Evgeny Belyakov 2010 by - US DÉTENTE CEU Etd Collection Azra Caucevic, Andivanmatic

CEU eTD Collection Budapest, Hungary Second Reader: Professor Michael Miller Siefert Marsha Professor Supervisor: In partial fulfillmentof the requirementsfor the degree of Master of Arts A Thesis Submitted to THE PROBLEMS OF DISSENT ANDJEWISH EMIGRATION IN SOVIET CENTRAL EUROPEANUNIVERSITY HISTORY DEPARTMENT (1968-1975) Evgeny Belyakov 2010 By - US DÉTENTE CEU eTD Collection Azra Caucevic, andIvanMatic. Azra Caucevic, and whose support Iwas enjoying – Karina Gavrikova, Karina Worku, Yana Knopova, Anikocoordinator Molnar. And special topeoplethanks whoseenergy mewas inspiring I can not avoid mentioning the great administrative assistance of the History Department and culture. introduced me to the world of Jewish studies, and aroused my interest in Jewish history be possible. I also would like to thank my Second Reader, Professor Michael Miller, who assisting me during the whole process of my research. Without her, this thesis would not Professor Marsha Siefert for her patience and guidance. She has been guiding and I have done writing my thesis. First of all, Iam especially thankful to my supervisor, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who have assisted me in the work Acknowledgements i CEU eTD Collection ii and allthebravewomen and whoaremen notafraid tostand up against injustice… To Andrei Sakharov, Lyudmila Alexeeva, Lyudmila To AndreiSakharov, CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 81 75 CONCLUSION...... CHAPTER 3 - THE SOVIET DISSIDENTS AND THE JEWISH 51 EMIGRATION...... DISSIDENT 30 DISCOURSE...... CHAPTER 2 - PROBLEMS OF DÉTENTE AND JEWISH EMIGRATION IN SOVIET CHAPTER 1 - SOVIET DISSENT AND THE “GLOBAL DISRUPTION 8 OF 1968”...... 1 INTRODUCTION...... TABLE OF CONTENT...... III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... I Table ofcontent 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.2 2.1 1.3 1.2 1.1 T S A T S “T S T ENATOR OVIET ONDÉTENTE DISSIDENTS OVIET HE HE EMERGENCEOF THE HE AS APPLIEDCONCEPT TOTHE DISSENT OF MERICAN HE R G OLE OFTHE -US LOBAL J ACKSON DÉTENTE AND ITS ANDITS INTERPRETATIONS DÉTENTE J EWISH D ISRUPTION S ’ C OVIET S OMMUNITY P ROPOSAL “J D EWISH QUESTION ”: ISSIDENTS IN THE IN ISSIDENTS DÉTENTE VS DÉTENTE : : B THE ORIGINAL EXPECTATION AND THE DISILLUSIONMENT AND THE EXPECTATION ORIGINAL THE P ROUGHT TO THE TO ROUGHT OLITICIZING THE OLITICIZING . DISSENT ” INTHE D S iii OVIET CONTEXT OVIET EBATE OVER EBATE ...... 15 ...... F ...... 25 ...... I LOOR S SSUE OF THE SSUE OVIET DISSIDENT DISCOURSE DISSIDENT OVIET ...... 54 ...... J ACKSON ...... 8 ...... S OVIET ’ S P ROPOSAL J EWRY ...... 51 ...... 61 ...... 38 ...... 30 ...... CEU eTD Collection and Terror regimes, and evenviolentuprisings. rulingthe serious challenges to to views contributed relatively freespreadof revisionist the where countries European Eastern other and inCzechoslovakia events are the cautiousness such for reasons plausible most The dissent. of manifestations any prevent to necessary it considered Politburo USSR,the in the resistance organized political and regardless scope of suggests that of dissatisfaction popular real fact today.the This getridor its are apparentfrom of materials activist available analysis of the archival But thoughts. continuousthe attemptsserviceseither of secret to suppress movement the about the activities of concerned party were theCommunist leaders of extent the what the measureto to difficult dissident movement,is very it Union since in Soviet system political of the collapse and rapid the of interpretation what was the influence of dissident 1 state. theSoviet of collapse for the forfor Jewish the movement emigration Natan Israel Sharansky described theformulato eventuallyfamous strain.” buckled ishowthe and This activistunder the dissidentSoviet link and theirforeign internal Sovietleadersdefense to polices Kremlin change, in the international commitments and pressedonthe outside byleaders like Reagan willing to FreedomIs Not Given, It Is Taken. Introduction Natan Sharansky and Ron Dermer, Ron and Sharansky Natan its liveto up to regimethe demanding dissidents by inside the on “Beset (New York: PublicAffairs, 2004), 140. The Case for Democracy. The Power to Overcome Tyranny Overcome Powerto The Democracy. for Case The 1 This formula does not allow for a comprehensive 1 CEU eTD Collection stability 3 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution 1985). Press, Garthoff, and thepursuitof stability 2 politics. to such approach called Realpolitik encompassing negotiations and mutual cooperation. engageall-in the and to further struggle fatuity of recognize the orto conflict, apocalypticthe into on Colda fringe War escalation of whichwerebalancing policies volatile of pursuit the continue to either choice: the facing themselves found states two various regional With conflicts. the attainmentthe guaranteed mutualof destruction, the itsdemonstrate determination stand to upfor its respectiveby ideology intoentering to Each wasready beliefs. ideological incompatible confessing superpowers military and economic two the by dominated was world The stage. new a principally into entered by had late hadthe 1960s,humancivilization military parity both superpowers reached in order to consider other factors, in particular the social one. relations international of analysis of extension the implies It decades. recent of relations apply This thesisis study more