million, bring its appropriaLn from 19 percent in 1983 to 28 down from $18 billion to $17.8 percent in 1986. Local schools billion. familiar to individual respondents With public pressure to improve did even better: 41 percent received schools on the one hand and the an "A" or "B" in 1986 compared need to face budgetary realities on with 31 percent in 1983. the other, the nation's schools in the late 1980s remain in the state of Federal Budget Constraints ferment that has marked their Meanwhile the spirit of constructive evolution from colonial times on. change that has swept the nation Education is in any case a major since 1983 was confronted by some American preoccupation. The cold realities. President Reagan in national investment in our every budget request since he took educational institutions, from office in 1981 has proposed kindergarten through graduate reductions or no funding increases school, stood in 1985-86 at $263.4 in such programs as compensatory billion, a 9 percent increase over education for disadvantaged 1984-85. Of that amount, $147.6 children and special education for billion was for public education, of handicapped childrenas part of an which the states now pay 50.1 overall cutback in domestic percent; local school districts, 43.5 programs to help pay for large percent, and the federal increases in defense spending. ,. government 6.4 percent (down from 126 HISTORY 8 percent a decade ago). diplomas, as compared with only 117 Education occupies the full-time half of the school-aged children a attention of almost a fourth of the generation ago. More than half of total population, including more all high school graduates go on to than 57 million school and college college. students and more than 4 million All in all, education remains our teachers and administrators, most influential, most important, counting private as well as public most admired, and most criticized schools. Three-fourths of all public institution. students receive high school

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127 118 Readings in American Education

Herewith an assemblage of a few miscellaneous writings aimod at illuminating American education's progress during the past couple of centuries.

PROPOSALS RELATING TO THE taught, and pronouncing, properly, EDUCATION OF YOUTH IN distinctly, emphatically; not with an PENNSYLVANIA even Tone, which under-does, nor a theatrical, which over-does Nature. By Benjamin Franklin (from a 1749 To form their Pronunciation, plan for the establishment of an they may be put on making Academy) Declamations, repeating Speeches, delivering Orations, etc. The Tutor All should be taught to write a assisting at the Rehearsals, fair Hand, and swift, as that is teaching, advising, correcting their useful to All. And with it may be Accent, etc. learnt something of Drawing, by But if History be made a constant Imitation of Prints, and some of the Part of their Reading, such as the first Principles of Perspective. Translations of the Greek and Arithmetick, Accounts, and some Roman Historians, and the modern of the first Principles of Geometry Histories of antient Greece and and Astronomy. Rome, etc. may not almost all The English Language might be Kinds of useful Knowledge be that taught by Grammar; in which some Way introduc'd to Advantage, and of our best Writers, as Tillotson, with Pleasure to the Student? As Addison, Pope, Algernon Sidney, Geography, by reading with Cato's Letters, etc. should be Maps, and being required to point Classicks: The Stiles principally to out the Places where the greatest be cultivated, being the clear and Actions were done, to give their the concise. Reading should also be old and new Names with the 128 READINGS

Bounds, Situation, Extent of the dry season the ground was wet, and 119 Countries concern'd, etc. the soil by no means firm. The spot Chronology, by the Help of was particularly exposed to the Helvicus or some other Writer of bleak winds of winter; nor were the Kind, who will enable them there any shade trees to shelter the to tell when those Events children from the scorching rays of happened; what Princes were the summer's sun, as they were cut Contemporaries, what States or down many years ago. Neither was famous Men flourish'd about that there any such thing as an Time, etc. The several principal outhouse of any kind, not even a Epochs to be first well fix'd in wood shed. their Memories. The size of the building was 22 x 20 feet. From the floor to the With the whole should be ceiling it was 7 feet. The chimney constantly inculcated and and entry took up about four feet at cultivated, that Benignity of Mind, one end, leaving the schoolroom which shows itself in searching for itself 18 x 20 feet. Around the and seizing every Opportunity to sides of the room were connected serve and to oblige; and is the desks, arranged so that when the Foundation of what is called Good pupils were sitting at them their Breeding; highly useful to the faces were towards the instructor Possessor, and most agreeable to and their backs tow. the wall. all. Attached to the sides of the desk The Idea of what is true Merit, nearest to the instructor were should be often presented to Youth, oenches for small pupils. The explain'd and impress'd on their ii.structor's desk and chair occupied Minds, as consisting in an the center. On this desk were Inclinatior, join'd with an Ability to stationed a rod, or ferule; serve Mankind, one's Country, sometimes both. These, with books, Friends and Family; which Ability is writings, inkstands, rules, and (with the Blessing of God) to be plummets, with a fire shovel, and a acquir'd or greatly encreas'd by true pair of tongs (often broken), were Learning; and should indeed be the the principal furniture. great Aim and End of all Learning. The room was warmed by a large and deep fire place.. The fires were to be kindled about half an A NEW ENGLAND SCHOOL OF 1810 (As described by a New England teacher about 20 years later)

The school building: The school house stood near the center of the district, at the junction of four roads, so near the usual track of carriages that a large stone was set up at the end of the building to defend it from injury. Except in the '7,129' E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

120hour before the time of beginning been less than nine dollars in the the school. Often, the scholar former case, and seventy-five cenis whose lot it was, neglected to build in the latter. it. In consequence of this, the The Instruction: Two of the house was frequently cold and Board of Visitors usually visit the uncomfortable about half of the winter schools twice during the forenoon, when, the fire being very term. In the summer, their visits large, the excess of heat became are often omitted. These visits equally distressing. Frequently, too, usually occupy from one hour to a we were annoyed by smoke. The hour and a half.. .. greatest amount of suffering, The parents seldom visit the however, arose from excessive heat, school, except by special invitation. particularly at the close of the day. The greater number pay very little The pupils being in a free attention to it at all.... perspiration when they left, were The school books have been very liable to take cold. about the same for thirty years. The Instructors: The winter Webster's Spelling Book, the school usually opened about the American Preceptor, and the New first week of December, and Testament, have been the principal continued from twelve to sixteen books used. Before the appearance weeks. The summer term of the American Preceptor, Dwight's commenced about the first of May. Geography was used as a reading Formerly this was also continued book. A few of the Introduction to about three or four months, but the American Orator were within ten years the term has been introduced about twelve years since, lengthened usually to twenty weeks. and, more recently, Jack Halyard. Males have been uniformly Until within a few years, no employed in winter, and females in studies have been permitted in the summer.... Many of them, both day school but spelling, reading, males and females, were from and writing. Arithmetic was taught sixteen to eighteen years of age, and by a few instructors, one or two a few, over twenty-one. evenings a week, but, in spite of the Good moral character, and a most determined opposition, thorough knowledge of the arithmetic is now permitted in the common branches, formerly were day school, and a few pupils study considered as indispensable geography. qualifications in an instructor. The instructors were chiefly selected from the most respectable families THE REPUBLIC AND THE in town.... SCHOOL: THE EDUCATION OF Instructors have usually boarded FREE MEN in the families of the pupils. Their By Horace Mann (from his 1846 compensation has varied from seven annual report to the Massachusetts to eleven dollars a month for males; State Board of Education) and from sixty-two and a half cents to one dollar a week for females. I believe in the existence of a Within the past ten years, however, great, immutable principle of the price of instruction has rarely natural law, or natural ethics,a c.., 130 R E ADINGS principle antecedent to all human individual the great laws of bodily 121 institutions and incapable of being health; as qualifies for the abrogated by any ordinances of fulfillment of parental duties; as is man,a principle of divine origin, indispensable for the civil functions clearly legible in the ways of of a witness or a juror; as is Providence as those ways are necessary for the voter in municipal manifested in the order of nature affairs; and finally, for the faithful and in the history of the race and conscientious discharge of all which proves the absolute right of those duties which devolve upon every human being that comes into the inheritor of a portion of the the world to an education; and sovereignty of this great republic. which, of course, proves the The will of God, as conspicuously correlative duty of every manifested in the order of nature, government to see that the means and in the relations which He has of that education are provided for established among men, places the all. right of every child that is born into In regard to the application of the world to such a degree of this principle of natural law,that education as will enable him, and, is, in regard to the extent of the as far as possible, will predispose education to be provided for all, at him, to perform all domestic, the public expense,some social, civil and moral duties, upon differences of opinion may fairly the same clear ground of natural exist, under different political law and equity, as it places a child's organizations; but under a right, upon his first coming into republican government, it seems the world, to distend his lungs with clear that the minimum of this a portion of the common air, or to education can never be less than open his eyes to the common light, such as is sufficient to qualify each or to receive that shelter, protection citizen for the civil and social duties and nourishment which are he will be called to discharge; necessary to the continuance of his such an education as teaches the bodily existence. E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 122A THEORY OF EDUCATION the scholar by diligent study and By William Torrey Harris (written much deep thinking being able to in 1870, 19 years before he became master for himself, one by one, the fourth U.S. Commissioner of great thoughts that have ruled the Education) world-history. The scientific solutions and generalizations relating to the great problems of Freedom begins with making human lifethese are preserved in one's nature, and not with mere books, and each man, woman and unconscious habit. Out of the child may partake; for in this realm savage state man ascenas ay making too, all is for each, and each for himself new natures, one above the all.... other; he realizes his ideas in These two forms of combination institutions, and finds in these ideal the practical and the theoretical worlds his real home and his true are the modes in which man the nature. animal becomes man the spirit, and The state of nature is the savage each individual becomes a state.... The natural man who has conscious participant of the life of not ascended above nature and the entire race. become its master, is more Education, as embracing this unfortunate and unhappy than the form of active combination with the brute. To achieve his destiny, to race, characterizes human nature become aught that is distinctively and distinguishes it from animal human, he must be able to combine nature. By it man is a progressive with his fellow men and sum up the being, and his progress consists in results of the race in each subordinating the material world to individual. First there is practical his use, and freeing himself from combinationcivil society the hard limits that hem in all organizing in such a manner that natural beings.... A civilization each man reaps the united effort of wherein all can partake in the the entire community; the laborer subjugation of the elements, and who earns his dollar for the day's possess a competence at such easy work being able to purchase terms as to leave the greater part of therewith one dollar's worth of any life for higher culture, is the goal to or all the productions that human which every American confidently labor has wrought out. This kind of looks. combination, whereby man lifts The common man shall be rich himself above himself as an in conquests over the material individual (and to that extent world of Time and Space, and not transcends his mere finiteness), only this but over the world of permits you and me to pursue mind, the heritage of culture, the quietly your vocations, and yet realized intelligence of all enjoy the fruition of the labor of the mankind.... world.... What lofty goals beckon on the But practical combination is not Amei ican youth! What teachers we all nor indeed the chief item of need for the work of their importance in the elevation of man. instruction! Not the cramping, There is theoretical combination formalistic pedants who stifle all '432 READINGS

enthusiasm in the souls of their involved have been equalized, or are 123 pupils, but true living teachers are being equalized, with respect to needed. buildings, curricula, qualifications The model teacher is a student and salaries of teachers, and other himself, and became he is growing "tangible" factors. Our decision, himself, he kindles in his pupils the therefore, cannot turn on merely a spirit of growthfree from narrow comparison of these tangible factors prejudices, his very atmosphere in the Negro and white schools disenthralls the youth entrusted to involved in each of the cases. We his charge. Animated by a lofty must look instead to the effect of faith, all his pupils reflect his segregation itself on public steadfastness and earnestness, and education. learn the great lesson of industry Today, education is perhaps the and self-reliancethus preparing most important function of state themselves for the life of free men and local governments. Compulsory in a free state. school attendance laws and the great expenditures for education both demonstrate our recognition BROWN VS BOARD OF of the importance of education to EDUCATION our democratic society. It is (from the 1954 decision of the U.S. required in the performance of our Supreme Court that state laws most basic public responsibilities, requiring or permitting racial even service in the armed forces. It segregation in public education are is the very foundation of good in violation of the Constitution) citizenship. Today it is a principal instrument in awakening the child In the first cases in this Court to cultural values, in preparing him construing the Fourteenth for later professional training, and Amendment, decided shortly after in helping him to adjust normally its adoption, the Court interpreted to his environment. In these days, it it as proscribing all state-imposed is doubtful that any child may discriminations against the Negro reasonably be expected to succeed race. The doctrine of "separate but in life if he is denied the equal" did not make its appearance opportunity of an education. Such in this Court until 1896 in the case an opportunity, where the state has of Plessy v. Ferguson (US) supra, undertaken to provide it, is a right involving not education but which must be made available to transportation. American courts all on equal terms. have since labored with the doctrine We come then to the question for over half a century. In this presented: Does segregation of Court, there have been six cases children in public schools solely on involving the "separate but equal" the basis of race, even though the doctrine in the field of public physical facilities and otIllr education.... "tangible" factors may be equal, In the instant cases, that deprive the children of the minority question is directly presented. group of equal educational Here... there are findings ... that opportunities? We believe that it the Negro and white schools does.... In McLaurin v. Oklahoma ;133 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 124State Regents, 339 US 637, 94 L ed Some of the reasons for the 1149, 70 S Ct 851, supra, the Court, rapidly increasing importance of the in requiring that a Negro admitted schools have been often noted. to a white graduate school be Ignorance is a far greater handicap treated like all other students, again to an individual than it was a resorted to intangible generation ago, and an uneducated considerations: "... his ability to populace is a greater handicap to a study, to engage in discussions and nation. This trend is obviously exchange views with other students, going to continue and quicken. and, in general, to learn his An equally important and less profession." Such considerations frequently mentioned reason for the apply with added force to children growing importance of education is in grade and high schools. To the plain fact that the schools have separate them from others of become the chief instrument for similar age and qualifications solely keeping this Nation the fabled land because of their race generates a of opportunity it started out to be. feeling of inferiority as to their In other decades, the opportunities status in the community that may of America lay primarily in escape affect their hearts and minds in a from the rigid class barriers of way unlikely ever to be undone.... Europe, the availability of free land We conclude that in the field of at the frontier, and the excitement public education the doctrine of of a violently growing nation, where "separate but equal" has no place. farms often became villages and Separate educational facilities are villages became cities within the inherently unequal. Therefore, we span of one human life. When the hold that the plaintiffs and others frontier was closed, it would have similarly situated for whom the been easy for opportunities to dry actions have been brought are, by up in this Nation, and for rigid class reason of the segregation barriers to develop. It has been complained of, deprived of the equal primarily the schools which have protection of a laws guaranteed prevented this from happening. As by the Fourteenth Amendment. long as good schools are available, a man is not frozen at any level of our economy, nor is his son. Schools 1955 WHITE HOUSE free men to rise to the level of their CONFERENCE ON EDUCATON natural abilities. Hope for personal (from the report of the conference advancement and the advancement committee) of one's children is, of course, one of the great wellsprings of human From the work of the Committee energy. The schools, more than any for the White House Conference on other agency, supply this hope in Education, one fundamental fact America today. By providing a emerges: schools now affect the channel for ambition, they have welfare of the United States more taken the place of the frontier, and than ever before in history, and this in a highly technical era, have new importance of education has preserved the independent spirit of been dangerously underestimated a pioneer nation. The schools stand for a long time. as the chief expression of the 134 READINGS American tradition of fair play for redistribution of trained capability everyone, and a fresh stare for each throughout the globe. Knowledge, generation. learning, information, and skilled intelligence are the new raw materials of international A NATION AT RISK commerce and are today spreading (from the report of The National throughout the world as vigorously Commission on Excellence in as miracle drugs, synthetic Education, April 1983) fertilizers, and blue jeans did earlier. If only to keep and improve History is not kind to idlers. The on the slim competitive edge we time is long past when America's still retain in world markets, we destiny was assured simply by an must dedicate ourselves to the abundance of natural resources and reform of our educational system inexhaustible human enthusiasm, for the benefit of allold and and by our relative isolation from young alike, affluent and poor, the malignant problems of older majority and minority. Learning is civilizations. The world is indeed the indispensable investment one global village. We live among required for success in the determined, well-educated, and "information age" we are entering. strongly motivated competitors. We Our concern, however, goes well compete with them for beyond matters such as industry international standing and markets, and commerce. It also includes the not only with products but also intellectual, moral, and spiritual with the ideas of our laboratories strengths of our people which knit and neighborhood workshops. together the very fabric of our America's position in the world may society. The people of the United once have been reasonably secure States need to know that individuals with only a few exceptionally in our society who do not possess well-trained men and women. It is the levels of skill, literacy, and no !conger. training essential to this new era The risk is not only that the will be effectively disenfranchised, Japanese make automobiles more not simply from the material efficiently than Americans and have rewards that accompany competent government subsidies for performance, but also from the development and export. It is not chance to participate fully in our just that the South Koreans national life. A high level of shared recently built the world's most education is essential to a free, efficient steel mill, or that American democratic society and to the machine tools, once the pride of the fostering of a common culture, world, are being displaced by especially in a country that prides German products. It is also that itself on pluralism and individual these developments signify a freedom....

.135 126What's. Right About American Education

The outpouring of studies and commentaries about the condition of the nation's schools continues unabated; writing reports about education in! gone beyond beinga cottage industry. All of the reports set out to be constructive, and most are. In making their various cases, however, many seem to find it necessary along the way to suggest that public education is in pretty sad shape. In fact, though, the schools seem to be doing pretty well. Consider the following:

Significant advances in education since 1940, "... have made the American people the most educated in the world,"a 1985 U.S. Bureau of he Census study reported. The special demographic study by Census Bureau analysts pointed out that, "Less than 45years ago a solid majority of young adults were either high school dropoutsor had never gone beyond elementary school. Today high school dropouts have been reduced toa small minority." In 1940, the study reported, only 38 percent of those 25 to 29years old had attained a high school diploma and amere six percent had college degrees. In 1985 the Census Bureau found that 86 percent of those surveyed said they had high school diplomas and 22 percent said they had college degrees. The Census Bureau researchers also cited 1980-81 surveys showing that almost 32 percent of American citizens 25 years or older had at leastsome college education. That contrasts with 17.3 percent of East Germans, 17.2 percent of Canadians, 15.5 percent of Swedes, 14.5 percent of Japanese, and 7 percent of Hungarians. Despite popular myths to the contrary, only five percent of 1,912 personnel officers recently surveyed said they had experienced problems with high school graduates not having basic skills. Thesurvey, "The Quality of American High School Graduates: What Personnel OfficersSay and Do About It," was conducted by Johns Hopkins University. Survey findings contradict a basic assumption made insome of the recent national reports (and reiterated by respondents toa Lou Harris poll) that las E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

American high school graduates are poorly educated and that this "fact" 127 contributes to A. erican industry's declining ability to compete with foreign business. Entry-level employees were rated OKon dependabililty/getting to work regularly and on time (a trait considered indispensable by nearly all respondents), proper attitudes about work and supervisors, ability to get along well with people, ability to read materials about as difficult as the daily newspaper; and ability to add, subtract, multiply, and divide. The latest information available from the the Census Bureau confirms the proposition that education elevates earnings. While the average family earned $26,433 in 1984, here's how annual income varies by education level of the head of the househ "ld:

Completed elementary school $14,937 Four years of high school $26,528 Four or more years of college $43,169

The commonly stated concern that students today are no longer interested in a liberal arts education is not supported in a recent survey of 3,000 high school seniors by the Admissions Marketing Group of Boston. The study reveals that a majority of high-ranking students citea strong liberal arts education as the most important characteristic when considering college. About 81 percent of students said a liberal arts education exposes them to a wide variety of topics and 61 percent said it helps students learn more about themselves. Since our society believes it is important to educate everyone,one measure of our educational success should be the percentage of students enrolled. Figures from the U.S. Department of Education'sDigest of Education Statistics 1985-86show the following enrollment percentages for all schools of all types:

Age Percent 3 and 4 38 5 and 6 95 7 to 9 99 10 to 13 99 14 and 15 98 16 and 17 92 18 and 19 50 20 and 21 33 22 and 24 17 25 to 29 10 30 to 34 6

Enrollment figures alone, as revealing as they are, don't tell the entire story. Here is information from theDigest of Education Statistics 1985-86 on the percentage of enrolled students actually attending school daily. We have clearly made progress here too:

cs.ita7 WHAT'S RIGHT

128 Year Students Attending Daily 1869-70 59 percent 1899-1900 69 percent 1929-30 83 percent 1980-81 90 percent

Beyond the percentage enrolled in school, we are concerned with the number who stay at ieast through high school graduation and do not become dropouts. According to the Department of Education's Center for Education Statistics, the proportion of students remaining through graduation has been steadily climbing. The figures track the percentage of students who entered fifth grade the year shown and later went on to graduate from high school:

Completed Entered 5th Grade High School Graduated 1924-25 30 percent 1932 1934-35 47 percent 1942 1944-45 52 percent 1952' 1954-55 64 percent 1962 Fall 1964 75 percent 1972 Fall 1975 76 percent 1983

Another important indicator of what's right is the educational level of adults. Here is a summary from the Department of Education'sDigest of Education Statistics,focused on adults 25 to 29 years of age:

Median School Year Years Completed 1920 8.5 1940 10.7 1950 12.2 1960 12.3 1970 12.6 1980 12.9 1985 12.9

Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores, which declined for more than two decades before leveling off in 1980 and starting upward again in 1981, are still showing an upward trend. Here are the average scores reported by the College Entrance Examination Board:

Year Verbal Mathematics 1966-67 466 492 1971-72 453 484 1976-77 429 470 19E3-81 424 466 1981-82 426 467 ,138 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

1983-84 426 471 129 1984-85 431 475 1985-86 431 475

The College Board also reported an increase in the number of high school courses in math, sciences, and foreign languages taken by entering college students. The board found 77 percent of students arriving at college from "academic" or "college preparatory" programs in 1984, an increase from 75 percent in 1980, adding that entering college students in 1984 had taken an average of 16.32 academic subjects compared with 15.97 in 1980 and 15.83 in 1977.

While teacher salaries are generally agreed to be much lower than they should be, our schools are making progress in raising them to more acceptable levels. Here are the latest facts from the National Education Association:

Year Average Teacher's Salary 1973-74 $11,690 1985-86 $25,257

Disputing popular claims that U.S. high schools are turning out inept graduates, a 1984 survey of 1,700 college and university deans by the American Council on Education found that 60 percent of the academic officials say the quality of undergraduate students has not changed appreciably in the last five years. Education is the key reason blacks have narrowed the wage gap over four decades, according to a 1986 Rand Corporation report. The report shows black males earning 73 percent as much as white males by 1980an increase of 30 percent since 1940. The study attributes the gains primarily to increased schooling for blacks In 1940 the typical black male had completed the sixth grade, four grades fewer than the whites with whom he had to compete. By 1986 the average new black worker was a high school graduate and was just one year of education behind his white counterpart, according to the report.

C.49-9AkAk

'c early there are many problems to be -.ddresseti in American education, as we have unendingly been reminded in the parade of educatio.. reports that began in 1983 with A Nation At Risk and continues unabated today. The interest in education demonstrated by these reports might well be included in this sampling of what's right with our schools. Perhaps the greatest strength of our educational systemand of our system of governmentis our citizens' freedom and readiness to speak out about the nation's essential institutions. Such constructive criticism is the path toward continuing improvement. .-139 ,30The U.S. Department of Education

fter a century of strings prohibiting discrimination, debate, Americans for exampleand say this could still disagree on the lead to federal intrusion in state and extent to which the local decision making. Much of the federal government public agrees, according to the should bt involved in the funding Gallup Poll of the Public's Attitudes and policy direction of public Toward the Public Schools, released schools functions implicitly by Phi Delta Kappa in September delegated by the Constitution to the 1986. More than half of all states and by them in large measure respondents said they wanted to some 15,000 local school federal aid but less federal influence districts. in public education. This ambivalence has marked the Congress created the Department long history of federal aid to of Education in 1979, in effect education and, in the last few years, elevating the Office of 'duration, a affected the short but turbulent sub-Cabinet agency, to Cabinet history of the United States rank. In so doing, Congress Department of Education, the recognized that a vigorous and newest and smallest Cabinet-level responsive public education system, agency in the federal government. though primarily a state and local While educators and school responsibility, is essential to the boards w. !come the infusion of nation's social and economic federal tax dollars to improve public progress, and in this sense schools, many note that these funds transcends state borders. Education come with strings attached- is so important, members agreed, 140 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

that it should have a place in the $15 billion in most recent years. 131 Cabinet on a par with foreign On the debit side, the smallest affairs, defense, commerce, labor, Cabinet-level agency has rapidly transportation, and other concerns become smaller still. The of great national importance. Department in just three years has The Department opened for reduced its staff, including program business in May 1980, yet even then administrators, by nearly 1,000, 'ritics of the enabling legislation down from 5,400 employees in 1983 continued to argue that this new to 4,500 at the onset of 1987. and more prestigious federal The long controversy presence could encroach on state surrounding the federal role in and local control of education. education goes back at least to Ronald Reagan supported this 1867. Congress in that year view in his 1980 campaign for the established the first Department of presidency. He promised if elected Education, an independent agency to abolish the new Department, a below Cabinet level, headed by a promise he tried hard to keep after commissiomer. Henry Barnard, entering the White House. Connecticut's first chief state school However, Congress refused to go officer, became the first along, believing the new agency commissioner. He had a staff of should have a chance to prove itself. three clerks and a $25,000 budget By 1985, the President had given to carry out the Department's up, at least for the time being. He mandateto collect, evaluate, and assured a c;:mate committee that he disseminate information on the had no intention of recommending progress of American education. its demise "at this time." Barnard had lobbied long and Still, the President made it clear hard for the Department. He that the Department would use fervently believed that the nation leadership and persuasion, rather needed to keep track of the number than new programs or more funds of students enrolled in American for existing programs, to bring schools and colleges, the quality of about improvements in education. their education, and what that Partly to reduce the federal education cost. Only such data, he presence, partly to reduce the huge believed, could help the United federal deficit, the President in States evaluate its decentralized every year since taking office has school and college system. Many requested budget cuts or level people at the time considered the funding for such popular centrally controlled systems in long-standing programs as Europe superior to our own. compensatory aid for disadvantaged Barnard wanted ammunition to children, special education for refute their views. handicapped children, bilingual More powerful government education, and financial aid for officials, including Secretary of the college students. Congress, just as Interior Orville E. Browning, consistently has voted more money opposed Barnard's position that the than requested. In 1986, the federal government had a legitimate Department had a total budget of role in education. Faced with such $17.8 billion, compared with about strong executive branch opposition, ,1.41 U. S. DEPARTMENT 132 Congress compromised. It authorized the National Institute of downgraded the independent Education as the Office of agency to a bureau in Browning's Education's research arm to develop own Department of the Interior. innovative new approaches to Here it spent the next eight decades teaching and learning. (The gradually working its way up in Department abolished the Institute public and congressional esteem. in 1985 but kept most of its The public dismay when thc projects.) Soviets beat the United States into By the late 1C70s, the Office of space with Sputnik, the first Education had some 150 programs, satellite to orbit the earth, led each with its own rules, Congress in 1958 to enact the regulations, and reporting National Defense Education Act. procedures. Schools and colleges This law provided federal funds to began to find the paperwork improve science, mathematics, and burdensome and the stiff foreign language instruction in our regulations an infringement on schools and colleges and help us their responsibility to establish catch up in the space race. The academic standards, student Office of Education was charged placement procedures, and teaching with its administration. methods. The floodgates of categorical aid Under Retgan, the Republicans to education were opened to moved to reverse the trend. For advance President Lyndon example, Terrel H. Bell, in one of Johnson's Great Society initiatives his initial acts as Reagan's first in the mid-1960s. The Elementary Secretary of Education (1981-1984), and Secondary Education Act of killed bilingual education 1965 provided remedial education regulations proposed by his for millions of children from Democratic predecessor, Shirley M. low-income families. More than two Hufstedler. The regulations would decades later, the program have required schools to teach accounted for $3.5 billion of the non-English-speaking children in Department's $17.8 billion their native language until they appropriation in 1986. could be brought up to speed in The Higher Education Act of English. How school districts were 1965 was also landmark legislation. supposed to find certified teachers It has provided loans and other fluent in Urdu or Swahili was not financial aid through the years to addressed. The administration has millions of college students. In since worked diligently to reduce, 1972, President Richard Nixon simplify, and clarify regulations for signed into law the Basic Grants all Department programs. Program, giving outright grants to After a shaky start, the young people from very poor Department found its prestige families to get a college education. suddenly soaring with the The Education for All Handicapped publication in 1983 of A Nation At Children Act assured disabled Risk: The Imperative for students a public or private Educational Reform, the report of education appropriate to their the National Commission on needs. Under Nixon, Congress also Excellence in Education. Bell had

1 4 2 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 created the commission in 1981, Report on Elementary Education in 133 bringing together eminent America, issued in September 1986. educators, legislators, state and First Lessons concluded that local officials, and public elementary education is not representatives for a top-to-bottom menaced by "a rising tide of examination of the condition of mediocrity"the charge leveled at education. The report exposed education by A Nation At Risk. The education's many failings, Secretary found the nation's particularly at the high school level elementary schools in pretty good and, in concert with a series of shape. Among other sirr::ar reports by nongovernmental recommendations, he called for a organizations, sparked a nationwide stronger partnership between debate and reform movement. schools and parents in helping By late 1984, Bell reported that young children build a solid 34 states had responded by raising foundation for later learning. their high school graduation With these reports and other standards, 30 states had begun or initiativesfor instance, new planned pay raises to provide career awarc's programs to honor ladders for teachers, and many excAlance in individual elementary and secondary schoolsthe Department had effectively followed the principle of persuasion rather than more federal dollars in seeking to stimulate educational reform. Federal dollars are apt to be in short supply in the next few years. They already pay considerably less of the total public school bill than they used to, accounting for 6.4 other reforms were underway both percent of the $147.6 billion tab in at state and local levels. These 1985-86 compared with 8 percent in reforms continue, though declining the late 1970s. Department tax revenues in states affected by programs will likely face funding the world oil glut and a general cuts through 1990 under the economic downturn, notably Texas, Gramm-Rudman-Hollings have forced officials to rethink the deficit-reduction act. Passed by scope of their school reform Congress in 1985, the law mandates initiatives. a balanced federal budget by 1991. When William J. Bennett This calls for yearly cuts in nearly succeeded Bell as Secretary, he was all military and domestic programs. encouraged to convene a second Thus, the federal role in panel of experts to analyze education from a fiscal standpoint elementary education with the sante will probably continue to lessen, thorough attention that Bell's not only to reflect the conservative commission had devoted to position of the President and secondary education. He did so, and others, but also because the used the study group's findings in Gramm-Rudman-Hollings law his own report, First Lessons: A requires it.

. 143 ts" i.Getting Parents Involved

---1ew truths about have found that the most education have commonly asked questions are received more these: attention recently 1. How is ray child doing in the than the proposition classroom? that parent involvement represents 2. What and how are you perhaps the most crucial teaching him/her? determinant of children's interest in 3. What special (enrichment) school and how well they will services do you offer? progress in the classroom. 4. What are the school's rules? Parents have no` generally been 5. How well are my school taxes notorious, however, for their being spent? determination to get involved. For elementary school students, Following are some ideas and send home a weekly note telling activities that schools in various what the children have been parts of the country have found working on plus an individual folder useful in bridging the gap: of each student's work. Make personal contacts with Use parent-teacher meetings for parents. It is more difficult to say frank discussions about current "no" in a face-to-face meeting or needs and problems. If a new even on the telephone than when program is to be introduced or if the contact takes the form of a test scores aren't what they should crumpled sheet of paper brought be, tell parents what the school's home by a child. plans are and have them discuss Keep parents posted. Surveys how they might help. .44 E D U C A T I O N`....A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 Provide parents information your child follows rules and 135 about dealing with their children. A attends school regularly. Texas survey showed that parents o Provide the right atmosphere want to know how to: for studying: limit TV o Help their children make watching, provide a good work independent choices areagood lighting, a desk or o Talk about child molesters table to work on, a good o Get their children to listen to dictionary and other tools, other people's point of view peace and quiet. Agree on a O Guide their children in regularly scheduled making career decisions homework time. O Make their children Call for parent and community understand that "undesirable volunteers to help staff the friends" can be harmful computer lab. Nearly every O Discuss drug and alcohol community now contains a cadre of abuse people knowledgeable about o Encourage creative behavior microcomputers who would be o Improve discipline willing to give some time during O Have candid conversations the day, right after school, or in the with their child evenings. As in so many of the O Establish a good relationship activities involving volunteers, the Organize a group of parents and benefit is two-way: while the school teachers to develop specific gets some expert assistance, the suggestions to help parents. One experts get a firsthand look at what such group produced the following: the schools are like these days and o Visit interesting places and soon become ardent supporters. discuss them with your child. Arrange to make parent O Take your child on trips on a conferences available during train, a bus, an airplane, non - school hours on a regular perhaps a boat. schedule. o Listen to your child. Organize a communitywide Encourage him or her to ask "People Library." The idea is to questions, discuss ideas, tell identify people in the community stories. Start when the child is that students might "borrow" as young. Avoid criticism; stress personal learning resources. There encouragement. are always parents (and O Set a good example. If you are grandparents!) who can provide interested in learning, your living history lessons from firsthand child probably will be. experience and geography lessons Establish a family reading basee on their travels, artists and time or some other organized musicians who can give counsel in learning activity and share art and music appreciation, and role experiences. models for virtually any career. O Work with the school. Attend Establish a school public relations parent-teacher conferences; advisory committee made up of communicate often with the interested parents and other teacher; take an interest in community members, plus some your child's courses; see that members of the staff. Often it is 145

A INVOLVINGPARENTS 136possible to find parents or others that parents and students can use to who work in public relations check on nightly assignments. positions for local business and Establish regular visitation days industry. The key is to give the when parents may observe classes committee specific assignments. and offer suggestions. (This idea (Help us design our next works best when parents can community open house or a school observe a "real" school day, not a information brochure or train our prepared special program.) telephone answering staff.) Ask parents to help set up a Committee members should have school "Nifty Fifties" museum so definite terms of officegenerally students can see how their parents one year. grew up. This idea not only gets Hold regular coffees in parents' parents involved but is fun and homes to talk about the school. It is helps students grasp the not hard to get people to host such astonishing fact that their parents affairs. Take along a couple of staff were young once, too. members (not just professional staff Consider setting up a program to it is amazing what credibility the honor parents who once attended head custodian has) and perhaps a the .,chool themnives. Despite all student. Have an open agenda and we hear about mobility, many keep to a strict time schedule. people still live near where they Offer weekend or evening grew up. These parents have special workshops for parents. In Windsor, feelings about the school that can Ontario, the school board, be helpful in creating good working Assumption University, and the relationships with all parents. Windsor Star newspaper Establish a Parent Information cosponsored a six-hour conference Council to help answer questions on child-rearing and family life. about the school from new parents Topics included dealing with the moving into the school attendance problems arising from divorce or area, from realtors, and even other separation, disciplining children, parents. Such groups have great family fitness, preparing children credibility and tend to quickly for their first encounter with a develop a strong, supportive hospital, and coping with drug and relationship with the school. alcohol abuse. Presenters ranged Issue a parent newsletter. This is from a couple whose son had run a fairly large undertaking but an away to join a religious cult and especially valuable one and might who explained the whys and hows of be turned over to volunteers. Here brainwashing, to a Franciscan nun are some tips for keeping the job whose music-accompanied message manageable while producing a was, "You've got to teach your document that will really be read: children that they're somebody." O Keep the newsletter short and Invite groups of parents to sample simple. An 8-1/2" x 11" sheet the school lunch once a month. printed on on?. or two sides is Seat them with the principal, a sufficient. teacher, and several randomly O Publish on schedule, not just selected students. whenever the spirit moves. Establish a homework hotline O Writing: Use simple words, 146 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

short sentences, short Have no paragraph longer 137 paragraphs, and action verbs. than eight lines. Avoid educational jargon. Double-space between the Don't preach. Tell your headline arid the story. readers what they want and Triple-space between the end need to know in simple, of one story and the headline straightforward language. of the next story. O Illustrations: Photos are nice Don't hand-letter headlines! but not necessary. If they are Use art transfer type available used, make sure they are at any good art supply store. sharp, clear, and in black and Use a pica typewriter. Avoid whitenot color. Maybe a italics. better bet is "clip art" O DistributionPublications drawings from clip art books sent home with students often available in many public don't get there. Mail it. Ask libraries. the PTA to help defray mailing 0 Special tips for typewri,:en costs. If your mailing list is newsletters: Use generous over 200 you can obtain a margins, up to 7/8 of an inch. bulk mailing permit or use Single-space the story itself the permit the central office and double-space between the already has. If it's worth paragraphs. writing, it's worth mailing.

