Stratified Drift Aquifers

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U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS REPORT 95-4100

Prepared in cooperation with NEW HAMPSHIRE DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES, WATER RESOURCES DIVISION Moat Mountain viewed from North Conway, New Hampshire. Foreground of painting shows sand deposit and flat stratified-drift outwash deposit of the Saco River Valley, now known to be underlain by up to 100 feet of layered sand and gravel. Albert Bierstadt painting reprinted with permission from the Currier Gallery of Art, Manchester, New Hampshire: Currier Funds, 1947.3. GROUND-WATER RESOURCES IN NEW HAMPSHIRE: STRATIFIED-DRIFT AQUIFERS By Laura Medalie and Richard Bridge Moore U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Water-Resources Investigations Report 95-4100

Prepared in cooperation with NEW HAMPSHIRE DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES, WATER RESOURCES DIVISION

Bow, New Hampshire 1995 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Gordon P Eaton, Director

For additional information write to: Copies of this report can be purchased from:

Chief, New Hampshire-Vermont District U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Earth Science Information Center Water Resources Division Open-File Reports Section 525 Clinton Street Box 25286, MS 517 Bow, NH 03304 Denver Federal Center Denver, CO 80225

Foreword

New Hampshire's scenic landscape, from the peaks of the White Mountains to the sands of its beaches, was formed as a result of geologic processes over hundreds of millions of years. In relatively recent geologic history, advancing glaciers rounded the domes of the mountain summits, carved deep ravines, such as the famous Tuck- erman Ravine on Mount Washington, and scoured the broad valleys common in the southern sections of the "Notches"-Crawford, Franconia, Evans, Pinkham, and Zealand. A testament to the tremendous scouring power of the glaciers is the widespread sand and gravel deposits in the valleys, where fragments of bedrock were transported and dropped by glacial meltwater. Today, these deposits, known as stratified drift, form major aquifer systems, holding one of New Hampshire's most valuable resources-ground water. Assisting States in evaluating their water resources is a major part of the mission of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). A program of cooperative water-resources data collection between the State of New Hampshire and the USGS was instituted in 1903 to measure streamflows in the White Mountains. Today, the cooperative program encompasses a broad range of data collection and investigative studies involving the State's surface- and ground-water resources. In 1983, the New Hampshire Legislature enacted Chapters 361 and 402 of the State Statutes, which authorized development of the New Hampshire Water Resources Management Plan and an intensive assessment of the State's ground-water resources. Following development of the Plan, in 1985 Governor John Sununu signed Chapter 77, which provided $2 million to fund the State's share of a 10-year-long ground-water-assessment program to be performed by the USGS in cooperation with the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services (NHDES). The goals of this program were to (1) determine the extent and hydrologic characteristics of stratified-drift aquifers, (2) assess potential water-yielding capabilities of selected aquifers, and (3) define general quality of water in the major aquifers. After extensive data collection and analysis, results of these investigations are being published in a series of technical reports for the 13 study areas that cover the entire State. Each report includes a set of map plates showing aquifer locations and important aquifer characteristics in addition to written text. These technical reports are directed primarily toward planners, engineers, and scientists who are engaged in ground-water- resources development and management. Reliable and comprehensive information about aquifers benefits all citizens by contributing towards informed decisions concerning water resources. By increasing knowledge and awareness about New Hampshire's ground-water resources, we seek to encourage and support their responsible use and management.

Robert M. Hirsch, Chief Hydrologist Robert W. Varney, Commissioner United States Geological Survey New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services

CONTENTS

Foreword...... III Introduction...... 1 Ground Water in the Hydrologic Cycle ...... 2 Ground-Water Use in New Hampshire ...... 4 Glaciers and Stratified-Drift Deposits in the New Hampshire Landscape ...... 6 Stratified-Drift Aquifers ...... 10 Characteristics of Aquifers ...... 11 Methods for Evaluating Stratified-Drift Aquifers ...... 12 Major Stratified-Drift Aquifers in New Hampshire ...... 16 Upper Connecticut and Androscoggin River Basins ...... 17 Middle Connecticut River Basin ...... 17 Pemigewasset River Basin...... 17 Saco and Ossipee River Basins ...... 17 Winnipesaukee River Basin ...... 20 Lower Connecticut River Basin ...... 20 Contoocook River Basin ...... 20 Upper Merrimack River Basin...... 20 Bellamy, Cocheco, and Salmon Falls River Basins...... 20 Middle Merrimack River Basin ...... 21 Exeter, Lamprey, and Oyster River Basins ...... 21 Lower Merrimack and Coastal River Basins ...... 21 Nashua Regional Planning Commission Area...... 21 Quality of Water from Stratified-Drift Aquifers ...... 22 How Stratified-Drift-Aquifer Data are Used ...... 25 Summary...... 29 Selected References ...... 30

FIGURES

1 . Map showing study areas, major rivers, and town boundaries for U.S. Geological Survey stratified- drift-aquifer investigations in New Hampshire ...... 1 2. Block diagram showing generalized hydrologic cycle...... 2 3. Photograph showing Chocorua Lake in Tamworth viewed from the south, east-central New Hampshire, a surface-water body fed primarily by ground-water discharge...... 3 4. Bar diagram showing ground-water withdrawals in New Hampshire by category in 1990 ...... 4 5. Photograph showing gravel-packed public-supply well in stratified-drift aquifer in the town of Plymouth, central New Hampshire ...... 4 6. Map showing locations of high-capacity public-supply wells from which more than 20,000 or more than 500,000 gallons of water per day are withdrawn from stratified-drift aquifers in New Hampshire ...... 5 7. Sketch showing south-facing view of Crawford Notch from Mount Willard in Hart's Location, the heart of the White Mountains in north-central New Hampshire ...... 6 8. Block diagrams showing depositional processes and features of typical stratified-drift deposits in New Hampshire ...... 7 9. Aerial photograph taken in the 1940's of the Pine River Esker in Ossipee, east-central New Hampshire ...... 8

IV Contents

CONTENTS-Continued 10,11 . Photographs showing: 10. Delta deposits in Newmarket, southeastern New Hampshire ...... 9 11 . Well-sorted sand layers sandwiched between boulder and cobble layers at a site in Francestown, south-central New Hampshire ...... 10 12. Diagram demonstrating shape, size, and sorting of sediments determine aquifer characteristics ...... 11 13. Photographs showing: 13. A hollow-stem auger drill rig and operator ...... 13 14. Split-spoon sampler and sediment from a drilled test hole in Greenfield, south-central New Hampshire...... 14 15. Photograph and diagram showing seismic-refraction survey field work in Sugar Hill, northwestern New Hampshire ...... 15 16. Photograph showing typical setup for sampling water quality at a well in Concord, south-central New Hampshire ...... 16 17. Map showing major stratified-drift aquifers and zones of transmissivity greater than 2,000 feet squared per day in New Hampshire ...... 19 18,19 . Photographs showing: 18. Sand deposits from a former river channel stained red from iron in ground-water seepage...... 22 19. A boy collects drinking water from a spring that flows from a stratified-drift aquifer in Sanbornton, central New Hampshire ...... 23

TABLES 1. Summary of selected analyses of ground water from stratified-drift aquifers in New Hampshire ...... 24 2. List of towns in New Hampshire, U.S. Geological Survey aquifer-assessment study areas, and areas of town and percentage of total town areas underlain by stratified-drift aquifers ...... 26

CONVERSION FACTORS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Multiply By To Obtain

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter foot per day (ft/d) 0.3048 meter per day foot per second (ft/s) 0.3048 meter per second foot squared per day (ft2/d) 0.0929 square meter per day gallon per day (gal/d) 0.003785 cubic meter per day mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer square mile (mi'-) 2.590 square kilometer million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 0.04381 cubic meter per second

ABBREVIATED WATER-QUALITY UNITS USED IN REPORT In this report, the concentration of a chemical in water is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or micrograms per liter (Pg/L). Milligrams per liter is a unit expressing the concentration ofchemical constituents in solution as weight (milligrams) of solute per unit volume (liter) of water; 1,000 pg/L is equivalent to 1 mg/L. ABBREVIATIONS NHDES New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services NRCS U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency USGS U.S. Geological Survey

Conversion Factors and Abbreviations V GROUND-WATER RESOURCES IN NEW HAMPSHIRE: STRATIFIED-DRIFT AQUIFERS

By Laura Medalie and Richard Bridge Moore

INTRODUCTION

Stratified-drift aquifers audience, including legisla- underlie about 14 percent of tors, State and local officials, the land surface in New and the public. Hampshire and are an important source of ground water Different audiences will for commercial, industrial, use the report in different domestic, and public-water ways . To accommodate the supplies in the State. varied audiences, some data are summarized statewide, This report introduces some are presented by major terms and concepts relevant river basin, and some are pro- . During data to ground-water resources, vided by town of the collection, care was taken to summarizes some use consistent methods for information important each of the 13 study areas derived from a statewide (fig. 1) so that results would stratified-drift-aquifer inves- be comparable throughout tigation, and provides exam- the State. If more specific or ples of how the findings are detailed information about a used . The purpose of this particular area of interest is report is to provide an over- needed, the reader is directed view of the stratified-drift to one or more of the techni- aquifer assessment program, cal reports listed in the thus making summary infor- Selected References sectionof mation accessible to a broad this report.

EXPLANATION MAJOR RIVERS

------TOWN BOUNDARY

- RIVER BASIN BOUNDARY

STUDY AREAS

1 Upper Connecticut River Basin 2 Middle Connecticut River Basin 3 Pemigewasset River Basin 4 Saco and Ossipee River Basins 5 Winnipesaukee River Basin 6 Lower Connecticut River Basin 7 Contoocook River Basin 8 Upper Merrimack River Basin 9 Bellamy, Cocheco, and Salmon Falls River Basins 10 Middle Merrimack River Basin 11 Exeter, Lamprey, and Oyster River Basins 12 Lower Merrimack and coastal River Basins 13 Nashua Regional Planning Commission Area

44° -

Figure 1 . Study areas, major rivers, and town boundaries for U.S. Geological Survey stratified-drift-aquifer investigations in New Hampshire.

Introduction 1 GROUND WATER IN THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

An illustration of the hydrologic cycle (fig . 2) shows how this saturated zone is known as ground water relates to other components and processes in the the water table. If the saturated, natural environment. Discussion of the hydrologic cycle usually subsurface zone is capable of begins with precipitation, which occurs primarily as rain and yielding a significant volume of snow. Some precipitation evaporates from leaf, soil, or other ground water through wells or intercepting surfaces before even reaching the ground. Depend- springs, that zone is commonly ing on soil characteristics, such as porosity, permeability, and referred to as an aquifer. Ground degree of saturation, precipitation either infiltrates the ground or water in an aquifer continues to flows along the top of the ground as surface runoff before reach- flow downward and laterally, until surface water and ing streams or lakes. Some of the precipitation that infiltrates the it reaches discharges into a swamp, stream, ground is retained in the root zone, where it is used by plants and lake (fig. 3), or ocean. Water evap- subsequently lost from leaf surfaces through transpiration. The orates from the surface water rest of the infiltrating water continues to flow downwards under body to form clouds, thus com- gravity and recharges ground water. the force of pleting the hydrologic cycle. Eventually, a depth is reached below which all spaces Withdrawal of ground water between unconsolidated particles in sediment are filled, or satu- from wells interrupts this natural rated with water; this water is called ground water. The top of cycle and alters ground-water 1 Words in bold type are defined in sidebars. flow patterns. The well becomes a discharge point, intercepting ground water that, if not pumped, would have discharged elsewhere. If pumping from a well causes surface water to infiltrate the ground and recharge the aquifer at a greater rate than if no water were being pumped, the aquifer is said to be recharged by induced infiltration .

