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Arctic Ecosystems and Valuable Resources Section 3 Executive Summary Section 1. The Physical Environment Section 2. Arctic Ecosystems and Valuable Resources Section 3. The Transport and Fate of Oil in the Arctic Section 4. Oil Spill Response Strategies Section 5. Biodegradation Section 6. Ecotoxicology of Oil and Treated Oil in the Arctic Section 7. Population Effects Modeling Section 8. Ecosystem Recovery Section 9. Net Environmental Benefit Analysis for Oil Spill Response Options in the Arctic SECTION 2. ARCTIC ECOSYSTEMS AND VALUABLE RESOURCES Quick Links to Section 2 Content Summary and Key Messages Introduction Knowledge Status Habitats of the Arctic Summary of Arctic food webs Pelagic realm Benthic realm Sea-Ice realm VECs of Arctic marine environments Future Research Considerations Priority recommendations to enhance NEBA applications in the Arctic Links to Further Information Authors References Photos 2-1, 2-2, 2-3 Arctic field study (Jack D Word) Summary and Key Messages In order to minimize the potential impacts of an oil spill, valuable ecosystem components (VECs) that potentially become impacted should be indentified. Each compartment where oil might end up contains its own set of VECs with their own sensitivity and resilience to oil. Apart from the identification of VECs, their distributional patterns by life stage within environmental compartments (ECs) both in time and space are of importance. Except for the multi-year ice environments or species that are fixed to demersal or shoreline environments, the organisms and their young undergo seasonal migratory patterns with many species occupying Arctic ECs on a temporary basis. While these distributional patterns for migratory species and resident species are becoming better known, their locations during an oil spill needs to be characterized so that the optimum spill response options with the least amount of environmental consequences to VECs can be identified. Arctic specific VECs tend to congregate at interface habitats like the surface layers at or near the air/water interface (SML), ice edges and under ice environments, polinyas, sediment/water in demersal nearshore and offshore locations, shorelines, and convergence zones for different water masses. Key topics for further study would focus on the importance of these interface habitats for the diversity and long and short term functioning of Arctic ecosystems. Once the main VECs have been identified, research should establish the seasonal distribution patterns of the life stages and population levels of VECs within each EC, especially within the interface environments. Resilience of VECs determines to a large extent the long term population level effects that would occur after an oil spill. For identified VECs a proper and generic resilience metric should be developed so that relevant information on VECs can be applied in net environmental benefit analysis (NEBA) decision making. Introduction The objective of this section is to compile existing information on the dominant organisms that comprise the communities associated with the Arctic marine waters and to identify the valuable ecosystem components (VECs). For the purposes of this review, a valuable ecosystem component (VEC) is a species of the marine ecosystem that is identified as having scientific, social, cultural, or economic importance. VECs may be determined on the basis of any or all of these important concerns. The VECs defined here are based on five qualities that include their importance in supporting the Arctic marine food webs, as well as ecosystem services. In addition, consideration is given to those species that may act as indicators of potential effects of oil spill response measures on the different ecosystem compartments. • Taxa that are important to the function of Arctic food webs: Certain taxa play a critical role in maintaining and supporting the ecosystems and other trophic levels, as well as supporting the ecosystem resources and function. For example, many species in each of the ECs of the Arctic rely on copepods and Arctic cod as a primary food source. The removal or reduction of populations of copepods, krill or cod would have a significant impact on ecosystem function in the Arctic, as well as impacting upper trophic levels that may represent the ecosystem services for that realm (e.g. traditional fisheries for Bowhead whales are supported by copepod and krill food resources). • Taxa that are representative of pelagic, benthic, deep-sea, and sea-ice realms: Taxa and age classes important to marine food webs in each of the primary ecosystem compartments were included as potential VECs. • Taxa that are relatively abundant: While abundance is not a core characteristic of keystone species, the removal or significant reduction in population levels of species that are relatively abundant or have a