international anattemptto the to historical a approach of by historical provided science. theapproach methods to equippedwith Cold Warbeing relations. international of scholars the by underestimated Robert S. Litwak, See for example Robert S. Litwak, détente To my surprise, great pressurefrom the within the Soviet is Union often The second option would seem the only rational one for the adherents of the The traditional realistinterpretation of the period tells us that, given the fact that ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984),17. . Therefore, the international situation in the 1970s, characterized by the so- the by characterized 1970s, the in situation international the Therefore, . Détente and Confrontation :American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan , or peaceful coexistence, is often referred to as one of the best examples of examples bestas of tothe one is referred often coexistence, peaceful , or Détente and the Nixon doctrine: American foreign policy and the pursuit of 3 ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984;Raymond L. However, the existence of certain other factors suggests that suggests factors other certain of existence the However, Détente andtheNixondoctrine: American foreign policy 2 2 To fill in this gap, I felt obliged CEU eTD Collection the leading powers were not driven exclusively by the notion of the national interest national the of notion bythe exclusively driven not were powers leading the this study.inclined with I am toagree Suri’s Jeremi the position governmentsthe that of to explore one more plausible motivation behind the pursuit of the so-called 5 Books,71-75. 1975), 4 worldwas that capable meeting of the Sovietdemands. supplies of andequipment grain, was whiletheUnited States onlythe in country the state neededproblems bythebeginning ensure Soviet 1970s,the the to of thenecessary experiencing certain With tradenegotiations. high-tech agricultural sectors the the and all in beneficiary and stakeholder major the was that government the was it state, the by In states. Union, the Sovietall means of the two were appropriated where production the between cooperation of of the one became pillars the trade proliferation, nuclear race and in markets world. the consumer largest greater cooperation and Japanese allies, U.S.businessmenwith and laborunions be eager to were involved in a their Soviet counterparts from European Western the with Union. Soviet growingthe the competition Confronted so as to ensure insignificantAmerican theattitudes shift businessmenof the and labor unions towards access to one of the Goldman this Asnotes, wasmarkedby period Marshall governments. respective the the between interaction the to exclusively be confined not can which phenomenon in 1960sandbilateral relations late the 1970sis early an extremely complicated The newof Soviet-US state is relations overestimated. inter-state focusthe on the Ibid., 37 Marshall I. Goldman, I. Marshall Apart from all the above-mentioned factors – military, economic – I will attempt Détente and dollars: doing business with theSoviets 4 Thus, along with the talks on curbing the arms 3 5 (New York: Basic York: (New détente in CEU eTD Collection political debate presumablyHungary Czechoslovakia.or The very idea of allowing amore open historical and was seen as lethal as like European inwidespread countries Eastern Union not Soviet some as other was for the regime. Public awareness of critics. of domestic curbing wasthe United States the with thecoexistence peaceful entering of outcomes the expected of one that and Kremlin, for the concern of a great matter domestic behind determinants the assumption Jeremi Suri’s of were. Following government intentionsthe of Soviet the is question what A more complicated the USSR. forwith lobbying rapprochement were market, andtherefore Soviet in the to access interested were businesses US the tensions, researched before. It is widely assumed that alonginitiatives aimed at easingwith the Cold War tensions. the necessity to ease andinternational duringitsprestige i.e. authority international “peace as offensive”, Cold War much Ontheother, USSRhasinternational enjoined neverbefore so prestige. inits as as a decrease well disturbances seriesdomestic the of whichledto Vietnam, in intervention its for criticism severe with confronted was States United the hand, one determinantfor the future of both the Soviet state and the course of the ColdWar. On the were time that at place taken having events the of consequences the – however, 1975 to of international early thefullthe politics. picture torestore wants 1970s Mass: Harvard University Press, 2003). 