The natural hydrologic cycle is also disrupted when large tracts of land are paved or otherwise made impervious, which can lead to a decrease in the quantity of ground-water recharge . In these areas, precipitation either runs off the land surface to nearby streams or evaporates directly from the Figure 2. Generalized hydrologic cycle. Infiltrating water recharges paved ground, and, therefore, is ground water, which eventually discharges into streams and other diverted from the infiltration and surface-water bodies. Arrows show flow of water. (Modified from ground-water recharge phase of Waller, 1989.) the cycle.

2 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers Aquifer - Ageologic unit or formation that contains a usable supply ofwater

Baseflow - thepart ofa stream's totalflow that is sustained by ground-water discharge into the stream

Ground water - subsurface water below the water table in soils and geologic formations that arefully saturated

Ground-water discharge - ground water that emerges at the land surface, either into surface water or in theform of springs or seepage areas

Ground-water recharge - replenishment of water to aquifers, usually where a layer of permeable material is close to the land surface

Induced infiltration - the entry of waterfrom a stream or lake into an adjacent aquifer as a consequence of pumping waterfrom a well completed in the aquifer

Permeability - interconnectedness ofpore spaces; permeability provides a measure of the relative ease offluidflow

Porosity - the ratio ofthe total volume ofpore space to the total volume ofsediment

Runoff - waterfrom precipitation thatflows downhill along the top ofthe ground surface before it either infiltrates the soil orflows into a Figure 3. Chocorua Lake in Tamworth viewed from the south, stream or lake east-central New Hampshire, a surface-water body fed primarily by ground-water discharge. (Photograph taken by B.R. Mrazik, Saturation - wetness of the soil U.S. Geological Survey.) Storm/low - that part ofstreamflow fed by precipitation and surface runoff The ground-water discharge phase of the hydrologic cycle performs an important function by contributing to the Surface water - waterflowing or stored on the maintenance of streamflow volumes. Streamflow is com earth's surface, such as in streams, lakes, or posed of base flow and stormflow. Compared to stormflow, swamps base flow is less susceptible to large fluctuations over time. For selected segments of streams throughout the State, Unconsolidated - refers to a deposit in which USGS hydrologists make measurements to determine the the particles are not firmly cemented together, such as sand in contrast to sandstone volumes contributed by base flow and stormflow. With this information, the minimum flow of the stream during peri- Watertable - the top ofthe zone in which all pore ods of little or no precipitation (drought) can be calculated. spaces orfractures are saturated with water Planners use this information to make assessments as to the availability of water for water supply, recreation, fish habi- tats, and other instream and off-stream uses of water.

Ground Water in the Hydrologic Cycle 3 GROUND-WATER USE IN NEW HAMPSHIRE

Ground water is a major source of water for households, industries, and commercial enterprises in New Hampshire. In 1990, ground-water withdrawals totalled about 63 Mgal/d and accounted for about 38 percent (surface water accounted for about 62 percent) of total water withdrawals, excluding water used for cooling at thermoelectric powerplants (Medalie and Horn, 1994). About 415,000 people (or 38 percent of the State's population) pump ground water from their own wells because their homes are not connected to a public-supply system. Throughout the State, ground water withdrawn by public suppliers is delivered to domestic customers; industries; and commercial enterprises including hotels, restau- rants, office buildings, hospitals, and schools. Ground water is also withdrawn from private wells for many uses (fig. 4). Approximately 3,000 individual wells or springs are registered with the NHDES Water Supply Engineering Bureau as active sources of ground water for public supply (Rene Pelletier, New Hampshire Department of Environmental Figure 5. Gravel-packed public-supply well in stratified-drift aquifer in the town of Plymouth, central New Hampshire. (Photograph taken by B.R . Mrazik, Public Supply U.S. Geological Survey.)

Domestic Services, written commun., 1993). Of these Thermoelectric Powerplants sources, about 2,400 are wells drilled in bedrock and about 600 are in stratified-drift aquifers Agricultural (fig. 5) . Although there are fewer public-supply

Commercial wells in stratified-drift aquifers than in bedrock, wells in stratified-drift aquifers are usually more Industrial productive and yield a higher quantity of water aquifers. The NHDES, Mining than wells in bedrock Water Resources Division, maintains a data base 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 of all registered water users that withdraw an GROUND-WATER WITHDRAWALS IN MILLION GALLONS PER DAY average of more than 20,000 gal/ d over any 7-day period (fig. 6) . Of the registered public suppliers, Figure 4. Ground-water withdrawals in New the sum of withdrawals from bedrock wells aver- Hampshire by category in 1990. Bars shown above for ages less than 2 Mgal/d, whereas the sum of domestic, thermoelectric powerplants, agricultural, withdrawals from stratified-drift aquifers commercial, industrial, and mining water uses averages around 18 Mgal/d (Frederick H. Chor- represent the proportion for those categories that are mann, Jr., New Hampshire Department of self supplied-not from a public supplier. Environmental Services, written commun.,1993).

4 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers

EXPLANATION -- TOWN BOUNDARY

PUBLIC-SUPPLY WELLS

o Withdraws more than 20,000 gallons per day

o Withdraws more than 500,000 gallons per day

0 20 MILES mar!'' 0 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 6. Locations of high-capacity public-supply wells from which more than 20,000 or more than 500,000 gallons of water per day are withdrawn from stratified-drift aquifers in New Hampshire.

5 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers GLACIERS AND STRATIFIED-DRIFT DEPOSITS IN THE NEW HAMPSHIRE LANDSCAPE

During The Great Ice Age northern Canada accumulated, Glaciers left two major or Pleistocene Epoch, the land- was compacted by its own types of deposits : till and strati- scape of New Hampshire was weight into glacial ice, fied drift . Till consists of significantly shaped and carved advanced southward, and unsorted sediments deposited when thick glacial ice alter- eventually covered New in place directly by melting ice. nately advanced southward, Hampshire with ice as much as Sediment sizes generally range covered the State, and retreated a mile thick. As the glacier from very small to very large- northward by melting. Before moved, it picked up loose rock from clays to boulders. Because the Ice Age, the climate was and soil and plucked huge glaciers covered New Hamp- warm, soils were deep, and the pieces of bedrock along its way. shire, till was deposited valleys were cut by stream ero- This ice and debris mixture throughout the State . In today's sion-conditions similar to scoured the landscape, stream- landscape, till is commonly those in the southern United lined hills, and transformed the seen at or near the ground sur- States today. Starting about 2 stream-eroded valleys into gla- face in upland areas but it is also million years ago, the climate cially eroded "U"-shaped val- found buried beneath other cooled and continental glaciers leys with rounded valley walls unconsolidated deposits in formed . Over time, snow in (fig. 7) . valleys.

Figure 7. South-facing view of Crawford Notch from Mount Willard in Hart's Location, the heart of the White Mountains in north-central New Hampshire. Twenty-thousand years ago, the broad valley was filled with glacial ice and debris . Now, a glacially scoured U-shaped valley remains. [Sketch reproduced with permission from the New Hampshire Historical Society . (#F 128)]

6 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers The other major type of glacial deposit, stratified drift, began to form during late stages of the A MARGINAL MELTWATER Great Ice Age, about 14,000 years ago . At that time, the southernmost extent of the most recent continental glacier had melted back, or retreated, from positions on Long Island, New York, to positions in New Hampshire. Throughout New Hampshire and the rest of New England, this glacial retreat is believed to have progressed in a stepwise fashion, with minor local readvances. How this melting occurred affected the location, size, and characteristics of the unconsolidated, stratified-drift deposits that are found today.

Many familiar landscape features composed MELTWATER DELTA of stratified-drift deposits were formed during the DEPOSITS retreat of the glacier. Eskers, kame terraces, out 8 wash plains, and deltas are good examples of this glacial deposition (fig. 8). Eskers are long sinuous ridges of sand and gravel deposited either in meltwater channels or streams within the glacier or at the ice margin, where the glacier retreated steadily

Carl Koteff, a geologist with the U.S. Geologi- cal Survey, in 1974 introduced the "dirt machine" concept to account for the enor- mous quantities of sand, gravel, silt, and clay found in valleys throughout New England. According to this analogy, moving ice is continually sheared up onto the stagnant end section of ice, depositing loose debris that the ice Figure 8. Depositional processes and features of typical stratified-drift deposits in had carried which becomes available for trans- New Hampshire. (A) Meltwater has formed a channel beneath the ice port by meltwater. This process of deposition along the valley floor. A glacial lake has formed in keeps repeating itself, like a conveyor belt in a low-lying areas fed by glacial streams . A delta has manufacturing plant that continually provides formed where the sediment-laden glacial stream flows into the still water raw material to an assembly station. of the lake. (B) Ice is com- pletely melted, leaving various deposits of glacial origin : an esker, a kame terrace, a delta, and lake in contact with a glacial lake. As they formed, deposits. (Modified from Chapman, 1974, figs . 8 esker deposits were surrounded by the glacier; and 9.) when the surrounding ice melted, the esker deposit remained (fig. 9). Kame terraces are ter- glacier by meltwater streams. Deltas formed race-like ridges consisting of sand and gravel where meltwater streams flowed into a glacial deposited by glacial meltwater that flowed lake or the ocean, in much the same way that between the melting glacial ice and a high valley present-day rivers form fan-shaped deltas at their wall. The kame terraces were left standing after mouths (fig. 10) . Some glacial deltas formed the disappearance of the ice. Outwash plains are where glacial ice extended into open water; other gently sloping plains composed chiefly of sand deltas formed at some distance from the retreat- and gravel that was "washed out" from the ing glacial ice where meltwater streams flowed

Glaciers and Stratified-Drift Deposits in the New Hampshire Landscape 7 bedrock by the glacier was extensive where the bedrock was already weak or fractured. The largest of the glacial lakes, called glacial Lake Hitchcock, formed in the present-day Connecticut River Valley. Here, sediment carried by meltwater streams from the uplands accumulated in a long narrow lake that eventually extended 550 mi from central Connecticut to north-

in the mid-1800s, bricks made from clay (that originated from a glacial lake) in Hook- sett were floated down the Merrimack River to Manchester to build "the largest set of tex- tile mills in the world."Similarly, bricks made from Bedford clay deposits were floated through the canal system down the Merri- mack River to build mills in Lowell, Massa- chusetts. Brickmaking was also extensive in Dover, Rochester, Exeter, Epping, and in towns along the Connecticut River.

