PE ACE& PEACE & CONFLICT Corruption Threats & International Missions CONPractical guidance for leaders FLICT "Corruption threatens international missions, and countering it is a strategic necessity—it’s hard-nosed common sense and militaries need to know how to do it." Rear Admiral Bruce Williams Deputy Director General and Chief of Staff European Union Military Staff Foreword Corruption is a feature of all practical guidance that can be conflicts, playing a key role in used in daily work. the power-struggle between competing groups for The considerations in this resources and power. handbook will be relevant to almost all international This places mission leaders in operations and missions. a challenging situation because it means engagement with Corruption undermines corrupt entities is frequently credibility. We have no doubt inevitable. The choice is often that, with the right whether to deal with one understanding and guidance, corrupt entity, or another even mission leaders and their staffs more corrupt entity. can limit the threat corruption poses, and have a greater In places such as Afghanistan, chance of achieving stability the Democratic Republic of and security for citizens. Congo, Haiti, Iraq, and Mali, we have seen how corruption can We hope that this handbook is threaten mission success and helpful to you. We welcome all long-term stability. Yet mission feedback and comments on leaders, national officials and how it can be improved in their civilian and military staffs future editions. charged with leading, planning, and implementing international missions often lack the understanding and skills to tackle the corruption issues that can have such a devastating impact on operational goals. Mark Pyman This handbook is directed at Programme Director military and civilian leadership Defence & Security Programme and their staff involved in Transparency International UK planning and carrying out September 2014 operations. It seeks to provide Contents 1. Why is corruption a threat to mission success? 7 What is corruption? 8 Corruption, unrest, and conflict 9 Transparency, accountability, and counter-corruption (TACC) 11 2. Understanding corruption risks in operations 15 The ten main corruption pathways 15 Corrupt networks 19 Corruption risks within mission forces 22 Leadership and strategy 25 3. Specific preparatory actions 35 Threat assessment 35 Intelligence 37 Force structure & personnel 42 Contracting & logistics 45 Training 49 Civil-military coordination 51 Data & metrics 52 Legal 55 4. Capacity building of host nation security forces 57 5. Existing guidance on anti-corruption from other sources 61 NATO JALLC recommendations 61 Joint and Coalition Operational Analysis Report 64 UK Land Warfare Centre: Corruption on operations guidance 67 Current doctrinal guidance 70 ISAF contracting guidance 76 Embassy of Denmark: Anti-corruption guidance note 80 6. The ten main corruption pathways 85 1. Criminal patronage networks 85 2. Factionalism 88 3. Elections 90 4. Organised crime 92 5. Narcotics 94 6. Exploitation of natural assets 97 7. Land title and expropriation 99 8. Borders 101 9. Foreign aid 103 10. Military, police, and militias 106 Abbreviations ANP Afghan National Police GONGO Government Organised Non- ANA Afghan National Army Governmental Organisation ANSF Afghan National Security Forces ISAF International Security Assistance Force AU African Union KLE Key Leader Engagement CERP Commander’s Emergency MEC Monitoring and Evaluation Committee Response Program MINUSMA United Nations Stabilisation CIMIC Civil-Military Cooperation Mission in Mali CJIATF Combined Joint Inter-Agency MOD Ministry of Defence Task Force MOI Ministry of Interior UN CMCoord United Nations Humanitarian NATO IS NATO International Staff Civil-Military Coordination NGO Non-Governmental Organisation CMI Civil-Military Interaction NNE Non-NATO Entity COIN Counter-Insurgency PDT Pre-deployment Training COPD Comprehensive Operations RSM Resolute Support Mission Planning Directive SIGAR Special Inspector General for CPN Criminal Patronage Network Afghanistan Reconstruction CTF Counter-Threat Finance Cell SIGIR Special Inspector General for Iraq DTO Drug Trafficking Organisation Reconstruction ECOWAS Economic Community of SME Subject Matter Expert West African States TACC Transparency, Accountability, EULEX EU Rule of Law Mission Counter-Corruption EUPOL European Police Mission in UN United Nations Afghanistan UNDP United Nations Development Programme FOB Forward Operating Base UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime GDP Gross Domestic Product UNOWA United Nations Office for West Africa GEMAP Governance and Economic USAID United States Agency for International Management Programme Development GIRoA Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan 'Corruption can Tranimpact achievement of mission objectives, but also the military force can contribute, largely sparunwittingly, to the rise and prevalence of corruption.' NATO Joint Advance encyLessons Learned Centre† Why is corruption a threat to 1 mission success? Corruption undermines the proper benefit from conflict seek to enrich functioning of governments by eroding their themselves further by entrenching corrupt credibility, legitimacy, and accountability. A behaviour and maintaining an unstable government that becomes paralysed by environment in which their activities are corruption is unable to provide basic more likely to prosper, e.g. protection services to its people, to pursue justice and payments or drug smuggling. maintain the rule of law and, at its worst, fails to maintain a safe and secure High levels of corruption can also environment for its citizens. It becomes a incentivise frustrated citizens to join terrorist potential target for takeover by other organisations. More directly, corruption can interests such as organised crime. enable acts of terrorism. For example, in Corruption matters in several vital ways 2013 Al Shabab terrorists were able to bribe to international missions: their way into the Westgate shopping mall in Nairobi, where their attack claimed more Corruption can perpetuate than 60 lives. conflict and instability. Corruption is often portrayed as an Corruption can deter international endemic and therefore unavoidable aspect donors and waste funds. of the cultural fabric. It is treated as a All international missions inject constraint to, but not as a key inhibitor of, substantial funding into a country, which can stability. This perspective, however, fails to be vulnerable to appropriation by local and account for the devastating impact that national powerbrokers. This fuels instability corruption has on security overall. and can significantly damage the legitimacy International missions have a greater chance of the mission both in-country and with the of success if mission leaders understand publics of donor nations. Funds may also be that corruption is often a key cause of leaked to hostile actors. Moreover, bribery conflict. It hampers development, prevents can make a difference to national the growth of a strong licit economy, and economies. In Afghanistan, the sum of daily fuels grievances between citizens, bribes was estimated in 2013 to be close to powerbrokers, and groups that are exploiting US$4 billion.1 the country’s assets. Corruption therefore undermines societal unity and increases poverty and income inequality. Corruption also prolongs conflict as those groups who 8 Corruption damages the mission’s Corruption fosters a culture of operational effectiveness and impunity rather than lawfulness. credibility. Corruption empowers those who cheat the Public perception is critical to mission system, weakens responsible actors, and success, and those involved in international can foster a culture of impunity rather than operations must avoid colluding, or culture of lawfulness. appearing to collude, with corrupt There have been positive movements in powerbrokers. This might include, for addressing corruption in post-conflict example, contracting with corrupt groups or environments around the world. Countries as individuals, or turning a blind eye to diverse as Colombia, Liberia, Mozambique, corruption amongst allies. Corruption may and Serbia have made significant progress. also mean that host nation forces receive They still rank low on a global scale, but the sub-standard equipment, soldiers remain progress they have made post-conflict unpaid, and that senior law enforcement provides a reason for optimism that the officers enrich themselves instead of doing problem of corruption can be tackled their job. successfully over time. Fighting corruption brings greater progress as citizens feel WHAT IS CORRUPTION? improvement in their lives. Corruption has been gaining more Citizens of the host nation want their daily attention in the context of international lives to improve as a result of the missions and more generally. But what is international mission. When citizens corruption? Transparency International experience less corruption on a daily basis, it defines corruption as “the abuse of is an indication that the rule of law is entrusted power for personal gain”. A fuller improving. Conversely, discontent and explanation is needed, however, if the abuses of power can pose a major challenge concept is to be understood in the context of for political systems and can drive people to international missions and operations. support criminal or armed groups. Need, greed, and opportunity Distinguishing between corruption for need and corruption for greed