147 -74.,. .p.,. 138 Some Emerging Educational Trends

ike other social month, and the entrepreneurs institutions, involved say they are out to education has its "saturate the country." trends and fads and The education community hasn't passing fancies, and really made up its mind what to every now and then a useful think about the new enterprises. innovation that settles in as a Many educators clearly harbor permanent part of the scene. Here suspicions, but the chief reaction are a few trends that might be among teachers is to wish they worth monitorii.. during 1987 and were dealing with a student-teacher 1988: ratio of no more than 3-to-1, the usual arrangement, rather than Franchised Schooling 30-to-1 or so. Some have called the education The typical pupil is a youngster at "stores" now popping up from coast the elementary school level who has to coast "the McDonald's of not been doing well in the education." classroom, though perhaps 10 If the phrase was intended to percent or so are children who have connote sleaziness it was a bit been doing well but not as well as muchafter all, former Secretary their parents ,vant. The usual of Education Terre! Bell sits on the arrangement is a 36-hour block of board of the largest of the instruction time for which the operations. parent pays about $1,000. But if the idea was simply to Beyond the low teacher-student suggest the eruption of a new ratio, a distinguishing feature of phenomenon in the franchising many of the operations is a rewards game, it was right on target. The system; for completing their lessons so-called "learning centers" are the students receive tokens the can opening at a rate of better than 20 a be used to help pay for a 148 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 phonograph record or a doll or a The Dropout Situation 139 ball or some other trinket. When John F. Kennedy became the The three largest franchisers nation's 35th president in 1961, he (Sylvan Learning Corp. of Bellevue, placed education high on his Washington; American Learning domestic agenda. And one of his Corp. of Huntington Beach, chief education concerns was the California; and Huntington disaster represented by the Learning Centeib, Inc. of Oradell, thousands and thousands of young New Jersey) require that the people abandoning the classroom ins'.uctors (usually moonlighting each year before completing high tea-thers) hold teaching certificates. school. In 1961 about 26 percent of The typical operator is a the students who had entered the businessman who has made an fifth grade eight years ezrlier failed investment of $100,000 or so to get a high school diploma. covering a $20,000-$30,000 A campaign organized to try to correct the situation seemed to be making progress, but when President Kennedy was assassinated in 1963 the anti-dropout drive faded away. Today the situation is little if any better than it was then. Currently the dropout rate is about 24 percent, according to Vance Grant of the Center for Education Statistics, and about 27 percent according to the National Education Association. Which is to say that come June, in the neighborhood of 900,000 young people will fail to receive a diploma. The ratio in big cities is much higher than thatan estimated 43 franchise, a ready-made advertising percent in both Los Angeles and campaign, instructional materials, Chicago, according to testimony and some helpful hints. before Congress. The franchisers see a bright National studies indicate that the future, with an ample supply of reasons behind these calamitous parents ready to spend $5,000 or figures include failure to keep pace $10,000 to make sure their kids with peers, low achievement, succeed. And newspaper reports pregnancy, and coming from a indicate that most parents feel their home in which the father was a investment pays off. school dropout. So far, at least, the chief fly in That the situation is not hopeless the ointment seems to be the fact is suggested by the experience of that there is no record of one of the New York City, where a major centers being located in a campaign, supervised by a disadvantaged neighborhood, where newly-established superintendt.nt the need is greatest. for dropout revention, brought the 149 3. EMERGING TRENDS

140 dropout rate down to about 35 take up the year-round concept, percentnot a figure to be effective July 1987. comfortable with but significantly Actually, year-round schooling better than the 42.9 percent of has been around for a century or so, 1984. and the number of districts having The primary reasons for the at least some schools on year-round reduction, the New York Times schedulese.g., Houston, Las reports, are two-foldbetter Vegas, Colorado's Jefferson County, methods of tracking dropouts plus several communities in Utah, and community intervention, especially such other California localities as on the part of private business. San Diego, Santa Ana, and Fresno Case workers now visit the homes appears to be on the upswing. of chronic absentees, often arriving Administratively, the usual at 7 a.m. arrangement is to establish two to As for intervention, in a five groups or "tracks" of students Join-a-School program some 40 who attend classes for 45, 60, or 90 companies have been providing days and then take breaks ranging lecturers, class materials, part-time from 15 to 45 days. Each track jobs, and scholarships at a like starts school at a different time of number of schools. And an Academy the year, producing overlaps that of Finance established by 30 have some children in the financial firms helps develop classroom while others are on curriculums and teacher training vacation. courses, and sponsors summer In Los Angeles, where institutes for career-minded enrollments have been climbing at students, at five of the city's high a rate of some 9,000 a year, the schools. driving force for adopting this Such activitiesmore intensive arrangement was the costs of tracking and community construction. Officials said that involvementwould appear to be even after the completion of a new the wave of the future, stimulated $360 million building program, the by federal dollars flowing to school district would be confronted by a districts that demonstrate shortage of some 55,000 classroom promising approaches to the seats. dropout problem. Estimates are that conversion to a three-track attendance plan will Year-Round Schools boost a system's enrollment In his best-sellingMegatrends, capacity by 50 percent. At the John Naisbitt concluded that when nearby town of Oxnard, officials say anything new occurs in California it their year-round plan has saved will probably occur soon thereafter taxpayers $5 million in building in the ether states. costs. If that be true, the nation's The reaction to the plan in Los school systems are in for Angeles has been mixed, with wholesale rejiggering of the school parents tending to oppose it and year so as to instigate year-round school people to favor it. Parents operations. For Los Angeles has object chiefly on grounds that now become the largest city yet to year-round schooling will foul up 150 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 vacation planning, especially for "Sexuality and Parenthood" are now 141 parents with more than one child in becoming standard in school school at the same time, and districts across the country, complicate child-care especially in the more populous arrangements. ones. School people favor the idea not In one city, Philadelphia, sex only because of the economics education has in fact become involved but because they fear the mandatory, not elective. alternative would be larger classes. Impelling the new agressiveness Teachers who have been in in venturing into the thickets of sex year-round schools say they feel the education is the growing incidence change of pace diminishes burnout of mothers who are hardly more and boredom. Students tend to than children themselves. The agree, liking the idea of not having Census Bureau reports that well "to wait nine months for a over 1,000,000 teenagers will vacation." become pregnant this year, and Such reactions aside, there are again next, and that four out of five some practical disadvantages. will be unmarried. As the jew York Maintenance of the school pkat is Times report, the United States has one, and another is the potential by far the highest rate of teenage disruption of such extracucricular pregnancy of any industrial nation; activities as orchestra and clOs and twice the rate of England, its athletics. nearest competitor. Moreover, the experience has not In response to the social upheaval been altogether favorable, Though implicit in such figures, more than most schools on year-round 85 percent of students in cities of schedules have become boosters, 100,000 or more are now receiving Prince William county in Virginia some form of sex education, abandoned its year-round plan in according to an Urban Institute 1981 because of "teacher fatigue study. and scheduling difficulties," and the Among the more novel board chairman of the Palm Beach approaches are those in Chicago schools in Florida said the and Philadelphia. arrangement "cost us more money In Chicagowhere health than the traditional school officials reported that of 10,468 calendar." infants born in 1983 to mothers of Whatever, the year-round plan is under 20 years of age, 328 were in for an extensive and intensive born to girls 14 or younger workout, and with California seventh and eighth graders in three leading the way there is no telling inner-city schools are being offered what will happen. a two-hour sex education course taught by student volunteers from Sex Education the Northwestern University Sex education seems in no Medical School. immediate danger of losing its place Officials of the experimental as the most controversial subject on program, which is virtually cost the school agenda. Nonetheless, free, say it has provoked nothing courses bearing such titles as but praise from parents. ...151 EMERGING TRENDS 142 In Philadelphia, all of the Lotteries Seem a Good Bet system's 18,000 tenth graders Few aspects of school operations in (except the few whose parents have the United States involve so much specifically requested exemption) of a gamble as going to the voters are now taking a two-week course with a school tax proposal. that deals with such matters as Which is one reason why many birth control, pregnancy, and people in public education are teenage fatherhood. ogling what they see as a less Officials report that in a hearing chancy way of raising moneya held prior to adopting the program, state lottery. objections were raised by only two Lotteries are now well established of the scores of people present, in 22 states and the District of bearing out a finding by Peter Columbia, and among them they Scales, director of a publicly currently reap an estimated $12 supported children's program in billion a year (contrasted with about Anchorage, Alaska. $2.4 billion in 1983). Dr. Scales said a survey ;Ie That kind of money tends to conducted of 23 cities across the attract attention, with the result nation found that "Less than that seven other states are gearing one-half of 1 percent of the up to deal themselves in, too. community ever objects to Already, according to Scientific (sex-education) courses, but Games, a Georgia-based company unfortunately they have a that keeps track of such things, tremendous impact ..." almost 60 percent of the population resides in states that run lotteries. The chief objection by such Actually, a relatively small opponents is that sex education portion of the total take goes to courses stimulate greater sexual education. For one thing, only six activity among young people. states specifically earmark lottery In Baltimore, however, a Johns money for that purpose, with ten Hopkins University study indicated others and the District of Columbia that just the opposite is true. The channeling it into general funds study focused on a three-year sex and six designating it for such other education program involving 3,400 purposes as transportation and students in grades 7 through 12. economic development. There were 30 percent fewer Moreover, says Steven Gold, a pregnancies among girls in the two fiscal affairs expert at the National junior and senior high schools Conference of State Legislatures, participating in the program, the lottery funds tend in time to get researchers reported, than among mixed in with general revenue girls in two non-participating funds and just substitute for money "control" schools. formerly raised from other sources. Meanwhile, in any case, "All dollars," he notes, "are birthrates among unmarried green." teenagers continue to rise, and True though that may be, the more and more school districts are risks involved in bond levys lend a deciding that they have no choice special allure to lotteries and the but to take action. big bucks they involve. And 15.2 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

proponents of lotteries can be In any case, like so many other 143 expected more and more to reach aspects of "the good life," this out to the schools for promotion enduring symbol of better days is purposes. getting harder and harder to find, "it is usually easier to get a as demonstrated in a recent study lottery measure passed," says by the Department of Education's Robert Mote, general counsel for Center for Education Statistics. Scientific Games, "if you earmark Forty years ago, CES notes, some or all of the funds for a more than 75,000 schoolsnearly legitimate purpose sr zh as 44 percent of the schools then education." existingwere presided over by one That was the basic pitch in teacher. Within 20 years the California, one of the most recent number had dropped to 4,161. And states to establish a lottery, where by 1982-83 it was down to 798 voters were assured that 34 percent less than 1 percent of the current of the gross revenues would be national total of about 85,000 spent on education. schools. The first state to establish a lotterytwo decades agowas New Hampshire, where the schools now benefit to the tune of some $4 to $5 million annually. Not bad, but that's on;y about 1/60th of the state's education expenditures. And that is about par for the course. States with lotteries typically get only one to three percent of their total revenue from them, Gold says, and that one to three percent tends to be spread out among all the myriad services that states provide. Still, floating tax levys remains a Of the 798, two-fifths (354) are in dicey business, particularly in view Nebraska, with five other states of the increasing number of people 'ing 30 or moreMontana who do not have children in school. (106), South Dakota (94), and Though some educators and others Alaska, California, and Wyoming may have little taste for linking the with 30 each. schools with gambling, it seems a It's a reasonable guess that the good bet that lotteries are destined abandonment of one-room schools to figure more largely in has just about bottomed out, there education's future. still being many places in this huge land that lie beyond the reaches of The Fading One-Room School McDonald's. Americans have always cherished the one-room school, perhaps Down the Hatch (Act)? because it connotes remoteness, The hullabaloo was touched off by therefore escape from pressure and an innocuous-seeming amendment bustle, therefore serenity. to a portion of the Education for 1 5 3 EMERGING TRENDS 144Economic Security Act of 1984. It such matters as these, the was offered by Senator Orrin G. onslaught also had an impact on Hatch of Utah and read as follows: school programs. "I think twice about what I'm doing," a Texas SEC. 709. Grants under this title may teacher told the New York Times. not be used for consultants, for "Is there anything controversial in transportation, or for any activity which this lesson plan? If there is, I won't does not augment academic use it." improvement, or for the courses of For most people, "secular instruction the substance of which is humanism" doesn't really mean secular humanism. anything at all. Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan of Nelk York, one The last phrase proved to contain of those most deeply involved with dynamite. Groups of Senator Hatch in shaping the final fundamentalists and far-rightists in legislation, subsequently noted that various part of the countrystirred neither he nor anyone else knew "of up chiefly by Mrs. Phyllis Schlafiv any school district that teaches and her Eagle Forumbegan secular humanism," and added, mounting protests and filing "I'm not sure anyone knows what lawsuits charging that the public secular humanism is." schools were indoctrinating their Then in October of 1985, a year children in the godless, atheistic, after the clause had been adopted anti-American philesophyor and after Senator Hatch said his religioncalled "secular amendment was being humanism." "misinterpreted," the Congress That term was never defined in quietly killed it. Some supposed the what some called "the Hatch Act," incessant harrassment of the and it quickly became evident that schools was over. to the extent that "secular Not so. Stephen Aarons, professor humanism" could be said to have of legal studies at the University of any real meaning, it was susceptible Massachusetts at Amherst, noted to some remarkable interpretations. that the Hatch Amendment remains A group in Tennessee went to an inspiration to Far Right zealots. court alleging that the entire Writing in Education Week, reading list of the schools there, Professor Aarons speculates that we "from kindergarten through eighth have entered a period of grade, promotes secular humanism "burdensome, lengthy, and by advocating witchcraft, repetitive litigation" over the sun-worship, euthanasia, and supposed teaching of secular one-world government." humanistic devilishness. This Elsewhere, a school showing of despite the fact that of the 20 the movie Romeo and Juliet was federal cases on the subject that said to promote sexual freedom, and have occurred so far, "In not one of both Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter those cases could the courts be and The Three Little Pigs were persuaded to find that secular objected to as fomenting witchcraft. humanism is a godless religion that Beyond the drain on school has been established in the schools resources imposed by battles over and other government institutions." 154 What the Education Polls 145 Say

Apparently it depends on how close Forum on Education and the to the situation one is, and how Economy and conducted between deeply involved. June 30 and July 25, 1986. The Or perhaps it's a matter of the sample included 202 business emotional impact of the terms executives and 1,513 other adults. involvedwhether the key word An education-related poll of a sets off good -ides, as "schoci" different nature was conducted by seems to do; or whether it breeds the Educational Research Service. antipathy, as appears to be the Its findings provide useful data unhappy case with 'education." about the responsibilities and In any event, Americans evidently opinions of school superintendents feel that the public schools are (see page 156). pretty darned good and getting Schools interested in using the better, while at the.me time Gallup Poll questions to assess public education is shaky and needs public opinion in their own help. communities should address Phi The former opinion emerges Delta Kappa at ?ost Office Box 789, from a Gallup Poll (see next page) Bloomington, IN 47402, telephone conducted between April 11 and 20, 812/339-1156. The poll is not 1986, in cooperation with Phi D-Ita copyrighted and may be purchased Kappa. The sample embraced 1,552 in quantities of 25 for $10, with persons over the age of 18. additional copies at 25 cents each. The less enthusiastic opinion The entire report may be obtained comes from a Lou Harris poll (see for $25. p. 153) sponsored by the Carnegie L55 What the Education Polls Say 146 High Marks in the Gallup Poll ti9

hey said it woildn't The chief problem facing the lastthat the public schools was seen not as discipline is too fickle and its as in 16 of the past 17 pollsbut attention span too use of drugs, with discipline second. short. But look what Following is an abridged version happened! of the PDK/Gallup analysis of the Once again The People have data. Some examples of specific declared that America's public questions and answers may be schools are not only the cat's meow found on pages 149-152. but the bee's knees. That makes it three years in a row! Grading Schools and Teachers The word comes in the 18th The 1986 survey indicates that the annual Phi Delta Kappa/Gallup Poll public schools are perceived as of the Public's Attitudes Toward the favorably as in 1984 and 1985, when Public Schools, released late in they achieved their highest 1985. performance grades since 1976. As in 1984 and 1985, 41 percent Forty-one percent of Americans rate of Americans awarded their local the public schools locally (in "this schools either an A or B, thereby community") as either A or B. maintaining the highest approval Similarly, 28 percent of the rating since 1976 and 11 points public give the public schools, above the 1983 level. nationally, either an A or Bthe Teachers received an A or B from highest grade since this about half of the public and school measurement was initiated in 1981. administrators from 4 people in 10. Teachers receive an A or B from 15 8 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

almost half of the public (48 the most important problem.) 147 percent), a figure statistically As noted above, parents tend to equivalent to last year's 49 percent, be more vositive about their which represented the highest children's schools than about local rating recorded since the schools as a group. Thus parents measurement was initiated in 1981. may regard drugs and discipline as Administrators are graded A or B problems in the local public schools by about (mit in 10 members of the but not in the school their oldest public (42 percent), a somewhat child attends. The difference lower figure than last year's record favoring a child's school is 16 48 percent but higher than the low percent versus 27 percent for drugs point of 36 percent recorded at the and 15 percent versus 23 percent beginning of the 1980s. for discipline. This year's findings, like last year's, reveal the same phenomenon Support for Anti-Dreg Measures that arises in analyzing the grades Survey respondents were asked to awarded to the schools nationally, rate five measures for dealing with as compared to local schoolsthat the drug problem in their local is, the closer the contact, the more public schools. Nine in 10 support favorable the perception. mandatory instruction in the Thus public school parents grade dangers of drug abuse, roughly the the public schools in their own same percentage who feel tint community substantially higher education about the dangers of drug than the public schools nationally, abuse should be a required course and they rate the public schools in the school curriculum (as their own children attend even reported in earlier studies). Eight in higher than the local schools. In 10 favor the expulsion of students the current survey, only 28 percent caught using drugs. Seven in 10 of parents give the public schools, support using school funds to treat nationally, an A or B; nearly twice drug users, and the same as many (55 percent) give the local proportion would permit school schools an A or B, and almost officials to search lockers when _hey two-thirds (65 percent) give the suspect that drugs might be schools their children attend one of concealed in them. By a small the top two grades. majority (5.4), respondents even favor urinalysis to detect drug use. Most Important Problems For the first time in this survey's Teachers, Testing, and Salaries 18-year history, the U.S. public has As shown in three previous identified drug use by students as education surveys, there is the most important problem facing overwhelming, across-the-board the pliklic schools. More than half support for teacher competency of our respondents mention either testing. In the survey, more than drugs (28 percent) or discipline (24 eight Americans in 10 favor such percent), which was rated most tests (85 percent), almost the important in 16 of the 17 previ identical percentage supporting the polls. (In 1971 "lack of proper idea in 1979. fimacial support" was considered The public still feels that teacher 157 T H E POLLS

148salaries are too low, an attitude narrow margin, majority support revealed on numerous past surveys. for its adoption emerges in certain Specifically, the public thinks that population segments. Nonwhites beginning teachers, on average, favor adoption of the system by a receive $16,500 (which is close to wide margin (54 percent to 33 the actual national average), but percent). Similarly those under 30, think they deserve to make almost Catholics, persons residing in the $5,000 more, or $21,000. inner cities, and those who are On the subject of more pay for dissatisfied with the performance of teachers in such shortage areas as the public schools (i.e. give them a math and science, the RI, tic D or Failing grade) support the continues to be roughly divided on adoption of the voucher system by the idea: 48 percent for to 44 about a 5-3 margin. percent against. This virtually matches the proportion of support Stricter Requirements found in 1984 but shows some The survey reveals that Americans decline in approval since a 1981 strongly favor stricter requirements survey. for both grade promotion and high school graduation, and by virtually Choosing Children's Schools identical margins: '2 percent to 6 Although two out of three parents percent and 70 percent to 5 (68 percent) would like to have the percent. These findings correspond right to choose the local schools closely with the public's support for their children attend, relatively testing to determine both grade fewone in fourwould take promotion and high school advantage of this right if it were graduation. available. Almost eight in 10 members of Groups most in favor of the right the public favor the concept of to choose are women, parents of national testing, roughly the same elementary school children, and level of support found in three those w:_.,se children are average or previous surveys, conductal over a below average in academic 15-year period. Interestingly, standing. parents are just as likely to favor national testing of student Support for Vouchers performances as are nonparents. Americans today support the voucher idea by a close 46 percent Helping on Homework to 41 percent margin. This is a For two decades, the public has slight decline from its high point of held the belief that children, in awroval in 1983, when the plan elementary school and in high was favored by 51 percent of the school, do not work hard enough. public, while 38 percent opposed it. They have felt that Surprisingly, parents of public schoolchildrenparticularly high school children are only slightly school studentsshould be given more likely to favor the voucher more homework. Morever, the great system than are nonparents. majority of parents say they require Although the public, collectively, their children to spend time on approves of the voucher system by a homework on school nights. 158 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987-1988 On the other hand, judging by time assisting their children with 149 the number of hours that parents homework and on average spend claim to help their children with only about 1 1/2 hours per week. homework during an average school This compares somewhat week parents seem less helpful than infavorab!y with the 1 1/2 hours they might be. Fully one-third of per day they require their children parents say they do not spend any to spend on homework.

Some particular Gallup poll Qs and As

Education Goals People have different reasons why they want their children to get an education. What are the chief reasons that come to your mind?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents ok °A

Job opportunities/better job 34 35 33 18 Preparation for life/better life 23 22 25 33 Education is a necessity of life 12 12 12 10 More knowledge 10 10 10 11 Financial security/economic sta,ility 9 8 11 13 To get a better-paying job 8 9 5 2 To become better citizens 6 6 6 5 For a successful life 5 4 7 6 To learn how to get along with

people 4 4 3 1 For better/easier life than parents 4 2 / 3 Specialized training profession 4 3 4 9 Teaches person to think/learn/understand 3 3 3 8 To contribute to society 3 3 4 4 Personal development/ self-realization 3 3 4 3 To become self-sufficient (independence) 3 3 4 3 To learn basic skills/fundamental

learning skills 3 3 3 1 To develop the ability to deal with adult responsibilities 2 2 3 5 For happy/happier life 2 2 5 Other 10 10 8 15 Don't know 4 5 3 3 Ormwwwww THE POLLS 150 Teacher Testing In your opinion, should experienced teachers be periodically required topass a statewide basic competency test in their subject area or areas or not?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents

Yes, they should 85 84 87 87 No 11 11 11 13 Don't know 4 5 2

Rating Schools and Teachers Students are often given the grades A, B, C, D, and FAIL to denote the quality of their work. Suppose the public schools themselves, in this community, were graded the same way. What grade would you give the public schools hereA,B,C,D, or FAIL?

1986 Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents % % % %

A + B 41 36 55 40 A 11 8 18 11 B 30 28 37 29 C 28 27 29 23 D 11 11 11 16 FAIL 5 5 4 11

Don't know 15 21 1 4

Using tneA,B,C,D, FAIL scale again, what grade would you give the school your oldest child attends?

Don't Public School A+B A B C D FAIL Know Parents % % % % % %

TOTAL 65 28 37 26 4 2 3

160 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

How about the public schools in the nation as a whose? What grade would you 151 give the public schools nationallyA,B,C,D, or FAIL?

1986 Th85 1984 1983 1982 1981 National Totals

A + B 28 27 25 19 22 20 A 3 3 2 2 2 2 B 25 24 23 17 20 18 C 41 43 49 38 44 43 D 10 12 11 16 15 15 FAIL 5 y 4 6 4 6 Don't know 16 15 11 21 15 16

Tougher Requirements In your opinion, should promotion from grade to grade in the public schools be made more strict than it is now or less strict?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents

More strict 72 72 70 73 Less strict 6 5 7 6 Sam as now 16 15 20 16 Don't know 6 8 3 5

Should the requirements for graduation from the public high schools be made more strict than they are now or less strict?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents

More strict 70 71 68 75 Less strict 5 5 7 Same as now 19 17 23 20 Don't know 6 7 2 5 THE POLLS 152 Chief School Problems What do you think are the biggest problems with which the public schools in this community must deal?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents

Use of drugs 28 28 27 22 Lack of discipline 24 24 23 26 Lack of proper financial support 11 9 15 14 Poor curriculum/poor standards 8 7 10 11 Difficulty in getting good teachers 6 6 6 5 Moral standards/dress code 5 5 5 11 Drinking/alcoholism 5 4 5 8 Large schools/ overcrowding 5 4 6 5 Teachers' lack of interest 4 4 6 7 Lack of respect for teachers/ other students 4 4 4 3 Parents' lack of interest 4 3 5 4 Low teacher pay 3 2 4 3 Integration/busing 3 4 3 3

Crime/vandalism 3 3 3 1

Pupils' lack of interest/truancy 3 3 2 1 Problems with administration 2 2 3 5 Other 18 18 19 21 Don't know 11 13 4 5

162 What the Education Polls Say 153 Low Marks in the Harris Poll

n a major study of When asked directly, the public education American people give today's public entitledA Nation school system barely passing marks: Prepared: Teachers 54-55 percent positive among the for the 21st Century public and 52-54 percent positive see p. 6-7), the Carnegie Forum on amo.g business leaders. On the Education and the Economy quality of education stu4ents advanced a series of sweeping receive, the public is just over half recommendations for the positive, while a majority of business restructuring of the nation's leaders are negative. And by a schools. substantial 3 to 2 majority, both The Forum then commissioned groups are negative on the value Louis Harris and Associates to taxpayers get back from their tax survey public and business reaction money invested in public schools. to the task force report. While the By 59 to 40 percent, the public poll was structured for a particular gives teachers positive marks on the purpose and is therefore not quality of public school teachers, precisely comparable to a Gallup but top business types rite them Poll conducted at about the same negative by 58 to 39 percent. time (see p. 146), it offers another Thus, 8 in 10 of both the public view of how America feels about and business leaders say in order to public education. improve the skills of the work force, The following is excerpted from the quality of public education must the Harris poll's statement of improve. But how? findings: 163 THE POLLS 154Critical ingredients now being well educated. They are Three in every four among the both close to unanimous in public and business leaders believe recognizing that the nation is that it is critically important "to paying a dear price for failing to learn to write and reason well to educate them, such as "needing achieve a higher skill level." The more police and jails because the same number believe it equally uneducated lose hope and often end important "to really understand up in a life of crime," "welfare costs math, science, and technology and skyrocket to pay for people to be able to use those skills in the untrained to work and to hold down future." Seven in 10 think it will be jobs" and "in the high cost of highly important "to learn to figure remedial education for illiterate out what you need to know and how children." Thus, conclude 7 in to find it out." every 10 of both groups, the Also seen as important in the new consequences of not doing a better education scheme of things will be job of educating the poor and to educate people who "can think minorities is to weaken the U.S. their way creatively through tough capabilty to compete in world problems." And, finally, a lesser 57 markets, quite apart from percent of the public and 48 percent conscience considerations. of top businessmen believe "it will be 'ecessary to understand the Teachers complex society they live in to be an Close to 9 in 10 of both business effective citizen." leaders and the public are Yet, when asked how confident convinced that the overall quality of they are that today's public schools teaching has to change to train and L.e up to this new task of educating to educate students to new and and training these kinds of skills, different skills and capabilities. But, less than 2 in 10 are "very most also agree, if teachers are confident" the job can be done. This being asked to sharply improve the doubt is reinforced by the nearly quality of teaching, then they must universal conviction that not simply also be given more authority over the college-bound, but all students how to help students meet the new in the future imist learn these goals. skills, and the equally strongly held This problem is compounded by view that just learning the basic 3 the immiaent shortage of new Rs well is not any longer sufficient. teachers with there being as many as 50 Percent of current teachers Educating the Poor who might well leave for better pay If all students must be reached by and perceived better opportunity to the new approach to education, get ahead. Over two-thirds of both then, most feel, the issue of how to groups are now aware of the raise the level of education for the seriousness of the teacher shortage. poor, many of whom are minorities, Yet, at the same time, over 8 in 10 must be faced, since 2 out of every of both the public and top business 3 members of the public and close executives firmly reject the notion to 9 in 10 business leaders are that it is therefore important to convinced that these groups are not temporarily suspend quality 164 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987-1988 IMO standards in teacher selection. To much as the best accountants, for 155 the contrary, 9 in 10 conclude, example. "instead of lowering standards for With these upside [sic] teachers, standards must be raised inducements also would go a and teaching made into a career system of tough accountability the with better pay and more public and businessmen would independence." insist on imposing. This would In turn, this means that new include an annual reporting of ground rules for teachers must be schoolwide student perforrnce written to include, in the view of that 9 in 10 feel would be somewhat solid majorities of both the public to highly effective. Over 7 in 10 feel and business leaders, teachers being the same about having regular paid on the basis of progress made reports on student ability to by their students, but at the same understand, summarize, and time having the freedom to explain relativeiy complicated determine how best to teach those information on a variety of subjects. students; paying the highest salaries Equally high numbers sec ab to those teachers who meet the somewhat to very effective highest standards of professional providing parents with the competence; and if teachers are to opportunity to choose which public be paid on the basis of their proven school their children attend, which competence and their leadership would reward schools that are contribution to their school, then especially successful. the best teachers should be paid as What the Education Polls Say Meet the Superintendent

he superintendents of from less than $1,500 per pupil to the nation's more than $9,000. 15,000-plus public Among other things the survey school districts found the following, condensed manage an enterprise from the report's Overview: that involves four million employees.. . more than The typical superintendent has 40,000,000 elementary, held one superintendency, has intermediate, and secondary school worked in the same school district youngsters . .. and annual 6.9 years, and has been a expenditures of almost $140 billion. superintendent for an average of 9.7 Clearly these people are a major years. Most superintendents belong force in American education, a force to their state administrator made up almost entirely of men and organizations and to the American and averaging 49 years in age Association of School according to a survey entitled Administrators. "School Superintendents: Opinions Superintendents work an average and Status" conducted by the of 8.9 hours a day plus an extra 10.1 Educational Research Service. hours per week after school and on ERS said the sampling ranged weekends. For this average from superintendents of districts 54.6-hour work week, they earn an enrolling more dian 900,000 average of $45,230. students (e.g., New York City) to Superintendents are evenly divided some with 10 or fewer students, about whether or not their salary is and with annual expenditures of appropriate, taking into 166 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 consideration academic preparation, is male, as are 99.5 percent of 157 experience, and responsibilities. superintendents with 15 or more Inadequate financing, paperwork, years experience. and collective bargaining rank Almost all of the responding among the biggest problems facing superintendents (97.5 percent) have superintendents. Contrary to public graduate degrees, with this pattern opinion, superintendents report consistent across all categories. that potential violence, against The percentage of either staff or students, is not a superintendents with doctorates major problem in their districts. increases as the district enrollment Such fundamental goals as command increases: less than 300-13.5 of basic skills and responsible percent, 300 to 2,499-31.6 citizenship are strongly supported percent, 2,500 to 9,999-57.1 by the superintendents. Most percent, and 10,000 or more-75.1 superintendents have mixed feelings percent. about the quality of professional Of the random group development opportunities available superintendents, only 10.6 percent to them at the state and national reported that their district has a levels and specify "application of merit or incentive pay plan for computers" in both administration teachers. Almost a quarter (23.1 and instruction as the areas in percent) report having some sort of which they feel the greatest need nonfinancial awards program for for professional development. outstanding teachers, while Mastery of English as a primary three-fifths (61.6 percent) have goal of all students heads the list of neither a monetary nor a recommendations superintendents nonmonetary program. most strongly support. They also Differences were demonstrated believe that newly graduated among districts located in different teachers should be required to pass types of communities and, even examinations in their subject areas more, among districts of different and that base salaries for teachers sizes. About three-fourths (75.3 should be increased until they are percent) of superintendents from market competitive. districts enrolling less than 300 If they were given an additional students report that they have no $1,000 per teacher each year for the form of recognition, with that next three years, about one-third of figure declining with an increase in the superintendents would spend enrollment size until less than the money to increase the basic salary paid to teachers, while another third would use the funds to institute career ladder programs with substantial cash award Miscellaneous findings listed under "Professional and Personal Characteristics" include the following: Nearly every superintendent (95.3 percent) in the random group 1 6 7 THE POLLS 158one-third (32.6 percent) of districts community type groups to report with 10,000 or more students that teachers in their districts are report "no recognition plan." covered by collective bargaining or About seven of every ten (68.6 negotiating agreements, with the percent) superintendents reported corresponding numbers for small that teachers in their districts are town and rural districts being 71.7 covered by a collective bargaining and 58.8 percent respectively. or negotiating agreement. Superintendents in From School Superintendents: Opinions urban/suburban districts are most and Status, copyright 1985 by Educational likely (82.5 percent) of the Researt.h Service, Arlington, VA 22209.

168 Firsr Lessons for 159 Elementary Schools `i'

One c' the various recent education reports receiving special attention isFirst Lessons,described as the first comprehensive study of elementary education in the United States in 30 years. The report was written by the U. S. Secretary of Education himself, William J. Bennett, and reflects the opinions of a panel of 21 experts assembled by the Secretary to advise him. Following is a brief summary:

Secretary Bennett begins by stating how to write the alphabet and fill in that America's elementary schools worksheet, but also encouraging are in good shape, doing a them to solve problems, to think particularly good job in the first few critically, to acquire knowledge, and grades, and declares: to organize disparate kinds of "American children seem to be information." getting better at basic skills Declaring that elementary reading, writing and education is the critical foundation computation. There is no rising tide for later life, Bennett says that of mediocrity flooding our "When our children are elementary schools." well-educated in the early years, a However, he adds, when students great number of social problems are asked to begin applying basic can be averted far thead of time. A skills in more complex ways, child who cannot read when he usually around the fourth grade, leaves the eighth grade is a much many begin to falter. He goes on to more likely candidate for the note that "In a number of unemployment line than his curriculum areas, international classmates who can. If prevention is comparisons have found students in the best medicine, then attending our later elementary grades failing to the well-being of our elementary to hold their own against students schools is crucial to our society as a in other countries. whole." "Our elementary schools should Secretary Bennett launched the be doing more: not just teaching study nearly a year ago as part of an children how to add and subtract, overall effort to focus national ;..C6.9 FIRST LESSONS 160attention on elementary education, constituted should be transformed. which has been largely bypassed in Instead of focusing on social living the reform movement of the past and children's immediate few years. environment and experiences, social The Secretary designated 1985-86 studies should concentrate on the as the Year of the Elementary interrelated disciplines of history, School, redirected the Department's geography,and civics. school recognition program The teaching of mathematics which had focused exclusively on should be improved to help secondary schools for the three students understand the previous yearsto elementary relationship between formal schools, and appointed a study computational skills and solving group of 21 distinguished real problems. Americans to advise and assist in Nothing short of a revolution is preparing the report. needed in the teaching of science in Throughout the year the elementary schools. Now taught as Secretary also visited and taught in a grab-bag of dry and disparate facts a number of elementary schools and theorems, science should be across the country. taught as a hands-on adventure in Bennett says First Lessons seeks which students learn science by to help answer two fundamental doing science. "They should questions: what should children discover that science as a whole is a know, and how can they learn it? It coherent and unified system for also addresses questions about the understanding the world." hiring and deployment of tea..hers Studies show that youngsters' and principals, school policy issues, writing ability is quite poor, and what parents and community perhaps in part because instruction members can do to help improve seems to have come to "confuse the schools. writing with tilling in little blanks," The report offers concrete rather than the reorganization and recommendations to address the transmission of knowledge. Writing deficiencies that become evident in should be "part of the teaching the later elementary grades. These strategy in every subject, not just are some of the Secretary's language arts." sug:astions for improving the In addition to these chief areas of elementary school curriculum: the curriculum, First Lessons calls Reading must be more strongly for a stronger arts curriculum and emphasized through the use of more emphasis on the "common phonics, more literary and knowledge" of our shared culture. imaginative texts, more time Another key recommendation is allotted for actual readingnot to change the system for selecting tilling out skill sheets or workbooks school principals, which now and better access to books. promotes men and women through "The elementary school must the ranks of the educational assume as its sublime and most hierarchy to leadership positions. solemn responsibility the task of Bennett says he would like to see it teaching every child in it to read." made possible for accomplished Social studies as currently people from many fields to qualify 170 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 to lead our schools. of parents and professional 161 To ensure familiarity with educatorsBennett declares: classroom procedures, he urges "If our institutions, values and "much more rigorous preparation knowledge are to make it 'Ito the for principals than is commonly the next generation in good shape, we case today," including "intensive must come to regard the education preservice training and a carefully of the young as a task shared by all monitored apprenticeship." of us, by an entire community of He also calls for changes in the responsible adults. I hope this way classroom teachers are message, above all others contained prepared and certified. "No one in my report, will be taken to heart specific preparatory route ought to by the American people." be required for entry into the classroom," he says, and "certification must begin to reflect (it our demand for excellence, not our appreciation of parchment." Note: First Lessons may be In reemphasizing one of the obtained by sending a $4.25 check major themes of First Lessons or money order to: Superintendent that education extends well beyond of Documents, U.S. Government the classrooms and hallways of an Printing Office, Washington, DC elementary school and should not 20402. Request First Lessons and be considered the exclusive concern GPO #065-000-00259-1.

171

Mimil, 1Kindergarten Today

he first public school half-day schedule for kindergarten kindergarten in the pupils, while 34.9 percent reported United States was they had a full-day schedule. established in 1873, Given a choice in teaching in St. Louis. By 1888 schedules, 77.1 percent of the national enrollments had climbed full-day kindergarten teachers to more than 30,000. A century would prefer to remain teaching later enrollments are headed for the their schedule, compared with 58.5 3 million mark, and kindergarten percent of half-day teachers who has become such a fixture that would prefer teaching their today it is standard throughout schedule. the nation. The typical kindergarten pupil is Now the Educational Research in class an average of 3 hours and Service has conducted a 48 minutes each day. far-reaching study of this important 58.4 percent of responding component of American schooling principals reported that there is a the first of its scope, says ERS screening or examination of the President Glen E. Robinson, since children prior to their assignment 1967. to kindergarten. Selected highlights of the report, The most common admission entitled Kindergarten Programs requirement to kindergarten and Practices in Public Schools, reported by principals was include the following: minimum age, with 64.3 percent A majority of principals (65.6 indicating the potential pupil must percent) reported their school hada be 5 years of age before October 15. 1i72 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 The most common procedure for program. The following were their 163 assigning pupils to particular responses: kindergarten classes was random Principals heterogeneous grouping (e.g., Preparation 62.6 percent alphabetically). Academic 22.0 percent 80.3 percent of all responding Developmental 8.1 percent principals reported there was an Compensatory 0.5 percent orientation held for the parents and children of the incoming Teachers kindergarten. Preparation 62.9 percent The most common evaluation Academic 29.0 percent practice reported by principals was Developmental 5.2 percent a checklist of learning objectives, Compensatory 0.6 percent with a report being sent home to parents on an average of four times Almost half of the principals (49.6 a year. percent) reported their school Reporting kindergarten teachers district's policy toward the teaching indicated that an average of 41 of reading as"reading skills

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A Ape. a B Bear. b percent of their pupils have had a should be taught to pupils who full year of day care, preschool, show readiness and ability; but pre-kindergarten, and/or nursery reading skills should not be stressed school experience. for pupils who are not ready to The most frequently used read." 61.1 percent of teachers equipment in the kindergarten reported that this same policy classroom, according to responding reflected their personal opinion kindergarten teachers, was a record about the teaching of reading in player, followed by chalk and chalk kindergarten. boards, small blocks, and a tape A commercial reading readiness recorder. series was used by three-quarters of Teachers and principals were the reporting teachers; 35 percent asked to select from a list the one indicated they used a reading series. statement that best described the Asked to rank a list of learning primary focus of their kindergarten goals for kindergarten pupils, 173 KINDERGARTEN TODAY 164teachers most frequently gave "high reported by principals (for both priority" to language development. full-day and half-day sessions Principals most frequently gave combined) was 23 pupils. "high priority" to social Principals identified financial development. support for the kindergarten from 41.2 percent of reporting the following sources (in order of kindergarten teachers hold a frequency): state government (49.7 master's degree. percent), local government (44.4 The factors most commonly percent), federal government (4 identified as major problems by percent), tuition (0.3 percent), and kindergarten teachers were lack of other (0.5 percent). time for individual instruction/ 17.5 percent of the reporting guidance, too many students per principals indicated their school class, too much paperwork/lack of had a transhional room (a junior planning time, and limited time for first grade) for pupils completing enrichment activities. kindergarten who were not ready 48 percent of kindergarten for the first grade. teachers reported the assistance of a paid teacher aide in the classroom. In the opinion of responding kindergarten teachers, the most Kindergarten Programs and Practices in effective class size (median) for 1 Public Schools isavailable from ERS at 1800 North Kent Street, Arlington, VA 22209 at full-day class was 20 pupils. $16 for subscribers and $32 for The average pupil/teacher ratio nonsubscribers.

-..174 Head Start and Follow Through

With many nonmilitary federal programs. programs suffering severe cuts and Head Start absorbed the cut by even dismemberment, Head Start reducing staff travel and other has hung on. Both the House and ancillary expenditures; services for Senate reauthorized the popular children were not affected. educational program for preschool Head Start now enrolls 452,000 children from low-income families youngsters, aged 3-6, the largest through 1990. number everbut still, according Budget-wise, Head Start did not to the Children's Defense Fund, altogether escape damage in 1986 only 18 percent of the children but on th,, whole made out well. It needing such assistance. is the road thereafter that looks Follow Through, which carries roughmade so by the automatic Head Start graduates through the cutbacks required under the early primary grades, also was Gramm-Rudman-Hollings renewed through 1990 under the deficit-reduction law (the Balanced Head Start reauthorization. Budget and Emergency Deficit Financially, however, Follow Reduction Act of 1985). Through has not done as well. Under the 4.3 percent mandatory In fact, Congress has been reduction for most domestic whittling away at its funding for a programs in 1986, Head Start lost decade. From a high of $99 million $46 million of its $1.075 billion in 1976, its budget fell to $10 appropriation. However, this million in 1985 and to $7.5 million worked out to only a 1.4 percent in 1986. Counting its 4.3 percent reduction for each of its 1,305 local Gramm-Rudman-Hollings 175 HEADSTART 166reduction, Follow Through ended childhood educators, community 1986 with a 28.2 percent slash in leaders, and parents. The summer funding, compared with 1985. program became a full-year The number of children served program. Since 1965, Head Start also has declined dramatically, from has served 9.6 million children 75,700 in 1976 to the current between the ages of three and six. 20,000. Thus, the program designed In 1986, more than 450,000 to s;;stain the educational children received the full range of momentum generated by Head Head Start services in 24,123 Start is currently serving onlyone classrooms. Projects are conducted in 20 Head Start graduates. by school systems, other public Launched in 1965 as one of agencies, and nonprofit parent and President Lyndon Johnson's Great community organizations. Society initiatives, Head Start began Ninty percent of the children as an eight-week summer program come from families with incomes for a handful of preschool children below the poverty level. Forty from poor families. It arose out of percent are black, 32 percent are research showing that deprived white, 21 percent are Hispanic, 4 children often entered first grade percent are Native American, and 3 percent are Asian. About 12 percem are handicapped. These percentages include child :. en of migrant farm workers. The average cost per child is $2,339. The paid staff totals more than 78,000. In addition, the program is served by nearly 667,000 volunteers, primarily parents, young people, and senior citizens. For every five children enrolled, at acking the basic learning skills least four Head Start parents work typically possessed by other as volunteers. Over 30 percent of children their age. It was also noted the staff are parents of currentor that deprived children often had former Head Start childrer.. health and psychological problems In school year 1984-85, 99 that seriously impeded learning percent of all Head Start children problems ranging from something ,nr..;:lc.,1 fnr 90 days or more as clear as hunger to something as completed medical checkups; 97 difficult to deal with as deep percent of those needing medical emotional turmoil caused by a treatment received it. destructive home and family Head Start is administered by the environment. So, along with Administration for Children, Youth, classroom activities, Head Start and Families in the Department of provided services to meet a child's Health and Human Services. Follow health, nutritional, social, and Through is administered by the psychological needs. Department of Education's Office of Head Start quickly captured the Elementary and Secondary enthusiastic support of early Education. 176 The Rewards of 167 Staff Recognition

"The deepest principle in human mention of individual nature," said the American accomplishments at staff meetings, philosopher William James, "is the in the school newslettereven craving to be appreciated." better, in the local press. Everyone knows what a pat on Though recognition programs the back or a hug or a handshake or come in various degrees of the old-fashioned gold star can do elaborateness, the common thread to get students to try harder. in successful efforts is sincerity and And of course recognition does trust. It is not so much the size of the same with teachers and other the cup that matters as the members of the staff, though too genuineness of the sentiments. often this fundamental aspect of Moreover, if the recognition is effective personnel practice is perceived as being pro forma or as neglected. tokenism, morale and motivation Recently the National School are more likely to suffer than to Public Relations Association looked surge. into some of the things going on in In addition to being sincere, this arena. Here are some of the acknowledgment should be public findings: delivered in the presence of the Recognition efforts should start recipient's peers. with the basics. School authorities The major types of recognitioi. too often forget the power of a programs noted in the survey were friendly word of appreciation... these: regular visits to classrooms and Awards of Nomination staff offices... notes of thanks ... Programs such as the national 177 STAFF RECOGNITION 168Teacher of the Year have given rise vulnerable to criticism, but they to a growing number of local school may also hold the greatest p&ential district and school building for increasing efficiency and programs at which local school morale. Many school districts are districts honor their own teachers now awarding special grants that of the year. allow selected teachers to develop Retirement and Longevity an innovative textbook or try an RecognitionAlthough schools experimental new approach to and school districts may be legally instrintion. constrained from giving retiring Finally, experiences around the employees expensive gifts (such as country strongly stress the the corporation's fabled gold following propositions: watch), pins and certificates and Recognition in the presence of plaques are appreciated every bit as peers is 'ar more likely to motivate much; it's the gesture (and its teachers to improve than money sincerity) that counts. (though no one knocks money,

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Achievement RecognitionMany either). schools today are making it a point Just about every teache merits to recognize staff members for recognition in some aspects of his or successful achievement in their her joband should receive it. classes (raising student test scores, Recognizing talented teachers for example), for increased and giving them responsibility for enrollments in special programs, staff development lessens the for ideas that help improve likelihood that they will leave curriculum, for suggestions that teaching. increase efficiency or save the Schools that do not mount and district money, and others. maintain staff recognition programs Grants and IncentivesThe are likely to suffer in the dollar sign on grant incentive competition to fill teacher programs may make them the most vacancies. 178 Magnet Schools 169

he idea of magnet school program. schools is that by the The magnet school concept is not sheer magnetism of new. By other names and for their special subject vging purposes, there have been matter and academic specialized schools throughout the rigor, mixed in with an open history of American education. In enrollment policy, they will attract the 1960s they were often called a racially mixed student body from alternative schools and were in part an entire public school district. designed to stem the exodus of With the academic program as a students from public to private lure, there will be no need for schools. Some of the parents opting "forced busing" and the other out of public schools were trappings of a formal desegregation protesting "the new math," program. And it works. behavior modification, and other Some magnet schools specialize educational experiments of the in mathematics and science, others period. in business management, the By the 1970s, magnet schools performing arts, or vocational had become an essential component training. Despite their specialized in court-ordered school academic focus, all teach English desegregation plans in many grammar, computation, writing, communities. They offered parents and other basics. Most are high and students the opportunity to schools, though many school choose a school at a time when few districts include the elementary and choices, other than private mid-level grades in their magnet education, were available. 7g MAGNETSCHOOLS 170 In 1975, Congress provided the Education for Economic federal funds under the Emergency Security Act. The new programs School Aid Act to help school provided $75 million a year for districts finance their desegregation three years, 1984-86, and the plans, and magnet schools were Department of Education asked for among the initiatives approved for an additional $75 million for 1987. funding. ESAA lasted six years. In Title VII grants ranging from 1981, Congress incorporated its $200,000 to $4 million have been funds into block grants created by awarded to 44 school districts in 20 the lumping together of 28 states. The money may be used to categorical programs under the plan enchancei academic programs Education Consolidation and in magnet schools, pay teachers, Improvement Act. In effect, magnet ar,d buy textbooks and other schools lo'; federal support. Many materials. Districts receiving grants school districts took up the slack in U. e $4 million range have and continued the schools on their included Buffalo, New York; own. Chicago; Columbus, Ohio; In 1984, Congress reconsidered, Indianapolis; Milwaukee; authorizing a new Magnet Schools Pittsburgh; Seattle; St.Louis; and Assistance Program Is Title VII of Rochester, New York.