Figure 9. Aerial photograph taken in the 1940's of the and Vermont. The deepest Pine River Esker in Ossipee, east-central New ern New Hampshire Hampshire . Sand and gravel from this esker was used part of this lake was at least 560 ft deep before the to build the road seen next to the esker in the deposition of more than 430 ft of layered sedi- photograph. Since the photograph was taken, much of ments. A series of small glacial lakes formed along the Pine River Esker has been mined for large the Merrimack and Pemigewasset River Valley as construction projects. (From Goldthwait and others, the glacier retreated northward. Each lake was 1951, fig. 20 .) slightly higher in elevation than the lake to the south and was dammed by sediments that accu- into open water. Also, some deltas were formed mulated locally across the valley. Other glacial soon after retreat of the glaciers by transport and lakes formed in the Contoocook, Saco, Ossipee, from the initially redeposition of materials eroded Connecticut, and Androscoggin River Basins barren land surface. In the modern-day landscape, Ossipee area was stratified-drift deposits are found primarily in rel- (fig. 1) . Of these, the lake in the atively flat or hummocky low-lying areas in stream the deepest; it was greater than 300 ft deep in the valleys or near coastal lowlands. center and eventually was filled with more than 280 ft of stratified (layered) glacial deposits. Glacial lakes that ponded in front of the melting ice margin played an important role in the for- "Good fences make good neighbors'; a line mation o£ stratified-drift aquifers in New from Robert's Frost poem The Mending Wall Hampshire. These lakes, which were natural sedi- (1981), symbolizes a practical use for ubiqui- ment traps, formed in many areas throughout the tous stony soils, such as those found in New or glacial retreat. The for- State during deglaciation, Hampshire. Cobbles and boulders, common mation of glacial lakes was enhanced where the ice-contact deposits, are a underlying bedrock surface had been deeply in glacial till and scoured during multiple glaciations. Erosion of the fact of life for New Hampshire residents.

8 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers sometimes carved deep channels in till and bedrock that became exposed below the new outlets.

The erosive energy of meltwater was so great that in places the underlying rock was smoothed and sculptured into interesting and unusual forms. Evidence of former meltwater channels can be observed in such places as the Sculptured Rocks Natural Area in Hebron, the Lost River Gorge, Kinsman Notch in Woodstock, and Pulpit Rock in Bedford.

Construction sand and gravel deposited by glacial meltwater was valued at $20.7 million in New Hampshire in 1993. The Figure 10. Delta deposits in Newmarket, southeastern New Hampshire . Ice- sand and gravel industry marginal deltas, such as this one, formed where sediment carried by the employed an average of 252 meltwater streams was deposited into the ocean at the edge of the glacier. The flat and sandy land surface shown here is typical of deltaic deposits. The angled workers in the State according to layers were deposited as the stream unloaded sediments in gradual increments the U.S. Bureau of Mines. over time. (Photograph taken by R.B. Moore, U .S. Geological Survey.) Erosion and redistribution Present-day stratified-drift silt, or clay composition. Glacial- of glacial deposits by stream pro- lake deposits typically are dis- lake deposits, such as those cesses after the glacial age has tinguishable by their flat topog found in the Connecticut River significantly reshaped New raphy and fine-grained sand, Valley, can provide high-quality Hampshire's landscape. Postgla- cropland because the fine- cial (after the glacial period) ero- grained soils retain water for sion by rivers and tributaries has A 1921 student at the Amos Tuck crops in contrast to sandy soils formed erosional channels. Dep- School of Administration and from which water drains more osition of materials has formed Finance recognized that most of easily and is lost to plants. alluvial fans at the base of moun- New Hampshire's demographic tains and has formed stream ter- and geographical development Some glacial lakes formed races, flood plains, and deltas in was related to glacial processes where the natural drainage to all the major valleys . Eolian and the resulting landscape. The the north was obstructed by the deposits were formed by wind student's analysis related margin of the melting glacier. As erosion of largely unvegetated everything from the location of the glacier retreated northward, glacial deposits and redeposi- settlements, roads, railroads, and lower drainage outlets were tion. Wind-borne materials were canals; the growth of forests and exposed, causing a sudden redeposited as either a layer of related industries; and the draining of these ice-dammed very fine sand and silt up to 2- development of agriculture, glacial lakes and a redeposition feet thick over much of the strat- water power, manufacturing, of glacial-lake sediments ified drift in New Hampshire or (Moore, 1993) . The large and tourism to the most recent as thick dune deposits typically volumes glacial episode. of sediment-laden found on the eastern flanks of meltwaters that were released expansive glacial-lake deposits.

Glaciers and Stratified-Drift Deposits in the New Hampshire Landscape 9 STRATIFIED-DRIFT AQUIFERS

Stratified-drift aquifers consist mainly of layers of sand and gravel, parts of which are saturated and can yield water to wells or springs. The distribution and hydraulic characteristics of stratified-drift aquifers are related to the original environment in which the sediments were deposited . A variety of "depositional environments" are rep- resented by the stratified-drift deposits found statewide including eskers, kame terraces, deltas, and glacial-lake deposits.

Most sand and gravel found in New Hamp- shire was deposited by water from melting glaciers . Each distinct layer in sand and gravel deposits was caused by a distinct depositional environment and distinguished by different grain- size distributions (fig. 11) . Characteristics of the meltwater flow, such as the speed and the turbu- lence of the current, determined the size of the particles that were transported and deposited . For example, swiftly moving sections of meltwater streams could carry coarse-grained materials. As the slope of the streambed decreased farther away from the source, strearnflow velocity decreased and the coarse materials were dropped. These Figure 11 . Well-sorted sand layers sandwiched between coarse-grained deposits have large pore spaces boulder and cobble layers at a site in Francestown, New Hampshire. (Photograph taken by and, if saturated, generally form high-yielding south-central J.D . Ayotte, U.S. Geological Survey.) aquifers. Fine-grained materials, including very fine sands, silts, and clays, were deposited by slow flowing sections of streams and in stagnant water Stratified drift - sorted and layered unconsolidated bodies such as lakes and ponds . These deposits do material deposited in meltwater streamsflowingfrom not transmit water freely because pore spaces are glaciers or settledfrom suspension in quiet-water minute and the interconnections between pore bodies fed by meltwater streams spaces are small.

Bedrock, which universally underlies the unconsolidated deposits at or near the land surface, contains water-filled fractures of varying size, number, and extent that constitute the bedrock aquifer. Because not all towns include areas of stratified-drift aquifer within their borders, the bedrock aquifer represents the only potentially significant source of ground water for some towns. The U.S. Geological Survey is presently (1995) involved in a cooperative program with the New Hampshire Department of Environ- mental Services to map high-yield zones in the bedrock aquifer throughout the State. When completed, this effort will complement the results of the stratified-drift-aquifer investigations presented here and enhance the statewide picture of ground-water availability.

10 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers Types of stratified-drift aquifers found in New Hampshire include: eskers, kame terraces, and deltas formed in contact with the glacial ice; outwash and deltas deposited by meltwater streams flowing in front of the glacier; alluvial fans and deltas formed from flooding after glacial dams were breached; as well as alluvial fans and deltas formed from erosion of the postglacial barren land surface. In some locations, exposed till and other glacial sediments were eroded after the glaciers receded and were redeposited as sand and gravel by streams . Deposits that settled out at or near the glacier margin ice tend to include large materials, such as boulders and cobbles. Deposits that were transported away from the ice by meltwater tend to consist of fine- or small-grained materials. Regardless of the circumstances of deposition, sand and gravel deposits commonly form high-yielding aquifers if there is a significant thickness of saturated material.

Characteristics of Aquifers

The size and arrangement of voids or pore spaces between sediment particles determine the ability of the aquifer material to store and transmit ground water. Porosity is a measure of the space available for ground-water storage. A more useful measure of the ground water available for use is specific yield. Porosity is always greater than specific yield for a given section of aquifer because some water remains on the grain surfaces as a result of surface tension and will not drain by gravity. The large, interconnected pore spaces of sand and gravel deposits provide a large volume of ground-water storage and also readily transmit ground water; these deposits are highly permeable. In contrast, Figure 12. Shape, size, and sorting of sediments silts and clays provide a large volume of ground- determine aquifer characteristics. (A) Rounded, water storage but do not readily transmit ground coarse-grained, well-sorted material (uniform size) water because surface-tension forces predominate has high porosity and high hydraulic conductivity. in the small pore spaces. These types of deposits are (B) Angular, poorly sorted material (mixed sizes) has relatively impermeable. low porosity and low hydraulic conductivity. Small The ability of aquifer material to transmit water particles "plug up" pores between large particles, is described quantitatively by its hydraulic conduc- impeding flow. (C) Flat, fine-grained, well-sorted tivity. Hydraulic conductivity can be illustrated by material has high porosity but low hydraulic a comparative example: fine-grained sand can have conductivity. Because pore spaces are very small, hydraulic conductivities between 2 and 15 ft/d; water adheres to the grains by surface-tension force; whereas well-sorted, coarse-grained sand can have in other words, by the same natural force of attraction hydraulic conductivities that range from 50 to that causes drops of water to cling to a downward- or greater than 200 ft/d. The variation depends largely sideways-facing object seemingly in defiance of upon uniformity and shape of the grains (fig. 12). gravity.

Stratified-Drift Aquifers 11 Aquifer transmissivity 1977a, b, and c), county Natural in the American water-well industry, quantifies the ability of the entire Resources Conservation Service hydraulic conductivity (k) is com- thickness of the aquifer to trans (NRCS) soils maps (Latimer and monly expressed in units of gallons mit water. The term is used often others, 1939 ; Winkley, 1965; per day per foot squared by hydrologists to describe the Kelsey and Vieira, 1968; Vieira (galldaylft2). This expression, per- water-producing capability of and Bond, 1973; Diers and Vie- haps more intuitive than the equiva- an aquifer. Technically, the trans- ira, 1977; U.S. Soil Conservation lent U.S. Geological Survey conven- missivity of an aquifer is equal Service, 1981,1985a,1985b), well tion of expressing k in feet per day to the hydraulic conductivity of records registered with the its NHDES Water Resources Divi- (ftld), conveys that k is the rate at its materials multiplied by thickness, in feet. In sion, and bridge-boring records which water (gallons per day), or saturated transmissivity is from the New Hampshire moves through a cross- this report, other fluid, expressed in units of foot Department of Transportation. sectional area of aquifer (foot squared per day (ft2 /d). The NHDES, Water Resources squared). Likewise, transmissivity, Division and New Hampshire being the product of hydraulic con- To summarize, the higher Department of Transportation ductivity times saturated thickness in the value of hydraulic conduc- provided more than 20,000 feet, is expressed as gallons per day tivity, the more readily water can records of subsurface informa- per foot (galldaylft) by the water-well flow through the aquifer mate- tion at specific sites . Surficial- industry. rial . Aquifers that have a large geology maps from the Cooper- saturated thickness, and are ative Geologic Mapping composed of material with high Program (COGEOMAP-a Hydraulic conductivity - a hydraulic conductivity, will between the ability of a porous cooperative program measure of have a high transmissivity and and the USGS) medium to transmit ~afluid, various states can readily transmit water to were used when available . In expressed in unit length per unit wells. time addition, any available information from engineering firms, Saturated thickness (of strati- Methods for Evaluating environmental consultants, and fied drift) - thickness, infeet, of Stratified-Drift Aquifers well drillers were compiled. stratified-drift extending down from the water table to the till or For the assessment of New The first objective of the bedrock surface Hampshire's stratified-drift aquifer study was to determine aquifers, the State was subdi the extent and hydrologic char Specific yield - the ratio of the study areas that can be vided into 13 acteristics of stratified-drift volume of water that generally corresponded to major drained by gravity to the total vol- aquifers. Field-data collection ume ofsediment watersheds. Many thousands of usually began with mapping the data records were compiled geographic location of sand and Transmissivity - the rate at from existing sources, and addi- gravel deposits. Using informa- which water is transmitted tional thousands were added tion from USGS topographic and through a unit width ofaquifer during the course of the study. hydrologic-reconnaissance under a unit hydraulic gradient maps, county NRCS maps, and For each of the study areas, field investigations, the location the evaluation of stratified-drift lines aquifers began with a compila of the contacts or boundary Conversions : between areas of stratified drift tion and assessment of all perti- and areas of till and bedrock To convert hydraulic conductivity in nent information from many galldaylft2 to ft/d, rnultiply by 0.1137 sources. Existing data sources Stratified-drift aquifer-A coarse- included hydrologic map grained sand or sand and gravel To convert transtnissivity in deposit that contains a usable supply gal/day/ft toft 2/d, nuiltiply by 0.1137. reports from a USGS statewide reconnaissance study (Cotton, of water 1975a, b, c, and d, 1976a and b,

