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BOOMERT THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF Trinidad and Tobago FROM THE FIRST SETTLERS UNTIL TODAY This study relates the vicissitudes of the Amerindian peoples who lived or still inhabit the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, from the earliest occupants, ca. 8000 BC, until at present. Using archaeological, ethnohistorical and linguistic data, it discusses the social, Tobago and Trinidad THE political, economic, and religious development of indigenous society through the ages. The Amerindian struggle with European colonization is chronicled in detail, following INDIGENOUS centuries of independent existence during pre-Columbian times, as well as the survival of the current people of indigenous ancestry in the twin-island republic. PEOPLES “This book fills a long-standing gap in the history of Trinidad & Tobago, and the southern Caribbean more generally. It provides a clearly written, authoritative account and analysis OF of the Amerindians (First Peoples) who lived (and still live) in the two islands, from the very earliest human settlement there up to the present. Based on up-to-the-minute scholarship in TODAY UNTIL SETTLERS THE FROM FIRST several disciplines – archaeology, ethnography, history, linguistics – Boomert dispels many myths and misconceptions about these peoples, and carefully traces the complex history of their settlement, in successive waves of migration, in both islands, their interactions with Europeans arriving from 1498, and their “decline” in the post-contact period.” - Dr. Bridget Brereton, Emerita Professor in History, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. “This book is a welcome addition to the literature we are now seeking to inform our work here at the Santa Rosa First Peoples Community, as it brings to light important aspects of THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF our buried history. Of particular interest is the information on the involvement of the Dutch in the struggles of the First Peoples, and the connection with Hierreyma, our great Nepuyo Chieftain. It is an inspiration to those of us who are currently engaged in efforts to secure Trinidad and Tobago the rightful place of the First Peoples of this land – Kairi.” - Ricardo Bharath Hernandez, Chief Santa Rosa First Peoples Community, Arima, Trinidad, Republic of Trinidad and FROM THE FIRST SETTLERS UNTIL TODAY Tobago. Sidestone ISidestoneSBN 978-90-8890-353-3 Press ISBN: 978-90-8890-353-3 ARIE BOOMERT 9 789088 903533 This is an Open Access publication. Visit our website for more OA publication, to read any of our books for free online, or to buy them in print or PDF. www.sidestone.com Check out some of our latest publications: THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF Trinidad and Tobago THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF Trinidad and Tobago FROM THE FIRST SETTLERS UNTIL TODAY ARIE BOOMERT Sidestone Press © 2016 Arie Boomert Published by Sidestone Press, Leiden www.sidestone.com ISBN 978-90-8890-353-3 Lay-out & cover design: Sidestone Press Front cover illustrations: © Altinosmanaj | Dreamstime.com: View of coast of northern Trinidad just west of Maracas Bay. La Venezuela; statue of a Warao Amerindian, artist unknown. Santa Cruz Valley, Trinidad, ca. 1900. Also available as: e-book (PDF): ISBN 978-90-8890-354-0 [TRINIDAD] ‘This Iland is called by the people therof Cairi, and in it are diuers nations [...]’ Sir Walter Ralegh (1595) [TOBAGO] ‘This island is called Urupaina in the Indian language, meaning big snail; it is inhabited by Carib Indians [...]’ Antonio Vásquez de Espinosa (1628) Contents List of illustrations ix Preface xiii Abbreviations xv 1. Introduction 1 Geographical situation and natural environment 2 The indigenous peoples of Trinidad and Tobago 6 Discovery of archaeological sites 11 2. The first settlers 15 (ca. 8000–300 BC) The earliest Trinidadians 16 The first Tobagonians and late Archaic times in Trinidad 21 3. New immigrants: the first ceramists 25 (ca. 300 BC–AD 650/800) Saladoid settlement sites in Trinidad and Tobago 25 Saladoid ceramics and Barrancoid intrusion 28 Saladoid/Barrancoid subsistence and food processing 32 Saladoid/Barrancoid population, society and religion 34 4. Late-prehistoric cultural change 45 (ca. AD 650/800–1498) Arauquinoid settlement in Trinidad 45 Troumassoid occupation of Tobago 52 On the brink of the Historic Age: Mayoid in Trinidad and Cayo (?) 