I S 0 Tomorrow's Jobs 171

or most parents, immediately heighten he demand school means for teachers in the preschool and preparing youngsters early 3Iementar, grades and for that for the day they will matter the need for teacher aides go to work. It is thus and educational assistants at these important for educators to have a levels. Curing the first decade of the sense of what kinds o' sobs are 21st century this youthful going to be available. population surge will reach the Some valuable clues are provide_ high schools and colleges, but until by the Department of Lab'.'s then the BLS expects the need for Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) in secondary school teachers to grow a study that looks ahead to 1995. by only 5 percent. One of the good possibilities is Many BIS projections provide education itself. BLS projects a interesting insights not only into need for 281,000 (or 20 percent) employment opportunities but into more kindergarten and elementary chang,ig life-styles, social school teachers by 1995 than in priorities, and ways of doing 1984a hefty swing of the business. Reflecting an increasing pendulum occasioned by taste for litigation, for example, changes in the nation's birthrate paralegal jobs will double by 1995 during recent years. compared with 1984, and the In contrast to the teacher demand for lawyers will rise by one surpluses of the 1970s b: Dught on third. by declining enrollments, a "baby The growing concern for law and boomlet" now underway will orderwill lead to a 35 percent jun,p 181 TOMORROW'S JOBS 172 during the current decade in jobs By 1995, the labor force will for corrections officers and jailers. A contain more women and blacks growing interest in having someone than it does today, and more and else manage our money will provide more women of child-bearing age 39 percent more jobs for securities win have jobs outside the home. and financial services salesworkers. The proportion of working women Concern for keeping healthy and fit in the 25-44 age range will continue will generate many more jobs for to climbfrom 50 percent in 1970, registered nurses, physical to 70 percent in 1984, tc 80 percent therapists, and medical assistants, by 1995. and for health club attendants. Meanwhile, black participation in Young people who want to the labor force will climb by 18 become travel agents have percent, three points higher than particularly good prospectswith the overall rate. job opportunities expe-ted to rise by BLS projects the creation of some 44 percent by 195. This will occur 16 million new jobs during the next not so much because our affluent six or seven years, leading to a total society has more money available for travelactually, disposable income is expected to decline slightlybut because airline deregulation has created so much confusion for the traveling public that airlines will increasingly shy away from booking flights themselves and turn the responsibility over to travel agents. The high-tech revolution will continue to generate new jobsby 1935 there will be a need for nearly 72 percent more computer programmers, 69 percent more computer systems analysts and electronic data processing work force of 129 million. Ten of personnel, anr' 56 percent more the 154 sectors that make up the people to repair and maintain "industry" category will account for computer systems. Electronic 60 percent of these openings. Led engineers and technicians will share by the business services sector, Ny in this job bonanza. include areas ranging from easing With overall employment and drinking establishments to growing by 15 percent between now construction. Employmert it the and 1995, openings for manage, business services has quadrupled in professional workers, and the last 20 years and will grow by technicians will jump by 20 another 2.6 new jobs by percent. The managers group alone, 1995. Though this sector is still which incluJes all executives and small compared with retail and administrators, will go up even wholesale trade or the restaurant moreby 22 percent. industry, its current annual job 182 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 growth rate of 4.2 percent is the aviation is expected to produce a 173 economy's highest. faster-than-average (23 percent) After business services, the growth in job opportunities, leading source of new jobssome 4 especially for pilots and flight Zillion by 1995will be the three engineers. "trade" industrieswholesale, In contrast, new technologies are retail, and eating and drinking drastically reducing the need for establishments. railroad workers. Among the fastest Regarding the latter, America's declining occupations are brake, eating-oui. habits appear to be signal, and switch operators, and changing. As the 'baby boom" rail car repairers. population grows older, the lure of Long-haul truck drivers, mostly fast-food restaurants is expected to self - employed, comprise taper off, slowing employment transportation's largest job growth in this sector while category. Trucking has been little employment in "sit-down" affected by new techno':gy; in any restaurants grows. case, some 400,000 new jobs are Young people entering most projected by 1995. engineering specialties will General business growth will call continue to have rosy prospects, for more secretaries, bookkeepers, ',vith job openings projected to accounting and auditing clerks, and increase by 36 percent (480,000). Of receptionists. On the other hand, this total, 206,000 openings win be the number of openings for for electrical and electronic stenographers, statistical clerks, engineers engaged in developing and payroll and timekeeping clerks computers, communications will drop as computers and word equipment, and defense-related processors take over their electronic devices. Assist,ng thes.:. functions. Still, clerical workers will various engineering professionals remain the nation's largest will be 28 percent more engineering occupational coup. and scientific technicians. Federal government employment The health care industry is is expected to show no growth at expected to add 1.4 million new all. However, state and local jobs by 1995, with the greatest governments will add 1.2 million growth coming in nursing homes, new jobs, bringing employment to doctors' offices, and outpatient care 14.3 million by 19S5. facilities. With 23 percent more Getting back to where the report physicians and surgeons by 1995, started, BLS says that most of the more medical assistants will be government-job increase will come needed to staff both private practice in public education, where offices and health maintenance employment will climb from 6.7 organizations. million in 1984 to 7.2 million in In try isportation, the spawning 1995 and account for about three of dozens of new airlines since in every seven new jobs in state federal deregulation of commercial and local g..ernment.

183 174 Today's Libra

here are over 100,000 communication link between libraries in the libraries on Lie one hand and United States today, offices and homes on the other. routinely patronized A recent study indicates that by by more than half of 1990 more than 90 percent of (Afire the country's adult population and workers will have access to a most of its young. computer terminal or Together these far-flung microcomputer. Home computer repositories circulate some two use also is growing, though less billion books, not to speak of vast rapidly. In both cases, the computer numbers of tapes, phonograph increasingly will be needed to gain records, cassettes, pictures, and access to library files. Expectations photographs. Clearly, the American are that by 1990, one-fourth of all library :s a basic fixture of our information now available in national life. reference books will be offered only Just ahead are exotic new library in machine-readible form; and that services made possible by the by the year 2000, a fourth of all technology explosion. About 15 jo rnals will be published only in percent of all public libraries an electronic format. already have computers for patron Meanwhile the optical disk and us?. in the library, and 4 percent other compact storage techniques have computers to check out. will be shrinking the need for Experts expect the trend to storage space, allowing libraries to accelerate, and for computers to acquire more items or open up more become the essential booze for browsing, classrooms, 184 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

or other pc poses. Put on optical entered the White House. Congress 175 disks, the entire contents of the has just as consistently voted some huge Library of Congress would library money each year, though take up only 2C feet of shelving. not nearly enough in the view of. Worldwide electronic databases many library advocates. Like m- and interlibrary loan programs will other public functions, libraries also allow small libraries to respond to are being hurt by the phaseout of almost any request. The public federal revenue sharing funds in library in, say, Roanoke Rapids, 1987. North Carolina in the next decade California, Georgia, Illinois, New will be able to help a patron locatea Jersey, North Carolina, and Oregon document in Toyko, ;a it sent by are among the states that have satellite, and transmit it to the increased their support for libraries patron's office or home by in the last few years. Local voters in telephone or cable ard facsimile many areas have approved new equipment. measures to expand library All this is going to be expensive, programs. Still, some libraries are and public libraries are alreadya having to turn to foundation multi-billion dollar operation donations, fees for services, pay $2.65 billion in 1984. A World telephones, and auctions in order to Almanac survey showed that raise operating money. Los Argeles spent $23 million on The public library's beginnings its library system in 1985; go back to a person who Philadelphia, $22 million; even contributed so much to our nation's Wichita, Kansas, with only 300,000 remarkable evolution, Benjamin residerts, nearly $3 million. Franklin. When still in his 20s States and cities bear most of this Franklin proposed to his fellov, financial burden, the federal members of the Philadelphia Junto government a very small part. that they expand their individual President Reagan has asked forzero libraries by "clubbing our books." funding fir library programs in Soon afterward he began, what he every budget request since he described as his "first project of a public nature, that for a subscription library." Thus in 1731 came the founding of the Library Company of Philadelphia, which some 40 years later Franklin described as "the mother of all the North American subscription libraries, now so numerous." In effect the subscription library was a corporation, enlisting a monetary contribution from each shareholder for the purchas:: of books to be used for communal purposes, and establishing the regulations for their circulation and use. TODAY'S LIBRARY

176 These so-called "social 'libraries" plan for future developments. flourished for over a hundred years, The session was called together to widespread acclaim. As the years by one of the leading librarians in passed, however. politicians, the nation's historyMelvil Dewey. orators, and private individuals n 1874 graduatz or Amherst alike lost no occasion to point out College, Dewey had remained at the that the newly formed Republic college for two years as a librarian, called for the enlightment of all its focusing on the problems of library citizens. SI:rely, they argued, filing and ntaloging. The result was wealth alone could not be the basis the Dewey Decimal System, the for the diffusion of knowledge. It system of classification used today was in this spirit that in 1803 a New by most American libraries and by England bookseller and author libraries in many countries abroad. named Caleb Bingham donated a Out of the Philadelphia meeting collection of books for the free use came a decision to form a of the childrer. of his birthplace permanent organizatior.. Thus was Salisk.ry, Connecticut. His project born the American Library was a landmark, for it so impressed Association, with Melvil Dewey the citizens of Salisbury that they devising its motto: "The best ultimately authorized the town reading for the greatest number at selectmen to expend tax money to the least cost." maintain and enlarge Mr. Meanwhile the money that had Bingham's handsome gift. begun to flow to libraries from taxes Tentatively, at first, the idea of was for a time outshone by private public support for libraries philanthropy. The greatest caught on: New York state in 1835 contribution came from the passed enabling legislation donations of Andrew Carnegie, permitting school districts to raise Scottish-born and reared ir, a funds for the purchase of books, Ptamsylvania mill town. His and within little more than a decant benefactions not only helped to several other states had copied the establish about 2,800 libraries in New York example. the English-speaking world but by Of greater impact was the stimulating public authorities to adoption of state legislation provide matching funds, led to a authorizing cities and towns to transition from the patrician nature establish free, tax-supported public of library support during the libraries. In 1848, Massachusetts nineteenth century to the more passed a law granting such egalitarian mode of the twentieth. authorization to the city of Boston, As the power of private and a year later New Hampshire philanthropy waned, it was perhaps passed similar legislation applying inevitable that the trail of American to any city in the state. library development would in time By 1876 American libraries had lead to the largest of the public become so widespread that a purses, that of the federal national conference was held it government. Congress had itself Philadelphia to give those created the greatest of the nation's responsible for their operation an libraries, the Library of Congress, opportunity to exchange ideas and and in 1956 enacted the Library /g( EDUCATION ALMANAC1 9 9 7 -1 9 8 8

Services Act. Signed into law by states created by Chapter II of the 177 President Dwight Eisenhower, this Education Consolidation and pioneer legislation authorized Improvement Act. Along with a federal funds for the extension of number of other elementary and public library services to those seconds education programs, the communities having fewer than school library program thus lost its 10,000 inhabitants. Then during the identity in the pooling of programs 1960s came federal support for all and funds. public libraries regardless of their For the college and university size, for the libraries in the colleges library program and the public and universities (via Title II-A, the !ibrary program, the Reagan Higher Education Act of 1965), and Administration requested zero for the development of libraries in funding f'r four consecutive years, the public schools (t' rough Title II, 1982-84. Congress, however, has the Elementary and Secondary seen otherwise. Education Act of 1965). With the Funding for programs to aid exception of those supported by state, local, research, and academic business and industry, all types of libraries rose dramatically in 1984, libraries were thus covered by to $80 million, and even more federal legislation, though the level dramatically thereafterto $118 of support to be made available each million in 1985 and to $122 million year has been and remains a subject in 1986, and the amount would of much debate. have been higher had the programs In 1981 the federal program to not been subjected to a 4.3 percent asssist school libraries was inc:uded cut to meet the Gramm-Rudman- by Congress in the block grant to Hollings deficit reduction goal.

187 178 TV: A Bright Spot in Children's Programming

s the commercial weekday afternoons on 308 PBS television networks stations plus a few commercial continue to probe stations in areas where public TV is new levels of sleaze not available. Repeats are scheduled in children's on the ensuing mornings for programming, the Public in-school viewing. Broadcasting Serviceand more With the new series plus "Sesame specifically the Children's Television Street" for preschoolers and "3-2-1 rkshopis once again out to Contact" (a science and technology show what a blessing the medium show aisc; aimed at the 8-12 age could be. group), the Children's Television carrying on the tradition of Workshop now provides some six intelligence, wit, and entertainment hours of programming every established with "Sesame Street," weekday. In addition to these CTW has undertaken a new series CTW-produced programs, most focused on mathem..tics and public TV stations also offer "Mister addressed to children in the 8-12 Rogers' Neighborhood," "Reading age range. Rainbow," and "Wonderworks." Called "Square One TV," the Now in its fifth season, "3-2-1 program uses such familiar TV Contact" is on a similar flight path. formats as game shows, newscasts, Currently it is being produced in and soap operas, and CTW has conjunction with FR3, one of produced appropriate teacher France's three television networks, guides. with a U.S. group exploring The series is broadcast on scientific advances in France while

8 8, E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

French counterparts delve into royalties from product licenses, and 179 similar achievements in this fees for international broadcasts. country. The series is being shown The program is seen by children in simultaneously in both nations. 32 countries. Indicative of CTW's stature both However, the three commercial in the television and education networks offer regularly scheduled communities, the list of programs for children only on underwriters for the new Saturday mor. iing, and the lineup series dudes such biggies as consists almost entirely of animated IBM, the Carnegie Corporation, tne cartoons produced by Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the manufacturers of toys and intended National Science Foundation, the not to enlighten children but to sell Corporation for Public toys featured as part of the action. Broadcasting, ari the U.S. Such programs as "G.I. Joe," Department of Education. "He-Man and t;le Masters of the While children's programming on Universe," "She-Ra: Princess of PBS appears to be gathering new Power," and "Thundercats" are stature, however, the situation on violence-prone stories featuring commercial networks, independent advances in the technology of stations, and cable TV is described mayhem, as committed with "play" by many critics as ranging from weapons in the producesproduct tast less to deplorablewith a line. Such new offerings as (very) few exceptions. "Rambo," "Galaxy Rangers," and a ABC's "Afterschool Specials" and Chuck Norris karate series cling to "Weekend Specials" tend to get the depressing mold, in which the good marks from the critics, but as only heart-felt message is a sales their names imply, they are only pitch. Dr. Victor Strasburger of the occasionally scheduled. Citizens American A,ademy of Pediatrics' groups applaud CBS's "Get Along task force on children and television Gang" and, on cable, Home Box calls the practice "electronic child Office's "Fraggle Rock." abuse." Meanwhile ABC has stretched its In the latest wrinkle to push toy education wings a bit by focusing sales, syli,:icators are peddling these on adult illiteracy and is now cartoons directly to independent waging a campaign against the stations, offering them a percentage problem in the story lines of some of the profits from sales finis of its daytime serials and in generated. That is no small occasional footage in its incentive. A TV show has been prime-time programming. known to help a manufacturer sell Launched in the 1960s with $100 million worth of toys federal and foundation grants, the annually. Children's Television Workshop has Th. Federal Communications become a major force in American Commission recently approved the education. "Sesame Street," its first practice, reversing a decision series, is still going strong in its against product-based programs 18th season and no longer needs that had been in effect since 1969. federal support. Funding comes Currently nearly 50 from PBS member stations, product-based children's programs is CHILDREN'S TV

180 are regularly scheduled on the three young minds expand rather than commercial networks and on contractPeggy Charren, president independent stations. of Action for Children's Television, The trend began in 1983, when says the only hope now is for the FCC, in line with its policy to congressional action. Following the deregulate the television industry, FCC decision against guidelines in declined to set new guidelines to 1983, Congressman (now Senator) assure the quality and frequency of Timothy E. Wirth (D-Colorado) children's programming. Network introduced in the House the reaction to the door thus opened Children's Television Education Act. was immediate. The science, news, The act would require broadcasters music, and drama shows for to televise a minimum of seven children soon disappeared. CBS hours of children's programs a dropped "Captain Kangaroo," week. Senator Frank Lauterberg after 29 years on the network. (D-New Jersey) later introduced "Children's television has similar legislation in the Senate. deteriorated so badly, ' says Dr. Neither bill seems be going Thomas Radecki, a psychiatrist who anywhere. The board of directors of heads the National Coalitisn on the National Association of Television Violence, "that kids are Elementary School Principals has seeing an average of 41 acts of urged parents and educators to violence per hour now, and studies express their feelings abou. have shown that this translates into zhildren's TV to their increased levels of hitting, choking, representatives in Congress. pushing, hurting, selfishness, dnd They might advisedly write also anxiety, and a decrease in sharing to the networks and local stations and school performance." protesting offensive programs and, Counters Stephen Schwartz, most important, praising programs senior marketing vice-president for of outstanding quality. Both the "GI Joe" producer Hasbro, Inc., networks and local stations say they whr* such critics want "is complete rarely hear from the public one way educational programming. That's a or the other, and thus must be nice idea, but ios hard to sell." And guided by the handful of viewers sellingselling commercial time to who determine the Neilson ratings. advertiserswould appear to be the only consideration. That fact may one day provide some relief: Some industry analysts predict that by Following are some addresses and 1990 the networks will drop Saturday morning programming for telephone numbers that may be heoful: children and go after the more lucrative audience in the 1 8 - 3 0 age Members of Congress group, a move that might at least rec ice the amount of pollution Senate children are exposed to. First S-reet and Constitutirm So far as improving the situation Avenue, NE is concernedthat is, of bringing Washington, DC 20510 about the day when television helps 202/224-3121 490 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8

House of Representatives Home Box Office 181 New Jersey and Independence 1271 Avenue of the Americas Avenue, SE New York, NY 10020 Washington, DC 20515 212/484-1100 202/224-3121 The Learning Channel (ACSN) Networks 1414 22nd Street, NW Suite ..'00 ABC Washington, DC 20037 1330 Avenue of the Americas 202/331-8100 New York, NY 10019 212/887-7777 Cable Satellite Public Affairs Network (C-SPAN) CBS 400 North Capitol Street, NW 51 West 52nd Street Suite 412 New York, NY 10019 Washington, DC 20001 212/975-4321 202/737-3220

NBC The Disney Channel 30 Rockefeller Plaza 4111 West Alameda Avenue New York, NY 10020 Burbank, CA 91505 212/664-4444 213/846-6661

Public Television KidVid Network Corporation for Public Broadcasting ARP Films 1111 16th Street, NW 342 Madison Avenue Washington, DC 20036 New York, NY 10173 202/293-6160 212/867-1700

Public Broadcasting Service Some Resource Groups 1320 Braddock Place Action for Children's Television Alexandria, VA 22314 ^0 University Road 703/739-5000 Cambridge, MA 02158 617/876-6620 Children's Television Workshop (CTW) American Academy of Pediatrics One Lincoln Plaza Task Force on Children and New York, NY 10023 Television 212/595-3456 141 Northwest Point rioulevard Box 927 Cable Television Elk Grove, IL 60007 Nickelodeon 800/433-9016 Warner Amex Satellite Entertainment Co. National Black Media Coalition 1133 Avenur lf the Americas 38 New York Avenue, NE New York, Ni 10036 Washington, DC 20012 212/944-5481 202/387-8155 -.2.91 CHILD REN'S TV 182 National Council for Families and Teachers Guides to Television Television 699 Madison Avenue 20 Nassau Street New York, NY 10021 Suite 200 212/688-0033 Princeton, NJ 08540 609/921-3639 Telecommunications Research and Action Center Prime Time School Television P.O. Box 12038 60 East Huron Street Washington, DC 20005 Chicago, IL 60611 202/462-2520 312/787-7600

1

192 Getting Private Funding 183 for Public Schools ei

ith federal funds for guidelines or application packets. elementary and Irldf, it is up to the schools to seek secondary programs out the appropriate hinder for a sharply shrinking particular project and to draw up a during the past few clearly written, concise, persuasive years, public school people might proposal. well be interests : in the The following table lists some of possibilities of support from the private organizations that have foundations, corporations, and expressed an interest in funding other elements of the private sector. projects that would benefit Private hinders have a long elementary or secondary education. history of involvement in education, It is always advisable to check of course, but their money has gone with a foundation or corporation primarily to higher education. before submitting a proposal to More and more, however, various make sure of their current funding private funders are reaching out to priorities and limitations, and to the Amentary, middle, and learn whether they offer guidelines. secondary schools. Currently about Private funders often change 100 private sources offer funding funding priorities, and knowing the for special projects at the K-12 current state of affairs can save an levels. applicant time and effort, and Unlike the federal government, assure a relevant and purposeful many private funders do not have application. 193 PRIVATE FUNDING

184 NAME OF FUNDER AREA OF INTEREST

Aetna Life & Casualty Foundation Urban Public Education (company foundation) employability of public school 151 Farmington Avenue students Hartford, CT 06156 management and leadership (203) 273-2477 capacity of people responsible for running schools

The Almanson Foundation Improvement of public schools, (private grantmaking) provision of challenging educational 3731 Wilshire Boulevard opportunities for talented minority Los Angeles, CA 90010 students, support of established (213) 383-1381 private schools' special education programs

American Can Company Foundation Local school boards; junior high (company foundation) school; dropout prevention; teacher Amer:: an Lane, P.O. Box 3610 recruitment; school finance equity; Greenwich, CT 06836 urban education; grass-roots public (203) 552-2989 support for public schools; university/school district collaboration

The Bush Foundation Primarily mid-career management (private grantmaking) training for public school E-900 1st National Bank administrators through two St. Paul. MN 55101 programs: One for District (612) 227-0891 Superintendent (25 annually); another for school principals (28 annually)

Carnegie Corporation of New York Improving education in science, (private grantmaking) math and technology; encouraging 436 Madison Avenue ii:inorities and women in science; New York, NY 10022 advancing the effective use of (212) 371-3200 technology in education; developing and implementing educational policy; preventing school Li lure and school-age pregnancy

Cummins Engine Foundation Continuation of efforts to improve (corporate foundation) both quality and equity in Box 3005, MC 60814 education, including a major Columbus, Indiana 47202 project on the teaching of writing (812) 377-3569 in Southeast Indiana

1 d,4 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

LIMITATIONS CONTACT PERSONS 185

Gail B. Promboin, Director, National Programs, Education, Youth Employment and Public Management Paula C. Bartlett, Program Officer

Primary geographic focus is Kathleen A. Gilcrest, Southern California, especially Los Vice-President/Secretary Angeles. Grants are made for capital purposes, special projects, scholarship funds, and endowment, and are usually one year in duration

Typically, one-year grants. No Peter Goldburg, Vice-President capital or endowment campaigns. Project/program-specific proposals are preferred Letter of intent should precede proposal

Grants in Minnesota, North Dakota, Stanley Shepard, Senior Program and South Dakota only Officer

Grants are made primarily to Vivien Stewart, Prevention of academic institutions and national Damage to Children and regional organizations E. Alden Dunham, Education in Science, Technology, and the Economy

Most grants are related to or in the Adele Vincent, Associate Director communities where Cummins Engine Co. has manufacturing operations, with a heavy emphasis on Southeast Indiana 195 PRIVATE FUNDING .1111 186 NAME OF FUNDER AREA OF INTEREST

The Danforth Foundation project for reorganization of high (private grantmaking) schools for improved teaching/ 231 South Beniiston learning St. Louis, MO 63105 projects for professional (314) 862-6200 development of school administr, _ors projects that expand the knowledge, skills, vision, and commitments of policymakers in education projects that provide for the professional growth of administrators and curriculum leaders in international studies

Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, Chinese language studies Inc. motivating minority students (private grantmaking) dropout problem in inner city 95 Madison Avenue schools P.O. Bcx 1239R computer software for education Morristown, NJ 07960 gifted & talented children (201) 540-8442 support alternate route to certification program in New Jersey

The Ford Foundation $5 million dollars for programs in (private grantmaking) educationprimarily urban 320 East 43 Street focused. Special interests include New York, NY 10017 improving math for minorities (212) 573-5000 and girls development of community-based foundations for teacher and school programs equity in urban schools improving the education of prospective teachers

196 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987-1988

LIMITATIONS CONTACT PERSONS 187

The Danforth Foundation does not Gene L. Schwilck, President provide grants to individuals nor does it contribute to capital or Bruce J. Anderson, Vice-President endowment campaigns Donn W. Gresso, Vice-President

Projects in New Jersey, NAIS Scott McVay, Executive Director schools in the Northeast and Middle Atlantic States, and programs with a Gordon Glover, Program Associate national audience Valerie Peed, Assistant Director

Grants to all areas of the U.S. and Edward J. Mead,, Jr., Chief other developed countries. No funds Program Officer for capital expenditures. Barbara Scott Nelson, Program Officer PRIVATE FUNDING

188 NAME OF FUNDER AREA OF INTEREST

The William and Mary Greve -K-12 articulation Foundation, Inc. gifted minority children (private grantmaking) performing arts One East 53rd Street New York, NY 10022 (202) 758-8032

Edward W. Hazen Foundation Writing improvement; student (private grantmaking) volunteering, in school and in the 16 East 34th Street community; juvenile justice; New York, NY 10016 dropouts and other high risk young (212) 889-1616 people; innovative approaches to guidance; use of nonprofessional volunteers, especially older people

Conrad N. Hilton Foundation Attracting and retaining high (private grantmaking) quality teachers in the public school 10100 Santa Monica Blvd., #775 system. Los Angeles, CA 90067 Interested in helping to disseminate (213) 556-4694 projects that have achieved these goals. Secondary interest in school-based literacy projects

The Hyde and Watson Foundation Support primarily for facilities, (private grantmaking) equipment, and other development 437 South Prn Blvd. capital needs and projects designed Chatham Township, NJ 07928 to increase efficiency, quality, or (201) 966-6024 capacity of important programs and services or to provide seed money to establish new programs and services to meet important needs

Independence Foundation General (private grantmaking) 2500 Philadelphia National Bldg. Philadelphia, PA 19107-3493 (215) 563-8105

International Paper Company EDCORE: Education and Foundation (IP) Community Resources Program (corporate foundation) support for public elementary and 77 West 45th Street secondary school districts New York, NY 10036 surrounding International Paper's (212) 536-6580 major facilities .198 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

LIMITATIONS CONTACT PERSONS 189

No grants to individuals. Prefer to Irving H. Becker, Executive make grants in the greater New Director York metropolitan area

U.S. only, generally for one year, Richard Magat, President generally under $25,000. No teenage pregnancy or youth employment projects. No summer institutes for teachers

No geographic limitations; however, Terry McAdams, Program Director general support requests are usually and Vice-President discouraged Ellen Friedman, Program Assistant

None Robert A. Maes, President

EDCORE: limited to school districts Patricia M. Freda, Manager of in areas with major IP facilities. Administration and Assistant Most grants support projects in IP Secretary communities. No multi-year commitments

199 PRIVATE FUNDING

NAME OF FUNDER AREA OF INTEREST

Martha Holden Jennings Support of educational programs, Foundation improving teaching competency, (private grantmaking) educator and student awards, 1040 Huntington Building motivational scholarships, essay Cleveland, OH 44115 contests, science and mathematics (216) 539-5700

Walter S. Johnson Foundation use of teachers as a resource for kprivate grantmaking) other teachers 525 Middlefield Road, Suite 130 replication of projects with Menlo Park, CA 94025 proven success in other settings projects that broaden the range of skills of individual teachers prevention of substance abuse prevention of teen pregnancy promotion of good parenting

The Joyce Foundation Support of programs that promote (private grantmaking) parental involvement and urban 135 South LaSalle Street education reform; gifted minority Chicago, IL 60603 students; dropout prevention (312) 782-2464

Lilly Endowment, Inc. Youth involvement, reading (private grantmaking) improvement, desegregation, 2801 N. Meridian Street economics education, faculty Indianapolis, IN 46208 development, coalition of teacher (317) 924-5471 education programs (COTEP), educational policies consortium

Longview Foundation Education with a world perspective: (private grantmaking) teaching about the diverse peoples Box 88 of the world. Emphasis is on Accokeek, MD 20607 elementary-aged children and (202) 483-8014 or teacher education (preservice and (703) 860-1089 inservice)

Lyndhurst Foundation enhancement of the capacities of (private grantmaking) existing teachers 701 Ulan Building reform of teacher education Chattanooga, TN 37402 development of a local public (615) 756-0767 school offering a basic, general (or "liberal") education to all students without regard to their ability E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

LIMITATIONS CONTACT PERSONS 191

For Ohio public school students and Joan Johnson, Program Director teachers. No grants made for travel or equipment

No grants to individuals or to Donna Terman, Executive Director religious organizations for sectarian purposes. The foundation does not ordinarily support private elementary or secondary schools, memorial campaigns, endowment drives, capital or construction projects, or deficit funding.

Grants in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Marta E. White, Program Officer Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, and Anne Dixon, Program Officer Wisconsin

Mainly grants in Indiana, usually a William C. Bonifield, Vice-President three-year maximum for Education Joan S. Lipsitz, Program Director for Education

Grants generally made to education William N. Breese, President associations or for pilot programs in Barbara A. Mullaney, Assistant to schools. No awards to individuals or the President for overseas travel or for operating funds for organizations. Average grant is for $42,500

Grants are restricted to the Jack Murrah, Executive Director Southeastern U.S. Eleanor Cooper, Associate

201 PRIVATE1... FUNDING 192NAME OF FUNDER AREA OF INTEREST

John D. and Catherine T. Macarthur Literacy standards, specifically Foundation disc'issions of revised high school (private grantmaking) grad..ion requirements and Suite 700, 140 S. Dearborn Street general school improvement, Chicago, IL 60603 examination of proposed thinking (312) 726-8000 skills for use in primary, middle, or high schools; in Chicago, varied programs (i.e., youth education, employment, day care policy)

Matsusita Foundation Enhance effective learning in (corporate foundation) schools; enhance the skills and One Panasonic Way knowledge base of teachers, Secaucus, NJ 07094 improve their working conditions, (201) 392-4132 and attract capable people into the teaching profession; promote collaborations among schools and various other sectors of the con' munity to enrich educational resources and support school improvement

Moore Foundation Programs at the elementary, (private grantmaking) middle, and senior high levels. 50 East 91st Street, Suite 302 Specific focus on programs to Indianapolis, IN 46240 enhance a student's self-esteem and (317) 848-2013 teach responsibility, problem-solving, and skills for living. Grants also for curriculum development and alternative programs

't12 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

LIMITATIONS CONTACT PERSONS 193

Interest in literacy and thinking James M. Furman, Executive skills is on a national level; special Vice-President grants program has local focus Rebecca R. Riley, Director of Special Grants Program

No grants to individuals, Sophie Sa, Executive Director endowments, capital and annual fund raising campaigns, building construction, out-of-country organizeions, cultural performances or exhibitions except as they are related to the defined program areas; journals; regular conferences of professional organizations

Most educational grants are given Martin J. Moore, President to the Indianapolis area, but there Joan R. Barrett, Program is interest in spreading these Coordinator programs statewide. Grants mostly given on an annual basisin some instances, the grants may be for a program for two years. No grants to individuals 203 I ." PRIVATE FUNDING=11 194NAME OF FUNDER AREA OF INTEREST

The Prudential Foundation Basic skills education, computer (corporate foundation) literacy, teacher enhancement, 4 Prudential Plaza encouraging parental involvement, Newark, NJ 07101 enhancing educational (201) 877-7354 opportunities for underprivileged students

Charles H. Revson Foundation dropout prevention (private grantmaking) literacy 444 Madison Avenue management and budget for New York, NY 10022 maximum instructional emphasis (212) 935-3340

The Rockefeller Foundation Major focus on strengthening (private grantmaking) secondary education through the 1133 Avenue of the Americas arts and humanities. School/college New York, NY 10036 collaborations that can serve as (212) 869-8500 models for other districts are of particular interest. Support focused cn systemwide projects in urban areas rather than on individual teachers or schools.

Winthrop Rockefeller Foundation Critical thinking, staff development, (private grantmaking) and general projects 308 East 8th Street Little Rock, AR 72202 (501) 376-6854

The Smart Family Foundation Revitalization of teaching as a (private grantmaking) profession and school renewal 335 Madison Avenue, 18th Floor New York, NY 10017 (212) 682-7073

The Standard Oil Company (OHIO) Improvement of math, science, and (corporation) computers in classrooms, primarily Corporate Contributions at the junior high level, although 200 SOHIO not restricted to that level. Cleveland, OH 44114 Programs generally involve strong (216) 586-8626 inservice component with activities-based curriculum 204 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7- 1 9 8 8 .2110=MMI. 195 LIMITATIONS CONTACT PERSONS

No grants to organizations that are Mary O'Malley, Assistant Secretary not tax exempt

New York City or national Diana List Cullrn, Administrative one to four years Officer grants primarily for impact on publ:c policy

Grants in the U.S. No funds for Alberta Arthurs, Director for Arts endowment or capital expenditures and Humanities Steven 1;.. Lavine, Associate Director for Arts an Humanities Bruce E. Williams, Assistant Director for Equal Opportunity

Grants in Arkansas only Jackie You..s, Program Officer

Under review Deborah Wadsworth Executive Director Arlene N. Flies ler, Grants Administrator

Generally limited to communities Sondra J. Harris, Program Associate where Standard Oil is a significant presence, as either employer or marketer. Model programs may be developed elsewhere but piloted in a city of relevance to the company

205 : PRIVATE FUNDING

196 NAME OF FUNDER AREA OF INTEREST

W. Clement and Jessica V. Stone Provides technical assistance to Foundation educational institutions with on-site (private operating) programs for faculty and students. 111 East Wacker Drive, #510 Programs are motivational in Chicago, IL 60601 nature. They provide participants (312) 565-1100 experiences in: developing a positive mental attitudo, identifying strengths, developing personal patterns for success, improving self-esteem, goal setting, and values clarification

Tune 11 Fund preparatory schools (private grantmaking) alternative schools 33 Evergreen Place special education East Orange, NJ 07108 (201) 678-8580

Union Electric Company alternative high school programs (corporation) science and math programs P.O. Box 149 Junior Achievement St. Louis, MO 63166 (314) 554-2817

The San Francisco Foundation Supports projects in education that (community foundation) enhance elementary and secondary 500 Washington Street, 8th Floor achievement, with special emphasis San Francisco, CA 94111 on the basic skills of math, science, (415) 392-0600 and language arts

Washington National Insurance Co. Vocational, pre-employment (corporate) education/preparation. 1630 Chicago Avenue Enhancement of "basics," Evanston, IL 60201 particularly among low-income (312) 570-5723 minorities

206 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

LIMITATIONS CONTACT PERSONS 197

On-site program available Maree G. Bullock, Executive throughout the country. Programs Director are free to nonprofit institutions. However, travel expenses are usually covered by institutions or organizations requesting these programs. Programs vary in duration from a two-hour session to ongoing weekly or monthly sessions

Support limited to New Jersey and Carl Fjellman, Executive Director Vermont. No grants to individuals or endowment funds, or for research or studies

Charitable contributions exceeding Patricia Barrett, Manager $2,500 are reviewed and approved Community Affairs by `he Contributions Committee of the Board of Directors. Contributions of less than $2,500 are made directly by the company to the organizations. Grants are confined almost exclusively to the geographic area served by the company (Missouri, Illinois, and Iowa)

Serves the five Bay Area counties of Bernice B. Brown, Program Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, San Executive Francisco, and San Mateo Jane Rogers, Program Executive Christine Cuevas, Program Executive

Programs must operate in Carol Laughlin, Public Affairs communities in which home or Representive field operations are located. Primary geographic focus is Evanston and the city of Chicago, north of downtown. No capital or endowment campaigns 207 i,. 198School-Business Partnerships

Elementary students in Ferndale, creates greater community Michigan, put in a well-received support of the schools but plug for public education last generates heavy shopping traffic Februarywith elp from a local for the merchants as well. grocery chain. On a sizable supply In Columbia, South Carolina, the of brown grocery bags furnished owner of two Burger King by the company, they drew franchises in the attendance area valentines saying "Happy of Seven Oaks Elementary School Valentine's Day from your friends provides publicity on his marquee in the Ferndale schools," along for school events. with their first names. The bags The widely acclaimed BOOK IT! were interspersed with the National Reading Incentive regular supply. Program sponsored by Pizza Hut, An idea that has made a big Inc., offers free pizzas for impression in several localities is students who meet teacher to transport school classes lock, established reading goals. stock, and chalkboard to a local In some cities, the Chamber of shopping mall for a week and give Commerce has begun holding a demonstration of the occasional meetings at a school excitement of learning. The building during the regular students quickly lose their school day so business leaders can self-consciousness about their have an opportulnity to see a new surroundings, and school major community asset in action. goes on pretty much as usual. Many C of C members have said The demonstration not only that they were especially 208.- E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 impressed by the businesslike launched a minigrant program 199 atmosphere of today's schools. offering teachers $600 each to Scientists and engineers at a supplement their classroom Monsanto plant in Springfield, activities. Massachusetts, invite groups of teachers to come to the plant for roP six day-long seminars including Such school-business lectures, demonstrations, and partnerships are spreading, and the question and answer sessions partnerships are becoming t... designed to update the teachers' sophisticated and productive. L. knowledge about the advanced would appear that such cooperative technology in use there. activity is likely not just to continue In an Adopt-a-School program in but to expand. Business assistance Dallas, Texas, more than 400 will not supplant public support companies are annually providing through tax dollars, but it can nearly $3 million in cash, enrich the effortwith benefits to services, and materials to more the schools and to business alike. than 200 public schools there. As schools and businesses have The program was started a decade worked together over the last ago by 13 businesses, 15 religious decade, some useful guidelines have groups, and six other been developed. Here is some advice organizations. The number of for educators developed by the adopting organizations now Private Industry Council of exceeds 2,150. Washington, D.C.: Three industry-sponsored student academies have been established in Philadelphiaan electrical academy in one high school, a business academy in another, and an aviation academy in a third. The participating firms provided both equipment and expertise in setting the academies up. In a reprise of a program it has conducted in New York City, Mobil Corporation is contributing more than $600,000 over three years co bring performing artists into the schools of Washington, It is vital to establish measures of D.C. progress and success. Business In New Castle County, Delaware, wants to see an outcomea the Greater Wilmington productthat can be measured. Development Council has Business people don't want to be published an elaborate 60-page tied to losers, the council notes, Cultural Resources Guide that recommending that everybody gives teachers a catalog of agree up front on the goals of the available field trips for their partnership, how those goals are classes. The Council has also to be achieved, and how the effort 209, BUSINESS PARTNERSHIPS 200 is to be evaluated. speaks business's language, or at Collaboration takes time but it least doesn't talk education lingo. can't take forever. Make things Understand what businesses want happen. The goal of collaboration from the schools. It's not a is not collaboration. one-way street. For example, Collaboration is like musicit surveys indicate that business involves clever improvisation. Get people say they want students to off the dime and push forward, be functionally literate at a even if you don't have all the minimum, to have had broad answers. Don't talk about starting preparation in career education, a study aimed at improving math and to have had effective training instruction in five years. Parents not only in the basic skills but in want to know "What about my kid attitudes and work habits as well. today?" Most important, says Michael Particularly at the beginning, it is Gilbert, the council's executive a good idea to meet on neutral director, schools should be run in a turf, perhaps with the help of a businesslike manner in the sense go-between. In many that they see themselves as being communities a private industrial accountable for what they do. Don't council exists to perform this expect business to be entirely and kind of matchmaking. eternally altruistic. Being able to Collaboration requires regular "show a profit " in the form of attention. In large districts this appropriately educated young can mean assigning it to someone peopleis the best way schools can as a full-time job. And the person assure cooperation and support assigned should be someone who from the business community.