12 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers were determined . For this aquifer study, the contact between sand and gravel and all other materials at the ground surface defined the mapped aquifer boundary. Thus, stratified-drift boundaries are the same as aquifer boundaries. Next, the thickness of the deposits and how much water they stored, were measured. Depth to the water table and saturated thickness of the aquifer were determined in two ways: drilling (wells, test borings, and bridge borings) and surface-geophysical tech- niques . Drilling is used to determine certain aquifer parameters such as saturated thickness or depth to the water table and to collect samples of the aquifer materials for analysis. How- ever, drilling is slow, expensive, and provides data at only one location on the ground . Seismic refraction, a surface-geophysical technique that depends on the generation and detec- tion of sound waves below ground, generally yields results faster than drilling and provides a cross-sectional view of the aquifer. The major disad- vantages of seismic refraction are that Figure 13. A hollow-stem auger drill rig and operator. This U.S . the technique is not usable under all Geological Survey drill rig was used to drill 674 test holes conditions and the interpretation of statewide to collect data on aquifer characteristics and to install the data can be variable. observation wells. (Photograph taken by J .R . Olimpio, U .S. Geological Surrey.) USGS crews drilled wells or test holes at 674 sites to supplement exist- drilled, the depth to the water table was measured as the ing data (fig. 13). As each hole was point where the drilling augers first reached saturated materials. Drilling continued until the augers reached bedrock or "refusal". Refusal marks the depth at which the drill auger Regarding the theory of seismic-refrac- could not penetrate the underlying bedrock, a large boulder, tion, a simple analogy can help to illus- or till. The vertical distance between the water table and the trate the phenomenon that sound waves bottom of the aquifer is the saturated thickness. Samples of refract at boundaries of earth layers. the saturated aquifer sands and gravels were collected at 5- Stick a pencil in a glass of water. The or 10-foot intervals for each drilled hole using a split-spoon sampler (fig. 14), which was inserted down through the pencil will the appear to bend at bound- hollow part of the augers to the bottom of the hole. Aquifer ary between the air and water layers. hydraulic conductivities for materials collected at these This happens because light waves, like intervals were estimated from measurements of the propor- sound waves, refract at the boundaries tion of grains that fell into specific size ranges when passed of distinct layers. through a series of sieves of different sizes. Transmissivity

Stratified-Drift Aquifers 13 refraction can be used to determine the thickness of the unconsolidated dry layer and the unconsolidated saturated layer, and the depth to the top of the bedrock layer. Seismic-refraction surveys were conducted at 651 sites for the aquifer studies. Seismic-reflection surveys, another geophysical method, were conducted in areas throughout the State where large rivers or lakes overlie sand and gravel deposits. This method, which is conducted from a boat traversing the water body, provided data on the thickness of the aquifer below the water body. Data compiled from previ- ously existing sources and collected from drilling, seismic and seismic reflection from a drilled test hole. The refraction, Figure 14. Split-spoon sampler and sediment were analyzed and interpreted to from drilled test holes and sampler was used to retrieve aquifer material produce a set of maps with sample is obtained, it is stored in wells at 5- or 10-foot intervals. Once the hydrologic information for each (Photograph taken by J .D. Ayotte, the plastic bag for further analysis. of the study areas . The maps U.S. Geological Survey.) present hydrologic data super- imposed on USGS topographic values for the entire saturated saturated sediments at about maps at scales of 1:24,0001 and thickness of the aquifer were 5,000 ft/s, and through bedrock 2 Maps of aquifer the 1 :48,000 . estimated by multiplying at 10,000 to 20,000 ft/s. In the were produced from value boundaries hydraulic conductivity seismic refraction method USGS topographic and hydro- saturated for an interval by the (fig. 15), a sound wave is created logic reconnaissance maps, thickness of that interval and by detonating a small explosive NRCS maps, and field explora- summing the results for each buried just below the ground sur- tions . Maps showing contour hole. Transmissivity values also face. The resulting waves are lines of equal water-table alti- were obtained from consultant bent (refracted) at the boundaries tudes were produced using data reports when available. between distinct layers. By mea- from drilling, seismic-refraction suring the time it takes for the surveys, water-level measure- Seismic refraction provides a refracted sound waves to travel ments at wells drilled by the shallow cross-sectional view, or to receivers called geophones, USGS for this project, altitudes of slice, through the upper layers of which are located at fixed inter- surface-water bodies and other the earth. Specifically, seismic vals along a line at the ground well, test hole, or bridge-boring refraction results can be used to surface, the rate at which the data when available. The water- determine depth to the water sound waves traveled can be cal- table maps are presented as alti- table and depth to bedrock from culated and matched to the mate- tude contours in feet above sea a line along the surface of the rial from which it was refracted. level to make the data consistent ground. This method utilizes the Geophones are so sensitive that with topographic contour lines property that sound waves travel they can detect the vibrations of on standard USGS topographic through layers of distinct earth passing traffic and even the materials at different and known motion of roots as trees sway in 'One inch on the map represents velocities . For example, sound strong winds . The technique 2,000 feet on the ground . travels through dry sediments at therefore works best under 2One inch on the map represents 900 to 2,000 ft/s, through "quiet" conditions . Seismic 4,000 feet on the ground .

14 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers Figure 15. Seismic-refraction survey field work in Sugar Hill, northwestern New Hampshire. (A) Technician on the left side is drilling a "shot hole" for the explosive being prepared by the hydrologist on the right. (8) A carefully calculated amount of explosive material is used to generate enough sound energy to travel up to 1,100 feet underground and still register a signal. (C) Resulting seismic waves are detected by geophone receivers buried 2 inches in the ground. (D) A 12-channel seismograph, like an extremely accurate stopwatch, records the time of arrival in fractions of seconds of the first seismic wave detected by each geophone. (Photograph taken by S.M. Flanagan, U.S . Geological Survey). maps. Maps showing contour lines of equal satu- aquifers to supplement existing water supplies or rated thickness, in feet, and zones representing to develop new ones. Aquifers were chosen for this ranges of transmissivity values, in foot squared per evaluation to represent different types of local aqui- day (ft2/d), were produced using data from USGS fer systems. Most of these analyses were done using drill holes, seismic refraction, and other well, test computer-simulation models based on estimates of hole, or bridge-boring data if available. hydrologic and other aquifer properties and tested The second objective of the aquifer study was with data collected in the field. Forty-two aquifers to assess potential water-yielding capabilities for were modeled to obtain potential-yield estimates. selected aquifers in each study area. These results Potential-yield estimates are included in the section provide planners with information on potential of this report titled "Major Aquifers in New volumes of water that could be withdrawn from Hampshire."

Stratified-Drift Aquifers 15 " Transmissivity values range from 0 to 26,000 ft2/d or greater. " Depth to the water table ranges from 0 to 150 ft below the land surface . Depth to the water table for 50 percent of the wells inventoried is 9 ft or less. " In general, the most transmissive aquifers are found in localized areas of the central and southern parts of the State. " Aquifers along the main sections of major rivers tend Figure 16. Typical setup for sampling water quality at a well in Concord, to be continuous, while south-central New Hampshire. those elsewhere tend to be small and discontinuous. The third objective of the discussed in the section of this The following points aquifer study was to broadly report titled "Quality of Water from Stratified-Drift Aquifers." should be kept in mind while define the ground-water quality reading this discussion of high of the major aquifers . The lights from the individual study approach used for meeting this Major Stratified-Drift areas: (1) All study area bound- objective was to collect and ana- Aquifers in New Hampshire aries are major watershed lyze samples of ground water divides except for the Nashua from springs and wells (fig. 16). General information about Regional Planning Commission stratified-drift aquifers state- Area, whose boundary is This assessment of ground- defined by town boundaries, water quality focused on natu- wide is summarized in figure 17 and below: and parts of the two adjacent ral or near-natural conditions in study areas, the Middle Merri- aquifers considered representa- " About 14 percent, or 1,299 of mack and Lower Merrimack tive of the study area and did the 9,282 mil of New River Basins. (2) Because aqui- not attempt to identify or evalu- fers do not end at State bound- Hampshire, is underlain aries, parts of some New ate sites of possible ground- by stratified-drift aquifers. water Hampshire aquifers extend into contamination . Ground Maine, Massachusetts, Ver- water was sampled in a variety The largest stratified-drift aquifer mont, or Canada . (3) Some of environments, including for- is in the Ossipee towns, such as Dover, may be ested, agricultural, or residen- River Basin in the towns of mentioned in more than one tial areas. Samples of ground Tamworth, Madison, section of this report because water from 240 wells and 20 Ossipee, Freedom, and separate aquifers are in different springs were analyzed for a Effingham. study areas . (4) As a general variety of substances including guideline for interpreting the " Saturated thicknesses range discussion on transmissivities, a common inorganic, organic, and from 0 to more than 500 ft, transmissivity value above volatile organic constituents . the thickest being along 2,000 ft2 /d constitutes a major The assessment of general the Connecticut River in aquifer. (5) Thick stratified-drift ground-water quality is Orford and Haverhill. deposits are not necessarily