6 when launching See Jeremi Suri, Jeremi See By the late 1960s By thelate popular dissatisfaction inwith Communist ruling the party the well were circumstances those in government States United the of intentions The The encompassedperiod by notis study this long -only several years from 1968 Power andProtest: Global Revolution And TheRise Of Detente détente project. détente 6 Domesticbe determinants should missed if not one , I assume that the rise of dissident groups was a 4 . (Cambridge, CEU eTD Collection were the young and educated students that distributed that students young and educated were the dissident literaturebe continued published as dissident to it However,the hadbrought. threat realized potential having the campaign Stalinization in society. sentiment Soviet the of dissident the in articulation the became a milestone book the animosity, and harsh criticism following World], and was available for the large segment of the Soviet readers. Despite the 9 Alexander Tvardovsky. York : New 8 American Library, 1963); with an introd. by Marvin L. Kalb and foreword by 20 the unleashed after GULAG. The publication wasended in upimprisoned camp, labor the whichbecame known acronym the under a part of but theWar, Patriotic Great larger the of front in the fought bravely who de-stalinization Shukov citizen Soviet the and “thaw”Solzhenitsyn’s that book was elites. ruling the for repercussion have implied severe would regime which for contemporary potential the couldlonghave of Stalinistthe past silenced crimes and tragedies hadadestructive transformation of a man. of transformation terror was an intrinsic elementputpersonal blamedidfor onStalin Communist the notsuggested horrors butrather that of the system which crimes, were Solzhenitsynof publication in butsideeffects the the opposite. hisnarrative had put forward the goal from Stalinist the leaders its Party and distance Communist the to an been attempt have of a total Suri, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Power andProtest By the middle 1960s, the Soviet authorities reversed the “thaw” andde- reversed Sovietauthorities By the the “thaw” 1960s, middle the In 1962 Nikita Khrushchev approved publication the personally Alexander the of One Day in the Life ofIvan DenisovitchOne DayintheLife th , 105 Communist Party CommunistCongress in Party 1956. This mightofficial approval One day in the life of Ivan Denisovich Ivan of life the in day One 8 The textwaspublished in journal literary the 5 9 samizdat samizdat . The majority its readers of majority . The , trans. by; Ralph Parker (New . 7 This book Thisbook told the story of through universitiesthe through Novii Mir [New CEU eTD Collection Shenkar, (TelShenkar, Aviv February/March 1972) cited in Colin Shindler, the arrangementsyou, toinclude Mr.President, live…We a meetingrequest in undersigned, the with us, forchoice of language and yourculture and the right of freedom of choice of thetrip land in which to problems;our thelack of express opportunity to national our freedom aspirations, of to the USSR….”Soviet Union, fifty-seveninvolvedinwere project. In February, détente toNixon’sthe prior visit 1972, to the Jewish governments both when time the at dissidents precisely phenomenon widespread a became country wrote: in their “We violations rights human the wish regarding citizens Soviet the from togovernment draw your attention attractingto the attention of the West, mainly the US government. The appeals to the US of Jewish emigration form the USSR helped the Soviet dissidents find an effective way of factors of international politics at the time of détente. I argue that the then acute problem domestic dissent. the of rise - the phenomenon social new is facing acrucially it that realized Kremlin the numberof Sakharov ofprominent such Andrei Alexandera as writers and Solzhenitsyn, 11 10 unnoticedlife realities authorities. the of by the wasnot Soviet the over among students the pessimism The growing becameamass education phenomenon. higher and people, of number great the to available became enrollment University had. parents their much as as express themselves feared to not had era,and Stalin’s receptive of the dissidentparticularly was people youngof new generation This acquaintances. andpersonal ideas of the time. They had not experienced the terror of the This appeal was published in the Ibid., 112 In this work, I will attempt to explore how Soviet dissent became one of the News Bulletin on Soviet Jewry 6 11 Having been supported by supported Having been the Exit Visa: Detente, Human , Vol. 2 N. 213. Ed. Ann 10 With appearance the CEU eTD Collection 13. Rights andthe Jewish Movement Emigration intheUSSR arena. international the in voice their raise them helped efforts unified their 1970s, early the cooperation between movements SovietJewishandthe dissident gained momentum in draw international managed issue tomake use like Andrei to inSakharov the Jewish of order emigration activists dissident such in Congress, sympathizers their and Community Jewish American attention to the domestic problems of the Soviet state. When 7 (London:Bachman &Turner,1978), CEU eTD Collection Fasquelle, 1972),76. sotsialisticheskoi demokratii Survive Until 1984?] (Amsterdam: Fond im. Gertsena,1969), 6; terms. two between the distinction focus of this study is the including dissident theviews of membersthe of Communistthe Party well.as theprimary Since discourse and authorities, ofthe from those views different the embrace all them helped to terminology activities, it is useful to make a clear 12 “dissent.” than rather “opposition” term the using were USSR the always andnotindividual which of writers were existence aware the each other. of insmall groups War representedavariety the SovietUnion Coldof periodthat dissent USSRandthe opening the many of archives provedtheassumption of scholarsthe of the of collapse The views. their of analysis systematic a produce to and citizens dissenting of number both the the to evaluate it difficult makes between them communication involved in activities dissident the but opinions diverse and lackinstitutionalized of dissident writers and activists. of the agendaset the would andstructure that institutions andorganizations actual A number of actors in different parts of the USSR were context Soviet