2i0 ERIC: Education's Research Storehouse

f the nation's every conceivable subject in computerized education. It includes research databases, none is as studies, program descriptions and frequently searched evaluations, conference as ERIC, the proceedings, bibliographies, Educational Resources Information curriculum guides, journal articles, Center. Containing more than and other education materials. 500,000 documents, ERIC receives Thus, ERIC has the information 2.7 million inquiries annually and to help state and local school in response to them sends out more administrators make sound than 30 million bibliographic decieons in just about any records or primary documents. management or academic area. Fully one-third of all persons Using its resources a state can employed in the education learn what other states are doing in community have used the system, regard to teacher and student and 80 percent of these users work competency testing. A local school in elementary and secondary board can find suggestions about schools. how to attract more science and Founded by the U.S. Office of mathematics teachers. A district's Education in 1966 and now business manager can get administered by the Department of information on self - insurance Education's Office of Educational arrangements with nearby school Research and Improvement, ERIC systems toward curtailing provides ready access to the latest skyrocketing insurance costs. state-of-the-art information on Similarly, EPIC has material on 4211 ERIC 202improving management and Currently some 27,600 colleges, academic programs and on school systems, independent reducing classroom paperwork so as research organizations, and to give teachers more time to teach. institutionsincluding many Teachers can locate comparisons of outside the United States the various software materials contribute documents and journal available for computer instruction articles to the system. And 3,269 in mathematics, or tips on working U.S. institutions provide access to with immigrant children who enter ERIC products. Organizationally, the classroom speaking virtually no ERIC has three components. English. Central ERIC in Washington, Now in its third decade, ERIC D.C., sets policy, allocates federal was founded to help the Office of funds, and monitors other system Education keep track of, and give components. Surprisingly, only 4.1 the research community access to, percent of the system's costs, $136

the thousands of research studies million in 1985, are met by being generated with federal Department of Education funds. education funds. College and university budgets and It began with a database of only state and local resources provide about 10,000 items. Thus in 1973 a most of ERIC's support. request for information on school Sixteen clearinghouses, each discipline produced only three devoted to a specific aspect of relevant document abstracts and on education such as educational drug abuse, just 25. Today ERIC can management or reading and provide hundreds of abstracts on communication skills (see box). In both subjects. And anyone, not just addition to .J1lecting literature, researchers, can retrieve documents ERIC clearinghouses analyze and from the system or submit material synthesize it into research reviews, to be considered by panels of bibliographies, and interpretive experts for inclusion in the studies. Among them the database. clearinghouses respond to some 212 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 15,000 user inquiries a year. departments of education and 203 Support services, including a college and university libraries, as central editorial and computer well as many local school districts, facility that maintains the database, are microfiche subscribers, a reproduction center to provide receiving about 19,500 cards microfiche or hard copies of annually. requested documents, and a A computer terminal offers the commercial publisher. fastest and most efficient way to Some 1,200 documents each search ERIC files. Most college and month pass the selection criteria of university libraries have this the ERIC clearinghouses. Abstracts computer capability. ERIC's "P published monthly in Resources Thesaurus of Descriptors helps to in Education. Since 1966, 253,000 narrow down the subject category studies, reports, curriculum guides, to be searched. For example, a and other materials have come to principal asking for curriculum the attention of ERIC users through materials to help learning disabled this publication. It has about 2,000 children would be deluged with subscribers, mostly libraries. thousands of titles. Confining the A companion monthly, Current search to materials for children Index to Journals in Education, with dyslexia would turn up far contains abstracts of articles in over fewer titles, a number the principal 760 education-related journals. could reasonably request and study. Some 323,300 titles have appeared For potential users who don't since its inception in 1969. know how or where to start, ERIC Nearly all school districts suggests contacting t* - nearest subscribe to these two publications, college library or subject matter and they alone can give the user clearinghouse. access to the ERIC system. School districts interested in Documents can be requested by setting up an online computer mail or telephone. capability may contact one of the Microfiche collections bring ERIC three vendors with whom ERIC resources still closer. Most state contracts. (see page 205). ERIC 204 The OrganizationsThat MakeUp ERIC Central ERIC Office of Educational Researchand Improvement U.S. Department ofEducation Washington, D.C. 20208 (202) 357 -6089 Clearinghouses Adult, Career, and Vocational Education Languages and Linguistics Ohio State University Center for Applied Linguistics 1960 Kenny Road 1118 22nd Street, N.W. Columbus, Ohio 43210 Washington, D.C. 20037 (614) 486-3655 (202) 328-3870 Rural Education and Small Counseling and PersonnelServices Schools University of Michigan New Mexico State University Box 3AP 2108 School of EducationBuilding Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109 Las Cruces, New Mexico88003 (313) 764.9492 (505) 646-2623 Educational Management Science, Mathematics and University of Oregon Environmental Education 1787 Agate Street Ohio State University Eugene, Oregon 97403 1200 Chambers Road, ThirdFloor (503) 686-5043 Columbus, Ohio 43212 (614) 422-6717 Elementary and Early Childhood University of Illinois Soda! Studies/Social Science Education 805 West PennsylvaniaAvenue Urbana, Illinois 61801 Indiana Social Study Development (217) 333-1386 Center 2805 East 10th Street Handicapped and Gifted Children Bloomington, Indiana 47405 Council for Exceptional Children (812) 335-3838 1920 Association Drive Reston, Virginia 22091 Teacher Education (703) 620-3660 American Association of Collegesfor Teacher Education Higher Education One Dupont Circle, Suite 610 George Washington University Washington, D.C. 20036 One Dupont Circle, Suite 630 (202) 293-2450 Washington, D.C. 20036 (202) 2n 2597 Tests, Measurement, andEvaluation Educational Testing Service Information Resources Princeton, New Jersey 08451 Syracuse University (609) 734.5176 School of Education 130 Huntington Hall Urban Education Syracuse, New York 13210 Teachers College, ColumaiaUniversity Bo) 40 (315) 423-3640 525 West 120th Street Junior Colleges New York, New York 10027 University of California (212) 678.3433 Mathematical Science Building Room 8118 405 Hilgard Avenue Los Angeles, California90024 (213) 825.3931 214 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 MEenri.0611.awaU,SVEyliawelymmomo 205 Vendors for On-Line Computer Access

Biblographic Retrieval Services DIALOG Information Services 1200 Route 7 3460 Hillview Avenue Lathan, New York 12110 Palo Alto, California 94304 (800) 345-4277 (800)334.2564

System Development Corporation 2500 Colorado Avenue Santa Monica, California 90406 (213) 820-4111

215 206The National Assessment of Educational Progress

he National aNts in basic educational skills Assessment of and to disseminate the resulting Educational Progress information to the federal (NAEP) is a government, the education continuing national community, legislators and other Jurvey of the knowledge, skills, decision makers, and the general understanding, and attitudes of public. young Americans in major areas of In achieving these ends, learning. National Assessment collects (and NAEP was brought into being in reports on at east once every five 1968, with initial funding from the years) data measuring the Carnegie Corporation of New York performance of students at various and later the Ford Foundation. ages and grade luzls in the basic Today NAEP is supported entirely by subjects of rating, mathematics, the U.S. Department of Education and science, and in seven other and conducted by the Educational areas. Testing Service under a grant from Each assessment involves about the Department's Office of 100,000 youngsters in six groups- Educational Research and 9-year-olds, 13-year-olds, and Improvement. 17-year-olds, and students in grades 3, 7, and 11. NAEP's Purposes Over a period of time, NAEP's primary purposes are to achievement trends can be carry out an assessment of the discerned that provide important performance of children and young information for education decision -216 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 3 7 - 1 9 8 8 makers at all levels. may have had difficulty reading 207 There is much to ponder, for the range of academic material example, in the accompanying they encountered in school. charts from the Department's 1986 The majority (61 percent) of report on The Condition of 17-year-old students are unable to Education indicating that... perform at the adept level, and In reading proficiency few (5 percent) have advanced O Students at ages 9, 13, and 17 reading skills. were reading better in 1984 than In mathematics they were in 1971. Nine- and From 1973 to 1982, mathematics 13-year-olds improved through performance was relatively stable the 1970s and 17-year-olds for 9-year-olds, improved for improved between 1980 and 1984. 13-year-olds, and declined for The recent improvements by 1?-year-olds. 17-year-olds may in part reflect In science earlier improvements at ages 9 During 1970 to 1982, science and 13. performance showed overall Six percent of 9-year-olds in 1984 declines for all age groups. could not do rudimentary reading Reports on national assessments exercises and were in danger of are available from NAEP's offices in future school failure. Forty Princeton, New Jersey 08541-6710, percent of 13-year-old students and through the 600 depositories of and 16 percept of 17-year-old the government-sponsored ERIC students har)t acquired system. intermediate .eading skills, and

(See following two pages)

;217 NATIONL ASSESSMENTr, 208 Reading

School year ending:

Percent II1971 100 1975 El1980 80 1984 Age 9 60 40

20

0 Rudimentary Basic Intermediate Adept Advanced Proficiency !evel Percent 100

80

Age 13 60 40

20

Rudimen ary Basic lntermed ate Adept Advanced Proficiency evel

Percent 100

80 Age 17 60 -

40 20 -

0 Ruchmen ary Basic Intermed ate Adep Advanced Proficiency level

..2.18 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987- 1988 Mathematics 209 Change in percent correct 5 33 Change between: 4 3 II1973-78 ;978-82 2 1.0

1 0 -0.1 -1 -2 -1.3 -2.0 -3

-4 -3.6 -5 9-year-olds 13-year-olds 17-year-olds

Science Change in percent correct Change between: 5 1111 1970-73 4 1973-77 3 1977-82 2

1

0 -0.1 -1 -2 -1.2 -3 -2.8 -4 -5 9-year-olds 13-year-olds 17-year-olds

SOURCES. National Assessment of Educational Progress and the Science Assessment and Research Project 219 210 Recent Court Rulings Affecting the Schools

Church and State case promotes feminist themes, atheistic humanism, vegetarianism, Mozert v. Hawkins County Public pacifism, and world government. Schools Among the books cited wereThe U.S. District Court for the Wizard of Oz,deemed objectionable District of Tennessee for teaching that traits such as October 24, 1986 courage, intelligence, and compassion are personally developed The court ruled in favor of rather than God-given, andThe fundamentalist Christian parents Diary of Anne Frank on groundsit who claimed that their children supports toleration of all were being forced to read textbooks religions. that offended their religious beliefs. Supporting the parents' The judge suggested that the charge that the textbooks impose parents teach their children to the teaching of "secular humanism" read at home. described as a concept that people are responsible for their Grove v. Mead School District No. own destinythe judge ruled that 354 the public schools must excuse NinthU.S. Circuit Court of Appeals fundamentalist children from February 2, 1985 reading classes that violate their To include Gordon Parks'The religious tenets. Learning Tree,a story of racism The plaintiffs charged that the and life in a black family, in a high reading material objected to in the school English curriculum does not 220 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 violate the First Amendment, the New York City school district of 211 court ruled in the suit brought by a federal Chapter I (Education fundamentalist Christian student. Consolidation and Improvement She claimed the classroom use of Act) funds to provide remedial the book amounted to the mathematics and English establishment of "secular instruction for di:advantaged humanism" as a religion, thus children in parochial schools. Such preventing the free exercise of her children are eligible for Chapter I religion. While The Learning Tree services. However, the court said is not about religion, the court that providing the services on cited Supreme Court decisions religious school property excessively permitting the literary study of involves the school district with such religious books as the Bible religion. In the Grand Rapids case, under the First Amendment. The the court struck down the use of court chided the student for state funds to pay public school implying that "secular" and teachers who provided remedial and "humanist" are code words for enrichment programs in religious "antireligious." schools.

Wallace v. Jaffree Aguillard v. Edwards U.S. Supreme Court Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals June 4, 1985 July 8, 1985 Reaffirming its 1962 decision The court ruled invalid a Louisiana against organized school prayer, the statute requiring public schools to court overturned an Alabama teach "creation science" whenever voluntary "moment of silence" "evolution science" is taught, school prayer law. The ruling does because the practice violates the not prevent schools from providing First Amendment Establishment daily meditation periods, but clause. The court noted that students may not be told that creationism is a religious belief, and prayer is one of the meditation that religious fundamentalists have options. In his dissent, Chief Justice long opposed the teaching of Warren Burger wrote that the evolution. The U.S. Supreme Court decision "manifests not neutrality agreed to review the decision. but hostility toward religion." May v. Cooperman Aguilar v. Felton and Grand Rapids Third U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals School District v. Ball December 24, 1985 U.S. Supreme Court Even though the word prayer was July 1, 1985 not mentioned, the court In both cases, the court found that overturned a New Jersey statute the use of public funds, federal or requiring that public schools state, to pay public school teachers "permit students to observe a to teach in relig:ous schools violates 1-minute period of silence to be the First Amendment used solely at the discretion of the Establishment clause. Aguilar v. individual student...for qu'.2t and Fe/tonconcemed the use by the private contemplation and _.:.221 COURT RULINGS 212introspection." The First Riddick v. School Board of the City Amendment Establishment clause of Norfolk was violated, the court held, U. S. Supreme Court because the state's real purpose was June 16, 1986 to accommodate students who Without a full hearing on the case; wanted to pray, and this constituted the court allowed Norfork, Virginia, a religious purpose. to pi oceed with plans to abandon the busing of elementary school Witters v. Washington Department children in the 1986-87 school year of Services for the Blind in favor of neighborhood school U. S. Supreme Court placement. This means 10 of the January 27, 1986 district's 36 elementary schools will The court overturned a Washington have at least a 96 percent black State Supreme Court decision student enrollment. The decision denying state financial aid to a blind upheld a ruling issued by the student studying to be a minister. Fourth U.S. Circuit Court of The state court had denied aid on Appeals on February 6, 1986, and grounds of separation of church and made Norfolk the first U.S. city to state. Justice Thurgood Marshall, win court approval to discontinue a writing for the high court, said that busing program that successfully Washington's vocational education integrated ,-,zhools. The high court program for the blind did not concurrence was regarded as a victory promote religion since "no more for the Reagan administration. than a miniscule amount of the aid under the program is likely to flow Kromnick v. Sr'.:,,, 0/strict of to religious education." Philadelphia Third U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals Desegregation July 17, 1984 The court held that a school system U.S. v. Yonkers Board of Education may transfer both minority and U.S. District Court, Southern white teachers among schools to District of New York maintain racial integration of the November 20, 1985 faculty without violating the In what is apparently the first case Constitution's Equal Protection linking racial discrimination in clause or Title VII of the Civil public housing and schools, the Rights Act of 1964. A lower court federal government filed suit had found that while the policy may against the city and school board of be lawful to achieve faculty Yonkers, New York. Citing the integration, it cannot be used to extreme concentration of subsidized maintain integration unless the public housing in Southwest school district can show that faculty Yonkers and a neighborhood school ratios would otherwise revert to placement policy for children living prior levels of segregation. The there, the court found that the city circuit court reversed this decision, and school board had, indeed, saying the transfer policy was worked in concert to maintain "patently valid" because it served a racial segregation. legitimate government objective. :2:2.2 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 The policy permits the transfer of decision as a victory even though 213 the overrepresented race from a black teachers with less seniority school even though these teachers will be the first to go in a workforce may have more seniority than those cutback in Jackson schools. Hiring allowed to stay. goals run counter to the Reagan administration efforts to confine Discrimination affirmative action plans to actual Wygant v. Jackson Board of victims of discrimination rather Education than to entire racial groups. U.S. Supreme Court May 19, 1986 Education for the Handicapped The Jackson, Michigan, school School Committee of the Town of board violated the Constitution's Burlington v. Massachusetts Equal Protection clause, the court Department of Education ruled, when it laid off white U.S. Supreme Court teachers with seniority in order to April 29, 1985

maintain its workforce percentage Public school officials must of black teachers. The practice was reimburse parents for the cost of held unconstitutional even though private school placement for a the teachers union had concurred. handicapped child, the court However, Justice Lewis F. Powell, decided, if the individualized Jr., joined by three other justices, education program developed for said that broad affirmative action the child in a public school setting plans with hiring goals for is deemed inadequate by the parents minorities might be permitted. This and a federal court concurs. The means that public employers for the court pointed out that the first time have the court's blessing Education for All Handicapped to use carefully tailored hiring goals Children Act (Public Law 94-142) to increase the number of minority mandates a "free appropriate public employees. Civil rights groups education" for all disabled students viewed the reverse discrimination and gives federal courts broad r..22:: COURT RULINGS 214discretion to grant relief to parents the President must approve, the &satisfied with what a public budget reductions automatically school can offer. The court held mandated by the law to eliminate that this mandate covers retroactive the federal deficit by 1991. The reimbursement of private school impetus for budget-balancing costs. remains, and severe budget cuts are still anticipated in most domestic David D. v. Dartmouth School programs. However, the court's Committee decision invalidated the reductions First U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals made in 1986. For Department of November 15, 1985 Education programs, these cuts totaled $170.9 million. Where state standards for providing educational services to handicapped children are higher than those Repayment of Federal Funds provided under the federal Education of the Handicapped laws Bennett v. New Jersey and Bennett the court ruled that an eligible v. Kentucky child is entitled to the higher state U.S. Supreme Court level of services. In making the March 19, 1985 decision, the court found no States must repay federal funds Eleventh Amendment bar to federal used illegally, even if in good faith, court enforcement of the higher to provide compensatory education state standards, which were services to disadvantaged children. incorporated into federal law with This high court decision overturned passage of Pubic Law 94-142. appeals court rulings in both cases. New Jersey officials argued that Congress in 1978 legalized the Federal Budget Deficit services they had provided in 1970-72 to children in schools that Synar v. U.S. were not eligible for such services July 7, 1986 under Title I of the Elementary and The court struck down on Secondary Education Act (now constitutional grounds a major Chapter I of the Education provision of the Balanced Budget Consolidation and Improvement and Deficit Reduction Act of 1985, P ct). Justice Sandra Day O'Connor better known as Gramm-Rudman- wrote that "neither the statutory Hollings. The court ruled that the language nor the legislative history provision giving the Comptroller indicates the Congress intended the General, who works for Congress, substantive standards .. . to apply the authority to trigger the law's retroactively." In Kentucky, Title I automatic budget cuts impinges funds were used for the entire upon the authority of the executive educational program of children branch, which originates budget placed in special readiness classes. requests. Congress anticipated the The practice was illegal, the court ruling and created a fallback found, because federal funds were position in the law. Under it, intended to supplement, but not members will have to vote on, and supplant, state and local resources. E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 Students Rights Brewer v. Austin Independent 215 School District New jersey v. T.L.O. Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals U.S. Supreme Court January 14, 1986 January 15, 1985 A student found with mariiudna and Citing "major social problems" in drug paraphernalia on the school schools, the court gave school campus admitted owning but not officials the right to search students selling the drug to other students. suspected of carrying weapons, drug He was given the maximum period dealing, or just violating school of suspension by school officials rules. Writing for the majority, who said that they were "99 percent Justice Byron R. White declared sure the student was dealing." The that constitutional restrictions on court upheld the school's decision police searches of suspects in "because the punishment (the criminal casesthe need for student) received for the offense warrants and clear probable was within the limits authorized by causedo not apply in schools. The district policy." ruling, however, still prohibits unreasonable searches. New Jersey Bethel School District No. 403 v. officials had argued that students Fraser have no rights to be free from U.S. Supreme Court searches. July 7, J986 Carla Odenheim et al. v. Restricting the First Amendment Carlstadt-East Rutherford School rights of public school students, the District court held that school officials have New Jersey Superior Court broad leeway to discipline students December 10, 1985 for using "vulgar and offensive" language. Reversing lower court A school board policy requiring all decisions, the high court sustained students in a Bergen County high the suspension of a high school school to submit to drug testing, student who used sexual references the nation's first such blanket but no obscene words in a school testing program, was ruled assembly nominating speech on unconstitutional by the court. The behalf of a student body candidate. board contended that drug use was an illness subject to the same mandatory medical examinations of students used to identify diabetes and other ailments. The court disagreed, saying that the school was trying "to control student discipline under the guise of medical procedure."

225 216Major National Education Organizations

American Alliance for Health, an educational organization Physical Education, Recreation structured for the purpose of and Dance supporting, encouraging, and 1900 Association Drive, providing assistance to member Reston, VA 22091 gi oups throughout the nation as (703) 476-3400 they seek to initiate, develop, and Interim Executive Vice conduct programs in health, President: Hal Haywood physical education, leisure, and Periodicals: Journal of movement-related activities for the Physical Education, enrichment of human life. Recreation, and Dance; Composed of six member Research Quarterly for associations, the organization is Exercise and Sport; governed by an appointed board of UPDATE; Health Education; governors and an elected executive Fitting In (fitness newsletter committee. for fifth and sixth graders) 1987 national convention American Association for Adult and April 13-17, Las Vegas, Continuing Education Nevada 1201 16th Street, NW, 1988 national convention Suite 230 April 6-10, Kansas City, Washington, DC 20036 Missouri (202) 822-7866 Established in 1885, The American Executive Director: Judith Alliance for Health, Physical Ann Koloski Education, Recreation and Dance is Periodicals: Lifelong 2 2'6, E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8

Learning; Omnibus of continuing education opportunities, 217 Practice and Research; Adult and advocacy services for its Education Quarterly; AAACE members. Newsletter AACD has been instrumental in 1987 national convention setting professional and ethical October 26-29, Washington, standards for the counseling D.C. profession; has made strides in 1988 national convention accreditation, licensure, and November 2-5, Tulsa, national certification; and Oklahoma represents members' interests with The American Association for Adult other professional associations, and Continuing Education provides before Congress, and with federal a forum where educators of adult agencies. students can speak out on issues, AACD members work in and take actions that improve education settings from preschool public awareness, understanding, through higher education, in and support for adult and mental health agencies, community continuing education. organizations, correctional institutions, employment agencies, American Association for rehabilitation programs, Counseling and Development government, business, industry, 5999 Stevenson Avenue, research facilities, and private Alexandria, VA 22304 practice. (703) 823-9800 Executive Vice President: American Association of Colleges Patrick J. McDonough for Teacher Education Periodicals: Guidepost; One Dupont Circle, NW, Journal of Counseling and Suite 610, Washington, DC Developoment 20036 1987 national convention (202) 293-2450 April 23-25, New Orleans, Lxecutive Director: David G. Louisiana Imig 1988 national convention Periodicals: Journal of March 20-23, Chicago, Teacher Education: Briefs Illinois 1987 national convention The American Association for February 12-15, Washington, Counseling and Development D.C. (formerly the American Personnel 1988 national convention and Guidance Association) is a Febrary 17-21, New private, nonprofit organization Orleans, Louisiana dedicated to the growth and The American Association of enhancement of the counseling and Colleges for Teacher Education is a human development profession. national, voluntary organization of Founded in 1952, AACD is a colleges and universities that membership association with more prepare the nation's teachers and than 48,000 members in the U.S. other education personnel. As the and 50 foreign countries. It fulcrum for innovation in teacher provides leadership training, education, AACTE provides a locus 227- ORGANIZATIONS 218for discussion and decision-making Orleans, Louisiana on professional education issues of 1988 national convention state, national, and international February 19-22, Las Vegas, significance. AACTE is dedicated to Nevada improving teacher preparation The American Association of School programs and overall professional Administrators, founded in 1865, performance, and represents serves more than 18,000 members teacher education interests before who include school Congress, state legislatures, the superintendents, central office media, and oi.... administrators, school principals, board members, professors of American Association of educational administration, and Community and Junior Colleges other local, state, and federal One Dupont Circle, NW, education officials. Suite 410, Washington, DC AASA: 20036 Seeks excellence in educational (202) 293-7050 administration; President: Dale Parnell Initiates and supports laws, Periodicals: Community, policies, research, and practice to Technical, and Junior improve education; College Journal; AACJC Promotes programs and activities Letter that focus on leadership for 1987 national convention learning and educational April 22-25, Dallas, Texas excellence; and 1988 national convention Fosters a climate in which quality April 24-27, Las Vegas, education can thrive. Nevada AASA programs include the The American Association of following: Community and Junior Colleges is a The annual AASA convention, national association representing which draws from 15,060 to and providing advocacy, leadership, 20,000 educational leaders from and service tothe 1,221 around the world. community, technical, and junior The national Academy for School colleges throu :lout America. Executives, which provides professional development seminars to help school American Association of School administrators increase their Administrators knowledge and skills. 1801 North Moore Street, The National Center for the Arlington, VA 22209 Improvement of Learning, which (703) 528-0700 focuses on sharing information, Executive Director: Richard ideas, and research to help D. Miller administrators more effectively Periodicals: Annual Report; manage curriculum and The School Administrator; instruction and improve learning. The Job Bulletin The association is governed by a 1987 national convention nationally elected executive February 20-23, New committee, consisting of six 8 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 members, plus the president, University Professors represents 219 president-elect, and vice president. college and university faculty The immediate past president and concerning academic freedom and executive director serve in an ex tenure issues and standards officio capacity. Each year, a governing professional relationships delegate assembly is constituted to in the academic community. AAUP assist AASA in developing policy and members, including 52 campuses position statements on a number of where AAUP is the elected vital issues. bargaining representative, number 52,000 from 1,200 campuses across American Association of School the country. Personnel Administrators 6483 Tanglewood Lane, American Council oil Education Seven Hills, OH 44131 One Dupont Circle, NW, (216) 524-3030 Suite 800, Washington, D.C. Executive Director: 20036 Raymond E. Curry (202) 939-9300 Periodicals: AASPA Bulletin; President: Robert H. Atwell Annual Directory of Periodicals: Higher Personnel Practices and Education and National Prot' rams Affairs; Educational Record 1987 national convention 1987 national convention October 19-23, San Diego, October 26-28, Washington, California DC 1963 national convention 1988 national convention October 16-20, Valley Forge, October 3-5, Boston, Pennsylvania Massachusetts The American Association of School The American Council on Personnel Administrators promotes Education is the umbrella the professional dev.lopment of organization for colleges and public school administrators universities in the United States. involved with human resources Membership, about 1,500, is management. c.,mposed of colleges and universities, from two-year to American Association of University graduate schools, and other higher Professors education associations. 1012 14th Street, NW, Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005 American Council on the Teaching (202) 737-5900 of Foreign Languages, Inc. General Secretary: Ernst 579 Broadway, Benjamin Hastings-on-Hudson, NY Periodical: Academe 10706 1987 national convention (914) 478-2011 June 19-20, Los Angeles, Executive Director: California C. Edward Scebold 1988 national convention Periodicals: Public not yet determined Awareness Network The American Association of Newsletter; Foreign 220 ORGANIZATIONS 220 Language Annals American Federation of Teachers, 1987 national convention AFL-CIO November 20-22, Atlanta, 555 New Jersey Avenue, NW, Georgia Washington, DC 20001 1988 national convention (202) 879-4400 not yet determined President: Albert Shanker The American Council on the Periodicals: American Teaching of Foreign Languages is Teacher; American dedicated to advancing the teaching Educator; Public Service of all foreign languages at all levels Reporter of instruction and to serving the 1988 national biennial interests of the foreign language convention teaching profession. July 1-6, San Francisco, The membership of California approximately 8,000 includes Established in 1916, the foreign language educators of all 620,000-member American languages at all levels of instruction Federation of Teachers of the throughout the world. AFL-CIO serves elementary and secondary teachers, college and university professors, and other nonsupervisory personnel in American Educational Research education. Although the AFT Association represents teachers in urban, 1230 17th Street, NW, suburban, and rural school districts Washington, DC 20036 throughout the country, its (202) 223-9485 strongest concentration of members Executive Director: William lies in the major U.S. cities. J. Russell The goal of AFT's founders was to Periodicals: Educational form a national organization that Researcher; American would support full union rights for Educational Research teachers and would agree that Journal; Journal of professional status and academic Educational Statistics; freedom can be achieved only Educational Evaluation and through affiliation with the trade Policy Analysis; Review of union movement. Educational Research The national office provides 1987 national convention technical assistance to its state and April 20-24, Washington, local affiliates in organizing and D.C. collective bargaining activities, and 1988 national convention provides support through its April 5-9, New Orleans, legislative, political action, public Louisiana relations, human rights, research, American Educational Research educational issues, and editorial Assoc;ation seeks to improve departments. education by the encouragement The AFT has more than 2,000 and dissemination of research and autonomous local affiliates that evaluation. It has an international have their own constitutions, elect membership of 14,000. their own officers, set their own -zao E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 dues structures, and formulate local business and industry, public 221 goals and policies. !most states, schools, cooperative extension An locals are affiliated with one service, colleges and universities, another through AFT state entrepNneurial activities, and federations. consumer information positions. The AFT delegate body is apportioned on the basis of local American Library Association membership. The biennial AFT 50 E. Huron Street, convention, attended by the Chicago, IL 60611 delegates, is the highest national (312) 944-6780 AFT policy-making body. Every two Executive Director: Thomas years delegates elect the AFT J. Galvin national president and the 34 vice Periodicals: Choice, School presidents who make up the AFT Library Media Quarterly; executive council, a body that sets Library Resources & broad national policy for the Technical Services; organization. The elected president Information Technology and is the top administrative officer of Libraries; Top of the News the AFT. 1987 national convention June 27-July 3, San Francisco, California 1988 national convention American Home Economics July 9-14, New Orleans, Association Louisiana 2010 Massachusetts Avenue, The American Library Association is NW, Washington, DC 20036 the oldest and largest library (202) 862-8300 association in the world. Founded Executive Director: Joan in 1876, the ALA promotes libraries McFadden and librarianship toward assuring Periodicals: Journal of the delivery of user-oriented library Home Economics; Home and information service to the Economics Research public. Its 42,000 members include Journal; AHEA Action librarians, libraries, library trustees, 1987 national convention authors, publishers, information June 29-July 2, Indianapolis, scientists, business firms, and Indiana friends of the library in the U.S., 1988 national convention Canada, and abroad. June 20-23, Baltimore, The ALA is recognized by the U.S. Maryland Secretary of Education and by the The 25,000 member American Council on Postsecondary Home Economics Association serves Accreditation as the only as the voice of the home economics accrediting agency for American profession to improve the quality library education programs. and standards of individual and The association is governed by a family life through education, council of 100 members elected at research, cooperative programs, and large, 51 members elected by state public information. AHEA members chapters, and 11 members elected are home economists employed in by divisions. The executive board is

I,11?3 1 l! .... ORGANIZATIONS 222composed of the elected officers, dedicated to strengthening the immediate past president, and counseling services on all education eight members elected by the levels. council from among the members ASCA membership, currently of that body. The association is approximately 10,000, is open to all served by a staff of 200 and AACD members engaged in school administeret. >y an executive counseling or related activities at director. least 50 percent of the time. A regular member must have a American School Counselor bachelor's degree and an additional Association 15 semester hours graduate credit (Division of American in courses related to guidance and Association for Counseling counseling. Professional and Development) membership is also available. 5999 Stevenson Avenue, Alexandria, VA 22304 American Society for Training and (703) 823-9800 Development Executive Director, AACD: 1630 Duke Street, Box 1443, Patrick J. McDonough Alexandria, VA 22313 Periodicals:The School (703) 683-8100 Counselor; Elementary Executive Vice President: School Guidance and Curtis E. Plott Counseling; ASCA Counselor Periodicals:Training and Newsletter Development Journal; 1987 national convention Info-Line; National Report April 22-25, New Orleans, 1987 national convention Louisiana June 21-26, Atlanta, Georgia 1988 national convention 1988 national convention March 20-23, Chicago, May 22-27, Dallas, Texas Illinois The American Society for Training The American School Counselor and Development (ASTD) is the Association welcomes into world's largest membership membership school counselors, organization for professionals who counseling and guidance directors, specialize in employee education supervisors, administrators, and all and human resource development. others who are engaged in activities Over 23,000 national members that have an impact on a student's serve the field of employer-based success and well-being at school, training as instructors, managers, work, and home. ASCA helps administrators, and researchers in a counselors and other youth broad range of business, advocates deliver more effective educational, government, and services by providing the means and service organizations. information to enhance skills, The society promotes the support for self-evaluation, and professional growth, competence, research to measure counselor and effectiveness of its members; effectiveness. Its public relations, serves as the communications link interprofessional relations, and for the human resource government relations activities are development community; and 232.., E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 supports public policy conducive to American Statistical Association 223 greater undei_tanding and 806 15th Street, NW, enhancement of human resource Washington, D.C. 20005 principles and programs. (202) 393-3253 The society supports over 140 Executive Director: Fred C. local ASTD chapters. Specialized Leone interests of members are met in Periodicals:Journal of subgroups which consist of six American Statistical professional practice areas, 16 Association; American networks, and 36 industry Statistician; Amstat News groups. 1987 national convention ASTD is governed by a August 17-20, San 12-member board of directors Francisco, California elected by the membership. A 1988 national convention 19-member board of governors acts August 8-11, Fort Collins, as an advisory council. Colorado The objectives of the American Statistical Association are to foster statistics and statistical American Speech-Language- applications, to promote unity and Hearing Association effectiveness of effort among all 10801 Rockville Pike, concerned with statistical problems, Rockville, MD 20852 and to increase the contribution of (301) 897-5700 statistics to human welfare. The Executive Director: 15,000 members of the association Frederick T. Spahr are located throughout the world. Periodicals:ASHA; Journal of Speech and Hearing American Vocational Association Disorders; Journal of 1410 King Street, Hearing and Speech Alexandria, VA 22314 Research; Language, Speech (703) 683-3111 and Hearing Services in Executive Director: Charles Schools H. Buzzell 1987 national convention Periodicals:Vocational November 13-16, New Education Journal, Update, Orleans, Louisiana Job Market 1988 national convention 1987 national convention Boston, Massachusetts December 4-8, Las Vegas, The American Speech-Language- Nevada Hearing Association is a scholarly 1988 national convention and professional organization of December 2-6, St. Louis, approximately 43,000 members who Missouri are speech-language pathologists, The American Vocational audiologists, and speech and Association, formed in 1926, is a hearing scientists working primarily professional organization with a in public schools, universities, full-time commitment to helping community clinics, hospitals, and individual vocational educators and private practice settings. institutions provide effective 233 I ORGANIZATIONS 224programs of education for work. through early adolescence. AVA's activities focus on legislation, Membership of 12,000 includes program development, professional teachers, teacher educators, school growth opportunities, administrators, students of organizational development, and education, parents, and librarians. public information. Through its newsletter and The 50,000 membership is journals, its book publishing composed of vocational teachers, program, and its annual study administrators, teacher educators, conferences, the association researchers, and guidance encourages the continuing counselors involved in planning and professional growth of its members. conducting vocational programs at Additic wally, local and the secondary, post-secondary, and state/province affiliates conduct adult levels, and is divided into five programs that inform not only geographical regions to provide a members but the larger mechanism for greater involvement community as well on issues of of state vocational associations. concern to children. The AVA board of directors and the assembly of delegates are AVA's policy-making bodies, and consist of representatives who reflect the Association for Educational views and interests of the various Communications and Technology disciplines that fall under vocational 1126 16th Street, NW, education. Washington, DC 20036 (202) 466-4780 Association for Childhood Association Manager: Education International Stanley D. Zenor 11141 Georgia Avenue, Suite Periodicals: Tech Trends; 200, Wheaton, MD '1902 ECTJ; Journal of (301) 942-2443 Instructional Development; Executive Director: James S. Access Packer 1987 national convention Periodicals: Childhood February 25-March 1, Education; ACEI Exchange Atlanta, Georgia Newsletter; Journal of 1988 national convention Research in Childhood January 14-19, New Orleans, Education Louisiana 1987 national convention The Association for Educational April 30-May 3, Omaha, Communications and Technology is Nebraska an international professional 1988 national convention association dedicated to the April 6-9, Salt Lake City, improvement of instruction Utah through the full range of The Association for Childhood communication and technology. An Education International is a umbrella organization of 4,90 nonprofit professional organization members, it consists of nine related devoted to the education and technical divisions and 14 affiliate well-being of children, from infancy organizations.