16 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers highly transmissive . For ft2/d) were measured in parts of Saco and Ossipee River Basins instance, the thick saturated stratified-drift aquifers in south- deposits along the Connecticut western Carroll, northwestern The Saco and Ossipee River River are primarily clays from Bethlehem, western Franconia, Basins in east-central New the bottom deposits of glacial western Orford, eastern Haver- Hampshire have a drainage area Lake Hitchcock that have low hill, central Easton, and south- of 869 mil, of which 153 mil, or permeability and transmissivity. western Lisbon. Transmissivity about 18 percent of thebasin, are exceeds 1,000 ft2/d in 17.5 mil of underlain by stratified-drift Upper Connecticut and the study area. In 1990, ground- aquifers. The area contains sev- Androscoggin River Basins water withdrawals from strati- eral large, productive, and fied-drift aquifers for municipal potentially productive aquifers. The Upper Connecticut and public-supply wells totalled Androscoggin River Basins in about 1 .5 Mgal/d in Carroll, About 11 percent of the area has northern New Hampshire have Enfield, Hanover, Haverhill, transmissivity values greater a combined drainage area of Lisbon, Monroe, and Orford. A than 1,000 ft2 /d. Transmissivity 1,629 mil, of which 137 mil, or computer simulation of poten- values equal to or greater than about 8 percent of the basin, are tial ground-water withdrawals 8,000 ft2/d have been calculated underlain by stratified-drift indicated that additional yields for aquifers along the Saco River aquifers. Parts of stratified-drift of 1 .4 to 2.9 Mgal/d could be in Carroll, Hart's Location, Bar- aquifers in the towns of Cole- pumped from aquifers in west- tlett and Conway, and in tribu- brook, Shelburne, Stark, Strat- ern Lisbon, central Haverhill, tary valleys in Chatham, ford, and West Milan have northern Easton, southern Fran- northeastern Conway, central saturated thicknesses greater conia, and western Franconia . Madison, eastern Sandwich, than 200 ft and transmissivities Parts of aquifers in Hanover, western Tamworth, and in sec- greater than 4,000 ft2/d . Strati- Haverhill, and Orford extend fied-drift aquifers in the towns tions of Ossipee, Effingham, and into Vermont (Flanagan, in Wakefield. The central part of of Berlin, Colebrook, and press). Gorham supplied a total of 4.5 the largest stratified-drift aqui- Mgal/d of water for municipal fer in New Hampshire underlies public-supply wells in 1990 . Pemigewasset River Basin the Ossipee River Valley in Tam- Results of computer model sim- worth, Madison, Ossipee, Free- ulations indicate that stratified- The Pemigewasset River dom, and Effingham. Saturated drift aquifers in Colebrook and Basin in central New Hampshire thickness in one section of the Shelburne can yield up to 7.7 has a drainage area of 1,022 mil, Ossipee River Valley stratified and 23 .2 Mgal/d, respectively of which 91 mil, or about 9 per- drift exceeds 280 ft. Sections of (J .R. Olimpio, U.S . Geological cent of the basin, are underlain aquifers in Chatham, Conway, Survey, written commun.,1995). by stratified-drift aquifers. Parts Effingham, and Wakefield of aquifers in Campton, Alexan- extend into Maine. Water is Middle Connecticut River Basin dria, Hebron, and Rumney have pumped from municipal public- saturated thicknesses greater supply wells in stratified-drift The Middle Connecticut than 100 ft and transmissivity River Basin in western New greater than 8,000 ft2 /d. Strati- aquifers in Bartlett, Conway, Hampshire has a drainage area Freedom, Gorham, Jackson, and of 987 mil, of which 123 mil, or fied-drift aquifers in Bristol, Hill, Franklin, Sanbornton (for Madison. Results of model-sim- about 12 percent of the basin, are ulated ground-water flow for underlain by stratified-drift Franklin), Plymouth, Campton, Woodstock, Lincoln, and Water- the Ossipee River Valley aquifer aquifers. Although saturated more than 7 thickness of stratified drift ville Valley supply ground indicate that exceeds 500 ft in northwestern water for municipal public- Mgal/d of water could be Orford and western Haverhill, supply wells. Many other areas pumped from four wells with saturated thickness generally is in the basin are potential sites minimal impact on flows in the less than 100 ft. High transmis- for public-supply wells (Cotton Ossipee River (Moore and Med- sivity values (exceeding 4,000 and Olimpio, in press). alie, in press).

Stratified-Drift Aquifers 17

Pittsburg EXPLANATION

MAJOR STRATIFIED-DRIFT AQUIFER

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oftonbor ~jBridgewa ~}r1` i t w Lebanon / MeredJlr,< Alexandriaf /N6`Hampto Bristol / / l -4~ ) 1 f Enfield . /f 7J\ \ fi_~ r 1~ 1 1~ < 1 Wake' / \ \ J ,t GL°n Lacoma - ` ^ J / Gilford } J ookfieldi Plainfield Jr lYr\~~\,// D - Hill Sanb - - _ / Grantham / 'vl { J /d eC J Spdngfil iddletoi~ V, Cornish f Belmont Tilton ' ~w { / wilm°\- I Croydon An rham 1 J Milton 7 ~ ~à\ e fJ Gilmanton London / \ \ ' ~ field / i 7 _ f 1 I Sunapee Claremont I \ , I Salisbury Newport I Y; Farmington / I r I Canterbury yC Bamstead r ._ 7 " j, \\ Sutton Q oudon bury \\\ y \ i S unity \ - ~ \ Webeter t R let Goshen I / `Vittsfeld \ \/ / _ Wa^K \ \ \ r afford /l ` \ _ -- r It _ _ ^`Chichest~~Nswort^~ J / \ f Charlestowti { -' j Concord /~ 1 1 Lempster t L/ ~pllinwfo Acworth 1 \ Epsom ~/ / Barrington I No . e _ 1 Y i Hopkin t(" / \ / 1 _L \ \ p Dover S shington 1 Pembroke / _ ~angd " \ Heartxwr ,- °= i - r L \ Hillsborough \ v \ ~)All-stow . / Deeheld " I k Marlow - l1 Bow r`/Nottingham r / , Lee v 1 Alstead 1 \yindsa\ i ,c Durham Dunbarton _ 1 1 r _ L _ ..1 _ -i Sf .- -F ^w Waipole { _ _ Ejgpksett ~'L ._ Newmarket, J_ andia _ \ Gil-- I ~ /~ Epping A LewfrÌdsJ Gseea4nd / \ R.,Rrood / t . r _ _ I S Goffstown I m f t - I Smith 4t_~`- .iRye 43' Fmncestown 1, I 1 r _ 11 1 Auburn 1 Tremont IBreniwoo(, Exeter ` ` yMhtanceser orth ampto,, _ Hanegck New Boston _ r nesteq .L T_ _ . _c ~ k / s r 1 v isvill=_~,~ Id -- 1 Bedford i s "sing In ^Ha n 1 an~°w nvtnd Ji. ~iamptod. I Lyndeborough { ~ to ingstori Fallsfls_ ` \ I 1 1 Mint 1 r lin Peterlmough 1 '-è on a { Hamptog eabrook Londonderry Demy- Hampstead/ _1 rst l Merrim `\ *tkineo=MOM11 S _r 1 Jaffrey r Temple Wiljgn >y Hinsdalel .., ~ 1 Sharon r 1 1 / Windham / 1 Winches ter -1r` r A 1 { Richmond 1 { 1 FUwdliam ' r~en 1 I dge \ ew lpswicti 1 TIMason a ~lollis~ y ------1 1 1 1 d r'

Figure 17. Major stratified-drift aquifers and zones of transmissivity greater than 2,000 square feet per day in New Hampshire. Winnipesaukee River Basin field, Chesterfield, Troy, Wal- Upper Merrimack River Basin pole, and Winchester . The Upper Merrimack The Winnipesaukee River Additional water is potentially River Basin in south-central Basin in central New Hampshire available from stratified-drift New Hampshire has a drainage has a drainav area of 484 mi2, of aquifers in many towns in the area of 519 mil, of which 80 mil, which 66 mi-, or 14 percent of the study area (Moore and others, or 15 percent of the basin, are basin, are underlain by strati- 1994). fied-drift aquifers . Saturated underlain by stratified-drift thickness of parts of an aquifer aquifers . Parts of aquifers in in Belmont exceeds 100 ft, Contoocook River Basin Canterbury, Concord, and although generally it is less than Loudon have transmissivities of 50 ft. Transmissivity, generally The Contoocook River at least 5,000 ft2 /d . Saturated less than 1,000 ft2 /d, exceeds Basin in southwestern New thicknesses of aquifers in this 6,000 ft2 /d in areas of Belmont, Hampshire has a drainage area river basin are generally less Alton, and New Durham. Bel- of 766 mil, of which 123 mil, or than 80 ft. Additional water is mont and Alton withdraw 16 percent of the basin, are potentially available from strati- ground water from stratified- underlain by stratified-drift fied-drift aquifers in Bow, Pem- drift aquifers for municipal aquifers . Saturated thickness broke, Chichester, Loudon, public-supply wells. Induced exceeds 200 ft in Hancock next to Northfield, Franklin, Allen- infiltration from nearby rivers Norway Pond, and in central stown, Epsom, and Concord . Induced infiltration could provide additional water Andover, but generally is less from the for municipal public supplies in than 80 ft. Estimated transmis- Merrimack, Soucook, and Sun- cook Rivers may provide addi- Tilton, Belmont, Gilford, Alton, sivity was at least 22,000 ft2/d tional and Meredith. Results of com- along the Contoocook River in water to aquifers . Municipal public-supply wells puter model simulations indi- Bennington . Transmissivity is currently (1995) cate that aquifers in Alton and greater than 8,000 ft2 /d in the provide water from stratified-drift Belmont can yield up to 1.1 and Contoocook River valley in part aquifers to Barnstead, Concord, 1 .8 Mgal/d of water, respec- of Peterborough and in New Epsom, and Pembroke (P.J . Stekl, tively (Ayotte, in press). Ipswich, in Antrim, Bennington, U.S. Geo- logical Survey, written Greenfield and Hillsborough, commun., 1994). Lower Connecticut River Basin northwestern Henniker, Warner, central Andover, and central Bellamy, Cocheco, The Lower Connecticut Hopkinton, although it gener- and Salmon Falls River River Basin in southwestern ally is less than 2,000 ft2 /d . Basins New Hampshire has a drainage Public-supply wells in stratified- The Bellamy, Cocheco, and area of 1,163 mil, of which 116 drift aquifers provide municipal Salmon Falls River Basins in mil, or 10 percent of the basin, water to Bennington (for southeastern New Hampshire are underlain by stratified-drift Antrim), Henniker, Hillsbor- have a drainage area of 330 mil, aquifers. Saturated thickness is ough, Hopkinton, Jaffrey, Peter- of which 50 mil, or 15 percent of greater than 400 ft in parts of borough, and Warner. Induced the basin, are underlain by strat- Charlestown and Westmore- infiltration from rivers could ified-drift aquifers . Aquifers land . Transmissivity exceeds provide a source of additional scattered throughout Dover, 4,000 ft2 /d in some aquifers in ground water in several towns, Farmington, Rochester, and Newport, Walpole, Charles- including Harrisville, Hillsbor- Somersworth have transmissivi- town, Grantham, Keene, Hins- ough, and Antrim. Results from ties that range from 2,400 to dale, and Chesterfield but is less this study indicate that Peterbor- 26,700 ft2 /d, and saturated than 1,000 ft2/d in 80 percent of ough, Hancock, Henniker, Hop- thicknesses greater than 100 ft. the aquifers in the area. Munici- kinton, Warner, Bradford, Municipal public-supply wells pal public-supply wells with- Andover, and Salisbury could in Dover, Farmington, Rollins- draw water from stratified-drift potentially derive additional ford, Somersworth, Milton, and aquifers to supply parts of supplies of ground water from Wakefield withdraw water from Charlestown, Hinsdale, Keene, stratified-drift aquifers if needed stratified-drift aquifers. Strati- Marlborough, Newport, Plain- (Harte and Johnson, 1995). fied-drift aquifers in Milton,