tothe applied as dissent of concept 1.1 The 1968” Chapter 1- Soviet dissent and the “Global Disruption of Andrei Amalrik Andrei Contemporaries such as Andrei Amalrik or Roy Medvedev writing on dissent in dissent on writing Medvedev Roy or Amalrik Andrei as such Contemporaries of lack is the obstacles major the of one dissent, Soviet the of analysis the In , Prosushchestvuet liSovetskii Soiuzdo1984 goda? [The Book on Socialist Democracy] (Paris: Editions Grasset et Grasset Editions (Paris: Democracy] Socialist on Book [The 8 Roy Medvedev, Roy [Will the SovietUnion 12 This choice of Kniga o CEU eTD Collection prosecution of and harsh sentences for these writers provoked a substantial reaction in asubstantial reaction provoked writers these for sentences harsh and of prosecution inFebruary,quintessentialof wasthe Sinyavsky-Daniel period that event 1966.The trial most the and expression, personal on limitations of introduction the with marked was “thaw”the Krushchev period andthefall inof Thebeginning 1964. of Brezhnev the era Warsaw Pact. The beginning of Thebeginning Warsaw Pact. andothermediabannedliterature inUnion Soviet of countries the other and the the officially the distribution of copyingand of underground the system and the process Wielgohs (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004),7-8. Eastern Europe: Origins ofCivilSociety andDemocratic Transition is as 1970s so to focus exclusively on "dissent" and exclude any“oppositional” elements. in writers the Soviet madeby the some classifications reinterpret the of will to have official organization noris based on a specific political ideology. From this perspective, I of form any in structured neither is it as long as such as remains “dissent” Thus, agenda. of ideology and aresupposed tosharecommon groupings parties politicalthese or as form a specific members groupings. byorganized parties resistance Theof political or necessarilynot pursue anyspecific Meantime, goals.political is "opposition" understood 13 communication official outsidechannels ones. the of creation the and ideology official critical of discourses of development the as "dissent" or "dissidence" framework whichdefined suggestedapragmatic Wielgohs, Origins Civil Society and Democraticof Transition Detlef Pollack and Jan Wielgohs, “Introduction,” In “Introduction,” Wielgohs, Jan and Pollack Detlef samizdat. Samizdat One of the key terms used in the study of the Soviet and Eastern European dissent The collection of essays of The collection (Russian: Dissent andOppositioninCommunist Eastern Europe: samizdat ɫɚɦɢɡɞɚɬ movement is often connected with the end of end the with connected is often movement 9 , literary, means “self-published”) wasthe 13 The participants of The do participants such discourse Dissent and Opposition inCommunist , edited by Detlef andJan Pollack , ed. Detlef Pollack, Jan CEU eTD Collection 15 period] contemporary the USSR: the 14 liberals. andthe Christians, the Marxist-Leninists, true Survive until 1984?,” dissent in the Soviet state was divided between three ideologies: the currents of Soviet dissent at the time. According to his essay, “Will the Soviet Union of spread the and USSR, the in self-expression of right the over dissidents Sovietdissident circles. This stimulatedtrial the emergence of a debatebetweenthe was elaborated byin his was elaborated Roy Medvedev regardingA moresources contemporary issue the comprehensive of dissent. framework few very the of one represents it since work his diminish not should however, fact, This analysis. serious any on than rather writer, the of observations personal the on based current of the Soviet dissent. "liberal" of the representatives essential as oneof most the Andrei Sakharov mentioned This division between the ideologiesAmalrik type. Western the of society democratic the to of transition the proponents of the dissidents was ideas century. nineteenth the thirdcategory –described of – the "liberals" the The taken as a guidingideology country the of with specificemphasisthe on Slavophil the of society.”the "Christians" The arguedthat principles of moralityChristian should be the "health restore to essential was Marxism-Leninism of principles true the to return the that and ideology” Marxist-Leninist of aims the distorted regime "the that held Leninism dissident whichensuredspreadof the cornerstone the thought. reprintingthe of typed materialsby individuals, andprivate this becameopportunity the maturingdissent. Soviet the of The technical progressby time alreadyallowedthat for of debate. this side prominent effect most the Amalrik, 15. Ludmilla Alexeyeva In 1969, samizdat , Istoriia inakomysliia vSSSR : noveishii author Andrei Amalrik offered one of the first insights into insights first the of one offered Amalrik Andrei author (Benson,Vt.: Khronika, 1984), 284. 