::-2-3% 4 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 Association for Supervision and set general policies; and a 225 Curriculum Development 13-member elected executive 125 N. West Street, council (including the association's Alexandria, VA 22314 president, past president, and (703) 549-9110 president-elect). Executive Director: Gordon Cawelti Association for the Advancement of Periodicals: Educational International Education Leadership; ASCD Update Room 200, Norman Hall, 1987 national convention University of Florida, March 21-24, New Orleans, Gainesville, FL 32611 Louisana (904) 392-1542 1988 national convention Executive Director: Gordon March 12-15, Boston E. Parsons Massachusetts Periodicals: Inter-ed; AAIE The Association for Supervision and Bulletin Curriculum Development focuses 1987 national convention on general improvement of February 17-19, New education through promotion of Orleans, Louisiana optimum school practices and 1988 national convention programs. ASCD seeks to assure February 15-18, San Diego, quality educational opportunities California for all students, and to provide its The objective of the Association for members with effective information the Advancement of International and training. Education is to promote ASCD's origins go back to 1943. professional growth in the 1 With a membership of 71,000, international schools located ASCD today calls itself the nation's around the globe. AAIE also serves largest education leadership as a link between American organization. Its members include educators and those who represent school superintendents, principals, the overseas schools. Membership directors, supervisors, professors, in AAIE includes 500 school heads and teachers. from the U.S. and overseas plus ASCD activities include an annual many institutions of higher conference attended by 6,000-7,000 learning in the U.S. participants, a wide range of curriculum study institutes, a Assuciation of American Colleges research information service, 1818 R Street NW, numerous individual projects, and a Washington, DC 20009 publications program that includes (202) 387-3760 videotapes and other media. President: John N. Chandler In addition to individual Periodicals: Liberal members, ASCD maintains affiliated Education; The Forum for units in all states plus Germany, Liberal Education; Scan; On England, and Canada. Campus with Women The association's governance 1987 national convention arrangements include a January 15-17, Washington, 200-member board of directors to D.C. 235 ORGANIZATIONS 226 1988 national convention February 15-18, Houston, January 14-16, Atlanta, Texas Georgia 1988 national convention The Association of American February 13-17, San Diego, Colleges is dedicated to the California encouragement, enhancement, The Association of Teacher and support of liberal learning and Educators is a national, individual to strengthening the quality of membership organization devoted higher education and academic solely to the improvement of leadership at the nation's colleges teacher education for both and universities. Its 575 members school-based and campus-based are drawn from every sector of educators. ATE members represent higher educationpublic and over 650 colleges and universities, private, two-year and four-year 500 major school systems, and the across the nation. majority of the state departments of Association of School Business education. There are approximately Officials, International 3,000 regular members and 500 1760 Reston Avenue, Suite institutional members. 411, Reston, VA 22090 (703) 478-0405 Council for Advancement and Executive Director: Ronald Support of Education A. Allen 11 Dupont Circle NW, Suite Periodicals: School Business 400, Washington, DC 20036 Affairs; Accents (202) 328-5900 1987 national convention President: Gary H. Quehl October 18-22, San Antonio, Periodicals: Currents; IQ.; Texas Matching Gift Notes 1988 national convention-- 1987 national convention October 2-6, Detroit, July 13-16, Boston, Michigan Massachusetts The mission of the Association of 1988 national convention School Business Officials, July 10-14, Antheim, International is to promote California excellence in education by serving The Council for Advancement and as the primary resource for Support of Education has a excellence in school business membership of close to 2,800 management. nonprofit educational institutions that include lolleges, universities, Association of Teacher Educators college related foundations, 1900 Association Drive, independent alumni associations, Reston, VA 22091 and accredited independent (703) 620-3110 elementary and secondary schools. Executive Director: Robert Representing these institutions are Stevenson approximately 12,000 individues Periodicals: Action in involved with alumni Teacher Education; ATE administration, educational fund Newsletter raising, government relations, 1987 national convention institutional relations, and 236 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 information services. Periodicals: Exceptional 227 CASE serves as a principal public Children; Teaching Exceptional affairs arm for education, call:ng Children; G:ndate the public's attention to the 1987 national convention contributions and needs of April 20-24, education through its wide range of Chicago, Illinois work with the media; its workshops 1988 national convention and conferences in areas such as March 28-April 1, institutional advancement, Washington, D.C. professional development, educational fund raising, Council of Chief State School communications improvement, and Officers alumni administration; and its 400 North Capitol Street, evaluation and critique services. NW, Washington, DC 20001 (202) 393-8161 Council for American Private Executive Director: William Education F. Pierce 1624 Eye Street, NW, Periodicals: State line; Washington, D.C. 20006 Handbook (202) 659-0016 1987 national convention Executive Director: Robert November 13-17, Asheville, L. Smith North Carolina Periodicals: Outlook; 1988 national convention Cape letter; Private Schools not yet determined in America; Myth and Established in 1927, the Council of Reality Chief State School Officers is No conventions held composed of 57 state The Council for American Private superintendents and commissioners Education is a Washington-based of education in the 50 states, the coalition representing elementary District of Columbia, American and secondary private schools. Samoa, Guam, the Northern CAPE is comprised of 15 national Mariana Islands, ruerto Rico, the private school associations that Trust Territory of the Pacific serve or operate approximately Islands, and the Virgin Islands. 15,000 private schools for about 4.2 Recognizing the responsibility of million students-75 percent of the the states to exert leadership in the nation's private school students. conduct of American education, Member organizations are nonprofit CCSSO and subscribe to a policy of Provides various services plus nondiscrimination in their avenues for cooperative action. admission policies. Conducts special projects that address problems of concern at Council for Exceptional Children the state level. 1920 Association Drive, Coordinates seminars, Reston, VA 22091 educational travel, and special (703) 620-3660 study programs. Executive Director: In addition, CCSSO provides Jeptha V. Greer leadership in vocational eduction, 237 ORGANIZATIONS 228data management, sex equity, the Council of the Great City Schools humanities, and other areas. 1413 K Street NW, Suite Other projects include the National 400, Washington, DC 20005 Teacher-of-the-Year Program and (202) 371-0163 international visitations from Executive Director: Samuel various ministries of education. B. Husk Each year, during CCSSO's Periodicals: Legislative annual meeting, the membership Activity Report; Urban elects the president, president-elect, Education Weekly; News and and board of directors. Notes 1987 and 1988 national conventionsnot yet determined Council of Education Facility The Council of the Great City Planners, International Schools was organized in 1961 to 1060 Carmack Road, Suite conduct programs advocating 160, Columbus, OH 43210 important values, ideas, and policies (614) 292-1521 that would advance the cause of Acting Executive Director: urban youth. Members of the Arthur E. Wohlers Council are 37 large urban school Periodicals: CEFP Journal; districts with 35,000 or more CEFP News & Wews students and located in cities with 1987 national convention over 250,000 residents. October 3-6, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Distributive Education Clubs of 1988 national convention America October 9-12, Milwaukee, 1908 Association Drive, Wisconsin Reston, VA 22091 The Council of Education Facility (703) 860-5000 Planners, International is a Executive Director: nonprofit organization founded in Frederick L. Williford 1921 to promote the establishment Periodical: New Dimensions of reasonable standards for school 1987 national convention buildings and equipment with due April 30-May 3, New regard for economy of expenditure, Orleans, Louisiana dignity of design, utility of space, 1988 national convention healthful conditions, and safety of April 28-May 1, Salt Lake human life. CEFPI membership is City, Utah composed of individuals and groups Distributive Education Clubs of whose professional activities involve America is a student organization a responsibility for planning, that creates co-curricular designing, creating, equipping, and marketing, management, and maintaining the physical leadership development educational environment for education. The activities for students enrolled in 1,000 members are found marketing and distributive throughout the United States, education programs. DECA's Canada, and several countries membership consists of abroad. approximatley 200,000 high school 238- E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 and college marketing and Periodicals: State education 229 management students in all 50 Leader; Footnotes; states, four U.S. territories, the Issuegrams District of Columbia, and Canada. 1987 national convention July 8-11, Denver, Colorado EDPRESS 1988 national convention Glassboro State College August 10-13, Baltimore, Glassboro, NJ 08028 Maryland (609) 863-7349 The Education Commission of the Executive Director: Donald States (ECS), originally proposed by R. Stoll James Conant, became a reality in Periodicals: Annual 1965 after its sponsors gained EDPRESS Membership support from almost every major Roster; EDPRESS News education organization in the U.S. 1987 and 1988 national and from a number of state conventionsnot yet governors who believed that a determined. compact among states was EDPRESS was organized in 1895 in necessary in order to develop a Denver by the editors of eight nationwide education policy. educational journals who banded Today, 48 states (all but Montana together to deal with problems and Nevada) plus the District of involving such matters as rising Columbia, Puerto Rico, American postal rates, copyright Samoa, and the Virgin Islands are infringement, and plagiarism. members. During the ensuing nine decades, ECS works with advisers from 25 the association's purpose has national organizations to: evolved into the goals of advancing 1. Conduct policy research, the cause of educatioi. and surveys, and special studies in improving the quality of education response to the needs of state communications. EDPRESS today policy-makers. has approximately 500 members 2. Serve as a clearinghouse of across the United States and in information about state policies and Canada, most of whom are editors proposals, statistical information, or staff members of education research findings, and other sources publications. The association is of data; governed by a board of directors 3. Organize forums at the state, made up of the president, regional, and national levels for vice-president, secretary, treasurer, education leaders on critical and three members at large. emerging issues in education; and EDPRESS representatives serve 12 4. Facilitate nationwide North American regions. cooperation in education by representing states' interests in the Education Commission of the national arena, stimulating States intergovernmental coordination, 1860 Lincoln Street, Denver, and helping state officials exercise CO 80295 leadership beyond their state roles. (303) 830-3622 Each member jurisdiction has President: Frank Newman seven voting commissioners,

2 39: ORGANIZATIONS rogenerally including the governor, a nine-rneniber board of directors member of each of the state's that includes elected officers legislative bodies, and four president, vice-president for active individuals appointed by the members, vice-president for governor. These often include the associate members, and secretary chief state school officer, a member plus the immediate past president. of the state board of education, and a leader from the higher education Educational Research Service, Inc. community. 1800 North Kent Street, Arlington, VA 22209 Education Writers Association (703) 243-2100 1001 Connecticut Avenue, President: Glen E. Robinson NW, Suite 310, Washington, Periodicals: ERS Bulletin; DC 20036 Spectrum; Management Executive Director: Lisa J. Operations Information Walker Exchange; Special Days and Periodicals: Education Weeks for Planning School Reporter; Covering the Calendar. Education Beal No conventions held 1987 national convention Educational Research Servia, Inc. April 2-5, San Francisco, is an independent, nonprofit California corporation sponsored by seven 1988 national convention national associations of education not yet determined administrators to serve the nation's Organized in 1947, the Education school systems. Writers Association is a Founded in 1973, ERS compiles professional, nonprofit organization and analyzes data bearing on that works to improve education effective education decision making, reporting to the public. and functions as an information EWA has over 470 members in 44 clearinghouse both for day-to-day states and the District of Columbia. operations and for long-range EWA's membership i, divided into planning. It is thus a resource for two broad categories: active and education leaders, school district associate. Active members include officials, school administrative television and radio reporters who teams, and officials of school specialize in covering education, as boards. well as active education reporters The annual fee for ERS is working for newspapers. Associate graduated in order to open members include school and college participation to large and small public information officers and school districts alike. Districts other communicators who work for affiliated with ERS receive such educational institutions and services as: on-call information, organizations. special school management studies The organization holds topical and reports, national survey on conferences and regional meetings, salaries and compensations, and sponsors the National Awards summaries of ongoing school for Education Reporting. research, educator status and EWA is governed by a opinion surveys, access to 2() E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 successful management approaches national organization of students 231 by other districts, and a enrolled in vocational agriculture computer-generated local school who are preparing for careers in budget analysis prepared for agricultural business and individual districts on request. production. The 434,643 members of the FFA can be found in every Future Business Leaders of America state as well as Puerto Rico, the 1908 Association Drive, District of Columbia, and the Virgin Reston, VA 22091 Islands. (703) 860-3334 Executive Director: Edward Future Homemakers of America D. Miller 1910 Association Drive, Periodicals: Tomorrow's Reston, VA 22091 Business Leader; Hotline; (703) 476-4900 Graduate Record Executive Director: Louisa 1987 national convention Liddell July 1-8, Anaheim, Periodical: Teen Times California 1987 national convention 1988 national convention July 20-24, Washington, June 25-July 2, Cincinnati, D.C. Ohio 1988 national convention Future Business Leaders of America July 11-14, Cincinnati, Ohio is a nonprofit, educational Future Homemakers of America is a association for students pursuing national vocational student careers in business. The organization for young men and membership of about 200,000 women enrolled in home economics consists of middle and high school education through grade 12 and students in all 50 states, American focusing on personal growth, family territories, and American schools in life, vocational preparation, and Europe. community service. The organization has a membership of Futui. Farmers of America 325,000 joined in a network of 5632 Mount Vernon 12,000 chapters in 53 state Memorial Highway, associations, and over seven million Alexandria, VA 22309 alumni. (703) 360-3600 National Executive Institute for "i.ducational Leadership Secretary: C. Coleman 1001 Connecticut Avenue, Harris NW, Washington, DC 20036 Periodical: National Future (2u2) 822-8405 Farmer President: Michael Usdan 1987 national convention Periodical: Network News November 1244, Kansas No conventions held City, Missouri The mission of the Institute for 1988 national convention Educational Leadership is to November 10-12, Kansas improve the quality of decision City, Missouri making and the effectiveness of Future Farmers of America is a policy-making in education and 241 ORGANIZATIONS 232related public policy areas. International Technology Education Thousands of educators, legislators, Association journalists, school board members, 1914 Association Drive, business leaders, governmental Reston, VA 22091 officials, and others throughout the (703) 860-2100 country have been involved with Executive Director: Kendall IEL as Fellows or more indirectly as Starkweather participants in its programs in Periodicals: The Technology Washington, D.C. and in more than Teacher; Technology 40 states. Education News 1987 national convention March 23-27, Tulsa, Oklahoma International Reading Association 1988 national convention 800 Barksdale Road, Newark, March 21-25, Norfolk, DE 19714 Virginia (302) 731-1600 The International Technology Executive Director: Ronald Education Association (formerly the Mitchell American Industrial Arts Periodicals: The Reading Association) includes in its Teacher; Journal of Reading; membership teachers, guidance Reading Research Quarterly; counselors, supervisors, and teacher Lecture y Vida educators who work in the field of 1987 national convention technology education and the May 3-7, Anaheim, industrial arts. ITEA's priority is to California serve the technology educator with 19C8 national convention materials and programs for May 1-5, Toronto, Canada classroom use and professional The International Reading development. Association has a membership of nearly 64,000 classroom teachers, Music Educators National reading specialists, consultants, Conference administrators, supervisors, college 1902 Association Drive, teachers, researchers, psychologists, Reston, VA 22091 librarians, and parents in 85 (703) 860-4000 countries. Executive Director: John J. Officially begun in 1956, IRA Mahlmann seeks improve the quality of Periodicals: Standpost; reading instruction through the Music Educators Journal; study of the reading process and Journal of Research in teaching techniques, to promote a Music Education lifetime habit of reading and an 1988 national biennial awareness of the impact of reading, convention and to enhance every reader's April 18-24, Indianapolis, proficiency. Indiana More than 1,150 councils ana The Music Educators National national affiliates in 30 nations Conference is dedicated to the form IRA's working foundation. support and advancement of the ? 1 g EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987 - 1988 music education profession. MENC The National Association for 233 represents more than 56,000 music Bilingual Education is a educators at every level, from professional association for people kindergarten to university, who work with or care about throughout the United States and limited-English-proficient ivarners abroad. and who believe that bilingualism is good for the nation. National Art Education Association 1916 Association Drive, National Association for the Reston, VA 22091 Education of Young Children (703) 860-8000 1834 Connecticut Avenue, Executive Director: Thomas NW, Washington, DC 20009 A. Hatfield (202) 232-8777 Periodicals: Art Education; Executive Director: Marilyn NAEA News M. Smith 1987 national convention Periodical: Young Children April 22-26, Boston, 1987 national convention Massachusetts November 12-15, Chicago, 1988 national convention Illinois April 7-12, Los Angeles, 1988 national convention California not yet determined The National Art Education Association is a professional The National Association for the association dedicated to fostering Education of Young Children is quality visual art education at ail dedicated to improving the quality instructional levels in the nation s and availability of early childhood schools, unive;sities, museums, and programs for children from birth oller institutions. through age eightthe critical Its 8,000 members are educators years of development. Among the ;n the visual arts, elementary school 50,000 members are teachers of throt:gh university and continuing young children, family day-care eduLation, in all 50 states and providers, early childhood teacher Canada. educators, researchers, parents, and pediatricians associated with 350 local, state, and regional affiliate National Association for Bilingual groups. Education 1201 16th Street, NW, St:.te National Association for Women 461, Washington, DC 20036 Deans, Achr" :istrators and (202) 822-7870 Counselors President: Gene T. Chavez 1325 18th Street, NW, Suite Periodicals: NABE Journal; 210, Washington, DC 20036 NABE News (202) 659-93:10 1987 national convention Executive Director: Patricia March 29-April 3, Denver, Rueckel Colorado Periodicals: Journal of the 1988 national convention NAWDAa News Leaflet April 24-30, Houston, Texas 1987 national convention- 24 ORGANIZATIONS 234 March 11-14, Baltimore, trainers, and life science students at Maryland all levels of instruction. 1988 national convention March 16-19, Pittsburgh, National Association of Elementary Pennsylvania School Principals The National Association for 1615 Duke Street, Women Deans, Administrators and Alexandria, VA 22314 Counselors is dedicated to providing (703) 684-3345 professional support for women Executive Director: Samuel educators through programs, G. Sava services, advocacy, and scholarly Periodicals: Principal; publications. Since its inception in Communicator; Here's How; 1916, the association has focused Streamlined Seminar; on furthering educational Research Roundup; Report opportunities for women, to Parents promoting their professional 1987 national convention development and advancement, and March 28-April 1, Orlando, creating opportunities for women Florida educators to contribute to 1988 national convention education at the local and national April 16-20, San Francisco, levels. California Foundin 1921, the National Association of Elementary School Principals seeks to improve the National Association of Biology quality of education for children in Teachers the elementary and middle school 11250 Roger Bacon Drive grades, Suite 19, Raston, VA 22090 NAESP's 23,000 members (703!472 -1134 represent the 50 states, the District Ex. Ave Director: Patricia of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and 10 .1. McWethy Canadian provinces. NAESP Periodical: The American provides liaison with state Biology Teacher associations through a 1987 national convention rcpresentative in each state, October 15-18, Cincinnati, province, or other geographic Ohio region. 1988 national convention NAESP has consistently November 17-20, Chicago, promoted three broad objectives: Illinois To assure that elementary and The National Association of Biology middle school children receive Teachers is devoted exclusively to the best possible education and in the concerns of biology teachers the process develop a true love of and the improvement of biology learning; education. Members number 6,000 To enhance the professional skills from around the country and and leadership capabilities of all include biology teachers, elementary and middle school department heads, science principals; and supervisors, administrators, teacher To bring about greater public

241,1 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

understanding of the principal's 1,000 member schools and 235 role and responsibilities. associations throughout the U.S. Chief among NAESP's and abroad through direct services professional development programs to school heads, chief academic and are its national convention, an administrative officers, and annual state leaders meeting, its trustees. annual National Fellows Program (a week-long seminar on leadership National Association of Pupil proficiencies), the NAESP Scholars Personnel Administrators Program (to review recent research 125 N. West Street, findings), and the annual National Alexandria, VA 22314 Distinguished Principals Program, (703) 549-9110 cosponsored with the U.S. Executive Director: Charles Department of Education. M. Wilson NAESP's governing body, the Periodical:NAPPA News delegate assembly, is elected by the 1987 national convention membership and meets annually to March 21-24, New Orleans, establish goals, objectives, and Louisiana policies. Members of the board of 1988 national convention directors, each serving a three-year March 12-15, Boston, term, include the president, the Massachusetts president-elect, the past president, The National Association of Pupil directors elected in nine zones Personnel Administrators is a across the nation, and the executive national organization of school director in an ex officio capacity. administrators charged with districtwide administrative Nttional Association of Independent. responsibilities for pupil personnel Schools services. 18 Tremont Street, Boston, MA 02108 National Association of Secondary (617) 723-6900 School Principals President: John C. Esty, Jr. 1904 Association Drive, Periodicals:Independent Reston, VA 22091 School; Administrative (703) 860-0200 Forun:; Academic Forum Executive Director: Scott D. 1987 national convention Thomson February 26-28, Boston, Periodicals:NewsLeader; Massachusetts NAESP Bulletin; Curriculum 1988 national convention Report: Legal Memorandum; February 25-27, New York, Tips for Principals New York 1987 national convention The National Association of February 6-10, San Antonio, Independent Schools is an Texas educational service organization 1988 national convention- - whose mission is to promote quality March 4-8, Anaheim, in, enhance access to, and preserve California the independence of its member Composed primarily of high school schools. NAIS serves approximately and middle-level administrators, the ORGANIZATIONS 236National Association of Seconda, principalsan assistant principal School Principals (NASSP) is and a middle-level principaland described as the nation's largest the president and president-elect. organization for school Board members serve four-year administrators. Its 37,000 members terms; the president and also include assistant president-elect serve one-year superintendents, higher education terms. The executive director serves personnel, secondary school in an ex officio capacity. specialists, and others involved in high school and middle-level instruction. National Association of State Since its inception in 1916, Boards of Education NASSP has focused on new 701 North Fairfax Street, developments and practices in Suite 340, Alexandria, VA school administration and on 22314 improving the skills and (703) 684-4000 performance of its members. Executive Director: Phyllis NASSP institutes run for two and L. Blaunstein a half days and are conducted Periodicals: Education throughout the country, and the Times; State Board annual convention offers more than Connection 300 scheduled program events. 1987 national convention The NASSP research department October 6-11, Lexington, conducts major studies of the high Kentucky school and the middle-level 1998 national convention principalship, prepares reports, and not yet determined maintains a reference service. The National Association of State On the legislative front, NASSP Boards of Education (NASBE) works with the National Association represents the state and territorial of Elementary School Principals boards of education in 47 states, and other education groups to four territories, and the District of develop education legislation in Columbia. NASBE's principal cooperation with the Congress. objectives include: NASSP's student activities office Strengthening state leadership in sponsors the National Association of educational policy-making; Student Councils, which includes Promoting excellence in the more than-7,000 student councils education of all students; and administers the National Honor Advocating equality of access to Society and the National Junior educational opportunity; and Honor Society, along with the Assuring continued citizen Century III Leaders program, an support for public education. annual scholarship-leadership The association serves 700 develorment project. individuals, including members of NASSP's 18-member board of state boards of education, attorneys directors, elected by the for state boards, and executive membership at the annual meeting, secretaries of state boards. is composed of two principals from State boards of education have each of seven regions, two at-large been created in all but one state. au E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

Most boards have authority over point for the professionals who 237 vocational education and/or carry statewide responsibility for vocational rehabilitation. In ten the education of exceptional states, the state board of education children. Its purposes include is vested additionally with responding constructively to responsibility for postsecondary current problems and issues, learning. Elsewhere, separate encouraging active and effective community college boards or leadership in developing higher education commissions educational services and facilities, govern those sectors. stimulating helpful federal-state- About half of the state boards are local relationships in special elected; the remainder are education, and promoting special appointed by the governor or state education at the local, state, and legislature. Board size ranges from national levels. three to 24 members, and a typical NASDSE is governed by an term of office is from four to six eight-member board of directors years. Some common areas of state elected by the membership. board jurisdiction include curriculum standards, high school National Business Education graduation standard,;, professional Association personnel qualificatim .s. state 1914 Association Drive, education statutes aTI judicial Reston, VA 22091 functions, education agency (703) 860-8300 personnel appointments, federal Executive Directc.: 0. J. assistance program administration, Byrnside, Jr. and school facilities standards. Periodicals:Business NASBE is governed by an elected Education Foram; Yearbook board of directors and an appointed Issue executive committee. 1987 national convention April 15-18, Boston, Massachusetts National Association of State 1988 national convention Directors of Special Edecathm March 30-April 2, Denver, 2021 K Street, NW, Suite Colorado 315, Washington, DC 20006 The National Business Education (202) 296-1800 Association is a professional Executive Director: James R. organization devoted exclusively to Galloway serving business education. Periodicals:Counterpoint; Approximately two-thirds of the The liaison Bulletin Association's 17,000 members teach 1987 national convention in junior and senior high schools; October 31-November 4, others work in vo-tech centers, Scottsdale, Arizona junior/community colleges, 1988 national convention colleges/universities, private not yet determined business colleges, state and local Since 1938 the National Association departments of education, the of State Directors of Special federal government, and priva," Education has served as the focal business.

,2 4.7 ORGANIZATIONS 238 National Catholic Educational National Committee for Citizens in Association Education 1077 30th Street, NW, Suite 10840 Little Patuxent 100, Washington, DC 20007 Parkway, Suite 301, (202) 337-6232 Columbia, MD 21044 President, Sister Catherine (301) 997-9300 McNamee, C.S.J. Senior Associates: Carl Periodical: Momentum Marburger, J. William Rioux, 1987 national convention Stanley Sa lett April 20-23, New Orleans, Periodical: Network for Louisiana Public Schools 1988 national convention No conventions held April 4-7, New York, New Founded in 1973, the National York Committee for Citizens in Education is a nonprofit The National Catholic Educational organization that fosters and Association has pro "ided leadership to Catholic educatorsteachers, promotes parent involvement at the local level to improve the quality of administrators, religious education directors, pastors, and parents public education for their children. NCEE trains parents, educators, since 1904. and other citizens to work Its goals are to promote and constructively together and encourage the principle ideals provides information and resources of Christian education ad to facilitate this purpose. formation; to provide means for Catholic educators and their institutions to work cooperatively National Community Education and effectively for professional and Association personal growth; to promote and 119 North Payne Street, interpret the Catholic educational Alexandria, VA 22314 endeavor and its contribution to the (703) 683-6232 total national educational enterprise Executive Director: William and to the general welfare of the S. De Jong nation; to foster cooperation Periodicals: Community nationally and internationally Education Journal; among Catholic educational Community Education institutions and agencies that Today promote the general welfare of 1987 national convention society. December 2-4, Minneapolis, A board of directors, with the Minnesota president and headquarters staff, 1988 naticnal convention govern. Services to the 15,000 November 28-30, Orlando, institutional members of NCEA Florida include 11 regularly scheduled The National Community Education publications, some 140 other Association promotes and supports publications, research projects, the community involvement in K-12 annual convention, the Religious education, interagency partnerships Education Congress and Exposition. to address community needs, and E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 lifelong learning opportunities for compulsory education, including 239 learners of all ages and kindergarten, for all children. It backgrounds. About 1,500 also advocated child health and individual and institutional nutrition programs, later starting members from all 50 states, seven its own school lunch program. In Canadian provinces, and several 1899, it proposed a national public foreign countries are involved in health service and a juvenile justice community ecucation at the system. in 1903, it endorsed building, school district, stare education for handicapped, gifted, department, and university levels; and other children with special 38 state community education learning needs. Nearly 60 years associations are affiliated members. before the actual event in 1980, the PTA proposed a Cabinet-level U.S. Department of Education. Beginning in 1932, the National National Congress of Parents and PTA arranged physical examinations Teachers for millions of preschool children in 700 North Rush Street, its annual summer round-up. In the Chicago, IL 60611 1950s it supported trial tests of the (312) 787-0977 Salk polio vaccine and subsequently President: Ann P. Kahn vigorously supported that program. Periodicals: PTA Today; In 1977, it compiled data to show What's Happening in that excessive violence in TV Washington programming has a marked effect 1987 national convention on children. June 20-23, Dallas, Texas The National PTA has been 1988 national convention responsible for enact. ent of June 20-23, Salt Lake City, hundreds of child welfare laws, Utah speaks out on issue., of concern to Now 5,604,821 members strong, children, and develops programs the National Congress of Parents meeting the changing needs of and Teachers focuses on being an America's youth and families. advocate for the nation's youth. Today the National PTA has Founded in 1897 as the Nation... affiliate congresses in 50 states and Congress of Mothers, the nonprofit, the District of Columbia, and in nonpartisan coalition later American Department of Defense broadened its membership to Schools overseas. There are 25,000 include teachers, fathers, and other local units. concerned citizens. In 1924, the name was changed to National Congress of Parents and Teachers National PTA for short. In 1970, it National Council for the Social united with the National Congress Studies of Colored Parents and Teachers, 3501 Newark Street, NW, founded in 1926. Washington, DC 20016 From its inception, the National (202) 966-7840 PTA has emphasized innovation. In Executive Director: Frances its founding year, it called for Haley ,g4 9 ORGANIZATIONS 240 Periodicals: Social National Council of Teachers of Education; The Social Mathematics Studies Professional 1906 Association Drive, 1987 national convention Reston, VA 22091 November 13-17, Dallas, (703) 620-9840 Texas Executive Director: James D. 1988 national convention Gates November 18-22, Orlando, Periodicals: Mathematics Florida Teacher; Arithemtic National Council for the Social Teacher; Journal for Studies provides leadership and Research in Mathematics service to the field of social studies Education education. Its 23,000 members 1987 national convention include K-12 social studies April 8-11, Anaheim, teachers, methods professors, and California related social studies professionals 1988 national convention from the United States, its April 6-9, Chicago, Illinois territories, and 69 foreign The National Council of Teachers of countries. Mathematics is concerned with the improvement of mathematics National Council of Teachers of education in elementary schools, English junior and senior high schools, 1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana, two-year colleges, and IL 61301 teacher-education colleges. (217) 328-3870 Membership is currently 62,000 Executive Director: John C. individuals and institutions Maxwell interested in mathematics, the Periodicals: Language Arts; teaching of mathematics, and English Journal; College related problems. English 1987 national convention November 20-25, Los National Council on Year-Round Angeles, California Education 1988 national convention 6401 Linda Vista Road, San November 18-23, St. Louis, Diego, CA 92111 plissouri (619) 292-3679 The National Council of Teachers of Executive Secretary: Charles English serves th3 needs of E. Ballinger classroom teachers, specialists, and Periodical: The researchers concerned with English Year-Rounder and the language arts. 1987 national convention NCTE has 100,000 members and February 1-4, Anaheim, subscribers throughout the U.S. California and Canada (as well as overseas). 1988 national convention Most of the members are classroom not yet determined teachers in elementary and The National Council on secomiary schools and colleges and Year-Round Education serves as a universities. clearinghouse of information about EDUCATION A L M A N A C1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 year-round education and collective bargaining contracts; 241 coordinates meetings, conferences, NEA affiliates on approximately 350 and media endeavors that pertain to higher education campuses also are the subject of continuous year recognized for collective instruction. bargaining. NEA policies are determined by National Education Associaton delegates to the association's annual 1201 16th Street, NW, representative assembly. The Washington, DC 20036 125-member board of directors and (202) 833-4000 executive committee are responsible Executive Director: Don for the general policies and Cameron interests of NEA. The two Periodicals: Today's governance bodies meet frequently Education; NEA Today; NEA throughout the year. NOW; NEA Higher The nine-member executive Education Advocate committee includes the NEA 1987 national convention president, vice-president, June 30-July 5, Los Angeles, secretary- treasurer, and six California members elected by the 1988 national convention representative assembly. NEA's July 2-July 7, New Orleans, president, Mary Hatwood Futrell, is Louisiana the highest ranking black and the The National Education Association highest ranking woman in the founded in 1857, identifies itself as United States labor movement. the largest professional organization in the nation. Its membership stands at about 1.7 National Middle School Association million, with most members being P.O. Box 14882, Columbus, eielev elementary or secondary OH 43124 teachers. NEA's membership also (614) 263-5407 includes some 58,000 higher Executive Director: Robert education faculty and about 57,000 M. Malinka education support employees. Periodical: Middle School Frequently in cooperation with Journal other groups, NEA ceeks to achieve 1987 national convention fair-shareHiding of education November 12-15, St. Louis, from the federal government, Missouri self-governance in licensing and 1988 national convention certification of teachers, and the noc yet determined guarantee of human and civil rights The focus of the National Middle for all educators and children. School Association is the Affiliated with the NEA are 50 improvement of intermediate state-level associations, the education. Overseas Education Association, Approximately 2,300 members and associations in Puerto Rico and throughout the nation and some the District of Columbia. There are foreign countries represent all about 12,000 local affiliates of the professional levels and areas of NEA, of which some 8,900 negotiate expertise, as well as parents, who 251 ORGANIZATIONS 242 work with or are interested in Policies are determined by a students of middle school age. 150-member delegate assembly, composed of active school board National School Boards Association members, which meets once a year 1680 Duke Street, at the annual convention. Alexandria, VA 22314 Responsible for carrying out those (703) 838-6722 policies is a 20-member board of Executive Director: Thomas directors elected by the delegate Shannon assembly. The board of directors Periodicals: American consists of the five officers, each School Board Journal; elected for a one-year term, and 15 Executive Educator; School directors, three from each -,f Board News; Updating; NSBA's five regions and elected to Leadership Reports staggered three-year terms. i4SBA's 1987 national convention executive director is, ex officio, a April 4-7, San Francisco, member of the board. California NSBA was founded in 1940 in 1988 national convention Chicago and later moved first to March 26-29, New Orleans, suburban Evanston, Illinois and Louisiana then in 1976 to the nation's capital. The National School Boards .ssociation, is a not-for-profit federation of the 4° state National School Public Relations associations of local school boards Association and the Hawaii State Board of 1501 Lee Highway, Education, plus the boards of Arlington, VA 22209 education in the District of (703) 528-5840 Columbia and the U.S. Virgin Executive Director: John H. Islands. As such, it represents the Wherry 97,000 local school board members Periodicals: Education USA; who set policy for the nation's It Starts in the Classroom; 15,000-plus public school districts. Scanner; Paragraphs; NSBA's primary mission is to NSPRA Impact promote the advancement of public 1987 national convention education through the American July 13-16, San Antonio, tradition of local citizen control and Texas accountability. To this end, NSBA 1988 national conventio,- makes education and training not yet determined programs available to school board The National School Public members; provides school district Relations Association seeks to management services; represents create greater citizen understanding the interests of school boards before of the objectives, accomplishments, ,Congress and federal agencies and and needs of the nation's schools. in court cases relating to public Formed in 1935, its 1,500 education; serves as liaison with membership includes not only other educational organizations and school public relations counselors governmental authorities; and but superintendents, principals, offers a variety of other services. school board members, and others 252 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 with professional concern for Public Education Association in the 243 school-community relations. New York City schools. Over the NSPRA's basic function is to train years as the number of volunteer educators and education leaders to programs increased, the National be more effective in their School Volunteer Program was communications with parents, established as a nonprofit education students, governmen officials, civic organization and was incorporated leaders, and the community at in 1963. large. NSVP provides leadership to the Toward this end NSPRA conducts thousands of school volunteers who inservice training workshops and help to build partnerships between other meetings, including annual the schools and the community. Its public relations seminars. Its members are parents, retirees, publications program covers a wide college students, company range of subjects bearing on employees, professional educators, effective school relationships and community organizers, school includes a twice-daily news service administrators, and business leaders called Ed-Line, a computer-based throughout the United States. network that provides up-to-the-minute education news National Science Teachers and a method by which subscribers Association can exchange information. 1742 Connecticut Avenue, In addition to the national NW, Washington, DC 20009 organization there are 42 (202) 328-5800 semiautonomous chapters in states Executive Director: Bill G. across the U.S., plus members in Aldridge Canada and other nations. Periodicals: Science and National officers of NSPRA are Children; The Science the president and president-elect, Teacher; Journal of College each chosen for one-year terms; a Science Teaching; Science vice-president at large appointed by Scope the executive board to serve a 1987 national convention three-year term; and the executive March 26-29, Washington, director. D.C. 1988 national convention National School Volunteer Program April 7-10, St. Louis, 701 North Fairfax Street, Missouri Suite 320, Alexandria, VA The National Science Teachers (703) 836-4880 Association is dedicated to Executive Director: Daniel improving science education at all Merenda levels. There are 40,000 members Periodical: The Volunteer in nationwide. Education 1987 and 1988 national Phi Delta Kappa conventions not yet Eighth :nd Union Streets, determined Box 739, Bloomington, IN In 1956 the lira school volunteer 47402 program was pioneered by the (812) 339-1156 253 ORGANIZATIONS 244 Executive Secretary: Lowell university campuses, while the C. Rose other half are community based. Periodicals: Phi Delta Membership is by chapter Kappan; News Notes and invitation. The local chapter may Quotes; Practical specify additional requirements as Applications of Research long as they are not contrary to the No convention planned until constitution. 1989 Through its Center on Phi Delta Kappa is an international Evaluation, Development and professional fraternity for men and Research (CELR), Phi Delta Kappa women in education, organized in supports a research program 1906, with a current membership of focused on dissemination of about 130,000. Members include research information and improving classroom teachers, school understanding of the processes of administrators, college and research and evaluation. university professors, and Phi Delta Kappa is divided into educational specialists of many seven geographic districts, each types. under the leadership of a district As stated in its constitution, "The representative. purpose of Phi Delta Kappa shall be In the oud year of each biennium to promote quality education, with a legislative body composed of particular emphasis on publicly delegates from each chapter of the supported education, as essential to fraternity, plus the fraternity the development and maintenance officers, meet as a biennial council. of a democratic way of life." This council determines the There are currently over 625 Phi policies, program, and budget of the Delta Kappa chapters throughout fraternity and elects the fraternity the United States and Canada, officers. Puerto Rico, ranama, and Guam, The board of directors, composed 7nd international chapters in the of the president, president-elect, united Kingdom, West Germany, immediate past president, three vice Korea, Belgium, Italy, Thailand, presidents, and the seven district Okinawa, Australia, and the representatives, carries out the Philippines. Approximately half the policies of the biennial council and chapters are based on college or implements the program adopted. Selected Education 245 Periodicals ew

For additional periodicals related to Washington, DC 20001 education, see publications listed (202) 879-4420 under the names of their Articles on education policy and sponsoring organizations, in the classroom pra,..ices. section entitled "Major National Editor, Liz Mc Pike Education Organizations." page Quarterly. Subscription included 216. with AFT membership. Nonmember subscription $8. American Educational Research Journal American School and Univers i`y American Educational Research North American Publisning Association Company 1230 17th Street, NW 401 N. Broad Street Washington, DC 20036 Philadelphia, PA 19108 (202) 223-9485 (215) 238-5300 Original reports on theoretical Information on purchasing and studies in education. business management of public and Editor, Virginia R. Koehler private schools, colleges, and Quarterly. Subscription included universities. with membership. Nonmember Editor, Dorothy Wright subscription $23. Monthly. Yearly subscription $40.

American Educator American School Board Journal American Federation of Teachers National School Boards Association 555 New Jersey Avenue, NW 1680 Duke Street g55 PERIODICALS 246Alexandria, VA 22314 Arts & Activities (703) 838-6722 Publishers Development Corp. Issues and trends in education of 591 Camino de la Reina, Suite 200 interest to school administrators San Diego, CA 92108 and board members. (619) 297-5352 Editor, Gregg W. Downey Articles to help teachers at all grade Monthly. Yearly subscription $38. levels prepare classroom art projects. American Teacher Editor, Leven C. Leatherbury American Federation of Teachers Ten issues a year. $15. 555 New Jersey Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20001 Basic Education (202) 879-4430 The Council for Basic Education Deals with classroom problems, 725 15th Street, NW innovations, and general news of Washington, DC 20005 interest to teachers. (202) 347-4171 Editor, Trish Gorman Offers opinion and analysis on Eight issues a year. Subscription curriculum, instruction, and the included with AFT membership. professional development of Nonmember subscription $7 teachers in the liberal arts. Editor, David H. Lynn Monthly. Yearly subscription $25. Arbitration in the Schools American Arbitration Association 140 W. 51st Street Career World New York, NY 10020 General Le.aning Corporation (212) 484-4013 Curriculum Innovations Group Summary of selected labor 3500 Western Avenue arbitration awards at all levels of Highland Park, IL 60035 education, public and private. (312) 432-2700 Editor, Margaret S. Leibowitz A guide to careers for students in Monthly. Yearly subscription $90. grades 6-12; includes occupational information, profiles, and games Arithemtic Teacher related to careers. National Council of Teachers of Editor, Bonnie Bekken Mathematics Nine issues a year. Yearly 1906 Association Drive subscription $9.90. Reston, VA 22091 (703) 620-9840 Childhood Education Methods for teaching mathematics Association for Childhood in elementary schouls; regular Education International features include use of computers 11141 Georgia Avenue, Suite 200 in math instruction and software Wheaton, MD 20902 review. (301) 942-2443 Editor, Harry B. Tunis Articles on child development, Nine issues a year. Subscription classroom practices, issues in included with NC1M membership. educational research, and reviews of Single copy $4. books and films. 256 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 Editor, Lucy Prete Martin Daily. Yearly subscription $425. 247 Five issues a year. Subscription only Six-month subscription $245. with ACEI membership. Single issue $6.50 Education Digest Prakken Publications, Inc. Communicator 416 Longshore Drive National Association of Elementary P.O. Box 8623 School Principals Ann Arbor, MI 48107 1615 Duke Street (313) 769-1211 Alexandria, VA 22314 Contains condensations of (703) 684-3345 significant articles and reports on Reports national issues and trends all aspects of education, plus news significant to elementar and iteLis and book listings. middle school princip., and Executive Edito.., Alan H. Jones association news and at,tivities. Nine issues a year. Yearly Editor, June C. Million subscription $18. Ten issues a year. Subscription included with NAESP membership. Education of the Handicapped Single copy $1.50. Capitol Publications, Inc. 1101 King Street Alexandria, VA 22313 Daedalus (703) 683-4100 American Academy of Arts and Provides information about federal Sciences legislation, regulation, programs, Norton's Woods and funding for educating 136 Irving Street handicapped children. Covers Cambridge, MA 02138 federal and state litigation on the (617) 491-2600 Education for All Handicapped Explores ideas of topical and Children it c t and other relevant enduring significance, education laws. issues among them. Editor, Joe McGavin Editor, Stephen R. Graubard Biweekly. Yearly subscription $173. Quarterly. Subscription rate; $16, ona year; $24, two years; $32, three Education USA years. Single copy $5. National School Public Relations Association Education Daily 1501 Lee Highway Capitol Publications, Inc. Suite 201 1101 King Street Arlington, VA 22209 Alexandria, VA 22313 (703) 528-5840 (703) 683-4100 Provides newsletter coverage of Daily wrap-up of new and pending significant events in education, federal legislation related to federal legislation and policy education, and changes in executive changes, and curriculum trends. branch policy and regulations. Editor, Dale Hudelson Includes a weekly supplement on Weekly. Subscription included with funding opportunities. NSPRA membership. Nonmember Editor, Cynthia Carter subscription $75.

t : PERIODICALS 248Education Week Editor, Lawrence Lipsitz Editorial Projects in Education Monthly. Yearly subscription $69. 1255 23rd Street, NW, Suite 775 Washington, DC 20036 Electronic Learning (202) 466-5190 Scholastic Inc. Articles and essays cover pre-college 730 Broadway education nationally, including new New York, NY 10003 developmrits, trends, and major (212) 505-3000 issues. Offers practical information and Editor, Ronald A. Wolk buyer guidelines designed to help Weekly. Yearly subscription $48. educators learn to use technology (particularly microcomputers) in Educational Leadership the classroom and school office. Association for Supervision and Editor, Jack L. Roberts Curriculum Development Eight issues a year. Yearly 125 N. West Street subscription $19. Single copy $3.50. Alexandria, VA 22314 (703) 549-9110 Articles on supervision, curriculum, Elementary School Guidance & and other education subjects. Counseling Editor, Ronald Brandt American School Counselor Eight issues a year. Subscription Association included with ASCD membership. (Division of American Association Nonmember subscription $32. for Counseling and Development) 5999 Stevenson Avenue Educational Researcher Alexandria, VA 22304 American Educational Research (703) 823-9800 Association Articles of interest to elementary 1230 17th Street, NW school guidance and counseling WAington, DC 20036 specialists. (202) 223-9485 Editors, Michael and Susan Crabbs Scholarly articles of interest to Quarterly. Subscription included education researchers. with ASCA membership. Editorial Director, William J. Russell Nonmember subscription $20. Nine :.,.ues a year. Subscription included with AERA membership. Nonmember subscription $19. ERS Bulletin Educational Research Service Educational Technology 1800 N. Kent Street, Suite 1020 Educational Technology Arlington, VA 22209 Publications (703) 243-2100 720 Palisade Avenue Summary of recent research Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632 studies, data, and other information (201) 871-4007 on school management and Articles related to technological education. applications in education, geared to Editor, Deborah Cough school administrators at K-12 and Ten issues a year. Available with higher education levels. annual order for ERS services. .:258 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 S Exceptional Children information for parents, and 249 Council for Exceptional Children includes pullout section of 1920 Association Drive activities, games, and contests for Reston, VA 22091 children. (703) 620-3660 Editor, James Alvino Research on current issues in Eleven issues a year. special education and trends in Yearly subscription $24. administration and classroom management of handicapped Instructor children. Instructor Publications, Inc. Editor, James E. Ysseldyke 545 Fifth Avenue Eight issues a year. Subscription New York, NY 10017 included with CEC membership. (212) 503-2888 Nomembership subscription $30. Offers practical information to elementary school teachers to Executive Educator improve their teaching techniques National Schoo; Boards Association and managerial skills; includes 1680 Duke Street "how-to" materials. Alexandria, VA 22314 Editor- Leanna Landsmann (703) 838-6722 Nine issues a year. Yearly Career development information for subscription $20. school administrators. Editor, Gregg W. Downey Journal of Counseling and Monthly. Yearly subscription $45. Development American Association for Gifted Children Monthly Counseling and DevelopLient Gifted and Talented Publications 5999 Stevenson Avenue 213 Hollydell Drive Alexandria, VA 22304 Sewell, NJ 08080 (703) 823-9800 (609) 582-0277 Articles on research studies and Features education reports, field practices in counseling parenting tips, and consumer directed to counselors in schools, colleges, community agencies, and government. Editor, Rodney K. Goodyear Ten issues a year. Subscription included with AACD membership. Nonmember subscription $40.