20 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers Union, Rochester, Farmington, missivities greater than 3,000 Salem, and Seabrook. Strati- and New Durham can poten- ft2 /d have been measured in fied-drift aquifers in the study tially yield significant the Madbury-Dover area, the area can potentially yield addi- quantities of water through Durham-Lee area, and the tional water for public water induced infiltration from Newmarket-Durham area . supplies in Derry, Greenland, nearby rivers and ponds. Parts Water from municipal public- Kingston, North Hampton, and of aquifers in Milton, Rochester supply wells in Dover, Durham, Windham. Some aquifers in the and Somersworth extend into Epping, Lee, Madbury, New- southern part of this study area Maine (Mack and Lawlor,1992). market, and Raymond is extend into Massachusetts pumped from aquifers with (Stekl and Flanagan,1992). Middle Merrimack River Basin transmissivities that exceed 1,000 ft2/d. Water from munici- The Middle Merrimack pal public-supply wells in Nashua Regional Planning River Basin in south-central Exeter, Madbury (for Ports- Commission Area New Hampshire has a drainage mouth), Newfields, and area of 469 mil, of which 98 mil, Stratham is pumped from strat- The Nashua Regional Plan- or 21 percent of the basin, are ified-drift aquifers that are less ning Commission area in underlain by stratified-drift transmissive than 1,000 ft2/d. A south-central New Hampshire aquifers. The southern and east- computer model of ground- has a drainage area of 322 mil, ern boundaries of this study water flow indicated that four of which 129 mil, or 40 percent area are formed by political wells in an aquifer in Epping of the basin, are underlain by divisions rather than by drain- could yield 2 Mgal/d, and that stratified-drift aquifers . This age basins . Saturated thickness two wells in an aquifer in study area is entirely defined exceeds 100 ft in Hooksett, and Newmarket could yield 0.26 by political boundaries . Satu- transmissivities exceed 4,000 Mgal/d (Moore,1990) . rated thickness of stratified ft2/d in parts of Bow and Goffs- town but are generally less than drift is greater than 100 ft in Lower Merrimack and Coastal areas of Amherst, Litchfield, 2,000 ft2 /d . Water from munici- River Basins pal public-supply wells is Merrimack, and Pelham. Trans- pumped from stratified-drift The Lower Merrimack and missivities exceed 8,000 ft2/d in aquifers in Goffstown and Coastal River Basins in south- parts of aquifers in Amherst, Hooksett. Stratified-drift aqui- eastern New Hampshire have a Brookline, Hollis, Hudson, fers in New Ipswich, Green- drainage area of 327 mil, of Litchfield, Merrimack, Milford, field, and New Boston which 78 mil, or 24 percent of Nashua, and Pelham . More potentially could yield water to the basin, are underlain by than 30 municipal public- small municipal systems. The stratified-drift aquifers. The supply wells in stratified-drift aquifer in Goffstown could western and southern edges of aquifers in Amherst, Hollis, supply significantly larger vol- this study area are formed by Hudson, Litchfield, Merrimack, umes of water than are cur- political rather than drainage- Milford, Nashua, Pelham, and rently (1995) being pumped basin boundaries . Although Wilton withdraw at least 100 (Ayotte and Toppin, 1995). saturated thickness is 100 ft in gallons of water per minute one section of Kingston, it is (0.14 Mgal/d); many of these Exeter, Lamprey, and Oyster generally 20 to 40 ft throughout pump at a rate of more than 500 River Basins the rest of the basin. Transmis- sivity exceeds 4,000 ft2 /d in gallons per minute (0 .72 The Exeter, Lamprey, and parts of aquifers in Kingston, Mgal/d) . Several stratified- Oyster River Basins in south- North Hampton, Rye, Green- drift aquifers, particularly in eastern New Hampshire have a land, and Portsmouth. Munici- Amherst, Litchfield, Merri- drainage area of 351 mil, of pal public-supply wells mack, Milford, and Pelham, which 56 mil, or 16 percent of provide water from stratified- could supplement municipal the basin, are underlain by drift aquifers to customers in public-supply wells (Toppin, stratified-drift aquifers . Trans- Hampton, Portsmouth, Rye, 1987).

Stratified-Drift Aquifers 21 Quality of Water from Stratified-Drift Aquifers

For water-resources planners, it is not enough to know where the productive aquifers are located or how much water they might yield. The quality of water and its suit- ability for various uses such as drinking, irri- gation, or industry, is equally important.

Ground-water quality is influenced partly by natural processes and partly by human activity. Water quality between aqui fers or even within a single aquifer can differ because of influences from the biological communities, aquifer materials, and underlying bedrock that are in contact with the ground water. Natural weathering of rocks and minerals contributes most of the dissolved substances found in uncontaminated ground water and can produce high concentrations of dissolved iron (fig. 18) and manganese, especially in acidic environments . Stratified-drift aquifers near coastal areas can contain higher levels of chloride than the levels found in inland areas. Arsenic, an ele- ment derived from earth materials, is sometimes identified in ground water. Radon in ground water from bedrock wells is caused by natural weathering of uranium minerals in a type of granite commonly found in New Hampshire.

The more persistent threats to ground- Figure 18. Sand deposits from a former river channel stained water quality in New Hampshire are caused red from iron in ground-water seepage. High concentrations by human activity, such as road salting, fer of iron are common in New Hampshire ground water. Stick in tilizing, industrial waste discharge, and the upper right corner of the photograph is approximately 1 .5 detergent discharge. For instance, sodium feet long . (Photograph taken by J.D. Ayotte, U.S. Geological and chloride are not abundant elements in Survey.) the types of rocks found in New Hampshire, yet tests on water samples from throughout also has been found in ground water associated with the State indicate their presence. Sodium detergents in septic wastes (Boudette and others, 1985) . chloride is a compound commonly used for Commonly, the potential for ground-water contam- winter road salting. Excess nitrate in ground ination is assessed by analyzing land use for the area water can be the result of poorly designed or that contributes ground-water recharge to an aquifer. faulty septic systems or other waste-disposal Certain land uses can adversely affect the quality of sites, or inappropriate fertilization rates. ground water by contributing to nonpoint source pol- Infiltration of solvents from industrial lution. In an attempt to account for sources of ground- wastes can result in ground-water contami- water pollution in the State, the NHDES maintains a nation (Morrissey and Regan, 1987). Arsenic statewide Groundwater Hazards Inventory, which in

22 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers November 1991, documented primarily for contaminants that Hampshire Department of more than 2,000 sites of ground- can adversely affect the odor, Environmental Services, Water water contamination. According taste, or appearance of water. Supply Engineering Bureau, to this inventory, the most written common., 1987). common Under the National Primary and serious threats to Drinking-Water Regulations, ground-water quality in New On the basis of the results of Hampshire include hazardous enforceable Maximum Contami- nant Levels (MCL, U.S. Environ- this statewide assessment, the waste sites, unlined landfills, quality of ground water from leaking underground storage mental Protection Agency, 1992) stratified-drift aquifers in New tanks, oil spills or releases, and are established for contaminants Hampshire generally meets all septage or sludge lagoons such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, (Flanders, 1992, p. IV-1). drinking-water regulations atrazine, and toluene. Under the (fig. 19). Analyses of water sam- Maximum levels for con- National Secondary Drinking- ples from wells and springs taminants in public-water sup- Water Regulations, advisory Sec- reveal that the most common plies were established by the ondary Maximum Contaminant water-quality problems are the U .S . Environmental Protection Levels (SMCL, U .S. Environ- high concentrations of iron or Agency (USEPA) under the Safe mental Protection Agency, 1992) manganese. Although neither of Drinking Water Act of 1986. Two are established for contaminants these elements poses a threat to general categories of regulations such as chloride, iron, and man- human health, excessive were created : National Primary ganese. Similarly, the NHDES amounts of either in water will Drinking-Water Regulations for Water Supply Engineering stain laundry or plumbing fix- contaminants that could Bureau has established MCLs tures . Of the 257 samples ana- adversely affect human health; and SMCLs for certain lyzed (table 1), 51 samples (20 and National Secondary contaminants such as sodium, percent) had higher dissolved Drinking-Water Regulations cadmium, and lead (New iron levels than the SMCL of 300 Nonpoint source pollution is caused by rainfall or snowmelt runoff that carries unnatural and natural pollutants into lakes, rivers, wetlands, and aquifers. Cer- tain land uses have been targeted by the Nonpoint Source Program adminis- tered by the New Hamp- shire Department of Environmental Services and listed as existing and potential sources of ground- or surface-water contamination (Flanders, 1992). Targeted land uses include landfills, septic systems, junkyards, urban areas, agricultural and sil- vicultural areas, and roads that are salted in the winter. Figure 19. A boy collects drinking water from a spring that flows from a stratified-drift aquifer in Sanbornton, central New Hampshire. (Photograph taken by B .R. Mrazik, U .S. Geological Survey.)

Stratified-Drift Aquifers 23 Table 1 . Summary of selected analyses of ground water from stratified-drift aquifers in New Hampshire

[MCL, Maximum Contaminant Levels are enforceable U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) primary drinking-water regulations (U .S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992). SMCL, Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels are established by the USEPA to provide advisory levels for certain contaminants in public water supplies. At higher concentrations, some of these constituents may be associated with adverse health effects (U .S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992). <, actual value is less than value shown; --, not applicable; micrograms per liter is one in one billion parts; milligrams per liter is one thousand times that amount, or one in one million parts] Number of Chemical constituent samples MCL SMCL Minimum Median Maximum and abbreviation analyzed value value value parts per million, milligrams per liter (mg/L) Dissolved oxygen, DO 144 -- 0 6 13.1 pH, measured in the field 229 6.5-8 .5 5.1 6.3 8.5 Alkalinity as calcium carbonate, as CaC0 3 139 -- -- 1 22 158 Total hardness as CaC03 255 -- -- 3 26 280 Total dissolved solids, TDS 252 -- 500 17 77 612 Calcium, Ca 256 -- -- .04 7.6 87 Magnesium, Mg 256 -- -- .11 1.5 18 Chloride, Cl 256 -- 250 .3 10 300 Sodium', Na 256 _- 20 .3 6.4 220 Potassium, K 255 -- -- .2 1 .6 17 Nitrite plus nitrate, N02+NO3 155 10 __ <.05 .22 7.2 Sulfate, S04 255 -- 250 <.1 7.8 79 Fluoride, F 255 4 2 <.1 .1 2.9 Silicate, Si02 256 -- -- <.01 12 40 parts per billion, micrograms per liter (gg/L) Aluminum, Al 173 -- 50 <10 <10 790 Cadmium'`, Cd 247 10 5 <1 <1 4 Copper, Cu 246 -- 1,000 <1 <10 80 Iron, Fe 257 -- 300 <3 10 19,000 Lead3, Pb 246 50 -- <1 <10 110 Manganese, Mn 257 -- 50 <1 63 3,500 Zinc, Zn 247 -- 5,000 <3 4 300

'New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services (NHDES) MCL for sodium is 250 mg/L ; SMCL is 100-250 mg/L . '`NHDES MCL for cadmium is 5 Vg/L. NNHDES SMCL for lead is 20 Fig/L. flg/L (micrograms per liter), and 136 samples (53 (milligrams per liter); however, chloride concen- percent) had higher dissolved manganese concentrations in 94 percent of the samples of ground trations than the SMCL of 50 leg/L. Chloride con- water were less than 100 mg/L. The SMCL for centrations for 1 percent of the sampled wells and sodium is 20 mg/L and is established for people springs exceeded the SMCL of 250 mg/L with cardiac or kidney problems or hypertension .