10 Book on Socialist Democracy Book onSocialist 14 Samizdat played a critical role in the 15 Proponents of the true Marxism- of the true Proponents period [The History of Dissent in of Dissent History [The , published in samizdat was CEU eTD Collection Press, 1976).Press, 19 period] contemporary the USSR: the 18 17 (Paris : Editions Grasset et Fasquelle, 1972), chapter 4. is present in authoritative studies of Alexeeva, Lyudmila of in studies is authoritative present claim This USSR. in the dissidents the of majority the represented generally Medvedev, Democratic defined movement, as "liberals"byAmalrikthe by the"Democrats" and study. Amalrik's in "liberals" of group the to correspond to seems by Medvedev, defined as USSR”, the of movement “Democratic the or "Democrats” current. latter the with be associated might Sinyavsky and Solzhenitsyn socialists." "Christian the with associated closely socialists" "ethical the of group defined loosely and the USSR”, the of movement “Democratic or so-called the "Democrats” the influential: most the been have to seem these of Two nationalists. of kinds different and anarcho-communists the constitutionalists, the socialists", "ethical/Christian the "Democrats”, the as the"Februarists”, such currents several into divided is further group This "Westernizers." the which as Medvedev defined groups bysmall represented 16 phenomenon. same the as movement Democratic the and movement dissident the identify to as far as goes one last The Barghoorn. C. Frederick the USSR (CPSU) 1972. Amalrik, Vladimir Bukovsky - as the actual members of the Democratic movement Democratic the of members actual the as - Bukovsky Vladimir Amalrik, Andrei Galanskov, Yuri Medvedevs, Roy and Zhores Solzhenitsyn, Alexander Sakharov, boundaries Barghoorn movement, this of defined allthemajoractivists dissident -Andrei Frederick C. Barghoorn, C. Frederick Ludmilla Alexeyeva Further in the text – Party. Roy Medvedev, Roy 16 He pointed out to the existence of the opposition within the Communist Party Party of Communist opposition the the within existenceof out tothe Hepointed The dominant view taken by the scholars of Soviet dissent is that the so-called Kniga o sotsialisticheskoi demokratii 17 , but the genuine is asit defineddissent, by is Wielgohs, and Pollack , Istoriia inakomysliia vSSSR : noveishii Détente andthe Democratic Movement intheUSSR (Benson, Vt.: Khronika,1984). 11 [The Book on Socialist Democracy] period 18 Ferdinand Feldbrugge, and 19 Withoutestablishing the [The History of Dissent in of Dissent History [The (New York: Free CEU eTD Collection Sijthoff, 1975). 20 under beunited can which andwritings activities of scope the of a clearunderstanding have In membersorder to by raised address theissue movement. Democratic the of other samizdat by might supported largenumberof Sovietbe indirectly the scholars,the dissent participants of the dissident movement. This claim,political group. shared by the prevailingMarxist-Leninists, number as ofclassified be not can that dissidents the to only refer to movement" "Democratic tousetheterm or for"democrats" but theconvenience’ssakehesuggests Leninists, socialistused toreferindiscriminately to entirethe political sometimes includingopposition the Marxist- is ormovement" "Democratic nationalists,term the that mentions Feldbrigge procedures. and civil democratic andrights advocates and of country the management economic that are the also criticizes It itselfregard associalist. not does and Marxism-Leninism rejects not membersas the"Democrats." referredof to group dissidents of any formal large of a some arecharacteristic which traits out singling views while of dissenting the Union "liberals.” orthe "democrats" fromfar embracing the Western notion of democracy and thus can notbe qualified the as were activists dissenting of number a since simplistic be rather to seems framework This issues. of ona andinternational domestic range disagreements wide serious theirdespite F. J. M.Feldbrugge, F. adopts a more elaborative framework which takes into consideration the diversity According to Feldbrigge, this group appears to belargestFeldbrigge, appearsto the the amongst group According to this In view of Feldbrugge'sthis, study authors that call themselves members of the Democratic movement or atleast or movement theDemocratic members of call themselves that authors Samizdat and Political Dissent intheSoviet Union 12 Samizdat andPoliticalDissentSamizdat intheSoviet 20 Feldbrugge argues thatthis Feldbrugge group argues (Leyden: A. W. CEU eTD Collection [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9_P9le5ijQ&feature=related]. program “Schkola Zlosloviya”.Moscow, Russia:NTV, 2008.(Accessed 18, 2010) February [http://www.newsru.com/russia/01dec2005/film.html]; Valeria Novodvorskaya’s interview to the by Vladimir Moscow, Kara-Murza. Russia: RTV/I andEkho-TV,(Accessed 2010) 2005. May 1, opposition in one-party states 190; the ColdWar fromStalin toGorbachev HopkinsUniversity Press, 1975),3;Vladislav Zubok M. 22 Sijthoff, 1975),115. by"numerous aswell as Medvedev, instance,Amalrik, R. on by, for elaborated and discussed were hisMemorandum of ideas years. The next of several course For instance, Sakharov's views set the major directions for the dissident thought for the 21 dissidentdiscourse and servedaspoints of for manyreference political the of development and framing intellectual in the milestones became pieces two These Freedom Sakharov's Memorandum ( so-called –the documents two of emergence in bythe wasushered discourse dissident thethat beginning employ Feldbrugge’sgenuinehowever,of the the argument will in thecountry. activities of dissident the intensification drastic the political which events had incited and shaped the dissent. Democratic the of development the trace to and 1970s early the of writings dissident different movement the between interconnection the understand to that assumed He framework. analytical his itself,into element time the introduced Feldbrugge movement, Democratic the of umbrella the one needs to explore the chronology of the domestic Rudolf L.Tokes, F. J. M.Feldbrugge, F. Alexeeva, The