Journal of Educational Public Relations Educational Communications Center P.O. Box 657 Camp Hill, PA 17011 (717) 761-6620 How-to journal for school PR specialists, edt :ators, and board PERIODICALS 250members interested in building Editor, John H. Lounsbury public confidence in education and Quarterly. Subscription included improving internal relations. with NMSA membership. Editor-in-Chief, Albert E. Holliday Nonmember subscription $15. Quarterly. Yearly subscription $20. Single copy $5. Momentum Journal of Research in Music National Catholic Educational Education Association Music Educators National 1077 30th Street, NW Conference Washington, DC 20007 1902 Association Drive (202) 337-6232 Reston, VA 22091 Features articles on innovative (703) 860-4000 programs, educational research, Concerned with psychological, and studies in many areas of historical, sociologiczl, pedagogical, interest to Catholic educators. and learning theory research. Editor, Patricia Feistritzer Editor, Jack A. Taylor Quarterly. Subscription included Quarterly. Subscription included with NCEA membership. with MENC Research membership. Nonmember subscription $16. Institutional subscription $17. Single issue $4.

Mathematics Teacher Music Educators Journal National Council of Teachers of Music Educators National Mathematics Conference 1906 Association Drive 1902 Association Drive Reston, VA 22091 (703) 620-9840 Reston, VA 22091 Devoted to improving mathematics (703) 860-4000 instruction in junior and senior Covers all aspects of music high schools, two-year colleges, and education from the elementary school level through college. teacher education colleges; regularly features use of computers Editor, Karen Deans in math ,nstruction and software Nine issues a year. Subscription included with MENC membership. review. Managing editor, Harry B. Tunis Institutional subscription $33. Nine issues a year. Subscription included with NCTM memberhsip. A..SSP Bulletin Single copy $4. National Association of Secondary School Principals Middle School Journal 1904 Association Drive National Middle School Association Reston, VA 22091 P.O. Box 14882 (703) 860-0200 Columbus, OH 43214 Subjects and issues of particular (614)263-5407 interest to school administrators. Effective administrative and Editor, Thomas F. Koerner instructional practices at the middle Nine issues a year. Subscription school level. only with NASSP membership. 2g.0. E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 NASSP News Leader Eight issues a year. Subscription 251 National Association of Secondary included with NEA membership. School Principals Nonmember subscription $15 1904 Association Drive domestic, $22 foreign. Reston, VA 22091 (703) 860-0200 Phi Delta Kappan News about secondary education P.O. Box 789 and NASSP professional activities. Bloomington, IN 47402 Editor, Thomas F. Koerner (812) 339-1156 Nine issues a year. Subscription Emphasizes educational tesearGh, only with NASSP membership. issues, trends, and policy. Editor, Robert W. Cole, Jr. Nation's School Report Monthly. Yearly subscription $20. Capitol Publications, Inc. 1101 King Street Principal Alexandria, VA 22313 National Association of Elementary (703) 683-4100 School Principals Reports on scliool administration, 1615 Duke Street business management, educational Alexandria, Virginia 22314 planning and research, and legal (703) 684-3345 decisions. Timely articles on educational Editor, David Lytle issues, ideas, and practices for Biweekly. Yearly subscription $128. elementary and middle school principals. NCEI Reports Editor, Leon E. Greene National Center for Education Five issues a year. Subscription Information included with NAESP membership. 1901 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Single copy $7. Suite 707 Washington, DC 20006 PTA Today (202) 463-8344 National Congress of Parents and Education newsletter with focus on Teachers educational activities within the 700 N. Rush Street federal government. Chicago, IL 60611 Editor, Kathleen Price (312) 787-0977 Weekly. Yearly subscription $224. Articles on education, health, safety, parenting, and other areas NEA Today related to children's well-being. National Education Association Editor, Pamela Schrom Reynolds 1201 16th Street, NW Seven issues a year. Yearly Washington, DC 20036 subscription $7. (202) 822-7200 News and features of interest to Report on Education of the classroom teachers and other Disadvantaged school employees. Describes Capitol Publications, Inc. successful school practices. Covers 1101 King Street major education issues and trends. Alexandria, VA 22313 Editor, Ann Kurzius (703) 683-4100 26 PERIODICALS 252Washington news affecting Chapter School Law Balletin 1, bilingual education, child University of North Carolina at nutrition programs, programs for Chapel Hill migrant children, and related Institute of Government topics. Knapp Building 059A Editor, Deborah Gold Chapel Hill, NC 27514 Biweekly. Yearly subscription $168. (919) 966-4173 Reports on recent litigation in the Report on Preschool Programs school law area written by school Capitol Publications, Inc. attorneys for administrators. 1101 King Street Editor, Robert Phay Alexandria, VA 22313 Quarterly. Yearly subscription $10. (703) 683-4100 Two years $18. Three years $25. Reports on legislative activity, court decisions, day-care initiatives, Science and Children research on early childhood National Science Teachers education, and developments in Association preschool education. 1742 Connecticut Avenue, NW Editor, Jane Koppelman Washington, DC 20009 Biweekly. Yearly subscripticn $159 (202) 328-5800 Focuses on preschool, elementary and middle school instruction Review of Educational Research techniques for science teachers; American Educational Research reviews curricula and science trade Association books. 1230 17th Street, NW Editor, Phyllis R. Marcuccio Washington, DC 20036 Eight issues a year. 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Canada Editor, Dan Levin Directory of Canadian education Eight issues a year. Subscription officials, universities, and national iiIcluded with AECT membership. and provincial associations. Nonmember subscription $24. Editor, H. Goldsborough Annual $34.

263 .Recent Books About Education

Arons, S., Compelling Belief. 1986. payable to U.S. GPO) $8.95. (202) 275-3318 University of Massachusetts Press This very well written, 83-page Box 429 document is the result of a Amherst, MA 01004 year-long examination of the (413) 545-2217 nation's elementary schools. The current debate over what values Bennett says he relied heavily ona public schools should teach, Arons 21-member study group he argues, can be traced to rigid appointed to come up with major compulsory education laws and the findings on the types of curricular politicization of schools. In this reforms needed at the elementary book, Arons balances the duties of level. schools to educate students soundly with the rights of parents to a Committee for Economic values climate not hostile to their Development, Investing In Our own. Schools. 1985. $10.45. Committee for Economic Bennett, William J., First Lessons: Development A Report on Elementary Education 477 Maaison Aver in America. 1986. $4.25 (GPO stock New York, NY 106. #065-000-00259-1). (212) 688-2063 Superintendent of Documents The nation's business community U.S. Government Printing Office speaks its mind about education, Washington, DC 20402 calling for a return to a common (Send check or money order curriculum, greater parental 264 :2.c; E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 choice, more emphasis on the early Kozol, Jonathan, Illiterate America. 255 grades, and revamped vocational 1985. $15.95. education. The Committee on Doubleday and Company Economic Development, which Department ZA-375 produced the report, says schools Garden City, NY 11530 must examine the "invisible (516) 294-4561 curriculum" to ensure that students While not all education experts learn important personal traits such agree with Kozol's estimate of 60 as honesty and responsibility. million functional illiterates in the United States, this publication is a compelling examination of the Hampel, Robert, The Last Little scope of the problem. Kozol's Citadel. 1986. $15.95 solution? Small groups of learners Houghton Mifflin Company teaching learners, he says, will turn 2 Park Street the literacy crises around. Boston, MA 02108 (617) 725-5972 This history of the modem high school is the third and last in a Lewis, J., Achieving Excellence in Our SchoolsBy Taking Lessons series of reports from a study of from America's Best-Run high schools cosponsored by the Compcnies. 1986. $19.95. National Association of Secondary Wilkerson Publishing Co. School Principals and the National 731 Franklin Street Association of Independent Schools. The others in the series are Westbury, NY 11590 Horace's Compromise, 1984; and (516) 334-6297 Another of the recent spate of books The Shopping Mall High School, following in the wake of the now 1986. The current volume examines classic In Search of Excellence. how modem high schools have This volume identifies those been shaped by history. characteristics of Aiccessful businesses that might be applied to Institute foi Educational schools in their current search for Leadership. School Dropouts: excellence. Everybody's Problem .1986. $5.00 (plus $1.00 postage). Institute for Educational Leadership Lukas, Anthony J., Common 1001 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.. Ground: A Turbulent Decade in the Suite 310 Lives of Three American Families. Washington, DC 20036 1985. $19.95. (202) 676-5900 Random House This concise and up-to-date 201 E. 50th St. monograph details current dropout New York, NY 10022 statistics and demographic (212) 751-2600 information while citing examples Lukas turns seven years of work on of successful prevention programs. the effects of school desegregation It also examines policy issues for in Boston into a Pulitzer-prize- educators to consider in dealing winninr story of three families in with the problem. their separate struggles to cope 265 RECENT BOOKS 256with the court-ordered plan. The Department of Education. It lists author follows the tales of a Yankee more than 40 "truisms" about family, a black family, and an Irish research on effective schooling. family, as they react and conflict Topics include homework, study with busing and one another. skills, classroom discipline, and extracurricular ictivities. National School Public Relations Association, Schoo! Public What Works: Schools Without Relations: The Complete Book. Drugs. 1986. (A report from the 1986. $29.95. U.S. Department of Education) Free. National School Public Relations Consumer Information Center Association Pueblo, CO 81009 1501 Lee Highway, Suite 201 (303) 948-3334 Arlington, VA 22209 A follow-up to the highly successful (703) 528-5840 What Works. Contains vital This book provides a pracEcal information on how to keep schools overview of school public relations and students drug free. Included are practices. It covers setting up a PR sections on recognizing signs of program, involving key publics, drug use, appropriate school identifying critical issues, working discipline policies, legal with the news media, using new ramifications of drug rule technology, and dealing with special enforcement, and tips on getting problems. It is widely used as a the community involved. graduate level textbook for school administrators. Wigginton, Eliot, Sometimes a Shining Moment: The Foxfire Rich, Dorothy, The Forgotten Experience. 1986. $19.95 Factor in School SuccessThe Anchor Press, Doubleday & Family. 1985. $5.00 Company, Inc. Home and School Institute 245 Park Avenue Special Projects Office New York, NY 10167 1201 16th Street, N.W. (212) 984-7064 Washington, DC 20036 This is a book by a practicing (202) 466-3633 classroom teacher who got his Dorothy Rich, director of the Home writing classes so stirred up that and School Institute, offers they wrote what came to be the very suggestions on how to link families successful Foxfire books. It details and schools.

What Works: Research About Teaching and Learning. 1986. (A report from the U.S. Department of Education) Free. Consumer Information Center Pueblo, CO 81009 (303) 948-3334 This is one of the most popular publications ever by the U.S. 286 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 the author's experiences as an Guthrie, J. W., Educational 257 idealistic young English teacher Administration and Policy. 1986. trying to get the attention of his $28.95. students. His perceptive Prentice-Hall observations and insights are Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632 invaluable for educators involved in (201) 592-2000 today's reforms. Katznelson, I., School for All. 1985. $19.95. Also of interest: Basic Books, Inc. 10 East 53rd Street Bunzel, John. Ed., Challeng. to New York, NY 10022 American Schools: The Case for (212) 593-7057 Standards & Values. 1985. $19.95 Oxford University Press, Inc. Lightfoot, A., Urban Education in 1600 Po llitt Drive Social Perspective. 1985. $12.75 Fair Lawn, NJ 07410 University Press of America (201) 796-8000 4720 Boston Way Lanham, MD 20801 City High SchoolsA Case Study. (301) 459-3366 1984. $4.50 The Ford Foundation National Committee for Citizens in 320 East 43rd Street Education; Henderson, Anne T. New York, NY 10017 Marburger, Carl L.; and Poms, (212) 573-5000 Theodora, Beyond the Bake Sale. 1986. $8.95 plus $1.00 postage. Dobson, R., Looking At, Talking National Committee for Citizens in About, and Living With Children. Education 1985. $19.75 10840 Little Patuxent Parkway, University Press of America Suite 301 4720 Boston Way Columbia, MD 21044 Lanham, MD 20801 (301) 997-9300 (301) 459-3366 National Foundation for the Gross, Ronald and Beatrice, The Improvement of Education, A Great School Debate. 1985. $9.95 Blueprint for Success. 1986. $4.25 paper ($17.96 hardcover). (request stock #A-701-00337). Simon and Schuster National Foundation for the 1230 Avenue of the Americas Improvement of Education New York, NY 10020 P.O. Box 509 (212) 245-6400 West Haven, CT 06516

Grossman, B., Early Childhood Snyder, M., The Young Child as Administration. 1985. $18.00 Person. 1985. $14.95. Allyn & Bacon, Inc. Human Sciences Press 470 Atlantic Avenue 72 Fifth Avenue Boston, MA 02210 New York, NY 10011 (617) 482-9220 (212) 243-6000 258Quotable Commentson Education

Henry Adams, 1838.1918: Henry Barnard, 1811-1900: A teacher affects eternity; he can The Common (public) school never tell where his influence stops. should no longer be regarded as I!' common because it is cheap, James Truslow Adams, 1878-1949: inferior, and attended only by the There are obviously two educations. poor ... but common as the light One should teach us how to makea and air are common, because its living, and the other how to live. blessings are open to all and enjoyed by all. Amos Bronson Alcott, 1799-1888: it' The true teacher defends his pupils Jacques Barzun, 1907 - against his own personal influence. Teaching is not a lost art, but the He guides their eyes from himself regard for it is a lost tradition. to the spirit that quickens him. Alexander Graham Bell, 1847-1922: Francis Bacon, 1561-1626: [Handicapped] children should Reading maketh a full man, form an annex to the public school conference a ready man, and system, receiving special writing an exact man. instruction from special teachers i!' who shall be able to give Hosea Ballou, 1771-1852: instruction to little children who Education commences at the are deaf, blind, or mentally mother's knee, and every word deficient without sending them spoken within the hearing of little away from their homes or from the children tends towards the ordinary companions with whom formation of character. they are associated. 268 QUOTABLE COMMENTS Daniel Boorstin, 1914 - His spirit grew robust; 259 [Education is] learning what you He knew no more that he was poor, didn't even know you didn't know. Nor that his frame was dust. He danced along the dingy days, Kenneth Clark, 1914-1983: And this bequest of wings Children who are treated as if they Was but a book. What liberty are uneducable almost invariably A loosened spirit brings. become uneducable. Albert Einstein, 1879-1955: Council of Chiefs of the six nations Imagination is more important of the Iroquois Confederacy, 1744: than knowledge. Knowledge is (Speaking to the governor of limited, whereas imagination Virginia after six Iroquois youths embraces the entire world were invited to attend William and stimulating progress, giving birth Mary College.) to evolution. Several of our young people were formerly brought up at the colleges Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803-1882: of the northern provinces; they 1. Respect the child. Be not too were instructed in all your sciences; much his pare:it. Trespass not on but when they came back to us his solitude. 2. The Roman rule was they were bad runners, ignorant of to teach a boy nothing that he every means of living in the woods, could not learn standing. 3. The unable to bear either cold or ,nan who can make hard things hunger, knew neither how to build easy is the true educator. a cabin, take a deer, or kill an enemy . . . they were totally good Benjamin Franklin, 1706-1790: for nothing. . . . If the gentlemen of To America one school master is Virginia will send us a dozen of worth a dozen poets. their sons we will take great care of their education, instruct them in Robert Frost, 1874-1963: all we know, and make men of Education is hanging around until them. you've caught on.

Henry Steele Commager, 1902 - James Garfield, 1831-1881: No other people ever demanded so Next in importance to freedom and much of education (as Americans) justice is popular education, ...None other was ever served so without which neither freedom nor well by its schools and educators. justice can be permanently maintained. John Dewey, 1859-1952: What the best and wisest parent Patricia A. Graham, 1935 - wants for his own child, flu:' must The central quandary facing the community want for all of its American teachers today is the lack children. of clarity regarding the purpose of the schools in which they work, the Emily Dickinson, 1830-1886: nature of the larger educational He ate and drank the precious system of which those schools are words, but a part, and the relationship QUOTABLE COMMENTS

2bu between the twn. If education is thereby be enabled to read the more than mere schoolingand it histories of his own and other isthen we should have been countries, by which he may duly asking ourselves which educational appreciate the value of our free activities truly belong outside fix institutions, appears to be an object classroom door. of vital importance, even on this count alone, to say nothing of the Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., advantages and satisfaction to be 1809-1894: derived from all being able to read Knowledge and timber shouldn't be the scriptures and other works, much used till they are seasoned. both of a religious and moral ... A child's education should nature, for themselves. begin at least one hundred years before he is born. .1 Imes Russell Lowell, 1819-1891: Have you ever rightly considered Herbert Hoover, 1874-1964: what the mere ability to read We need to add to the three Rs, means? That it is the key which namely, reading, 'riting and admits us to the whole world of 'rithmetic, a fourthresponsibility. thought and fancy and imaginatin? to the coi 'nany of Thomas Jefferson, 1743-1826: saint and saga, of the wisest and If a nation expects to he ignorant wittiest moment? That it enables us and free in a state of civilization, it to see with the keenest eyes, hear expects what never was and never with the finest ears, and listen to will be. the sweetest voices of all time?

Lyndon B. Johnson, 1908-1973: James Madison, 1751-1836: At the desk where I sit, I have A people who mean to be their own learned one great truth. The governors must arm themselves answer for all our national with the power which knowledge problemsthe answer for all the gives. problems of the world comes down to a single word. That word is Gene I. Maeroff, 1939 - "education." Education in tne 1980s will have the awesome responsibility of John F. Kennedy, 1917-1963: upholding standards in a society in A child miseducated is a child lost. which the schools may be among a shrinking number of institutions Rockwell Kent, 1882-1971: concerned with quality. Young The real art of living consists of people cannot be faulted if they keeping alive the conscience and question values at a time when the sense of values we had when we best-selling novels tend to be the were young. worst written, the highest paid Americans are entertainers and athletes, and the most popular Abraham Lincoln, 1809-1865: leisure-time activity of adults is That every man may receive at watching situation comedies on least a moderate education, and television. Don't blame the kids if 270 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 they wonder why education is paths which have conducted your 261 worth the bother. people, by regular generations, to their present summit of wealth and Horace Mann, 1796-1859: greatness. 1. The Common (public) school is the greatest discovery ever made by man. 2. Education is our only Ronald Reagan, 1911 - political safety. 3. A teacher who is If we fail to instruct our children in justice, religion, and liberty, we will attempting to teach without be condemning them to a world inspiring the pupil with a desire to learn is hammering on a cold iron. without virtue. ... 4. School houses are the republican line of fortifications. Hyman Rickover, 1900-1986 Education is our first line of H.L. Mencken, 1880-1956: defense--make it strong. The best teacher, until one comes to adult pupils, is not the one who '4' knows most, but the one who is Will Rogers, 1879-1935: most capable of reducing The thing I'm sorriest about in my knowledge to that simple life is that I didn't stick around to compound of the obvious and the take on the fifth grade. wonderful which slips into the infantile comprehension. A man of high intelligence, perhaps, may Theodore Roosevelt, 1858-1919: accomplish the thing by a To educate a man in mind and not conscious intellectual feat. But it is in morals is to educate a menace to vastly easier to the man (or society. woman) whose habits of mind are 'naturally on the plane of the Bertrand Russell, 1872-1970: child's. The best teacher of No man can be a good teacher children, in brief, is one wh9 is unless he has feelings of warm essentially childlike. affection toward his pupils and a '4' genuine desire to impart to them john Henry Newman, 1601-1890: what he himself believes to be of Education gives a man a clear, conscious view of his cwn opinions value. and judgments, a truth in developing them, an eloquence ,n George Santayana, 3863-1953: expressing them, and a force in 1. A child educated only at school is urging them. an uneducated child. 2. The great difficulty in education is to get Pushmataha (Choctaw chief), experience out of ideas. ?-1824: We wish our children educated. We are anxious that our rising Henry David Thoreau, 1817-1862: generation should acquire a What does education often do? It knowledge of literature and the makes a straight-cut ditch out of a arts, and learn to tread in those free meandering brook. 271 QUOTABLE COMMENTS 262 Lionel Trilling, 1905-1975: government, and with an inviolable I have been read by Eliot's poems attachment to their own country. and by Ulysses and by Remembrance of Things Past and H.G. Wells, 1866-1946: by The Castle for a good many Human history becomes more and years now, since early youth. Some more a race between education and of these books at first rejected me; I catastrophe. bored them. But as I grew older and they knew me better, they Alfred North Whitehead, came to have more sympathy with 1861-1947: me and to understand my hidden 1. From the very beginning of his meanings. education, the child should experience the joy of discovery. 2. Mark Twain, 1835-1910: All practical teachers know that The man who does not read good education is a patient process of books has no advantage over the mastery of details, minute by man who can't read them. minute, hour by hour, day by day.

Daniel Webster, 1782-1852: George F. Will, 1941 - Knowledge, in truth, is the great As Plato understood, the e is really sun in the firmament. Life and only one serious political Topic. It is power are scattered with all its more serious than war, or even the beams. New Federalism. It is the upbringing of children. Noah Webster, 1758-1843: . it is an object of vast Woodrow Wilson, 1856-1924: magnitude that systems of We must believe the things we education should be adopted and teach our children. pursued which may not only diffuse a knowledge of the sciences but .13-:gham Young, 1801-1877: may implant in the minds of Education is the power to think American youth the principles c!early, the power to act well in the virtue and liberty; and inspire them world's work, and the power to with just and liberal ideas of appreciate life.

2/2 Some Jokes Heard at 263 Education Conventions

Too formal? franklydo you thi k I'm too . Gordon Caweiti has held many formal?" distinguished posts before To which his wife sweetly replied, becoming executive director of "Oh, I wouldn't say so, Doctor ASCD, among them the Cawelti!" superintendent of schools in Tulsa. After he had been there for a Don't cry! time, he recalls, he asked the As with most schools nowadays, president of the PTA for a frank the playground at Emerson appraisal of what people thougnt of Elementary is paved with asphalt. his performance. Aliaost everything As a safety measure, the PTA she had to say was complimentary. adopted as one of its priorities the In fact the only reservation she purchase of rubber mats to be expressed was that some people placed under the swings and sides though he was a bit too formal and other equipment. It took a too reserved. while, but the P'fA managed to raise As with most people, he said, he the money, and at a little ceremony instantly forgot the praise and last October the mats were laid fretted about the reservation. down. Finally he decided to take it up with During recess a few days later, as his wife. He told her about the an exuberant second-grader went conversation, he said, and the PTA racing onto the playground he president's reservation, and his tripped over one of the mats and reservation about her reservation, skinned his knee. A concerned and said to his wife, "Now tell me teacher ran to him calling "Jimmy! 273 JOKES...1.5 264Jimmy! Are you all right? You're ear, "Maybe you should pray just a not going to cry, are you?" bit harder." The youngster drew himself up haughtily and said, "Hell no, I'm Hurry! gonnasue." Particularly as a result of the findings of the Perry School Project Playing school in Ypsilanti, Michigan, there is Principal John Ourth notes that considerable talk these days about children carry a lot of school home starting schooling earlier. Francis with them each day. Often they like Wayland Parker, a distinguished toplayschool and be "teacher" Chicago educator and lecturer of with their younger brothers and yesteryear, NV ou I d have seconded the sisters. Such a youngster was a motion. first-grader named Michael, whose In one of his lectures one day he "class" consisted of his sister Susan, had focused on early childhood age 3. learning, and a woman in the Things went pretty well for two audience asked, "Dr. Parker, how or three weeks but then one day early could I begin the education of Susan objected. "Michael," she my child?" complained, "how come every day "First tell me," he said, "when you get0 Le the teacher? That's the child is to be bon:." not fair. We ought to take turns." "Jimmy isalreadyborn," she Michael gave her his best said. "He's nearly five years old first-grade stare and said, "Susan, now." you can't be the teacher. You don't To which Dr. Parker replied, know enough. You can't even read." "Great Scott, madam, don't stand To which Susan responded here talking with me. Hurry home, plaintively, "Well can I at least be for you have already lost the very tha principal/. best years!"

Prayer power Take that! Archie LaPointe, director of the In a decreasing number of National Assessment of Educational communities, children may not Progress, recalled the progress he enter kindergarten until they are made one day when he was six. confronted by a test he wasn't sure The mother of a five-year-old in he was prepared for. such a community confronted a It was in a parochial school, and the member of the school board one nun who was teaching the class had day and declared it was scandalous some advice. "If you find yourself in that her daughter was not receiving difficulty," she said, "say a little the benefits of schooling, since she prayer." was clearly far enough advanced. While the class was taking the When the irritated school board test the sister walked around the member demurred she grew room keeping tabs on things. As she insistent, saying, "The child could got to little Archie's desk she easily pass any tests for glanced dow ", paused for a six-year-olds." moment, and then whispered in his The official still wasn't buying. 2 7 4 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1987 - 1988 Haughtily he faced the little girl innocently added, 'Would vou 265 and demanded, "Say some words for figure it was a m; ter --tity or me." environment?" The child hesitated for a moment and then turned to her mother and asked, "Ise ulting for purely The sophisticate arbitrary, irrelevant, discontinuous The principal of an elementary words?" school in southern California remarked on how early The play's the thing world-weariness sets in among One man's meat is another man's youngsters nowadays, at least in poison, the saying goes, and Ciat partofthe world. perhaps the principle applies to As an example he mentioned the teenage triumphs and turkeys, too. third grader he was talking to about Consider the high school the boy's failure to apply himself. sophomore who came home fairly "Phillip," he said, "yJu've get to bursting with enthusiasm about buckle down. You might fail this school and more particularly about class." And then in a sly appeal to what had happened there that day. the boy's competitiveness he added: A group of prominent people in "You would stay here and Rita, the the community had paid a special little blond girl you like so much, visit, he told his mother, and as would go on to the next grade and part of the reception his drama leave you behind." class had put on a scene from a Unimpressed, Phillip replied, play. Without question it had been "Oh, I'm sure there will be other the highlight of the program. Ritas in my life." "How do you know?" his mothe- asked, "Did they say so?" "They didn't have to," the son Sure cure replied. "You could tell by their Motivation also figured in he reaction. You never heard such remarks of s. Vermont principal who laughter in your life. They almost had been impressed by the had hysterics." exceptional order maintained by the "My!" said his impressed mother. school's music teacher. "And what play was the scene When he inquired about the from?" secret of her success, the teacher "It was from Hamlet," said the said that actually a few weeks boy. earlier three or four of the children had been noisy and inattentive, and Take your pick a general breakdown in discipline Frank's report card had been set.med to be brewing. very, very bad, and his father However, she said, the problem couldn't seem to stop harping on promptly ended when she told the the subject. class that maybe the needs am'. "I just can't understand why you talents of disruptive students were do so poorly" he kept saying. such that she ought to suggest to The boy writhed and writhed and their parents that they start taking glumly said, "Me, either." And then piano lessons! 275 6Celebrative Occasions for 1987 and 1988

January, 1987 Jan. 1 New Year's Day

Jan. 1 Japanese New Year Beginning of the Year of the Hare.

Jan. 1-31 March of Dimes month Campaign to fight birth defects.

Jan. 14 Ratification Day Anniversary of the ratification in 1784 of the Treaty of Paris, which officially ende'. the American Revolution and established the United States as a sovereign power.

Jan. 1-, Birthday of Benjamin Oldest signer of the Declaration of Franklin Independence, scientist, author, philosopher; b. 1706, d. 1790.

Jan. 19 Birthday of Martin Civil rights leader, winner of 1964 Luther King, Jr. Nobel Peace Prize. b. 1929; (observed) assassinated April 4, 1968.

Jan. 27 Vietnam War Cease-FireAgreerrA. -it signed in 1973 ending American military involvement in the Vietnam War.

Jan. 29 Chinese'New Year Beginning of the Year of the Hare. 2/6 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 Jan. 30 School Nurse Day Sponsored by the National 267 Association of School Nurses, Inc., 7395 S. Krameria St., Englewood, CO 80112.

February, 1987 Feb. 1 National Freedom Day Commemorates the 1865 signing of the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery.

Feb. 2 Groundhog Day Some have it that on this day, if the groundhog sees its shadow, six weeks of winter will follow; otherwise expect spring weather.

Feb. 6 Rirthday of Ronald Fortieth president of the U.S.; Reagan b. 1911.

Feb. 12 Birthday of Abraham Sixteenth president; b. 1809, Lincoln assassinated 1865. Observed on different dates in February in some states.

Feb. 12 Birthday of Charles Author and naturalist Charles Darwin Robert Darwin, best known for his book The Origin of Species, expounding the theory of evolution; b. 1809, d. 1882.

Feb. 14 St. Valentine's Day

Feb. 15 Birthday of Susan B. Reformer and advocate of women's Anthony suffrage; b. 1820, d. 1906.

Feb. 17 PTA Founders' Day. Sponsored by the National PTA

Feb. 20 Anniversary of Glenn's On this date in 1962 John Glenn Space Flight became the first American to orbit the earth, in spacecraft Friendship 7.

Feb. 20 Frederick Douglass Day American journalist and antislavery leader; d. 1895; birth date unknown.

Feb. 16 George Washington's First U.S. President; b. Feb. 22, Birthday (observed) 1732, d. 1799. 277 CELEBRATIVE OCCASIONS 268Feb. 21-28 Future Farmers of Sponsored by the Future Farmers of America Week America.

Feb. 24 Gregorian Calendar Day Pope Gregory XIII issued a Papal Bull on Feb. 24, 1582, correcting the Julian Calendar. The new calendar, which was named for him, became effective on Oct. 4, 1582. It is the most widely used calendar today.

March, 1987 Mar. 1-31 National Music in Our Sponsored by the Music Educators schools Month National Conference.

Mar. 1-31 National Nutrition Sponsored by trAmerican Dietetic Month Association, 430 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611.

Mar. 1-31 Youth Art Month Sponsored by the Council for Art Education, Inc., 715 Boylston Sc., Boston, MA 02116.

Mar. 3 Adoption cf National On this date in 1931 "The Star Anthem Spangled Banner" was adopted as our national anthem. Written in 1814 by Francis Scott Key.

Mar. 4 Birthday of Casimir Polish-born brigadier general and Pulaski chief of cavalry :n the American Revolution; b. 1748, d. 1779.

Mar. d -14 Girl Scout Week Sponsored by the Girl Scouts of the U.S.A., 830 Third Ave., New Cork, NY 10022.

Mar. 11 Johnny Appleseed Day Honors John Cupn.an, better known as Johnny Appleseed, planter of orchards and conservationif

Mar. 14 Birthday Albert Physicist known for Theory of Einstein Relativ:iy; b. 1879, d. 1955.

Mar. 17 Camp Fire Founders' Sponsored by Camp Fire, Inc., 4601 Day Madison Ave., Kansas City, MO 64112. 278 EDUCATION., ALMANAC1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 Mar. 17 St. Patrick's Day Commemorates Ireland's patron 269 saint.

Mar. 20 First Day of Spring Vernal equinox occurs at 10:52 p.m., Eastern Standard Time.

April, 1987 April 1 April Fools' Day

Apr. 1-30 Mathematics Education Sponsored by National Council of Month Teachers of Mathematics.

Apr. 2 International Children's Celebrated on Hans Christian Book Day Andersen's birthday; information from Children's Book Council, 67 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003.

Apr. 5 Daylight Saving Time Beginning this year Congress moved the starting date from the last Sunday in April to the first. At 2 a.m. clocks in all U.S. time zones advance one hour except where state legislatures provide exemption. Ends last Sunday in October.

Apr. 5-11 National Library Week Sponsored by the American Library Association.

Apr. 13 Birthday of Thomas Third president; b. 1743, d. 1826. Jefferson Proclaimed education by the sta.,: a fundamental article of democratic faith.

Apr. 14-15 Pesach, or Passover First days of eight-day Jewish celebration of the deliverance of the Jews from slavery in Egypt.

Apr. 17 Good Friday Commemorates Christ's crucifixion, death, and entombment.

Apr. 18 Paul Revere's Ride The "midnight ride" of Paul Rever. started at about 10 p.m. on this day in 1775.

Apr. 19 Easter Celebrat sn of the resurrection of Christ.

2 7 9, . 1 CELEBRATIVE OCCASIONS 270Apr. 19-25 National YWCA Week Sponsored by the National Board of the YWCA, 726 Broadway, New York, NY 10003.

Apr. 20 Patriot's Day Commemorates Battle of Lexington and Concord in 1775.

Apr. 23 Birthday of William William Shakespeare, poet and Shakespeare dramatist in Elizabethan England, was born on this date in 1564 and also died on this date in 1616.

Apr. 24 Arbor Day A day designated for planting trees. Sponsored by the National Arbor Day Foundation, 100 Arbor Ave., Nebraska City, NE 68410.

Apr. 26- Bike Safety Week Sponsored by Optimist May 2 International, 4494 Lindell .Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63108.

Apr. 29 Ramadan I Beginning of Moslem Hoiy Month, commemorated by fasting.

May 1987 May 4 Birthday of Horace Honors the "father" of the Mann American public school system; b. 1796, d. 1859.

May 3-9 Teactier Appreciation Sponsored by the National PTA to Week honor the important contribution of teachers in educaLing children.

May 5 First Manned American On this date in 1961, Alan B. Space Flight Shepard, Jr. became the first American in space.

May 5 Teacher Day USA Sponsored by National Education Associatiot. in conjunction with National PTA Teacher Appreciation Week.

May 8 VE Day Germany surrendered to Alied forces in 1945, ending World War II in Europe. 2 SO E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 My 8 World Red Cross Day Honors Jean Henri Dunant, who 271 originated the idea of the Red Cross. Sponsored by the American Red Cross, 17th and D Sts., NW, Washington, DC 2000E

May 9 Native American Day Formerly American Indian Day.

May 10 Mother's Day Since 1914 observed on the second Sunday in May.

May 10-16 Girls Club Week Sponsored by the Girls Clubs of America, Inc., 205 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10016.

May 16 Armed Forces Day Observed by presidential proclamation.

May 18 Victoria Day Canadian national holiday.

May 25 Constitutional On this day in 1787, 55 state Convention's opening delegates gathered at Independence Hall in Philadelphia to draft the nation's fundamental laws.

May 25 Memorial Day Observed in remembrance of those (observed) who died in war.

May 25 Birthday of Ralph Waldo American author and philosopher; Emerson b. 1803, d. 1882.

May 29 Birthday of Patrick American Rem!utionary leader and Henry orator known for his declaration: "I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!" b. 1736, d. 1799. 281 CELEBRA 1 IVE OCCASIONS 272June, 1987 June 5 World Environment Day Observed annually on anniversary of the opening of the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment in Stockly.,im in 1973. Information from the U.N. Department of Public Information, United Nations, New York, NY 10017.

June 14 Children's Day Jbserved the second Sunday in June to focus attention on the needs of America's :hildr.s.n.

June 14 Flag Day America's Stars and Stripes flag was adopted by the Continental Congress on this day in 1777.

June 15 Magna Carta Day Anniversary of the signing by Kirl John in 1215 of the Magna Carta, the first charter of English liberties.

June 21 Father's Day

June 21 First Day of Summer Summer solstice occurs at 6:44 a.m. Eastern Daylight Time.

June 28 Treaty of Versailles Formal ending of World War I in 1919.

July, 1987 July 1 Canada Day Also called Dominion Day, celebrates the confederation of Canadian provinces into the Dominion of Canada in 1867.

July 4 Independence Day Commemorates Declaration of Independence adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1776.

July 14 Bastille Day Commemorates capture of the Bastille in France in 1789.

July 16 First Atomic Bomb At 5:30 a.m. on this c'ate in 1945, Exploded the first atomic bomb was detonated at the Alam,gordo Air Base in New Mexico. 262 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 July 20 Moon Landing Anniversary of the first landing on 273 the moon by Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, Jr., in 1969.

July 27 Birthday of Jose Celso Honors eminent Puerto Rican Barbosa doctor, patriot, and educator; b. 1857, d. 1921.

August, 1987 Aug. 14 VJ Day Commemorates the surrender in 1945 of Japan to the Allies eliding World War II.

Aug. 26 Women's Equality Day Marks certification in 1920 of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, prohibiting sex discrimination with regard to voting.

Aug 26 Hjriat Year Moslem New Year's Day.

September, 1987 Sept. 1-30 PTA Membership Month Sponsored by the National PTA.

Sept. 3 Anniversary of Treaty of Signed in Paris on thi.. day in 1783 Paris to end the Revolution:try War.

Sept. 5. Anniversary of First Assembled in Philadelphia in 1774, Continental Congress attended by 56 delegates representing 11 colonies.

Sept. 7 Labor Day Legal 1 oliday in all states and Canada in honor of working men and we men.

Sept. 13 Grandparents' Day A day showing appreciation to grandparents.

Sept. 15-16 Mexican Independence Celebrates Mexico's independence Days from Spain.

Sept. 16 "Mayflower" Day The "Mayflower" departed this day from Plymouth, England, in 1620. 283 CELEBRATIVE OCCASIONS 274Sept. 17 Citizenship Day and Marks the adjournment of the Sept. 17-23 Constitution Week Constitutional Convention on September 17, 1787. presidential proclamations set aside this day and week for observance.

Sept. 23 First Day of Autumn Autumnal equinox occurs at 9:40 a.m. Eastern Daylight Time.

Sept. 24 Rosh Hashanah Jewish New Year.

October, 1987 Oct. 3 Yom Kippui. Holiest Jewish observance ; Day of Atonement.

Oct. 4-10 Fire Prevention Week Sponsored by the National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269.

Oct. 4-10 National 4-H Week To promote activities of 4-H Clubs. Sponsored by the Cooperative Extension Service, Room 5035-S, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250.

Oct. 4-10 National Metric Week Sponsored by the National Council of 'leachers of Mathematics.

Oct. 6-12 National School Bus Sponsored by the National School Safety Week Transportation Association, P.O. Box 2639, Springfield, VA 22152.

Oct. 11-17 National School Lunch Observed by annual presidential Week proclamation.

Oct. 12 Columbus Day Anniversary of Columbus' sighting of New World in 1492.

Oct. 12 Canadian Thanksgiving

Oct. 14-19 National Handicap Sponsored by the National Easter Awareness Week Seal Society, 2023 W. Ogden Ave., 284 Chicago, IL 60612. E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 Oct. 24 United Nations Day Set aside by annual presidential 275 proclamation to commemorate the founding of the U.N. in 1945. Information from Department of Public Information, United Nations, New York, NY 10017.

Oct. 25 Standard Time resumes At 2:00 a.m., clocks should be moved back one hour.

Oct. 31 Halloween Evening before All Saints or All Hallows Day.

Oct. 3.: National UNICEF Day By presidential proclamation. Sponsored by U.S. Committee for UNICEF, 331 E 38th St, New York, NY 10016.

November, 1987 Nov. 11 Veterans Day Ahaiversary of Armist:a ending World War I; honors veterans of all American Wars.

Nov. 15-21 American Education Calls attention to the needs and Week achievements of American schools. Information available from National Education Association.

Nov. 16-22 National Children's Sponsored by the Children's Book Book Week Council, Inc., 67 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003.

Nov. 26 Thanksgiving Day

December, 1987 Dec. 10 Human Rights Day Commemorates the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

Dec. 15 Bill of Rights Day Anniversary of the adoption of the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution in 1791.

Dec. 16-23 Hanukkah Jewish Feast of Lights, lasting 8 days. 285 CELEB RATIVEOCCASIONS 276Dec. 17 Wright Brothers First On this day in 1903, brothers Powered Flight Wilbur and Orville Wright flew the first powered aircraft. Orville Wright made the first successful flight, near Kitty Hawk, NC.

Dec. 20 Louisiana Purchase Day Anniversary of the sale by France it 1803 of its 827,987 square-mile Louisiana Territory, a deal by which the United States nearly doubled in size.

Dec. 22 First Day of Winter Winter solstice occurs at 5:08 p.m. Eastern Standard Time; shortest day of the year.