24 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers Because this SMCL has been drift aquifers in New Hamp- The aquifer mapping and established at such a low con- shire. Most importantly, the data collection by the USGS are centration, it was exceeded in 18 Groundwater Protection Act valuable resources to local gov percent of the samples. Acidity (RSA 485-C) authorized local ernment and the private sector levels, or pH, in 66 percent of the governments to implement as well. For example, municipal- ground-water samples were less ground-water-protection pro- ities and their consultants use (more acidic) than the minimum grams through classification of the information as the basis for limit (6.5) of the range recom- ground water. Under this Act, exploring potentially new or mended by the USEPA . Other designated expanded town water supplies New Hampshire studies also one of the four classes of ground water is and in siting waste disposal or have found that ground water storage sites to avoid ground- from stratified-drift deposits GA2- "stratified-drift aquifers mapped by the USGS that are water contamination. In assess- was slightly acidic, and could migration from a con- cause corrosion problems in potentially valuable aquifers" ing plume metal pipes (Cotton, 1989, p.16). (New Hampshire Department taminated site, all aquifers in the Nineteen of the 173 samples of Environmental Services, 1991, area need to be identified as to analyzed exceeded the SMCL p.10). In addition, Phase 1 delin- whether or not they are cur- (50 Vg/L) for aluminum. These eations of wellhead protection rently being tapped for a water 19 samples with high aluminum areas (WHPA) for public-supply supply. Conservation commis- may be associated with low pH sions evaluate wetlands and because aluminum dissolves designate areas as Prime Wet- more readily as pH decreases. A WHPA (wellhead protec- lands (RSA 482-A:15) according tion area) delineation identi- to the standardized method of Cleaning up contaminated Ammann and Stone (1991). Part fies the part of the mapped ground water can be costly in of this evaluation requires terms of time and money. aquifer that actually supplies knowledge of the position of the Ground-water contamination is water to a particular public- wetland relative to the location commonly not detected until it supply well. This delineation of stratified-drift aquifers. Envi- becomes widespread . The defines the area through ronmental educators use the source of pollution and the most aquifer maps to complement which contaminants are rea- effective method of clean up is and enhance their lessons on not always obvious. Recogniz- sonably likely to move watersheds. ing the economical benefits of toward and potentially reach maintaining high-quality water, the public-supply well. Because many potential in 1991, New Hampshire enacted legislation (RSA 485-C) users of the stratified-drift-aqui- to protect the State's ground fer reports are town residents table 2 waters. wells are based on available and local governments, provides an index of the USGS data, such as the "hydrogeologic aquifer-assessment study areas How Stratified-Drift Aquifer information from the USGS that pertain to each town in Data are Used stratified-drift aquifer maps ." New Hampshire . The geo- Stratified-drift aquifer maps are graphic area covered by each The NHDES, the steward commonly used in the report is shown on the map in for water resources in the State, administration of excavation figure 1, and complete citations has several uses for maps and regulations (RSA 155-E) by local for each report are included in data pertaining to stratified- governments. the Selected References section.

Stratified-Drift Aquifers 25

Table 2. List of towns in New Hampshire, U .S. Geological Survey aquifer-assessment study areas, and areas of town and percentage of total town areas underlain by stratified-drift aquifers

[USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; UC, Upper Connecticut; MC, Middle Connecticut; PE, Pemigewasset ; SA, Saco and Ossipee; Wl, Winnipesaukee; LC, Lower Connecticut; CK, Contoocook; UM, Upper Merrimack; CO, Cocheco; MM, Middle Merrimack; LA, Lamprey; LM, Lower Merrimack and coastal; NS, Nashua Regional Planning Commission area]

USGS Area of town under- USGS Area of town under- aquifer- lain by stratified- aquifer- lain by stratified- Town assessment drift aquifers Town assessment drift aquifers study (square Percentage study (square Percentage area(s) miles) of total area(s) miles) of total ACWORTH LC 1.5 4 CLAREMONT LC 9.4 22 ALBANY SA 8.3 11 CLARKSVILLE UC 1.7 3 ALEXANDRIA PE 4.2 10 COLEBROOK UC 6.7 16 ALLENSTOWN UM, MM 5.4 27 COLUMBIA UC 2.4 4 ALSTEAD LC 1.3 3 CONCORD UM, CK 34.8 54 ALTON WI, UM, CO 7.2 12 CONWAY SA 22.2 32 AMHERST NS 13.1 39 CORNISH LC 2.7 6 ANDOVER CK, UM, PE 6.9 17 CRAWFORDS ANTRIM CK 3.5 10 PURCHASE MC .1 2 ASHLAND PE 2.9 27 CROYDON LC .9 3 ATKINSON LM .7 7 CUTTS GRANT SA 0 0 ATKINSON AND DALTON MC, UC 4.1 15 GILMANTON DANBURY PE, CK 4.9 13 ACADEMY GRANT UC 2.1 11 DANVILLE LM, LA 2.2 19 AUBURN MM 7.4 30 DEERFIELD LA, UM 5.2 10 BARNSTEAD UM 5.7 14 DEERING MM, CK 4.1 13 BARRINGTON CO, LA 10.7 23 DERRY LM, LA 5.2 15 BARTLETT SA 8.6 11 DIXS GRANT UC 0.5 2 BATH MC 8.7 23 DIXVILLE UC 1.4 3 BEANS GRANT SA 0 0 DORCHESTER MC, PE .8 2 BEANS PURCHASE UC 0 0 DOVER CO, LA 26.7 99 BEDFORD MM 9.5 29 DUBLIN CK, LC 1.4 5 BELMONT WI 12.0 39 DUMMER UC 2.3 5 BENNINGTON CK 4.3 39 DUNBARTON MM, UM 1.7 6 BENTON MC .9 2 DURHAM LA, CO 1.2 5 BERLIN UC 3.7 6 EAST KINGSTON LM, LA 1.1 11 BETHLEHEM MC 9.8 11 EASTON MC 3.4 11 BOSCAWEN UM, CK 6.3 25 EATON SA 2.1 9 BOW UM, MM 6.0 22 EFFINGHAM SA 15.8 41 BRADFORD CK 4.0 11 ELLSWORTH PE 0 0 BRENTWOOD LA 5.6 33 ENFIELD MC 3.3 8 BRIDGEWATER PE 2.7 13 EPPING LA 4.0 15 BRISTOL PE 3.8 22 EPSOM UM 4.9 14 BROOKFIELD CO, WI, SA 1.7 7 ERROL UC 14.1 23 BROOKLINE NS 6.5 33 ERVINGS LOCATION UC 0 0 CAMBRIDGE UC 7.9 16 EXETER LA, LM 2.9 15 CAMPTON PE 6.8 13 FARMINGTON CO 4.2 12 CANAAN MC 8.4 16 FITZWILLIAM LC 2.7 8 CANDIA MM, LA 3.0 10 FRANCESTOWN MM 4.4 15 CANTERBURY UM 7.1 16 FRANCONIA MC, PE 4.6 7 CARROLL MC, UC, SA 10.6 21 FRANKLIN UM, PE, WI 10.2 37 CENTER HARBOR WI, PE .6 4 FREEDOM SA 9.3 26 CHANDLERS FREMONT LA 6.7 39 PURCHASE MC, SA 0 0 GILFORD WI 5.7 15 CHARLESTOWN LC 9.5 26 GILMANTON UM, WI 2.5 4 CHATHAM SA 4.1 7 GILSUM LC 1.1 7 CHESTER LA, MM 4.8 18 GOFFSTOWN MM 5.6 15 CHESTERFIELD LC 2.1 5 GORHAM UC 5.3 17 CHICHESTER UM 1.2 6 GOSHEN LC 2.3 10

26 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers

Table 2. List of towns in New Hampshire, U.S . Geological Survey aquifer-assessment study areas, and areas of town and percentage of total town areas underlain by stratified-drift aquifers--Continued

USGS Area of town under- USGS Area of town under- aquifer- lain by stratified- aquifer- lain by stratified- Town assessment drift aquifers Town assessment drift aquifers study (square Percentage study (square Percentage area(s) miles) of total area(s) miles) of total GRAFTON PE, MC 2.9 7 MADBURY CO, LA 5.5 46 GRANTHAM LC, MC .8 3 MADISON SA 9.0 23 GREENFIELD CK, MM 8.3 33 MANCHESTER MM 19 .7 60 GREENLAND LM 2.8 28 MARLBOROUGH LC .5 3 GREENS GRANT UC .3 8 MARLOW LC 1.6 6 GREENVILLE MM .3 4 MARTINS LOCATION UC .6 14 GROTON PE 1.0 2 MASON MM 3.5 15 HADLEY'S PURCHASE SA 0 0 MEREDITH WI, PE 2.8 7 HALE'S LOCATION SA .5 27 MERRIMACK NS 18 .8 59 HAMPSTEAD LM, LA 2.4 19 MIDDLETON CO, WI .2 1 HAMPTON LM 2.5 19 MILAN UC 7.3 12 HAMPTON FALLS LM, LA .3 3 MILFORD NS 9.3 37 HANCOCK CK 3.9 13 MILLSFIELD UC .4 1 HANOVER MC 5.3 11 MILTON CO 3.7 11 HARRISVILLE CK, LC 1.3 7 MONROE MC 4.8 22 HART'S LOCATION SA 2.4 13 MONTVERNON NS .4 2 HAVERHILL MC 14.6 29 MOULTONBORO WI, SA, PE 7.9 13 HEBRON PE 1.5 9 NASHUA NS 22 .1 71 HENNIKER CK, MM 6.2 14 NELSON LC, CK .7 3 HILL PE, CK 1.9 7 NEW DURHAM CO, WI 5.8 14 HILLSBOROUGH CK 6.1 14 NEW HAMPTON PE, WI 6.2 17 HINSDALE LC 7.3 35 NEW IPSWICH MM, CK, LC 6.1 19 HOLDERNESS PE 4.0 14 NEW LONDON CK, LC 1 .3 6 HOLLIS NS 11.4 36 NEWBURY CK, LC 2.1 6 HOOKSETT MM 9.0 25 NEWFIELDS LA .8 11 HOPKINTON CK, UM 17.3 40 NEWINGTON LM 3.3 41 HUDSON NS 11.1 40 NEWMARKET LA 1 .1 9 JACKSON SA, UC 1.8 3 NEWPORT LC 6.1 14 JAFFREY CK, LC 6.8 18 NEWTON LM 4.0 40 JEFFERSON UC, MC 2.9 6 NORTH HAMPTON LM 3.2 23 KEENE LC 10.3 28 NORTHFIELD WI, UM 4.4 15 KENSINGTON LM, LA 2.3 19 NORTHUMBERLAND UC 7.6 21 KILKENNY UC 0 0 NORTHWOOD UM, LA, CO .4 2 KINGSTON LM, LA 11 .3 57 NOTTINGHAM LA 3.4 7 LACONIA WI 2.6 13 ODELL UC 0 0 LANCASTER UC, MC 8.1 16 ORANGE MC, PE 1.0 4 LANDAFF MC 1 .2 4 ORFORD MC, PE 5.8 12 LANGDON LC 2.8 18 OSSIPEE SA 24.5 35 LEBANON MC, LC 7.1 18 PELHAM NS 9.8 38 LEE LA 4.3 22 PEMBROKE UM 5.7 25 LEMPSTER LC 3.2 10 PETERBOROUGH CK 10.1 27 LINCOLN PE 4.3 3 PIERMONT MC 4.0 10 LISBON MC 6.5 24 PINKHAM'S GRANT UC, SA 0 0 LITCHFIELD NS 14.1 94 PITTSBURG UC 20.7 7 LITTLETON MC 6.5 13 PITTSFIELD UM .4 2 LIVERMORE PE, SA 0 0 PLAINFIELD LC, MC 3.2 6 LONDONDERRY LM 10.3 25 PLAISTOW LM 5.1 47 LONDON UM 6.0 13 PLYMOUTH PE 6.5 23 LOW AND BURBANK'S PORTSMOUTH LM 5.2 32 GRANT UC, MC 0 0 RANDOLPH UC 1.2 3 LYMAN MC 1.6 6 RAYMOND LA 6.2 22 LYME MC 5.3 10 RICHMOND LC 1.1 3 LYNDEBOROUGH NS 2.4 8 RINDGE LC, CK 5.5 15