59 in Tobago 5. Amerindian culture and society in Trinidad and 61 Tobago at the time of the encounter and thereafter Population and settlement patterns 61 Subsistence and food processing 64 Social organization and life cycle 69 Interaction: war and exchange 71 Religion: cosmology and shamanism 77 6. The Amerindian–European struggle for Trinidad 83 and Tobago (1498–1592) The first European‒Amerindian encounters in Trinidad and Tobago 83 Attempts at Spanish settlement in Trinidad and slave raids in Tobago 88 7. The Spanish-Amerindian frontier in Trinidad 97 (1592–1686) Spanish settlement and Amerindian reaction 97 Hierreyma and the great Amerindian rebellion 107 8. European settlement and Amerindian response in 115 Tobago (1592–ca. 1810) Slave raids and the first European attempts at settlement 115 Further Dutch and Courlander ventures 119 A peaceful interlude: Tobago as a ‘neutral’ island 125 From marginalization to extinction 128 9. Mission villages in Spanish Trinidad (1686–1797) 131 Establishment of Capuchin missions in Spanish Trinidad 131 Abolition and reinstatement of the missions 136 Foreign immigration and the development of a plantation economy 142 10. British colonization and Amerindian persistence in 147 Trinidad (1797–present) The end of mission times in British Trinidad 147 Becoming a small segment of a plural society 153 The present Amerindian community of Trinidad 159 Epilogue. The Amerindian heritage of Trinidad and Tobago 161 Glossary 165 Bibliography 173 Pre-Columbian and historic Amerindian archaeology 173 Primary historic sources and maps 175 Various historical and anthropological accounts 178 Amerindian cultural heritage 182 Appendix. Institutions and museums with significant 185 archaeological holdings from Trinidad and Tobago Index 187 Curriculum Vitae 197 List of illustrations 1. Geographical situation of Trinidad and Tobago, with nearby islands and parts of the South American mainland. 2. Map of Trinidad and Tobago (inset), showing major physiographic features. 3. Dome-shaped islands in the Pitch Lake, Trinidad. 4. Map of Trinidad and Tobago (inset), showing Amerindian ethnic groups in the contact period (ca. 1500). 5. Map of Trinidad and Tobago (inset), showing major palaeontological and archaeological sites. 6. Archaeological settlement site at Plum (SAN-6) in the Nariva area, Trinidad, showing shell midden deposit in ploughed field, dating to the Late Ceramic Age, ca. AD 650/800–1400. 7. Pre-Columbian petroglyphs (rock drawings) at Caurita (SGE-9), north of St. Joseph in the Northern Range, Trinidad. 8. Bifacially chipped, stone spearhead found at Biche (NAR-9) in the Central Range, Trinidad, dating to the Lithic Age, ca. 8000 BC. 9. Chronological chart of Trinidad and Tobago, showing the sequence of pre- Columbian cultural traditions, reconstructed from archaeological excavations, and their dating. 10. View of the Oropuche Swamp, directly west of the archaeological site of St. John (SPA-11), Trinidad, dating to the Archaic Age, ca. 6000–4000 BC. 11. Grooved stone axe head, found at Banwari Trace (SPA-28), Trinidad. Ortoiroid series, Archaic Age, ca. 6000–4000 BC. 12. Bone projectile points and bipointed fishhooks, found at St. John (SPA-11), Trinidad. Ortoiroid series, Archaic Age, ca. 6000–4000 BC. 13. Bottle-shaped stone pestle, found at Poonah Road (VIC-29), Trinidad. Ortoiroid series, Archaic Age, ca. 3000 BC. 14. Ceramic bowl, showing hollow rim modeled in the form of an originally red- painted snake-like creature with protruding tongue, found at Erin (SPA-20), Trinidad. Barrancoid series, Early Ceramic Age, ca. AD 350–650/800. 15. Ceramic bird-shaped head lug (adorno), perhaps representing a king vulture, found at Erin (SPA-20), Trinidad. Barrancoid series, Early Ceramic Age, ca. AD 350–650/800. 16. Red-painted, ritual ceramic pot rest, modeled as a sea turtle, found at Guayaguayare (MAY-16), Trinidad. Barrancoid series, Early Ceramic Age, ca. AD 350–650/800. 17. Wooden bench in the form of a jaguar (?), recovered from the Pitch Lake (SPA-6), Trinidad. Saladoid (?) series, Early Ceramic Age, ca. AD 500. 18. ‘Hammock’-shaped wooden seat, recovered from the Pitch Lake (SPA-6), Trinidad. Saladoid (?) series, Early Ceramic Age, perhaps ca. AD 500. list of illustrations ix 19. Large pottery jar, probably representing a male effigy, found underwater at Bombshell Bay, offshore Caspar Grande (Gasparee) Island (SGE-37), Trinidad. Saladoid series, Early Ceramic Age, ca. AD 350–650/800. 20. White-on-red painted, asymmetrical ceramic bottle, showing a human/ animal-like face design, found at Erin (SPA-20), Trinidad. Saladoid series, Early Ceramic Age, ca. AD 350–650/800. 21. Partially red-painted pottery bowl, showing a bat-shaped head lug, found at Atagual (VIC-30), Trinidad. Saladoid series, Early Ceramic Age, ca. AD 350–650/800. 22. Slate-like, thin stone slab, decorated with incised motifs, found at Erin (SPA- 20), Trinidad. Barrancoid series, Early Ceramic Age, ca. AD 350–650/800. 23. King vulture-shaped stone (serpentine?) pendant, found at an unknown location in Trinidad. Saladoid series, Early Ceramic Age, ca. AD 0–350. 24. Ceramic bowl showing two tube-shaped extensions, most likely used to pour tobacco juice into the nose in order to induce an ecstatic-visionary trance, found at St. Bernard (MAY-4), Trinidad. Saladoid series, Early Ceramic Age, ca. AD 350–650/800. 25. Threepointed stones, probably used in shamanic rituals to promote the growth of food plants, found at (left) Mount Irvine 3 (TOB-19), Tobago, and (right) Blue River (CAR-1), Trinidad. Saladoid series, Early Ceramic Age, ca. AD 350–650/800. 26. Layout of the second occupation at Manzanilla 1 (SAN-1), Trinidad, showing three round to oval house structures, burials, pits, and hearth. Arauquinoid series, Late Ceramic Age, ca.
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