Dec. 25 Christmas Day

January, 1988 Jan. 1 New Year's Day

Jan. 1 Japanese New Year Beginning of the Year of the Dragon.

Jan. 1-31 March of Dimes Month Campaign to fight birth defects.

Jan. 14 Ratification Day Anniversary of the ratification in 1784 of the Treaty of Paris, which officially ended the American Revolution and established the United States as a sovereign power.

Jan. 17 Birthday of Benjamin Oldest signer of the Declaration of Franklin Independence, scientist, author, philosopher; b. 1706, d. 1790.

Jan. 18 Birthday of Martin Civil rights leader, winner of 1964 Luther King, Jr. Nobel Peace Prize. b. 1929; (observed) assassinated April 4, 1968.

Jan. 19 Birthday of Robert E. Confederate general; b. 1807, Lee d. 1870.

Jan. 27 Vietnam War Cease-Fire Agreement signed in 1973 ending American military involvement in the Vietnam War. 286 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 Jan. 27 School Nurse Day Sponsored by the National 277 Association of School Nurses, Inc., 7395 S. Krameria St., Englewood CO 80112.

February, 1988 Feb. 1 National Freedom Day Commemorates the 1865 signing of the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery.

Feb. 2 Groundhog Day Some have it that on this day, if the groundhog sees its shadow, six weeks of winter will follow; otherwise expect spring weather.

Feb. 6 Birthday of Ronald Fortieth president of the U.S.; Reagan b. 1911.

Feb. 7-13 National FHA/HERO To focus attention on the activities Week and goals of the Future Homemakers of America.

Feb. 8 Boy Scouts of America Commemorates organization's Day fountiing in 1910.

Feb. 12 Birthday of Abraham Sixteenth president; b. 1809, Lincoln assassinated 1865. Observed on different dates in February in some states.

Feb. 12 Birthday of Charles Author anu naturalist Charles Darwin Robert Darwin, best known for his book The Origin of Species, expounding the theory of evolution; b. 1809, d. 1882.

Feb. 14 St. Valentine's Day

eb. 15 Birthday of Susan B. Reformer and advocate of women's Anthony suffrage; b. 1820, d. 1906.

Feb. 15 Birthday of George First U.S. President; b. Feb. ',2, Washington (observed) 1732, d. 1799.

Feb. 17 PTA Founders' Day Sponsored by the National PTA.

f 287 CELEBRATIVE OCCASIONS 278Feb. 17 Chinese New Year Beginning of the Year of tne Dragon.

Feb. 20-27 Future Farmers of Sponsored by the Future Farmers of America Week America.

Feb. 20 Anniversary of Glenn's On this date in 1962 John Gann Space Flight became the first American to orbit the earth, in spacecraft Friendship 7.

Feb. 20 Frederick Douglass Day American journalist and antislavery leader; d. 1895; birthdate unknown.

K.:. 24 Gregorian Calendar Day Pope Gregory XIII issued a Papal Bull on Feb. 24, 1582, correcting the Julian Calendar. The new calendar, which was named for him. became effective on Oct. 4, 1582. It is the most widely used calendar today.

March, 1988 Mar. 1-31 National Music in Our Sponsored by the Music Educators Schools Month National Conference.

Mar. 1-31 National Nutrition Sponsored by the American Dietetic Month Association, 430 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611.

Ma, . 1-31 Youth Art Month Sponsored by the Coail for Art Education, Inc. 715 Boylston St., Boston, MA 02116.

Mar. 3 Adoption of National On this date !n 1931 "The Star Anthem Spangled Banner" was adopted as our national anthem. Written in 1814 by Francis Scott Key.

Mar. 4 Birthday of Casimir Polish-born brigadier general and Pulaski chief of cavalry in the American Revolution: b. 1748, d. 1779.

Mar. 6-12 Girl Scout Week Sponsored by the Girl Scouts of the U.S.A., 830 Third Ave., New York, 288 NY 10022. E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8

Mar. 11 Johnny Appleseed Day Honors John Chapman, better 279 known as Johnny Appleseed, planter of orchards and conservationist.

Mar. 14 Birthday of Altert Physicist known for Theory of Einstein Relativity; b. 1879, d. 1955.

Mar. 17 Camp Fire Founders' Sponsored by Camp Fire, Inc., 4601 Day Madison Ave., Kansas City, MO 64112.

Mar. 17 St. Patrick's Day Commemorates Ireland's patron saint.

Mar. 20 First Day of Spring Vernal equinox occurs at 4:39 a.m. Eastern Standard Time.

April, 1988 Apr. 1 Good Friday Commemorates Christ's crucifixion, death, and entombment.

Apr. 1 April Fools' Day

Apr. 1-30 Mathematics Education Sponsored by National Council of Month Teachers of Mathematics.

Apr. 2 International Children's Celebrated on Hans Christian Book Day Andersen's birthday; information from Children's Book Council, 67 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003.

Apr. 2-3 Pesach, or Passover First days of eight-day Jewish celebration of the deliverance of the Jews from slavery in Egypt.

Apr. 3 Easter Celebration of the resurrection of Christ.

Ise 289 CELEBRATIVE OCCASIONS 280 Apr. 3 Daylight Saving Time At 2:00 a.m., clocks shoull be begins advanced one hour, except where state legislatures provide exemption.

Apr. 3-9 National Library Week Sponsored by the American Library Association.

April 13 Birthday of Thomas Third president; b. 17.11, d. 1826. Jefferson Proclaimed education by the state a fundamental article of democratic faith.

Apr. 18 Patriot's Day Commemorates Battle of Lexington and Concord in 1775.

The "midnight ride" of Paul Revere Apr. 18 Paul Revere's Ride started at about 10 p.m. on this day in .1775.

Apr. 19 Ramadan I Beginning of Moslem holy month; commemorated by fasting.

Apr. 23 Birthday of William Wiliam Shakespeare, poet and Shakespeare dramatist in Elizabethan England, was born on this datein 1564 and also died on this date in 1616.

Sponsored by the National Board of Apr. 24-30 National YWCA Week the YWCA, 726 Broadway, New York, NY 10003.

Apr. 29 Arbor Day A day designated for planting trees. Sponsored by the National Arbor Day Foundation, 100 Arbor Ave., Nebraska City, NE 08410.

May, 1988 May 1-7 Teacher Appreciation Sponsored by the National PTA to Week honor the important contribution of teachers in educating children.

May 3 Teacher Day USA Sponsored by National Education 20 Association. E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 May 4 Birthday of Horace Honors the "father" of the 281 Mann American public school system; b. 1796, d. 1859.

May 5 First Manned American On this date in 1961, Alan B. Space Flight Shepard, Jr. became the first American in space.

May 8 Mother's Day Since 1914 observed on the second Sunday in May.

May 8 VE Day Germany surrendered to Allied forces in 1945, ending World War II in Europe.

May 8 World Red Cross Day Honors Jean Henri Dunant, who originated the idea of the Red Cross. Sponsored by the American Red Cross, 17th and D Sts., NW, Washington, DC 20006.

May 8-14 Girls Club Week Sponsored by the Girls Clubs of America, Inc., 205 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10016.

May 14 Native American Day Formerly American Indian Day.

May 21 Armed Forces Day Observed by presidential proclamation.

May 23 Victoria Day Canadian national holiday.

May 25 Convening of The Constitutional Convention Constitutional began its sessions in Philadelphia Convention 200 years ago today.

May 25 Birthday of Ralph WaldoAmerican author and philosopher; Emerson b. 1803. d. 1882.

May 29 Birthday of Patrick American Revolutionary leader and Henry orator known for his declaration: "I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!" b. 1736, d. 1799.

May 30 Memorial Day Observed in remembrance of those who died in war. 291 CELEBRATIVE OCCASIONS 282June, 1988 June 5 World Environment Day Observed annually on anniversary of the opening of the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972. Information from the U.N. Department of Public Information, United Nations, New York, NY 10017.

June 12 Children's Day Observed the second Sunday in June to focus attention on the needs of America's children.

June 14 Flag Day America's Stars and Stripes flag was adopted by the Continental Congress on this day in 1777.

June 15 Magna Carta Day Annivcrsary of the signing by King John in 1215 of the Magna Carta, the first charter of English liberties.

June 19 Father's Day

June 20 First Day of Summer Summer solstice occurs at 11:57 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time.

June 28 Treaty of Versailles Formal ending of World War I in 1919.

July, 1988 July 1 Canada Day Also called Dominion Day, celebrates the confederation of Canadian provinces into the Dominion of Canada in 1867.

July 4 Independence Day Commemorates Declaration of Independence adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1776.

July 14 Bastille Day Commemorates capture of the Bastille in France in 1789.

July 16 First Atomic Bomb At 5:30 a.m. on this date in 1945, Exploded the first atomic bomb was detonated at the Alamagordo Air Base in New Mexico. 292 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 July 20 Moon Landing Anniversary of the first landing on 283 the moon by Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, Jr., in 19d9.

July 27 Birthday of Jose Celso Honors eminent Puerto Rican Barbosa doctor, patriot, and educator; b. 1857, d. 1921.

August, 1988 Aug. 14 VJ Day Commemorates the surrender in 1945 of Japan to the Allies ending World War IL

Aug. 14 Hjriat Year Moslem New Year's Day.

Aug. 26 Women's Equality Day Marks certification in 1920 of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, prohibiting sex discrimination with regard to voting.

September, 1988 Sept. 1-30 PTA Membership Month Sponsored by the National PTA.

Sept. 3 Anniversary of Treaty of Signed in Paris on this day in 1783 Paris to end the Revolutionary War.

Sept. 5 Labor Day Legal holiday in all states and Canada in honor of working men and women.

Sept. 5 Anniversary of First Assembled in Philadelphia in 1774, Continental Congress attended by 56 delegates representing 11 colonies.

Sept. 11 Grandparents' Day A day showing appreciation to grandparents.

Sept. 12 Rosh Hashanah Jewish New Year.

Sept. 15-16 Mexican Independence Celebrates Mexico's Independence Days from Spain.

Sept. 16 "Mayflower" Day The "Mayflower" departed this day from Plymouth, England, in 1620. 293 -..44),.., CELEBRATIVE OCCASIONS 284Sept. 17 Citizenship Day and Marks the adjournment of the Sept. 17-23 Constitution Week Constitutional Convention on September 17, 1787. Presidential proclamations set :side this day and week for observance.

Sept 21 Yom Kippur Holiest Jewish observance; Day of Atonement.

Sept. 22 First Day of Autumn Autumnal equinox occurs at 3:29 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time.

October, 1988 Oct. 2-8 Fire Prevention Week Sponsored by the National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269.

Oct. 2-8 National 4-H Week To promote activities of 4-H Clubs. Sponsored by the Cooperative Extension Service, Room 5035-S, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250.

Oct. 6-12 National School Bus Sponsored by the National School Safety Week Transportation Association, P.O. Box 2639, Springfield, VA 22152.

Oct. 9-15 National School Lunch Observed by annual presidential Week proclamation.

Oct. 10 Canadian Thanksgiving

Oct. 10 Columbus Day Honors Columbus and all other (observed) discoverers.

Oct. 24 United Nations Day Set aside by annual presidential proclamation to commemorate the founding of the U.N. in 1945. Information from Department of Public Information, United Nations, New York, NY 10017.

Oct. 30 Standard Time resumes At 2:00 a.m., clocks should be moved back one hour. 294 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

Oct. 31 Halloween Evening before All Saints or All 285 Hailows Day.

Oct. 31 National UNICEF Day By presidential proclamation Sponsored by U.S. Committee for UNICEF, 331 E. 38th St., New York, NY 10016.

November, 1988 Nov. 8 Election Day

Nov. 11 Veterans Day Anniversary of Armistice ending World War I; honors veterans of all American wars.

Nov. 13-19 American Education Calls attention to the needs and Week achievements of American schools. Information available from National Education Association.

Nov. 20-26 National Children's Sponsored by the Children's Book Book Week Council, Inc., 67 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003.

Nov. 24 Thanksgiving Day

December, 1988 Dec. 4-11 Hanuickah Jewish Feast of Lights, lasting 8 days.

Dec. 10 Human Rights Day Commemorates the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

Dec. 15 Bill of Rights Day Anniversary of the adoption of the firs', ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution in 1791.

Dec. 17 Wright Brothers First On this day in 1903, brothers Powered Flight Wilbur and Orville Wright flew the first powered aircraft. Orville Wright made the first successful flight, near Kitty Hawk, NC.

2 9 5 '''' CELEBRATIVE OCCASIONS 286Dec. 20 Louisiana Purchase Day Anniversary of the sale by France in 1803 of its 827,987 square-mile Louisiana Territory, a deal by which the United States nearly doubled in size.

Dec. 21 First Day of Winter Winter solstice occurs at 10:28 a.m. Eastern Standard Time; shortest day of the year.

Dec. 25 Mristmas Day

"

296 Pathfinders in 287 American Education

Daniel Adams, 1773-1864: observations of plant and an'.,nal Massachusetts physician. Adams life, not just from books. Virtually became alarmed by the lack of every outstanding teacher of natural adequate school textbooks and history in the late nineteenth wrote the most widely used century was an Agassiz pupil or arithmetic texts of those available in disciple. the early 1800s. Amos Bronson Alcott, 1799-1888: Henry Brooks Adams, 1838-1918: Father of Louisa May Alcott (Little Great-grandson of John Adams. Women). Alcott founded schools Henry Adams became famous as a that stressed spiritual values as a historian and for his autobiography, means of "awakening the soul" of The Education of Henry Adams, students. His approach was not well and also made significant received in Massachusetts in the contributions to education. As 1830s, yet Ralph Waldo Emerson professor of medieval history at called him the greatest man of Harvard, he developed modern intellect he had known. historical research techniques and introduced the seminar method of William Andrus Alcott, 1798-1859: teaching. Considered the father of health education. \ Alcott replaced Louis Agassiz, 1807-1873: Swiss crude wooden benches with seats emigrant; zoology teacher at and established ventilated Harvard. Agassiz believed that classrooms, edited the first weekly students should learn from personal periodical for children, and wrote 297 PATHFINDERS 288the first health book in language principal in a school for deaf that children could understand. students. Bell developed improved teaching techniques and became Edward Ellis Allen, 1861-1950: the leading authorit.) on education Teacher of blind children in the of the deaf in the On. .I. States and United States and England. Edward England. Allen persuaded Boston public schools in 1913 to begin classes for Terre! H. (Ted) Bell, 1921- : sight-impaired children, a plan soon American educator. Now a adopted by other school systems in professor of educational the United States and Canada. A11 administration at the University of early supporter of Braille, he Utah, Bell was U.S. Secretary of sponsored scientific research in the Education from 1981 to 1984. In psychology of blindness and sought that position he created the task to elevate teaching of blind students force whose report onA Nation At to a professional level. Riskwas a key element in touching off a national education reform Henry H. Barnard, 1811-1900: movement. He is a former General assembly delegate and first Commissioner of Higher Education chief state school officer in for Utah and was that state's Connecticut. Henry Barnard worked Superintendent of Public with Horace Mann and others for Instruction from 1963 to 1970. statewide systems of public schools that would reduce variations in the Mary McLeod Bethune, 1875-1955: quality and availability of education The fifteenth and first freeborn of within and among states. Publisher 17 children of former slaves. for many years of a distinguished Bethune received scholarships to go teacher-training periodical, to college and dedicated her life to American Journal of Education,he the education of black children. In served as first U.S. Commissioner of 1904, she founded a school for Education (1867-70). black girls in Daytona, Florida, later known as the coeducational Catherine Beecher, 1800-1878: Bethune-Cookman College. She Advocate of education for women. served as adviser on black issues to Catherine Beecher founded Presidents Roosevelt and Truman Hartford Female Seminary, an and as a United States institution that emphasized small representative to the founding classes, the relationship of general United Nations conferencr. in San principles across disciplines, and Francisco. motivation of students to seek learning outside textbooks. Ernest L. Boyer, 1928- : American educator. Boyer is Alexander Graham Bell, 1847-1922: president of the Carnegie American inventor and educator. Foundation for the Advancement of Although his fame as inventor of Teaching, Princeton, New Jersey, the telephone overshadowed his and author of that organization's contributions to the education of 1983 report entitledHigh School: A the deaf, he was also teacher and Report on Secondary Education in 298 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 America. He was the twenty-third American Dilemma. In 1950, Clark 289 U.S. Commissioner of Education published a report showing that from 1977 to 1980, and Chancellor school segregation impeded the of the State University of New York educational and social progress of from 1970 to 1977. both black and white children. The Supreme Court prominently cited Nicholas Murray Butler, 1862-1947: the report in its Brown v. Board of President of Columbia University Education decision (1954) for 44 years. Butler had a central outlawing school segregation. role in founding its Teachers College and enhancing the James B. Conant, 1893-1978: professionalism of teacher American educator. Renowned as education. president of Harvard, scientist, atomic expert, and ambassador to George Washington Carver, West Germany, Conant turned in 1864?-1943: Agronomist and later life to the study of public agricultural chemist. Carver was education. In The American High born to slave parents and worked School Today (1959), he advocated his way through college. He was the comprehensive high school, invited by President Booker T. influencing public policy in this Washington of Tuskegee Institute in direction for many years. Alabama to become the institute's director of agricultural research. Joan Ganz Cooney, 1929- : A Carver's experiments in S Jil former newspaper reporter and TV management and crop production documentary producer, Cooney convinced farmers that they should (with Carnegie Corporation of New grow sweet potatoes and peanuts to York) asked the U.S. Office of replenish soil nutrients depleted by Education in the 1960s to support a cotton. In this way he helped to new concept: TV programming for save the agricultural economy of children designed to teach specific the South. He alsn produced educational fundamentals as well as hundreds of peanut byproducts, entertain. Thus was born the including ink, dyes, linoleum, Children's Television Workshop, synthetic rubber, and plastics. His creator of "Sesame Street," "3-2-1 example encouraged young blacks Contact," and other award-winning to complete their higher education programs. She has served as and enter scientific fields. Workshop director since its inception, encouraging schools Kenneth B. Clark, 1914-1983: through teacher guides and Psychologist. Kenneth Clark earned workshops to integrate "Sesame a doctorate in psychology from Street" and other series into their Columbia University in 1940, classroom learning programs. taught at Hampton Institute, and examinedwith Gunnar Myrdal at John Dewey, 1859-1952: America's Hampton Institutethe role of best known education philosopher blacks in the United States, a of the twentieth century. Dewey project that resulted in the believed that education must build monumental study entitled An on the child's interests, provide 293 PATHFINDERS

290 classroom flexibility to enable Letters (1943). Disillusioned by students to do their own thinking, American policies towards blacks, and allow teachers to serve as he moved to and became a citizen guides and helpers rather than as of Ghana at age 94. taskmasters. Teaching at the University of Chicago and later at Charles W. Eliot, 1834-1926: Columbia University, he President of H3rvard for 40 years. revolutionized education by At that institution, Eliot demanded stressing the need to foster all that science as well as humanities facets of a child's mental growth. be a part of liberal education. He abolished required courses and Melvil Dewey, 1851-1931: Creator introduced the elective systeman of the Dewey Decimal System for approach modified by his classifying library books and a successorsand raised entrance leader in the development of standards. As other colleges professional librarianship. At 25 he followed suit, high schools were published in a 42-page booklet the required to raise their standards. classification system now used by Eliot advocated foreign languages libraries worldwide. The system and mathematics in the student's divides all recorded knowledge into seventh school year, an idea 10 classes, which are subdivided adopted by junior high schools into 10 divisions and further nationwide. subdivided into 10 sections. As librarian at Columbia Co..zge in Thomas H. Gallaudet, 1787-1851: New York City, he started the first Pioneer in education of the deaf. U.S. professional library school Having studied the sign method of (1887). He was a lifelong proponent communication in Europe, of better library services and Gallaudet founded the first school spelling reform. in the United States for the deaf: American Asylum for Deaf Mutes in W.E.B. DuBois, 1868-1963: Hartford. For a half century, his Educator, editor, historian, and school was the primary training advocate for black equality. After center for teachers of the deaf. earning a PhD from Harvard Gallaudet College, founded in 1857 University, DuBois taught history and still the only liberal arts college and economics at several colleges, for the deaf in America, was named gaining a national reputation as an in his honor. early champion of full social and economic equality for blacks. He John W. Gardner, 1912 - used his compelling powers of Psychologist,teacher, author, persuasion as an educatorlater as government adviser, Cabinet officer, a writer, editor, and political adviser and citizens' advocate. John to black leadersto promote the Gardner has been a major force in civil rights cause. DuBois was improving the quality of the recipient of honorary degrees from American experience. In education, several American universities and he has combined a commitment to was the first black to be elected to excellence in the classroom with the National Institute of Arts and leadership in school desegregation 300 E D U C A T I O N ALMANAC1 9 8 7- 1 9 8 8 and standards of excellence. During administrators of the late 21 his presidency of the Carnegie nineteenth century. He introduced Corporation (1955-65), that art, music, and industrial arts into organization funded James B. the school curriculum and made St. Conant's study of the American Louis the first school system to add high school and development of the kindergartens. He served longer as "new math." As Secretary of Health, U.S. Commissioner of Education Education, and Welfare (1965-68), (1889-1906) than did any other he was the architect of numerous person to hold that position. "Great Society" education programs. He was a founder and 1.1,2k Hopkins, 1802-1887: A served as chairman of Common graduate physician turned professor Cause, 1970-77. Since 1931, he has of philosop::...Williams College. been a senior fellow at the Aspen Later president of that institution, Institute for Humanistic Studies. Hopkins was famed not only as a scholar and writer but especially as John I. Good lad, 1920-: a teacher. He was in fact the hero of American educator. Dean of the the statement by President James A. Graduate School of Education, Garfield that "the ideal co:lege is University of California at Los Mark Hopkins on one end of a log Angeles (1967-83), and director of and a student on the other" research, Institute for Development of Educational Activities, Inc. Harold Howe II, 1918-: American (1966-82), Good lad is the author or educator. Known for his dedication coauthor of more than 15 books on to academic rigor and reform as educational issues, includingA teacher, principal, superintendent, Place Called School (1983). and research institute direct(' Howe served as U.S. Commis .ier William Rainey Harper, 1856-1906: of Education (1966-68) during the Founder of the junior college period of rapidly expanding federal movement. As president of the aid to education that began with University of Chicago, Harper passage of the Elementary and divided it into a senior college for Secondary Education Act of 1965. juniors and seniors, and a junior Later Howe was the Ford college for freshmen and Foundation's vice-president for sophomores. Suggesting to school education. Since 1982, he has been officials in nearby Joliet, Illinois, senior lecturer at the Harvard that they provide two years of Graduate School of Education. classroom work beyond high school, he inspired them to begin Francis Keppel, 1916-: Innovator such a program. He accepted in teacher training. Keppel was graduates of the two-year program dean of the Harvard Graduate in the university's senior college. School of Ettucation (1948-62) and U.S. Commissioner of Education William Tony Harris, 1835-1909: (1963-65). As commissioner, he was School administrator. As St. Louis able to mediate tilt differences school superintendent, Harris was between parochial and public school one of the most foresighted groups and frame the legislation 301 PATH FINDERS 292that became the landmark William Holmes McGuffey, Elementary and Secondary 1800-1873: American educator and Education Act of 1965. Since 1974, clergyman. McGuffey influenced he has been a senior fellow, Aspen generations of children through his Institute for Humanistic Studies, readers, which emphasized moral and since 1977, a senior lecturer at and ethical values as expressed in Harvard University. He is also poetry and prose by distinguished chairman of the National Student American and English authors. By Aid Coalition. 1920, 122 million copies had ben sold. The book is still in use in some areas, despite critirisms by a Mary Lyon, number of educators that it is 1797-1849: outdated. Organizer and chief fund raiser in the Elizabeth P. Peabody, 1804-1894: 1837 establishment Founder of the first kindergarten in of Mount Holyoke the United States (in Boston, in .College, she was a 1860). Peabody studied in Europe leader in the spread of higher the early childhood education education for women in the United methods of Friedrich Froebel, States. founder of the kindergarten movement, and devoted her life to Horace Mann, 1796-1859: Father of starting public and private America's public school system. kindergartens and lecturing and Horace Mann was the first chief writing on the subject. state school officer in Massachusetts Joseph Mayer Rice, 1857-1934: (1837-1848), where he began his Physician and educator. Rice was effort to educate rich and poor alike one of the first education in neighborhood schools run by researchers, studying school qualified teachers. His eloquent systems in the United States and advocacy led to greater tax support Europe to assess teaching metho is, for the public schools, higher particularly as they related to the teacher salaries and standards, and time students spent on each compulsory attendance laws. By learning task. He believed research 1848, 24 of 30 states had followed could help schools better reward the Massachusetts example and children for their efforts to learn by named a chief state school officer to analyzing how teachers presented improve public education. subject matter. Benjamin Mays, 1895-1985: Ellen H. Richards, 1842-1911: First Teacher and religious leader. Mays, woman admitted to the son of slave parents, served for 27 Massachusetts Institute of years (1940-1967) as president of Technology. Ellen Richards Morehouse College. He was remained at M.I.T. to develop and spiritual and education adviser to teach a sanitary engineering Martin Luther King, Jr., and others program and to establish home who later led the civil rights economics as an academic movement. discipline. 302. E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

George I. Sanchez, 1906-1972: Anne Sullivan, 1866-1936: Teacher. 293 Elementary school teacher, college Partially blind herself and a teacher professor, author, textbook editor, of genius at Perkins School for the and federal government adviser. Blind in Boston, she taught Helen During the 1930s and 40s, Sanchez Keller, both blind and deaf, to read worked virtually alone for bilingual and write Braille within two years education for Spanish-speaking by repeatedly pressing the manual children in the schools of Texas and alphabet into her palm. other southwestern states. During his 32 years as professor of Latin Lewis B. Terman, 1877-1956: American education at the Father of the testing movement in University of Texas, he saw bilingual the United States. Terman education become an integral part introduced the IQ test and of public education not only in the pioneered the study and testing of Southwest but across the nation. gifted children.

Sequoya, 1770?-1843: Cherokee Edward L. Thorndike, 1874-1949: linguist. Sequoya made it his Father of education psychology. lifework to develop a system of Thorndike saw measurement as the writing for the Cherokee people. key to scientific progress in The system he devised proved so education and developed methods simple to learn that thousands of to measure student memory, rate of children were able to read and write learning, conditions for effective in a few months. So great was his learning, and the influence of contribution to Indian literacy that heredity on intelligence. Oklahoma chose his statue to represent the state in Statuary Hall Booker T. Washington, 1856-1915: in the nation's capitol building. The First president of Tuskegee Institute giant redwood trees in California in Alabama. Washington built that are named sequoias in his memory. institution into a citadel of higher education for black students. He Elizabeth Seton, 1774-1821: A championed vocational education founder of parochial education in and for a generation was the most the United States. A widow with five influential spokesman for black children, she settled in Baltimore, Americans. Maryland, in 1808 where she established the Paca Street School, Annie Dodge Wauneka, 1910- : the nation's first Catholic Navajo educational advocate. elementary school. In 1809, she Wauneka gained fame for her efforts took religious vows and founded the to bring education and modern Sisters of Charity. In 1814, she health care to the Navajo established the Orphan Asylum of reservation, and worked throughout Philadelphia, the first Catholic the 1930s and 40s to establish day child-care institution in America. schools there so that young She was canonized in 1975, making children would no longer have to go her the first person born in the to distant boarding schools. In United States to he recognized as a 1951, she became the first woman saint by the Catholic church. 301.elected to the Navajo Tribal Council PATHFINDERS 294and fought for better educational Dictionary of the English Language programs, tribal control of schools, (1828), which included spelling and and roads to make schools grammar that reflected the living accessible. In 1964, she was language rather than artificial rules, awarded the Presidential Medal of gave American English its own Freedom, al.. nation's highest identity and vitality. civilian honor. In 1985, she was honored !,), the American Indian Emma Hart Willard, 1787-1870: Heritage Foundation for her Early advocate of higher education lifelong efforts to improve for women. In 1821, Willard educational opportunities for founded the first women's college, Navajo children. Troy Female Seminary in New York, and by quiet but firm persuasion Noah Webster, 1758-1843: convinced the legislature to fund Educator, journalist, and compiler women's colleges throughout the of Webster's Dictionary. As a state. teacher in Goshen, New York, Webster wa' unhappy with texts for Ella Flagg Young, 1845-1918: First students because they ignored woman to be elected president of American culture and ideas. He the National Education Association. began a lifelong effort to encourage Ella Young was one of few women education based on the American school administrators in the late experience. His "Blue-Backed 19th century, and was Chicago's Speller" (1783) has never been out superintendent of schools when she of print, and his American assumed the NEA post.

334 Landmark Dates in 295 American Education

1635 1647 Establishment of Boston Latin With "Ye Old Deluder Satan" Act, School marked the beginning of Massachusetts established town public education in North America. schools to assure that children learned to read and thus could turn 1636 to the Bible for help in dealing with Harvard College, first higher the devil's wiles. education institution in the English colonies, was founded (primarily to train clergymen). 1779 As governor, Thomas Jefferson 1642 proposed a statewide system of A Massachusetts Act required public schools in Virginia, a compulsory education of children proposal O':fs.ated by the legislature. by parents and masters of young apprentices, with instruction to include religious principles, 1785 colonial laws, and a useful trade. A Land Ordinance for governance of The law did not, however, provide the Northwest Territory set aside a for schools. By 1671, all New parcel of land in each England colonies except Rhode six-square-mile township for a Island had similar laws. public school. 305 LANDMARK DATES

2961787 His eloquent advocacy led to a The Northwest Ordinance statewide system of free public reaffirmed the 1785 Ordinance, schools, a systematic approach to holding that "schools and the education subsequently adopted by means of education shall be forever other states. encouraged" in the western lands. These land grants for schools are 1845 regarded by many as representing The nation's first state association the first general aid to education by of teachers was organized in Rhode the federal government. Island.

1795 1857 The University of North Carolina Gallaudet College, this country's was chartered as the first state only liberal arts college for the deaf, university. had its beginnings with the establishment in Washington, D.C., 1821 of Columbia Institution to serve Emma Willard founded Troy (N.Y.) handicapped students. The name of Female Seminary as the first the private, coeducational college women's college in the United was changed in 1894 to honor States. Thomas H. Gallaudet, pioneer American educator of the deaf. 1833 Oberlin College admitted women to 1860 become the first coeducational Elizabeth Peabody founded the first college. kindergarten in the United States for English-speaking children after 1836 German immigrants introduced the William Holmes McGuffey concept in classes taught in published the first in a series of German. readers for elementary and secondary pupils, stressing moral 1862 and ethical values in poetry and The First Morrill Act, sponsored by prose by distinguish& American Congressman (later Senator) Justin and English authors. By 1920, 122 Morrill of Vermont, authorized million copies had been sold. The states to sell 10 million acres of book is still in use in some federal land and use the proceeds localities, although it has been to establish land-grant colleges criticized by a number of education for research and instruction in organizations for being archaic and agricultural and mechanical arts. sexist. 1865 1837 The Federal Freedman's Bureau was Massachusetts created the state founded to care for freed slaves in board of education and named state the South. With grants to senator Horace Mann as secretary. missionary societies to build and 3D6 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 staff schools, the bureau provided 1890 297 elementary education to some The Second Morrill Act provided 250,000 black children and adults annual federal support for land-grant before its abolition in 1870. college programs.

Shaw University and Virginia Union 1900 were founded to provide higher Creation of the College Entrance education for black students. Examination Board provided an instrument for uniformity in 1867 college entrance examinations. Congress created the Department of Education as an independent federal 1917 agency to collect and distribute The Smith-Hughes Act authorized information on the condition of federal funds to improve vocational American education. Heading the education below college level department as U.S. Commissioner assistance viewed by many as the of Education was Connecticut first federal categorical aid to education reformer Henry Barnard. education. Fearing federal control of education, Congress in 1868 downgraded the Department of 1944 Education to a bureau in the The Servicemen's Readjustment Act Department of the Interior. (G. I. Bill) provided college, technical, and on-the-job training Philanthropist George Peabody for World War II veterans. Under established the Peabody Fund with this and similar bills for veterans of $2 million to improve public the wars in Korea and Vietnam, schools in the South. By 27.5 million ex-servicemen and concentrating, in a few established women were educated. schools, on improvements that could be adopted by others, the The Fulbright Act, sponsored by fund influenced grant policies of Senator J. William Fulbright of many private foundations: Arkansas, provided fellowships for American students, teachers, and 1873 scholars to study abroad. St. Louis made kindergarten a part of its public school system. 1953 Having earlier been upgraded from 1874 Bureau of Education to Office of Education, the federal education In the Kalamazoo Decision, agency became a unit in the new Michigan's Supreme Court upheld Department of Health, Education, the right of a community to tax and Welfare. citizens for support of high schools, ruling that since elementary schools and a state university were 1954 already in place, the high school In Brown v. Board of Education, was needed to bridge the gap. the U.S. Supreme Court ordered

30 ;7. LANDMARK DATES 298districts with dual school systems 1966 for black and white children to The International Education Act desegregate with "all deliberate strengthened education resources speed." in international studies and research. 1955 The first White House Conference on Education was held. 1973 The Rehabilitation Act (Section 1958 504) prohibited discrimination The National Defense Education against physically, mentally, or ActAmerica's response to the emotionally handicapped persons in schools and other federally assisted 1957 Soviet launching of Sputnik, the first earth-orbiting satellite institutions. provided federal aid to improve instruction in physical sciences and infrequently taught foreign 1974 languages. In Lau v. Nichols, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that schools receiving federal funds must 1963 provide appropriate programs to The U.S. Supreme Court ruled assist Oriental and other unconstitutional state laws non-English-speaking students. requiring recitation of the Lord's Prayer or Bible verses in schools. 1975 1965 The Education for All Handicapped Congress passed the Elementary Children Act (Public Law 94-142) and Secondary Education Act, mandated "a free appropriate ending a 20-year debate on the education" for handicapped constitutionality of major federal children in "the least restrictive aid to education. Title I, the largest environment," preferably in and most significant section of the classrooms with nonhandicapped Act, addressed the special learning pupils. needs of disadvantaged children. Congress in 1981 reauthorized Title I as Chapter 1 of the Education 1978 Consolidation and Improvement In a landmark reverse Act. discrimination case, the Supreme Court ordered a California medical The Higher Education Act included school to admit Alan Bakke, a white programs of colleges and who claimed the quota system :or universities, including black admission of blacks had blocked his institutions. The Guaranteed acceptance. The Court upheld the Student Loan Program provided affirmative action concept but low-interest loans to help stressed the need for a more flexible financially needy college students. approach. 308' E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 1980 1984 299 The Department of Education was The Department of Education established as the Thirteenth reported positive responses by states Cabinet-level federal agency. to education problems outlined in A Nation At Risk and other studies (see 1983, above). Forty-one states 1982 raised high school graduation In North Haven Board of Education requirements. Twenty-four states v. Bell, The U.S. Supreme Court lengthened the school day or year ruled that Title IX of the Education or devoted more of the standard Amendments of 1972 applies to school day to academic subjects. women employees of schools and Forty-two states raised teacher colleges as well as to students. Title certification requirements. IX prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in any education activity receiving federal aid. The decision upholds the Title IX regulation as Conservative Senate opponents originally formulated by the defeated the Civil Rights Act of Department of Health, Education, 1984, which would have reversed and Welfare and now administered the Supreme Court's decision in by tt:e Department of Education. Grove City College v. Bell. That decision held that federal funds could be denied only to the specific 1983 program found to discriminate A number of national studies against women or minorities. identified serious problems Previously, an institution risked confronting American education losing all federal funds. The Act and led to calls for reform at all would have restored government levels. Among the institution-wide accountability if studies were: one or more programs discriminated. A Nation At Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform, by the National Commission on Excellence in Education; Action for Excellence, by the Secretary of Education Terrel H. Education Commission of the Bell announced his resignation two States; days after the President's landslide A Place Called Schools, by John I. reelection victory. As his successor, Coodlad; President Reagan selected William Making the Grade, a report of the J. Bennett, chairman of the Task Force on Federal Elementary National Endowment for the and Secondary Education Policy, Humanities, an advocate of tuition Twentieth Century Fund; and tax credits, merit pay and High School: A Report on competency tests for teachers, Secondary Education in America, greater emphasis on a liberal arts Carnegie Foundation for the curriculum, and the teaching of Advancement of Teaching. traditional values. 309 LANDMARK DATES 300 1986 Norfolk, Virginia and other school Christa McAuliffe, selected to districts should be allowed to end become the first teacher in space, elementary school busing. So perished with six other astronauts argued the Department of Justice in in the explosion of the Challenger a brief filed in the Fourth U.S. shuttle. A high school teacher from Circuit Court of Appeals. Norfolk's Concord, New Hampshire, school board approved a McAuliffe advised schoolchildren reduced-busing plan in 1983, citing everywhere to "reach for the stars." the need to stem white flight. President Reagan asked Congress to Justice said white flight was a approve a $1 million Christa legitimate reason to abandon McAuliffe scholarship program for busing. A federal district court teachers. upheld the plan, and in 1986 the U.S. Supreme Court concurred, thus Once court-ordered desegregation providing a precedent to reduce or plans have been carried out, end busing.

310 America" EducationWeek 301

After World War I, America's Usually, the National Education Selective Service Agency came up Association announces a theme for with two dismal statistics: about 25 the week. Flow the seven days are percent of our draftees were observed is largely a local matter. illiterate and another 29 percent Schools and school districts use the were physically unfit. To bringthese week in many ways: to bring and other education-related parents into the school, make problems to national attention, a students more aware of what campaign was begun in 1919 by the schools are doing for them, and American Legion, the National strengthen community support. Education Association, and what Also, the week gives eic_icators and was then the U. S. Office of citizens an opportunity to air issues Education and is now the U. S. Department of Education. In 1923, the campaign became an annual observance known as American Education Week, celebrated on the first full week affecting local schools such as preceding Thanksgiving. Two more budget decisions, curriculum, and sponsors have since joined the student discipline. effort: the PTA in 1938 and the Whether used as an occasion to National School Boards Association reaffirm support for the schools or in 1980. as a Platform for public discussion, The observance begins with a American Education Week is national proclamation drawing essentially a national occasion for attention to the needs and acknowledging the everyday side of achievements of American schools. education. 311 302The NationalTeacher of the YearProgram

Each spring one person is selected Companies and Good from among America's2.5 million Housekeeping magazine) appointsa committee to elementary and secondaryteachers review these state to illustrate excellence in nominees. The teaching. committee then choosesfour This National Teacher ofthe Year, whn is chosen in order finalists, conducts intensive to honor interviews, and sound teaching practices rather names one as National Teacher of theYear. The than any single "best"teacher, is teacher is notified eachyear in recognized at a White House March. ceremony. Information about theprogram is The Search for theNational Teacher of the Year begins available from the Councilof Chief at the state level. State School Officers, Within each state, 379 Hall of any school the States, 400 North elementary through Capitol secondary Street, Washington, DC20001, can nominate a candidate forstate 202) 393-8161. teacher of theyear. States generally have their own methridcfor selection, but a committeeof distinguished educators is the typical route. These state teachers ofthe year become the candidates forthe National Teacher of theYear. Once the candidatesare known, the Council of Chief StateSchool Officers (a nationalsponsor along with the EncyclopaediaBritannica 312- National Distinguished 303 Principals Program

ointly organized and leadership. Also honored are sponsored by the U.S. principals representing private Department of education, Department of Defense Education and the Overseas Schools, and schools National Association abroad associated with the U.S. of Elementary School Principals, Department of Stateall chosen by the National Distinguished panels representing those ratifies. Principals program is based on two The call for nominations is issued important research findings: in early spring by the U.S. Secretary First, that children's taste for of Education and the Executive Director learning is essentially set in the of NAESP. Selections are made by beginning school years; and second, mid-June and those chosen attend that more than any other single an awards banquet and other factor, it is the leadership of the ceremonies in Washington, D.C. in principal that determines a school's October. quality. While nominations are handled The program honors principals only by NAESP's state affiliates, from every state and the District of general information may be Columbia chosen by their peers in obtained from NAM' itself at 1615 NAESP's state affiliates as being Duke Street, Alexandria, VA 22314, representative of exemplary K-8 (703) 684-3345. 313 304The Education Flag ei

If you see an extra flag billowing on your neighborhood school's flagpole, chances are that it is "The Flag of Learning and Liberty," an education first. Developed by the National School Public Relations Association with the Southland Corporation of Dallas, the new banner's design elements suggest a flame that symbolizes, NSPRA says, the following principles: Education is the very foundation of our society. Learning and liberty will always be intertwined. Good education requires effective teaching. A sound education demands high expectations for students. Good education requires responsible amities and involved communities. 314 The 'ledge of 305 Allegiance to the Flag

I pledge allegiance to the flag of the America." Cons, ess officially United States of America and to the endorsed the pledge in 1945. republic for which it stands, one President Eisenhower in 1954 nation under Cod, indivisible, with signed a law adding the words liberty and justice for all. "under Cod." No changes have Using this current official since been made. version, or slightly different Authorship was debated for many wording, schoolchildren for years, and standard references still generations have repeated the differ on the subject. Youth's stirring pledge to the flag, an Companion claimed in 1917 that affirmation of faith in America. the original draft had been written Most states by law call for its use on by one of its executives, James B. appropriate occasions in public Upham, who later condensed and schools, though exceptions on refined it with staff assistance. religious grounds have been upheld Francis Bellamy, a former editorial by the U.S. Supreme Court. writer on the magazine, claimed The pledge first appeared in a authorship in 1923. The United September 1892 issue of Youth's States Flag Association (1939) and Companion, a weekly magazine the Library of Congress (1957) published in Boston. A month later, supported Beliamy's claim. it was used in the dedication Whoevel. wrote it, the pledge is a ceremony for the World's Fair rousing tribute to the Stars and grounds in Chicago. Two national Stripes, which first became flag conferences (1923-1924) associated with our education changed the wording slightly. For system when it was flown over a example, "my flag" became "the schoolhouse in Colrain, flag of the United States of Massachusetts, in 1812. 315 306An Education Trivia Quiz

This quiz is based on the various sections of the Education Almanac. The answers are on page 310. A score of 17 to 20 means that your friends probably find you very irritating. A score of from 12 to 16 indicates Presidential Potential. From 9 to 12, you are not far short of wonderful. From 2 to 8, average. From 0 to 1, check the story on page 264 headed "Prayer power."