greater number of food-web linkages are more likely to impact ecosystem function than species that are less common or form fewer food web linkages. • Taxa that may have cultural or commercial importance: Ecosystem services are incorporated in VEC determinations. This can include both economic values (e.g. commercial fisheries) and social values. Arctic communities are tightly linked to ecosystem services with goods and services extending beyond typical economic values of natural resources. Most of the goods and services for Arctic communities have cultural and social values and are dependent on other food web components. While some of the traditional ecosystem services are captured here, often they are locally defined and may include species not listed here. • Taxa that are well suited to impacts analysis: Species that are well suited to experimental approaches for evaluating the effects of OSR alternatives were included in this list of VECs. This includes species for which there are toxicity testing methods that can or have been used to evaluate effects at the individual or population level. Species characteristics for toxicity evaluations include sensitivity, availability, and the ability to withstand laboratory handling and stress. Copepods and Arctic cod are common test models for the Arctic. Recently, there have been several notable international efforts to consolidate data to provide a more pan-Arctic understanding of the biological communities of the Arctic. As part of the International Polar Year (IPY; 2007-2008), specimen collections and data sets from numerous research institutes and government agencies were collated, reviewed and entered into a centralized database. As part of the CENSUS, the Arctic Organism Database (ArcOD) has allowed for pan-Arctic reviews of species distributions throughout the Arctic. The IPY was also the incentive for a number of research programs to address data gaps. The RUSALCA program is an international effort to better understand the environment of the Beaufort, Chukchi, Bering Strait, and Siberian system. This has included studies on circulation, benthic substrates, benthic and demersal communities, fish, zooplankton and birds and mammals. Similar efforts have been conducted in the Atlantic Sector, in the High Canadian Arctic and the Eurasian Arctic. The current review includes the findings of recent pan-Arctic studies and reviews, recent research programs, and peer-reviewed literature. Knowledge Status Habitats of the Arctic The Arctic marine waters generally include those waters above the Arctic Circle; however, the southern boundaries of the Arctic are variously defined by physical, biological, and political boundaries. For the purposes of this review, the Arctic will be defined in a manner consistent with the Arctic Ocean Diversity program and the Arctic Register of Marine Species (ARMS) which is based on biologically relevant physical criteria (areas within the seasonally average 2 °C surface isotherm or the median maximum sea- Figure 2-1. The Arctic Region and Major Water Bodies (Map created by Brad Cole http://geology.com/world/arctic-ocean- Figure 2-2. Bathymetric Features of the Arctic Ocean (Base map is from IBCAO http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/bathymetry/arctic/) ice extent; Sirenko et al. 2011). Based on this definition, the Arctic includes the Arctic Ocean and associated coastal seas and bays bounded by the North American and Eurasian continental landmasses, including the northern portions of the Bering Sea, the Bering Strait, the Norwegian Sea, the Labrador Sea, Disko Bay, the Lincoln Sea, and Hudson Bay (Figure 2-1). The Atlantic portion of the Arctic is sometimes referred to as the Atlantic sector and includes the waters surrounding Greenland and Iceland, as well as the Norwegian Sea and into the Barents Sea, those areas most heavily affected by the advancement of Atlantic waters. The Arctic Ocean is a central deep ocean divided into four abyssal plains by prominent ridges surrounded by shallower continental shelves. The only deep water connection to the world’s oceans is through Fram Strait to the Norwegian Deep and Atlantic Ocean (Figure 2-2). A secondary connection to the Atlantic is through the Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea and the Bering Strait, linking the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific. The shelves comprise nearly 50% of the area in the Arctic and are a dominant feature of the East Siberian, Laptev, Kara, and Barents Seas; the shelves are relatively narrow in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. Sandy and soft-bottom substrate dominates the Arctic, with finer silts and clays found in the outer shelves and deep basins. Coarser sand and gravel are predominant substrate on the inner shelf and nearshore areas. Although less common, there
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