in1965-1966isroutinely Daniel-Sinyavsky astheimpulsefortrial regarded ) of 1968 and the Istoriia inakomysliia vSSSR :noveishii Dissent inthe USSR : politics, ideology, andpeople Samizdat and Political Dissent intheSoviet Union Thoughts on Progress, PeacefulThoughts onProgress, Coexistence andIntellectual (London : Macmillan, 202; 1972), Program of the Democratic Movement the Democratic of Program (Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press,2007), 13 period , A Failed Empire :theSoviet Unionin 21 , 240; Leonard Schapiro, Leonard 240; , They ChoseFreedom 22 published in published 1969. The present study, (Baltimore: Johns samizdat (Leyden: A. W. , Directed , writers. Political CEU eTD Collection on on several that were advocatinggroups of the ideals proclaimedcivil rights in the force of Soviet dissent. major as a be perceived to above, came demonstrated it been has as movement, this turn, became known what of debates and opinions mainstream the andrepresented discourse this often that argument, referred to as (Sakharov’s memorandum and the Program),the assuming inline with Feldbrugge'sthe Democratic movement of the USSR. by.actually written In is Program as one of the core texts of the dissident movement regardless of whoit was points of the Program. confirmed by numerous adherents of the Democratic made theforward language adopt Program the manywriters of and proclaim themselves movement. The authenticity known influencewere notideas put the butof of andproposals editors the document the of the Program wastaken obliquely by the other dissident writers who argued and commented on the Program. The 25 OSA 300-80-1, Box 888. 24 document. lessinfluential but not controversial isa more acertain 1969 degree October to Systems,” 23 released in 1968. instatement theEstonian SSR" their of intelligentsia of technical the representatives F.J. M. Feldbrugge,112-114. Program of the Democratic Movement of USSR (Amsterdam: Fond Imeni Gertsena, 1970), HU Donald R. Kelley, “The Debate Sovieton the Convergence of theAmerican & Soviet In a structural sense, the development of the Democratic movement wascentered movement Democratic the of development sense,the In astructural documents of whichThis two these sprangout analyze thestudy discourse will The Program of the DemocraticMovement The Programof Polity 24 Theideasin set aspecific document expressed which discourse the was 6,no.(Winter, 2 1973): 174-196 , 192. 23 25 It also shows that the many samizdat documents whichaddressed documents anddiscussedcertain 14 which in appeared samizdat writers accepted the accepted writers samizdat in CEU eTD Collection attention from the scholarly circles over the last decades. Examination of different of Examination decades. last the over circles scholarly the from attention of détente. component as essential – AmericanSoviet interactions on primarily focus Thiswill study détente. of the scope spatial and span time onthe views capitalist worlds inthe half second 1960s–1970s.Therethe of exists awiderange of and communist the between relations in the developments the to refer to used often is and tensions the of relaxation the means literally term French This détente. namely late 1960s phenomenon unleashedin international in – early the relations, 1970s the interpretations its and détente 1.2 Soviet-US USSR. in the violations rights human domestic regarding governments appeal useof made possibility the International to the good to andforeign Institutions Committee Rights Human the and USSR, the in Rights Human of Defense the for Group help in them reachingtheSoviet andforeign audiences. On Action purpose,both this dissidents betweenthe communication the assist could which asaplatform served rather organizationsunited by not were goalscommon political orideology. organizations Such members mean sincewas becoming dissent of the that opposition organized these an in 1969, thelatter 1970. Theof official organizations these establishment two didnot in wasestablished one first The Committee. Rights Human andthe USSR inthe Rights Program. Most significant of these are the Action Group for the Defense of Human The problem of defining and conceptualizing détente receivedsignificant The and conceptualizingdétente defining problem of The domestic developments in the USSR were paralleled with the new 15 CEU eTD Collection 27 Crane, ed., (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984);Eleanor Lansing Dulles and Robert Dickson Détente and the Nixon Doctrine: American Foreign Policy Pursuitand the ofStability. Dollars: Doing Business with theSoviets (Washington, Brookings D.C.: Press,1985); Marshall Institution I. Goldman. Garthoff, (Berkeley, Institute Cal.: of International Studies,University of California, 1977);Raymond L. Détente afterBrezhnev: the Domestic RootsofSoviet ForeignPolicy cooperation. The previous strategy of containment elaborated by George Kennanafter by George elaborated containment strategy of previous cooperation. The problems suchinternational salient of a number on cooperate and regime Soviet the of asdemocratization arms reduction,promote to desire the between by tension the was characterized USSR the toward preventionmeasures of nuclear what of question the over consensus no was there However, shouldwarpresidency. Eisenhower and a broader the of betime the since existed Union Soviet undertaken the with relations the of improvement economic to implement policy. foreign the for implications and such an improvement. The US