1. As noted in the education history part of their respective "State Profiles," two states were independent republics before they entered the Union. Name them.

2. According to the section titled "High Marks in the Gallup Poll," the chief problem facing the public schools today is what?

3. In the section titled "Some Readings in American Education," one of the Almanac's "Pathfinders in American Education" declared: "I believe in the existence of a great, immutable principle of natural law...which proves the absolute right of every human being that comes into the world to an education; and which, of course, proves the correlative duty of every government to see that the means of that education are provided for all." Who was he?

4. Another "Pathfinder in American Education" developed a remarkable system of writing that enabled his fellow Cherokees to learn to read and write within a matter of weeks. His name remains vivid in a famous species of trees named after him. Who was he?

5. True or false: In the United States, the states and localities are charged with the day-to-day conduct of the public schools in accordance with goals and policies set forth in the U. S. Constitution.

6."No Pass, No Play" is chiefly associated with what state? 316 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 7. What is "Square One TV"? 307

8. Researchers say that textbooks determine approximately what percentage of what is taught in American classrooms-35 to 55 percent, 55 to 75 percent, or '15 to 95 percent?

9. What is the relationship between Shirley Hufstedler, Terre! Bell, and William Bennett?

10. High schools became an established element of public education in America largely as a consequence of an 1874 court decision bearing the i:Iting name of what Michigan city?

11. He was such an extraordinarily creative Founding Father, with his finger in so many pies, that it is not really surprising thatas noted in "Today's Library"he provided the spark that led to today's public library system. Who was he?

12. In the 1930s there were some 127,000 school districts in the United States. About how many are there today?

13. One of the 50 states has no state school board and another has only one school district. Which are they?

14. It began in 1965 as an eight-week summer program and has since served some 10 million children between the ages cf three and six. What is it called?

15. An expert on "School-Business Partnerships" stresses that the goal of collaboration is not... what?

16. Advances in education since 1940 "have made the American people the most educated in the world." Says who?

17. It contains more than 500,000 documents, receives 2.7 million inquiries annually, and has been used by at least a third of all people employed in education. What is it called?

18. What is a "People Library"?

19. As noted in the section on education trends, sex education still attracts bitter opposition, but in one big American city it was recently made mandatory for all tenth graders. What is that city?

20. Outfits like the Ford Foundation, the Carnegie Corporation, and the Rockefeller Foundation make lots of grants to colleges and universities. Cite two such organizations that make grants to public schools. 3 i 7 CALENDARS .. 308 1987 JANUARY JULY SMTWTF S SMTWTF S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8 910 5 6 7 8 91011 11121314151617 12131415161718 18192021222324 19202122232425 25262728293031 262728203031

FEBRUARY AUGUST SMTWTFS SMTWTF S 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 19 1112 1314 1415 15 16 17 18 19 2921 9 10 11 1213 22 22 23 24 25 26 2728 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 25 26 27 2829 30 31 MARCH SMTWTF S SEPTEMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 SM TWT F S 8 9 10 1112 1314 1 2 3 4 5 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 6 7 8 9101112 22 23 24 25 26 2728 1314 1516171819 29 30 31 2021 2223242526 2728 2030 APRIL SMTWTFS OCTOBER 1 2 3 4 SMTWTF S 5 6 7 8 91011 1 2 3 12131415161718 4 5 6 7 8 910 10202122232425 1112 13 14 15 1617 2627282930 18 10 20 21 22 2324 25 26 27 28 29 3031

MAY SMTWT F S NOVEMBER 1 2 SMTWT FS 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10111213141516 8 91011 121314 17181920212223 15161718192021 24252627282030 22232425262728 31 2930

JUNE DECEMBER SMTWTF S SMTWT F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 910111213 6 7 8 9101112 14151617181920 13141516171819 21222324252627 20212223242526 262930 2728293031 318' E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 1988 309 SMTWTFSJANUARY SMTWTFSJULY 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 13141516 10 1112 13141516 17181920212223 17181920212223 24252627282930 24252627282930 31 31

SMTWTFSFEBRUARY SMTWTFSAUGUST 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 1213 7 8 910 111213 14151617181920 14151617181920 21222324252627 21222324252627 2829 28293031

SMTWTFSMARCH SMTWTFSSEPTEMBER 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 6 7 8 9101112 4 5 6 7 8 910 13141516171819 11121314151617 20212223242526 18192021222324 2728293031 252627282930

SMTWTFSAPRIL SMTWTFSOCTOBER 1 2 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10111213141516 91011 12131415 1718192021 2223 16171819202122 2425262728 23242526272829 293031 3031 SMTWTFSMAY SMTWTFSNOVEMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 8 91011 121314 6 7 8 9 1011 12 15161718192021 13141516171819 22232425262728 20212223242526 293031 27282930 SMTWTFSJUNE SMTWTFSDECEMBER 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 910 11 4 5 6 7 8 910 12131415161718 11 1213 14151617 19202122232425 18192021222324 2627282930 25262728293031 319 -4.TRIVIA QUIZ 310 ANSWERS

1. Texas and Vermont 2. Drug abuse, followed by discipline 3. Horace Mann 4. Sequoyah 5. False. Education is not referred to in the Constitution. 6. Texasas noted in the "Newsiest Stories" section. 7. As noted in the section on "TV: A Bright Spot in Children's Programming," this is a Public Broadcasting System series produced by the Children's Television Workshop of "Sesame Street" fameaimed at kids in the 8-to-12 age range and focused on mathematics. 8. 75 to 95 percent; see the item on "The Beleaguered Textbook" in the "Education in the News" section. 9. As noted in the piece about "The U.S. Department of Education," they are respectively the first, seconu, and third U.S. Secretaries of Education. 10. Kalamazoo, as noted in "A Brief History of American Education" and in "Landmark Dates in American Education." 11. Benjamin Franklin 12. Fewer than 16,000, as noted in "America's Unique System of Education" and in Table 5 in "Vital Education Statistics" 13. As revealed in their respective "State Profiles," Wisconsin and Hawaii 14. Head Start 15. Collaboration; business people want measurable outcomes. 16. The U. S. Census Bureau, as noted in "What's Right About American Education" 17. ERICthe Educational Resources Information Center 18. As described in "Getting Parents Involved," it is an arrangement by which students can capitalize on the expertise to be found in the Community by "borrowing" an individual (as they would a book) for consultation and information. 19. Philadelphia 20. The Ford Foundation, the Carnegie Corporation, and the Rockefeller Foundation are among those noted in the section on "Getting Private Funding for Public. Schools." Index 311

A

Aarons, Stephen, 114 ABC (American Broadcasting Company), 179, 181 Achieving Excellence in Our SchoolsBy Taking Lessons From America's Best-Run Companies, 255 Action for Children's Television, 180, 181 Action for Excellence, 115, 299 Adams, Daniel, 287 Adams, Henry Brooks, 258, 287 Adams, James Truslow, 258 Administrators, School, 11-12, 15, 147, 184, 186, 218, 257 See also Superintendents, and "Education Profiles of the States," 51-108 Admissions Marketing Group of Boston, 127 Adopt-a-School program, 198 Adult education, 204, 216 Affirmative action, 11, 212-213, 298 Agassiz, Louis, 287 Agriculture, Department of, 50 Aguilar v. Felton, 19, 211 Aguillard v. Edwards, 211 Alabama, 51, 211 Alaska, 52, 143 Anchorage, 142 Alcott, Amos Bronson, 258, 287 Alcott, William Andrus, 287 321 INDEX 312 Aldridge, Bill G., 243 Allen, Edward Ellis, 288 Allen, Ronald A., 226 Alvino, James, 249 Ambach, Gordon M., 20, 86 American Academy of Pediatrics, 179, 181 American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 216 American Association for Adult and Continuing Education, 216 American Association for Counseling and Development, 217 American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 13, 204, 217 American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, 218 American Association of School Administrators, 156, 218 American Association of School Personnel Administrators, 219 American Association of University Professors, 219 American Council on Education, 129, 219 American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, 219 American Educational Research Association, 220 American Federation of Teachers, 15, 115, 220 American Home Economics Association, 221 American Indians, See Native Americans American Learning Corp., 139 American Library Association, 176, 221 American School :ounselor Association, 222 American Society for Training and Development, 222 American Speech-Language-Hearirg Association, 223 American Statistical Association, 223 American Vocational Association, 223 Americans United for Separation of Church and State, 17 A Nation At Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform, 115, 125, 132, 299 A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the 21st Century, 6, 15, 116, 153 Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, 179 A Place Called School, 299 Anthony, Susan B., 267 Argenbright, Ed, 80 Arizona, 53 Arkansas, 13, 54, 113, 194-195 Arons, S., 254 Art education, 160, 188, 194, 232, 233 Asian students, 114, 166, 298 See also Minorities in the schools Association for Childhood Education International, 224 Association for Educational Communications and Technology, 224 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 225 Association for the Advancement of International Education, 225 Association of American Colleges, 225 Association of School Business Officials International, 226 Association of Teacher Educators, 226 Association of Texas Professional Educators, 15 322 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

Atwell, Robert H., 219 313 Australia, 23

B

Baby boom, 171, 173 Bacon, Francis, 258 Bakke, Alan, 298 Ballinger, Charles E., 240 Ballou, Hosea, 258 Barbosa, Jose Celso, 273 Barnard, Henry, 111, 131, 258, 288, 297 Barzun, Jacques, 258 Basic Grants Program, 132 Beecher, Catherine, 288 Bekken, Bonnie, 246 Belgium, 22 Bell, Alexander Graham, 258, 288 Bell, Terrell H., 7, 15, 115, 132, 138, 288, 299 Benjamin, Ernst, 219 Bennett, William J., 7-8, 9, 19, 133, 159-161, 214, 254, 299 Benton, Robert D., 67 Bethel School District No. 403 v. Fraser, 215 Bethune, Mary McLeod, 288 Bilingual education, 8-10, 114, 132, 233, 293 Bilingual Education Act, 9, 132 Bingham, Caleb, 176 Biology, 234 Bishop, C. Diane, 53 Black Americans, 113, 123, 129, 241, 255-56, 266, 267, 288-E2. 296, 299 employment of, 172 higher education for, 293, 297, 298 in Head Start, 166 in higher education, 289, 292 legal issues, 10-11, 18, 123, 212, 213 teachers, 212, 213 See also Minorities in the schools Blackburn, Harold L., 68 Blaunstein, Phyllis L., 235 Block grants, 170, 177 Blueprint for Success, A, 257 BOOK IT!, 198 Boorstin, Daniel, 259 Boston Latin School, 109, 295 Boyd, Richard A., 77 Boyer, Ernest L., 288 Braille, 79, 288 3 2 INDEX 314Brandt, Ronald, 248 Brewer v. Austiii Independent School District, 215 'Brouillet, Frank B., 103 Brown, Rexford, 253 Brown v. Board of Education, 10, 113, 123-24, 297 Buildings and facilities, See School buildings and facilities Bunzel, John, 257 Burger, Warren, 211 Burger King, 198 3usiness education, 226, 228, Pl. 237 Business leadership, 140, 198-200, 254, 255 attitudes toward schools, 153-155 Busing, 11, 113, 114, 169-70, 212, 256, 300 Butler, Nicholas Murray, 289 Buzzell, Charles H., 223 Byrnside, 0. J., 237

C

Cable television, 179, 181 California, 13, 16, 19, 55, 114, 140, 143, 175 Bay area counties, 197 Huntington Beach, 139 Los Angeles, 139, 140, 185 Cameron, Don, 241 Canada, 22, 126, 272 Carla Odenheim et al. v. Carlstadt-East Rutherford School, 215 Career ladders, See Merit pay for teachers Carnegie, Andrew, 176 Carnegie Corporation, 179, 206 Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy, 6, 116, 145, 153 Carnegie Foundation, 7, 15 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 299 Carter, Cynthia, 247 Carter (Jimmy) administration, 114 Carver, George Washington, 289 Castor, Betty, 61 Categorical aid, 132, 170 Cawelti, Gordon, 225, 263 CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System), 179, 180, 181 Censorship, 15-17, 143-144 Census Bureau, 2,50, 126-127, 141 Center for Education Statistics, 25, 50, 128, 143 Chall, Jeanne, 15-16 Challenger space flight, 4, 300 Chandler, John W., 225 Charren, Peggy, 180

324::, E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 -1 9 8 8 Chavez, Gene T., 233 315 Children's Defense Fund, 165 Children's Television Workshop, 178-79, 289 China, 22 Church and State, 15-17, 19, 210-12, 298, 305 Citizen participation in schools, 238-239, 243 City schools, 139, 184, 186, 204, 228, 255, 257 See also "Some Emerging Educational Trends," 138-144 Civil rights, 10-11, 212-213, 299 Civil Rights Act of 1964, 212 Civil Rights, Office of, 10 Clark, Kenneth B., 259 Clausen, Thomas, 71 Cole, Robert W., Jr., 251 College Entrance Examination Board, 128-129, 297 Colorado, 56 Jefferson County, 140 Commager, Henry Steele, 259 Committee for Economic Development, 254 Common Ground: A Turbulent Decade in the Lives of Three American Families, 255 Community colleges, 218 Community involvement in schools, 134-137, 140, 198-200, 238 r,ompelling Belief, 254 Competency testing, 13-15, 115, 147 See also "Education Profiles of the States," Excellence activities, 51-108 Compulsory education, 111, 254, 295 See also "Education Profiles of the States", 51-108 Conant, James B., 289 Condition of Education, The, 50, 207 Connecticut, 57, 111 Salisbury, 176 Cooney, Joan Ganz, 289 Cooperman, Saul, 84 Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 179 Counci for Advancement and Support of Education, 226 Counci for American Private Education, 227 Counci for Exceptional Children, 204, 227 Counci of Chief State School Officers, 20, 227, 302 Counci of Education Facility Planners, International, 228 Counci of the Great City Schools, 228 Counse ing and personnel services, 204, 217, 222, 235 Crabbs, Michael and Susan, 248 Creationism, 16, 211 Curriculum, 160-161, 225 for elementary schools, 254 See also "Education Profiles of the States," Excellence activities, 51-108 Curry, Raymond E., 219 3 25-: INDEX 316D

David D. v. Dartmouth School Committee,214 Davis, 0. L., Jr., 17 Davis, S. John, 102 Deans, Karen, 250 Decimal system, 290 Defense, Department of, 12, 50 Overseas schools, 303 De Jong, William S., 238 Delaware, 23, 58 New Castle County, 199 Denmark, 22 Desegregation, Schoo!, 10-11, 113, 123_ 169-170, 212-213, 255, 297, 300 Dewey, John, 112, 259, 289 Dewey, Melvil, 176, 290 Dickinson, Emily, 259 Digest of Education Statistics,50, 127 Disadvantaged children, 2, 19, 113, 132, 154, 165-166, 298 in parochial schools, 211, 214 Discipline, 114, 145-147, 215 Discrimination, 10-11, 17-19, 113, 123-124, 212-213 against women, 299 against handicapped, 298 reverse, 213, 298 Distributive Education Clubs of America, 228 District of Columbia, 59, 142, 199 Dobson, R., 257 Douglass, Frederick, 267 Downey, Gregg W., 246, 249 Dropouts, 9, 126, 139-1A0, 255 Drug abuse, 11-13, 146-147, 150, 215, 256 DuBois, W.E.B., 290 Duncan, Verne A, 92

E

Earhart, J. Troy, 94 Early childhood education, 1-4, 165-166, 204, 224, 233, 254, 289 enrollments, 3, 36 See alsoKindergarten East Germany, 126 Economic Opportunity Act, 113 EDPRESS, 229 326 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 Education, U.S. Commissioner of, 131 317 the first, 111, 288 Education, Department of, 7, 19, 25, 115, 130-133, 179, 201, 206, 256, 297, 299, 301, 303 Education, Office of, 9, 130, 201 Educational management, 204 Educational reform, 132-133, 299 obstacle to, 17-19 See also "Education Profiles of the States,"Excellence activities, 51.108 Educational research, 201-205, 220, 230, 256 Educational Research Service, 145, 156, 162, 230 Educational technology, 232, 244 for the handicapped, 114 See also "ERIC: Education's Research Storehouse," 201-205 Educational Testing Service, 7, 204, 206 Education Commission of the States, 115, 229, 299 Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981, 19-20, 170, 177, 211, 298 Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (P.L. 94-142), 114, 132, 213, 298 Education for Economic Security Act of 1984, 143-144, 170 Education Week, 10, 144, 248 Education Writers Association, 230 Einstein, Albert, 259, 268 Eisenhower, Dwight, 176, 305 Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, 113, 132, 177, 214, 298 Elementary education, 2, 133, 159-161, 169, 204, 234, 254 enrollments, 27-30, 32-33 expenditures for, 47-49 parent involvement in, 134 private funding for, 183-187 Eliot, Charles W., 290 Emergency School Aid Act, 170 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 259, 271, 287 Employment, 171-173 Encyclopaedia Britannica Companies, 302 England, 22, 142 Enrollment, See School enrollment Environment, School, See School buildings and facilities ERIC Clearinghouses, 204 ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center), 201-205 Esty, John C., Jr., 235 Evans, H. Dean, 66 Evans, Jerry L, 64 Evolution, 16 Excellence movement, 115-116, 125, 132-133 See also "Education Profiles of the States," Excellence activities, 51-108 Extracurricular activities, 17-19 :327 INDEX 318 F

Faubus, Orval, 113 Federal aid to education, 24, 113-114, 116, 132-133, 179, 214, 298 for disadvantaged children, 20, 113, 132, 165-166, 298 land-grants, 24, 112, 296 297 the first, 112 the first categorical, 24, 112 to libraries, 176-177 Federal Cu.nmunications Commission, 179-180 Feistritzer, Patricia, 250 First Lessons: A Report on Elementary Education in America, 133, 254 Florida, 5, 61 Palm Beach, 141 Folks, John M., 91 Follow Through, 113, 165-166 Ford Foundation, 206, 257 Forgotten Factor in School Success-The Family, The, 256 Foundation grants for public education, 183-197 Foxfire books, 256 France, 22, 179, 272 Franchised schooling, 138-139 Franklin, Benjamin, 110, 118, 175, 259, 266 Frazier, Calvin M., 56 Fris, J., 253 Frost, Robert, 259 Fullbright, William J., 297 Futrell, Mary H., 15, 241 Future Business Leaders of America, 231 Future Farmers of America, 231 Future Homemakers of America, 231

G

Callaudet College, 296 Callaudet, Thomas I-L, 290, 296 Gallop poll, 11-12, 15, 20, 116, 130, 146-152 Calloway, James R., 237 Calvin, Thomas J., 221 Gardner, John W., 290 Garfield, James, 259 Cates, James D., 240 General Accounting Office, 7 Georgia, 13, 19, 62, 142, 175 GI Bill, 112, 297 Gifted children, 204, 184-190, 227 Gilbert, Michael, 200 328 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

Geld, Deborah, 252 319 Goid, Steven, 142-143 Coldsborough, H., 253 Good Housekeepingmagazine, 302 Goodlad, John I., 291, 299 Goodyear, Rodney K., 249 Gorman, Trish, 246 Cough, Deborah, 248 Governors, State, 229 Graham, Patricia A., 259 Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act, 116, 133, 165, 177, 214 Grand Rapids School District v. Ball,211 Grant, Vance, 139 Graubard, St7phen R., 247 Great Society, The, 24, 113, 132, 166 Greece, 22 Greene, Leon E., 251 Cross, Ronald and Beatrice, 257 Grossman, B., 257 Grove City College v. Bell,299 Grover, Herbert J., 105 Grove v. Mead School District No. 354,210 Guaranteed Student Loan Program, 298 Guidance counselors, 40, 217, 222 Guthrie, J. W., 257

H

Haley, Frances, 239 Hampel, Robert, 225 Handicapped children, Education o;, 114, 132, 204, 213, 214, 223, 227, 237, 258, 298 blind, 212, 288, 293 deaf, 288, 290, 296 in Head Start, 166 Hansen, James 0., 96 Harper, William Rainey, 291 Harris, C. Coleman, 231 Harris, William Tony, 122 Harris Poll, 126, 153-155 Harvard Center for Learning, 15-16 Harvard College, 110, 295 Hasbro, Inc., 180 Hatanaka, Francis, M., 63 Hatch, Orrin C., 143-144 Hatfield, Thomas A., 233 Hawaii, 63 3 2 9

1. INDEX 320Hayakawa, S. I., 9 Haywood, Hal, 216 Head Start, 113, 165-166 Health, 216 Health and Human Services, Department of, 166 Henderson, Anne T., 257 Henry, Patrick, 271 Heritage Foundation, 7 Higher education, 24, 112, 219, 204, 225, 295-298 enrollment, 38-39 expenditures for, 47 faculty, 219 first institution of, 296. first state university, 111, 296 for Black Americans, 288, 289, 292, 293, 296-297 for the deaf, 289, 290, 296-297 for women, 111, 292, 294 Higher Education Act of 1965, 132, 177, 298 High School, See Secondary Education High School: A Report on Secondary Education in America, 299 High/Scope Foundation, 2 Holliday, Albert E., 250 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Sr., 260 Home economics, 221, 231 Homework, 148-149 Honig, Bill, 55 Hoover, Herbert, 260 Hopkins, Mark, 291 Hornbeck, David W., 73 Howe, Harold II, 291 Hudelson, Dale, 247 Hufstedler, Shirley M., 132 Hungary, 126 Huntington Learning Centers, Inc., 139 Husk, Samuel B., 228

I

IBM, 179 Idaho, 6, 64 Illinois, 65, 175, 191, 192-193, 197 Chicago, 139, 141, 170, 192-193 Illiteracy, 179, 255, 301 Illiterate America, 255 Imig, David G., 217 Immigrants, 110, 1'2 independent schools, 235 See also Private schools i 330 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 India, 22 321 Indiana, 66, 184, 191 Indianapolis, 170 Institute for Educational Leadership, 231, 255 Integration, 113-114 of teachers, 212 See also Desegregation Interior, Department of, 50, 297 International education, 225, 232, 244, 298 International Education Act, 298 International Reading Association, 232 International Technology Education Association, 232 Investing in Our Schools, 254 Iowa, 67, 191, 197 IQ tests, 293 Iroquois Confederacy, 259 Italy, 22

J

Japan, 22, 126 Jefferson, Thomas, 260, 269, 295 Johns Hopkins University, 126, 142 Johnson, Lyndon, 24, 113, 132, 166 Jokes, 263-265 Jones, Alan H., 247 Junior colleges, 204, 218, 291 Justice, Department of, 11, 300

K

Kaagan, Stephen S., 101 Kahn, Ann P., 239 Kalamazoo Decision, 111, 297 Kansas, 68 Wichita, 175 Katznelson, I., 257 Keene, William B., 58 Kennedy, John F., 139, 260 Kent, Rockwell, 260 Kentucky, 69, 214 Keppel, Francis, 291 Key, Francis Scott, 268 Kindergarten, 2, 171, 292, 296, 297 enrollment, 29, 34 the first private, 111, 292 31. INDEX 322 the first public, 111, 297 staffing trends, 41, 43 See also "Kindergarten Today," 162-164 -King, Martin Luther, Jr., 266 Kirby, William, 98 Koehler, Virginia R., 245 Koerner, Thomas, 250, 251 Koloski, Judith Ann, 216 Koppelman, Jane, 252 Kozel, Jonathan, 255 Kromnick v. School District of Philadelphia, 212 Kurzius, Ann, 251

L

Labor, Department of, 50, 171 Land-grant colleges, 24, 112, 296, 297 Landsmann, Leanna, 249 Languages and linguistics, 157, 204, 219, 240 LaPointe, Archie, 264 Last Little Citadel, The, 255 Latin America, 22 Lautenberg, Frank, 180 Lau v. Nichols, 9, 114, 298 Leatherbury, Leven C., 246 Leibowitz, Margaret S., 246 Leone, Fred C., 223 Levin, Dan, 253 Lewis, J., 255 Libraries, 40, 174-177, 221, 269 Library of Congress, 176 Liddell, Louisa, 231 Lightfoot, A., 257 Lincoln, Abraham, 260 Lind, Marshall, 52 Lipsitz, Lawrence, 248 monger school day-year, 140, 240, 299 Lonnsbury, John H., 250 Lotteries to finance public education, 142-143 Louisiana, 71, 211 Lowell, James Russell, 260 Lukas, Anthony J., 255 Lutjeharms, Josoh E., 81 Lynn, David H., 246 Lyon, Mary, 292 Lytle, David, 251 332 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 -M 323

MacDonald, John T., 83 Madison, James, 260 Maeroff, Gene I., 260 Magnet schools, 113, 169-170 Mahlmann, John i., 232 Maine, 72 Making the Grade, 115, 299 Malinka, Robert M., 241 Mallory, Arthur L., 78 Mann, Horace, 111, 120, 261, 270, 292, 296 Marburger, Carl, 238, 257 Marcuccio, Phyllis R., 252 Marshall, Thurgood, 212 Martin, Lucy Prete, 247 Martinez, Dennis, 9 Maryland, 5, 73 Massachusetts, 5, 23, 75, 111, 176, 295, 296 Boston, 111, 176, 255 Burlington, 213 Springfield, 199 Master teachers, See Merit pay for teachers Mathematics, 204, ail, 209, 223, 240 Maxwell, John C., 240 Mays, Benjamin, 29:' May v. Cooperman, 211-212 McAuliffe, Christa, 4-6, 300 McAuliffe, Steven James, 5 McClure, Phyllis, 10-11 McDonald, Alice, 69 McDonough, Patrick J., 217, 222 McElrath, Robert L., 97 McFadden, Joan, 221 McGavin, Joe, 247 McGuffey, William Holmes, 292, 296 McKenzie, Floretta, 59 McNamee, Sister Catherine, C.S.J., 238 McNeel, William Thomas, 104 McPike, Liz, 245 McWethy, Patricia J., 234 Mega:rends, 140 Mencken, H. L., 261 Meranda, Daniel, 243 Merit pay for teachers, 6, 61, 62, 65, 68, 72, 88, 96, 98, 99-100, 101, 103, 133, 157 Michigan, 75, 191, 297 Ferndale, 198 Grand Rapids, 211 333 INDEX 324 Jackson, 213 Kalamazoo, 111, 297 Ypsilanti, 2 Middle East, 22 Middle schools, 194, 241 Migrant children, 166 Miller, Edward D., 231 Miller, Richard D., 218 Million, June C., 247 Minnesota, 76, 185, 191 Minorities in the schools, 17-18, 114, 132, 184-190 as teachers, 6, 15, 212, 213 legal issues, 212, 213 in Head Start, 166 American Indians, See Native Americans Asians, See Asian students Blacks, See Black Americans Hispanics, See Spanish-speaking Mississippi, 23, 77 Missouri, 78, 197 St. Louis, 111, 170, 297 Mitchell, Ronald, 232 Mobil Corporation, 199 Monsanto, 199 Montana, 80, 143 Morgan, Alan, 85 Morgan, Barbara R., 6 Morrill, Justin, 112 Morrill Act of 1862, (the first) 110, 296 Morrill Act of 1880 (the second), 110, 297 Moss, James R., 100 Mote, Robert, 143 Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 144 Mozart v. Hawkins County Public Schools, 210 Music Educators National Conference, 232

N

NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, 11 Naisbitt, John, 140 National Academy of Science, 16 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 4 National Art Education Association, 233 National Assessment of Educational Progress, 50, 206-209 National Association for Bilingual Education, 233 National Association for the Education of Young Children, 233 National Association for Women Deans, Administrators and Counselors, 233 334 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 8 8 Nationa Association of Biology Teachers, 234 325 Nationa Association of Elementary School Principals, 4, 180, 234, 303 Nationa Association of Independent Schools, 235 Nationa Association of.Pupil Personnel Administrators, 235 Nationa Association of Secondary School Principals, 235 Nationa Association of State Boards of Education, 236 Nationa Association of State Directors of Special Education, 237 Nationa Black Media Coalition, 181 Nationa Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 6, 15, 116 Nationa Business Education Association, 237 Nationa Catholic Educational Association, 238 Nationa Coalition on Television Violence, 180 Nationa Commission on Excellence in Education, 115, 132-133, 299 Nationa Committee for Citizens in Education, 238, 257 Nationa Community Education Association, 238 Nationa Conference of State Legislatures, 142 Nationa Congress of Parents and Teachers, 239, 270, 301 Nationa Council for the Social Studies, 239 Nationa Council of Teachers of English, 240 Nationa Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 240 Nationa Council on Year-Round Education, 240 Nationa Defense Education Act, 112, 132, 298 Nationa Education Association, 15, 115, 129, 139, 241, .301 Nationa Foundation for the Improvement of Education, 257 Nationa Institute of Education, 132 Nationa Middle School Association, 241 Nationa School Boards Association, 242, 301 Nationa School Public Relations Associ :ion, 167, 242, 256, 304 Nationa School Volunteer Program, 243 Nationa Science Roundation, 50, 179 Nationa Science Teachers Association, 243 Native Americans, 166, 259, 261, 293, 294 NBC (National Broadcasting Company), 181 Nebraska, 81, 143 Netherlands, The, 2Z Nevada, 82 Las Vegas, 140 New England, 109, 111, 118, 295 New Hampshire, 4, 83, 143, 176 Concord, 300 New Jersey, 84, 175, 186-187, 197. 211, 214, 215 Bergen County, 215 Oradell, 139 New Jersey Superior Court, 215 New Jersey v. T.L.O., 215 Newman, Frank, 229 Newman, John Henry, 261 New Mexico, 85 335

.11 INDEX 326 New York, 23, 86, 176 Buffalo, 170 New York City, 139, 195, 199, 211 Rochester, 170 Troy, 111, 296 Yonkers, 212 Nixon, Richard, 132 North Carolina, 87, 111, 175, 296 North Dakota, 89, 185 North Haven Board of Education v. Bell, 299 Northwestern Jniversity Medical School, 141 Northwest Ordinances of 1785 and 1787, 24, 110, 295-296 0 Oberlin College, 296 O'Connor, Sandra Day, 214 Ohio, 90 Columbus, 170, 191 Oklahoma, 91 Oregon, 92, 175 Ourth, John, 264 Overseas schools, See Schools abroad

P Packer, James S., 224 Parents, 133, 134-137, 139, 140, 163, 238, 239, 256 attitudes of, 147-148 rights of, 213, 254 Parker, Francis Wayland, 264 Parnell, Dale, 218 Parsons, Gordon E., 225 Paslov, Eugene T., 82 Peabody, Elizabeth P., 111, 292, 296 Peabody, George, 297 Pennsylvania, 93, 175 Philadelphia, 110, 141-142, 176, 199, 212 Pittsburgh, 170 Perot, H. Ross 17-19 Perry Preschool Project, 2 Personnel administrators, 219 Peterson, Penelope, 252 Phay, Robert, 252 Phi Delta Kappa, 116, 130, 145, 243 Phillips, A. Craig, 87 Physical education, 216 Pierce, William F., 227 336 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 Pizza Hut, 198 327 Mott, Curtis E., 222 Poms, Theodora, 257 Powell, Lewis F., Jr., 213 Prayer in the schools, 211 Price, Kathleen, 251 Principals, 7, 160-161, 162-164, 184 elementary school, 234, 303 secondary school, 235 for salaries,See"Education profiles of the Stages," 51-108 Private Industry Council, 199 Private schools, 20, 227, 235 Catholic, 211, 238, 293 expenditures for, 47 principals in, 303 Private sector, The, 183-195 PTA,SeeNational Congress of Parents and Teachers Public Broadcasting Service, 178 Public opinion on education, 11, 15, 116, 130, 145-155 Public relations in the schools, 2A2, 256 Pupil-teacher ratio, 46, 164 Push:nataha, 261

Q

Quehl, Gary H., 226

R

Racism, 123, 210 Radecki, Thomas, 180 Randall, Ruth E., 76 RAND Corporation, 129 Ravitch, Diane, 8 Raynolds, Harold, Jr., 74 Reading, 15-17, 207-208, 232 Reagan, Ronald, 4, 5, 7, 12, 116, 131, 175, 261, 267, 299 Reagan admin:stration, 9, 10, 11, 24, 114, 115, 177, 212-213 Recreation, 216 Redmond, Richard W., 72 Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 114, 298 Re!igion/School issues,SeeChurch and State Revenue sharing funds, 175 Reynolds, Pamela Schrom, 251 Rhode Island, 94, 295, 296 Rice, Joseph Mayer, 292 3 3 7 INDEX

328 Rich, Dorothy, 256 Richards, Ellen H., 292 Rickover, Hyman, 261 Riddick v. School Board of Norfolk,11, 212 Rioux, J. William, 238 Rivera, Charles R., 252 Roberts, Jack L., 248 Robinson, Glen E., 162, 230 Rogers, Werner, 62 Rogers, Will, 261 Roosevelt, Theodore, 261 Rose, Lowell C., 244 Rueckel, Patricia, 233 Runkel, Phillip E., 75 Rural education, 143, 204 Russell, Bertrand, 261 Russell, William J., 220, 248

S

Salett, Stanley, 238 Sanchez, George I., 292 Sanders, Ted, 65 Sanstead, Wayne G., 89 Santayana, George, 261 Sava, Samuel G., 4, 234 Scales, Peter, 142 Scebold, C. Edward, 219 Schlafly, Phyllis, 144 Scholastic Aptitude Tests, 16, 18, 128 School administrators, 218, 227, 257 School boards, 111, 236, 242, 300 See alsoSchool districts School buildings and facilities, 204, 188,228 School committee of the Town of Burlington v. Massachusetts Department of Education,213 School consolidation, 21, 30-31 School districts, 21, 30-32, 301 See also"Recent Court Rulings Affecting the Schools", 210-215 School Dropouts: Everybody's Problem, 255 School enrollment, 27-39, 127 School finance, 7, 116, 142-143 School Public Relations: The Complete Book, 256 Schools abroad, U.S., 303 Schwartz, Stephen, 180 33'8 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

Science, 204, 207, 209, 243 329 Scientific Games, 142-143 Secondary education, 111, 126, 235, 255, 297 enrollment, 28, 29, 32, 33 private funding for, 183-197 Secular humanism, 143-144, 210, 211 Segregation, 123-124, 212, 289 See also Desegregation Sequoya, 91, 293 Seton, Elizabeth, 293 Sex education, 141-142 Shanker, Albert, 15, 220 Shannon, Thomas, 242 Shannon, William V, 8 Simon3, Lynn 0., 107 Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, 112, 297 Smith, Margaret A., 93 Smith, Marilyn M., 233 Smith, Robert L., 227 Snyder, M., 257 Social studies, 204, 239 Sometimes a Shining Moment: The Foxfire Experience, 256 South, The, 110, 113, 296, 297 South Carolina, 95, 198 South Dakota, 96, 143, 185 Southland Corporation of Dallas, 305 Soviet Union, 22, 112, 132 Spahr, Frederick T., 223 Spanish-speaking students, 8-10, 18, 132, 166, 273, 293 Special education, See Handicapped children, Education of Sputnik, 112, 132, 295' Staff, School, 40-412, 167 Starkweather, Kuidall, 232 State Boards of Education, 236 State, Department of, 303 Stevenson, Robert, 226 Stoll, Donald R., 229 Strasburger, Victor, A.D., 179 Student, achievement, 117 attendance, 128 enrollment, 27-29, 33-36, 127-128 expenditures, 47-49 rights, 215 testing, 128, 148, 204, 206-209 Sullivan, Anne, 293 Superintendents, 156-158, 184, 218, 227 Sweden, 22, 126 0 .,;%AVQ, Li INDEX 330Sylvan Learning Corporation, 139 Synar v. U.S., 214

T

Taxes for the schools, 111, 214, 297 Taylor, Jack A., 250 Teacher(s), 6, 171, 241, 302 accountability, 6 and discrimination, 212-213 and racial integration, 212 awards, 167-168 demand, 44 education, 204, 217, 226 first state association of, 296 in K-6 schools, 163-164, 171 public opinion of, 129, 154-155 salaries, 6, 129, 147-148 staffing trends, 40-44 testing, 13-15, 115-116 Teacher aides, 40, 164, 171 Teacher-in-space program, 4-6 Teacher-pupil ratios, 46, 164 Teacher unions, 13, 115, 158, 220-221, 241 Teague, Wayne, 51 Technology, 172-173, 17 i See also Educationist technology Television, 178-182 Tennessee, 97, 144, 210 Terman, Lewis B., 293 Texas, 13, 16, 18-19, 98, 133, 135, 144 Dallas, 199 Houston, 140 Textbooks, 15-17, 144, 210-211, 287, 292, 296 The Nation Responds: Recent Efforts to Improve Education, 115 Thomson, Scott D., 235 Thoreau, Henry David, 261 Thorndike, Edward L., 293 Tirozzi, Gerald N., 57 Trilling, Lionel, 262 Troy Female Seminary, 111, 296 Tunis, Harry B., 246, 250 Tursman, Cindy, 252 Twain, Mark, 266 Twentieth Century Fund, 115, 299 340 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8

U 331

Unions, Teacher, 13, 158, 220, 241, 2]3 U.S. Circuit Courts First, 214 Third, 211, 212 Fourth, 11, 212, 300 Fifth, 211, 215 Ninth, 210 U.S. Conga is, 24, 110, 113-114, 116, 130-133, 144, 165, 170, 175-177, 214, 297, 2v8, 305 U.S. Constitution, 23, 110, 130 First Amendment, 210, 211, 212, 215 Tenth Amendment, 23 Eleventh Amendment, 214 Thirteenth Amendment, 267 Fourteenth Amendment, 113, 123 Nineteenth Amendment, 274 U.S. District Court, District of Tennessee, 210 U.S. District Court, Southern District of New York, 212 U.S. Supreme Court, 10, 11, 18, 19, 113-114, 298-300, 305 See also "Recent Court Rulings Affecting the Schools," 210-215 U.S. v. Yonkers Board of Education, 212 Urban Institute, 141 Urban schools, See City schools Usdan, Michael, 231 Utah, 100, 140, 144

V

Venters, Tommy R., 54 Vermont, 101, 112, 197 Veterans, 112, 297 Virginia, 102 Norfolk, 11, 113, 212, 300 Richmond, 113 Prince William County, 141 Vocational education, 24, 112, 196-197, 204, 223, 231, 232, 297 Vouchers, Tuition, 19-20, 114, 148

Walker, Lisa J., 230 Wallace v. Jaffree, 211 Walter, Franklin B., 90 ,3 4 INDEX MN, 411 332Washington, 103, 212 Seattle, 170 Bellevue, 139 Washington, Booker T., 293 Washington, George, 267 Wauneka, Annie Dodge, 293 Webster, Daniel, 262 Webster, Noah, 262, 294 Weiss, Ted, 11 Wells, H. G., 262 West Germany, 22 West Virginia, 104 What Works: Research About Teaching and Learning, 256 What Works: Schools Without Drugs, 256 Wherry, John H., 242 White, Byron, 215 White, Mark, 18 Whitehead, Alfred North, 262 White House Conference on Education, The 1955, 124, 298 Wigginton, Eliot, 256 Will, George F., 262 Willard, Emma Hart, 111, 294, 296 Williams, Charlie G., 95 Williford, Frederick L., 228 Wills, Garry, 8 Wilson, Charles M., 235 Wilson, Woodrow, 262 Wirth, Timothy E., 180 Wisconsin, 105, 191 Milwaukee, 170 Witters u. Washington Department of Services for the Blind, 212 Wohlers, Arthur E., 228 Wolk, Ronald A., 248 Women, 233, 241, 267, 273, 288, 292-294 and discrimination, 299 employment of, 172 first coeducational school, 296 first college for, 111, 296 higher education enrollmert of, 39 veterans, 297 Wright, Dorothy, 245 Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education, 11, 213 Wyoming, 107, 143

342 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 8 Y 333

Year-round education, 140, 240 Young, Brigham, 262 Young, Ella Flagg, 294 Ysseldyke, James E., 249

Z Zenor, Stanley, 224

343