Stratified-Drift Aquifers 27

Table 2 . List of towns in New Hampshire, U.S. Geological Survey aquifer-assessment study areas, and areas of town and percentage of total town areas underlain by stratified-drift aquifers--Continued

28 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers SUMMARY

New Hampshire is fortu- sive aquifers and yield the presented in this report from nate to have numerous strati- most water. These high-yield- the USGS office in Bow or the fied-drift aquifers that provide ing aquifers were deposited as NHDES, Water Resources generally clean and plentiful eskers, kame terraces, outwash Division, in Concord. ground water for a multitude plains, and deltas by meltwater during glacial retreat. Under USGS of uses. These New Hampshire Water Resources Division natural or near-natural condi- aquifers are products of glacial 525 Clinton Street tions, water quality from meltwater deposition from Bow, NH 03304 stratified-drift aquifers is gen- about 14,000 years ago and are (603) 225-4681 erally good, although threats scattered primarily in river val- from natural and human- low-lying areas leys and other derived sources of contamina- NHDES throughout the State. Aquifers tion have been identified. Water Resources Division composed of coarse sand and 64 North Main Street gravel materials, with large, The public is encouraged P.O. Box 2008 interconnected pore spaces, are to seek more information Concord, NH 03302-2008 generally the most transmis- about any of the material 603) 271-3406

Summary 29 SELECTED REFERENCES 1977a, Availability of ground water in the lower Con- necticut River Basin, southwestern New Hampshire: Titles of reports that were published as part of U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 77-0079,1 pl. the cooperative USGS and NHDES stratified-drift --_1977b, Availability of ground water in the lower aquifer mapping study are in bold print. Merrimack River Basin, southern New Hampshire : Ammann, A.P., and Stone, A.L.,1991, Method for the com- U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations parative evaluation of nontidal wetlands in New Report 77-0069, 1 pl. Hampshire: Concord, New Hampshire Department of -1977c, Availability of ground water in the Environmental Services, Water Resources Division, Piscataqua and other coastal river basins, southeastern NHDES-WRD-1991-3, 229 p. New Hampshire: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Ayotte, J.D., in press, Geohydrology and water quality of Resources Investigations Report 77-0070, 1 pl. stratified-drift aquifers in the Winnipesaukee River Cotton, J.E.,1988, Ground-water resources of the Lamprey Basin, central New Hampshire : U.S . Geological River Basin, southeastern New Hampshire: U.S. Geo- Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 94- logical Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 4150,121 p., 12 pls. 84-4252, 46 p .,1 pl. Ayotte, J.D., and Toppin, K.W., 1995, Geohydrology and Cotton, J.E., 1989, Hydrogeology of the Cocheco River water quality of stratified-drift aquifers in the Basin, southeastern New Hampshire: U.S. Geological Middle Merrimack River Basin, south-central New Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 87- Hampshire : U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources 4130,47 p., l pl. Investigations Report 92-4192, 52 p., 8 pls. Cotton, J.E., and Olimpio, J.R., in press, Geohydrology, Baldwin, H.L., and McGuinness, C.L., 1963, A primer on yield, and water quality of stratified-drift aquifers in ground water: U.S. Geological Survey, 26 p. the Pemigewasset River Basin, central New Hamp- Boudette, E.L., Canney F.C., Cotton, J.E., Davis, R.I., Fick- shire: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investi- lin, W.H ., and Mootooka, J.M., 1985, High levels of gations Report 94-4083, 258 p., 10 pls. arsenic in the ground waters of southeastern New Diers, R.W., and Vieira, F.J., 1977, Soil survey of Carroll Hampshire-a geochemical reconnaissance: U.S. Geo- County, New Hampshire, U.S. Department of Agricul- logical Survey Open-File Report 85-202, 25 p. ture, 63 map sheets, scale 1:24,000, 161 p. Chapman, D.H.,1974, New Hampshire's landscape-how Flanagan, S.M., in press, Geohydrology and water quality it was formed: New Hampshire Profiles, v. 23, no.l, of stratified-drift aquifers in the Middle Connecticut p 41-56. River Basin, west-central New Hampshire : U.S. Geo- Cotton, J.E., 1975a, Availability of ground water in the logical Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report Androscoggin River Basin, northern New Hampshire: 94-4181, 149 p., 4 p1s. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Flanders, R.A., 1992, New Hampshire Water Quality Report 75-0022,1 pl. Report to Congress - 305(b): Concord, New Hampshire 1975b, Availability of ground water in the Department of Environmental Services, Water Supply Pemigewasset and Winnipesaukee River Basins, cen- and Pollution Control Division, NHDES-WSPCD-92-8, tral New Hampshire : U.S. Geological Survey Water- 247 p. Resources Investigations Report 75-0047, 1 pl. Frost, Robert, 1981, Mending Wall, in Early Poems: New -1975c, Availability of ground water in the Saco River York, Avenel Books, p . 80. Basin, east-central New Hampshire : U.S. Geological Goldthwait, J.W., Goldthwait, Lawrence, and Goldthwait, Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 74- R.P., 1951, The geology of New Hampshire, part 1- 0039, 1 pl. surficial geology: Concord, New Hampshire State __1975d, Availability of ground water in the upper Planning and Development Commission, 83 p., 1 pl. Connecticut River Basin, northern New Hampshire : Harte, PT., and Johnson, William, 1995, Geohydrology U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations and water quality of stratified-drift aquifers in the Report 75-0053, 1 pl. Contoocook River Basin, south-central New Hamp- _1976a, Availability of ground water in the middle shire: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investi- Connecticut River Basin, southern New Hampshire : gations Report 92-4154, 72 p., 4 pls. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Johnson, C.D., Tepper, D.M., and Morrissey, D .J., 1987, Report 76-0018, 1 pl. Geohydrologic and surface-water data for the Saco 1976b, Availability of ground water in the middle River Valley glacial aquifer from Bartlett, New Hamp Merrimack River Basin, central and southern New shire, to Fryeburg, Maine: October, 1983, through Janu- Hampshire: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources ary, 1986: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 87- Investigations Report 76-0039, 1 pl. 44, 80 p.

30 Ground-Water Resources in New Hampshire: Stratified-Drift Aquifers Kelsey, T.L., and Vieira, F.J., 1968, Soil survey of Belknap Morrissey, D.J. and Regan, J.M., 1987, New Hampshire County, New Hampshire, U.S. Department of Agricul- ground-water quality: U.S. Geological Survey Open- ture, 62 map sheets, scale 1:15,840, 68 p. File Report 87-0739, 8 p. Koteff, Carl, 1974, The morphologic sequence concept and New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services, deglaciation of southern New England, in Coates, D.R., 1991, Phase I wellhead protection area delineation ed., Glacial geomorphology: Binghamton, State Uni- guidance: Water Supply and Pollution Control Divi- versity of New York, Publications in Geomorphology, sion, NHDES-WSPCD-91-9,13 p. p. 121-144. New Hampshire Water Resources Board, 1984, Water Latimer, W.J., Layton, N.H., Lyford, W.H., Coates, W.H., resources management plan: Concord, New Hamp- Scripture, P.N., 1939, Soil survey of Grafton County, shire Water Resources Board, 47 p. New Hampshire: Washington D.C., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, Series Stekl, P.J., and Flanagan, S.M., 1992, Geohydrology and 1935, no. 6, 2 map sheets, scale 1 :62,500, 79 p. water quality of stratified-drift aquifers in the Lower Lawlor, S.M., and Mack, T.J., 1992, Geohydrologic, Merrimack and coastal River Basins, southeastern ground-water quality, and streamflow data for the New Hampshire: U.S. Geological Survey Water- stratified-drift aquifers in the Bellamy, Cocheco, and Resources Investigations Report 91-4025, 93 p., 6 pls. Salmon Falls River Basins, southeastern New Hamp- Tepper, D.H., Morrissey, D.J., Johnson, C.D., and Maloney, shire: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 89-583, T.J., 1990, Hydrogeology, water quality, and effects of 137 p., 3 pls. increased municipal pumpage of the Saco River Valley Mack, T.J., and Lawlor, S.M ., 1992, Geohydrology and glacial aquifer; Bartlett, New Hampshire, to Fryeburg, water quality of stratified-drift aquifers in the Bel- Maine: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Inves- lamy, Cocheco, and Salmon Falls River Basins, south tigations Report 88-4179,113 p. eastern New Hampshire: U.S . Geological Survey Toppin, K.W,1987, Hydrogeology of stratified-drift aqui- Water-Resources Investigations Report 90-4161, 65 ., fers and water quality in the Nashua Regional Plan- 6 pls. ning Commission area, south-central New Medalie, Laura and Horn, M .A., 1994, Estimated Hampshire : U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources withdrawals and use of freshwater in New Hampshire: Investigations Report 86-4358, 101 p., 6 pls. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 93-4096, 1p1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992, Final Rule, National primary and secondary drinking-water regu- Moore, R.B., 1990, Geohydrology and water quality of organic chemicals and inorganic stratified-drift aquifers in the Exeter, Lamprey, and lations-Synthetic Oyster River Basins, southeastern New Hampshire : chemicals (sections 141 .12, 141 .32, 141 .50, 141 .51, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations 141.61, and 141.62 of part 141 and 143.3 of part 143) : Report 88-4128, 61 p., 8 pls. U.S. Federal Register, v. 57, no. 138, July 17, 1992, p. 31,776-31,849 . 1992, Geohydrologic and ground-water-quality data for stratified-drift aquifers in the Exeter, Lamprey, and U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1981, Soil survey of Hills- Oyster River Basins, southeastern New Hampshire : borough County, eastern part, New Hampshire, U.S. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 92-95, 136 p., Department of Agriculture, 152 p. 4 pls. 1985a, Soil survey of Hillsborough County, 1993, Geologic evidence for catastrophic draining of western part, New Hampshire, U.S. Department of glacial lakes in the Contoocook, Souhegan, and Piscat- Agriculture, 141 p. aquog River Basins, south-central New Hampshire _____1985b, Soil survey of Merrimack County, New [abs.] : Geological Society of America Abstracts with Hampshire, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 141 p. Programs, v. 25, no. 6, p. 157. R.W., 1973, Soil survey of Strafford Moore, R.B., Johnson, C.D., and Douglas, E.M.,1994, Geo- Vieira, F.J., and Bond, hydrology and water quality of stratified-drift aqui- County, New Hampshire, U.S. Department of Agricul- fers in the Lower Connecticut River Basin, ture, 152 p. southwestern New Hampshire : U.S . Geological Waller, R.M ., 1989, Ground water and the rural Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 92- homeowner: U.S. Geological Survey General Interest 4013,187 p., 4 pls. Publication, 36 p. Moore, R.B., and Medalie, Laura, in press, Geohydrology Winkley, H.E., 1965, Soil survey of Merrimack County, and water quality of stratified-drift aquifers in the New Hampshire: Washington D.C., U.S. Department of Saco and Ossipee River Basins, east-central New Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Series 1961, Hampshire: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources no. 22, 76 map sheets, scale 1 :20,000, 94 p. Investigations Report 94-4182, 133 p.

Selected References 31