policy 26 and discourse American in “détente” whether agree however, sidesnot, did two The in Moscow. officials mezhdnarodnoi napryazhennosti or coexistence” “peaceful of concepts Sovietthe to term corresponded by offered ofinternational of relations. a variety theories interpretations of spectrum a diverse emergence of the hasledto ofdétente aspects this term already disappeared from the vocabulary politicians. of from American vocabulary the the disappeared this term already presidency Ford the of time by its time,the and of situation international the relation to Michael Froman, Michael For example: On the US side, a widespread agreement that the United States need an Chronologically, the Nixon administration was the first to use “détente” in “détente” first touse was the Nixon administration the Chronologically, Détente : Cold War Strategies in Ttransition Détente and Confrontation :American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan G.R. Urban, ed., The Development ofthe Idea of Détente razryadka Détente [discharge of international tensions], used by the by used tensions], international of [discharge in the Soviet one did actually have the same meaning have onedid intheSoviet samethe actually (New York: Basic Books, 1975);RobertLitwak.S. (London: Temple (London:Temple Smith, 1976);AlexanderYanov, 16 ( New York : Praeger,1965). (London : Macmillan, 1991), 2. 26 , trans. Robert Kessler Robert trans. , Détente and razryadka 17 ed. 27 The CEU eTD Collection Détente, 29 “peaceful coexistence” into the Soviet official discourse: the rise of and the threat coming threat the and rise of the discourse: official Soviet into the coexistence” “peaceful revive andfurther develop concept of the coexistence.” “peaceful to authorities compelled theSoviet emerged that newfactors decades. Bythe 1970s, superiority of USSR,hadbeenthe in present minds the of Sovietstrategiststhe for military ensure the as to so war this postpone needto the war and,therefore, imminent 28 contradictions. ideological inherent problemeliminate the went of did not on, cooperation, asdétente This bycooperation. achieved only be couldinterests these thepursuitof that the United States and the Soviet Union had interests that were commonboth to states and implied that détente Unlikecontainment, military enormous resources. of mobilization imply not would that means expensive not and effective with expansion Soviet World War II was not abandoned entirely. Détente was rather aimed at containing the necessary forit asStalinnecessary off” “buying in the capitalists, put 1924. Westerncommunist hadfailed.The world revolution peaceful the were with relations itin of became export the evidentthat appeared early the this1920s when concept ideology. in the Originally, connotation Soviet hadavery “détente” historical different synonym of as often the used “peaceful coexistence” notion of very The different. werequite motivations the Kremlin’s issues, economic security on and authorities with prevention Sovietthe of vital agreements of achievement containment, war and as While sawthepoliciesWhite combination of détente of the détente. House the the Ronald Nelson and Peter Schweizer, Michael Froman, Michael Harry Harry Gelman four majordistinguishedmotivations behind the reintroduction of The basic contradiction lay in the sphere of expectations and motivations behind motivations and expectations of sphere the in lay contradiction basic The (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1988), 71. 28 The Development ofthe Idea of Détente The Soviet Concepts of Peace, Peaceful Coexistence and Coexistence Peaceful Peace, of Concepts Soviet The 17 (London: Macmillan, 1991). 29 The belief in belief The CEU eTD Collection (Moscow: Zakharov, 2003),256-257, cited in Jeremi Suri, 31 University 1984), Press, 117-131. proved tobe proved accompanied bythelimitations onfreedom of expression than rather in Détente, his interpretation,in Free Europe. Radio for aspecial research prepared when he tried tosummarize the results of the course of new international policies in 1975 The same facts were pointed out by the US expert in Eastern Europe F. Stephen Larrabee, the West did notdisappear, atleast on the rhetorical level. In 1972, Brezhnev stated: imminentwar with of expectation from the side. The Sovietthe détente background of ideological the ignore or totally underestimate to seems globe.around the author The on messianicitsthe ideology seriously a country of domestic role spreading took which of the behavior of the state; however, one should be cautious in applying such theories to 30 armson reduction. talks finally, the and, of technologies, import for the need the and difficulties economic from mainland long the China, security conference desired in domesticthe Europe, AlexanderBovin, Harry Gelman, Harry organizations of our country, as well as those of the allies. public and Ministry Foreign of our activities and thoughts our all focus we [ end this To century. a by even probably peaceful coexistence in Europe. Thiswill postpone thewarby twenty-five years, European Security and Cooperation] proclaim a declaration on the principlesof not atconfrontation. And we will do everything make to [Conference the on much. Today in our talks with the largest states of the West we aim at agreement, achieved already have we and détente for fighting constantly been have We The Brezhnev Politburo and the Decline ofDétente 30 XX VekKak VospominaniyaZhizn’. This interpretation seems to stemm from the realistic understanding realistic the from stemm to seems interpretation This 18 the war with the West [20 Century as a Life: Recollections] Power andProtest, 31 , author’scursive] , (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell 215. CEU eTD Collection OSA 300-80-1, Box 964. 33 300-80-1, Box 964. 32 which, according officialsthe in extremebut bythe spending Kremlin, onpropaganda, wassupported to somemaintained,intensified.but not speecheseven only in numerous of Thiswasreflected the estimates,clear ten by timesthewas made point subject the and to any changes, werenot domesticpolicies Thus, the CPSUexceeded officials. similar Theexpenditures rhetoric ofof thethe ideological struggle was not only passage: in following the viewof détente Soviet official the stated explicitly Michael Suslov, front. ideological the on West the with convergence excludeany relations andto inter-state the apply solely to to wassupposed of détente, feature asa “peaceful coexistence”, official doctrine, Soviet the views. In nonconformist and struggle, acrackdown ofon dissent and police, sharpening ideological the secret the the of andauthority power inthe increase an hedistinguished state, Soviet for the détente loosening of these restrictions in the USSR.Among the major outcomes of the policies of Pravda,June StephenCited Larrabee, inF. “Détente21, 1972, HU Human and Rights”, p.4, Pravda, March 31, 1971, Cited in F. Stephen Larrabee, “Détente and Human Rights”, HUOSA coexistence between socialism and capitalism. and socialism between coexistence the areaofideology, anarea inwhich thereisnot, andcan notbe,peaceful more obvious. This being the case, bearon the Union orSoviet socialist the commonwealth whole as a becomes hopelessness ofanyattempts military, to bring economic, or political pressure to the of socialism, favor in situation world the in changes the With ideology. no weakening of in any sort the struggle reactionary against bourgeoisie I must stress, comrades, thatin all ourideological work wemust permit the struggle becomes more and more acute in 19 33 32 The chief Soviet ideologue, The chiefSoviet CEU eTD Collection (1990): 58-59. 35 (Lanham, MD : University Press of America, 1988 Schweizer, Peter Nelson, cooperation. over Krasner ongoing essencesummed upthe the In 1983, Stephen debates power into mutual poles two unprecedented ontheinternational weredragged stage the that fact the to attention theirmuch of devoted paradigm the realist of were critical change couldbe not fully perceivedfrom realistthe perspective. resultedinternationalstructural in significant of the politicalchange the and this system, 34 sides. byboth on taken mutually other by brought limitations and talks obligations restricting arms strategic the cooperation marginal fieldsto account fordid structural notthe hadchanges which been the limiting thus and as anarchic system international the of vision realistic the that He argued of nature détente. tothe approach realistic sametimeand the criticized atthe had critic, Weber, summarized Steve interpretation. such One lacking acomprehensive for criticized waswidely international relations of theory the paradigm of realist classical internationalpreconditions for challenging approaches The theto existing politics. the created superpowers between the scale cooperation the of unprecedented the freedoms. political of onany kind harsher restrictions imposing while andinternational reputation performance improve economic its to state by Soviet the is employed détente that realize United States. Steve Weber, “Realism, Detente, and Nuclear Weapons,” Nuclear and Detente, “Realism, Weber, Steve James L. Tyson, L. James Given the complexity of the phenomenon of détente, contemporary scholars, that scholars, contemporary détente, of phenomenon the of complexity Given the Not only motivations the of Sovietthe Union for pursuitthe of butalsodétente, 34 In this way, anumber of well-known dissidents within the USSR came to Target America Target 35 The Soviet Concepts of Peace, Peaceful Coexistence, and Détente and Coexistence, Peaceful Peace, of Concepts Soviet The According to his According argument, to thepursuit policies of détente had (Chicago:Gateway, Regnery inRonald 1981),10,cited R. 20 ), 112. International Organization 44, no. 1 CEU eTD Collection York: Macmillan, 1992),110. 37 36 issue-area." ina aconvergencegiven of expectations facilitate "regimes," i.e. decision "institutions the and possessing norms, rules, which procedures by the are possibleandconditionedof cooperation creation betweenthe states the explaintriednew to international the periods byemphasizingthatcertain of processes indevelopedof aftermath the of détente, theory,"regime This a newly theory." emerging can matter." writersleaders, and public figures, Daniel other Papp concluded "Individual univocally: increasingly playedby such individuals,the as peace activists, religious and community role international the on Speculating relations. international of issue the on opinion public non-governmental actors became influencingorganizations and individual capableof mass media, of age Inthe relations. in new international the actors of therise witnessed WorldWar decades several fact that post-Second pay the onehasto attention to détente, conditions Tounderstand atthe the time determinants. of considering domestic the interpretations of motivationsthe behind the foreign sufficientpolicy are not without scholars. War Cold of approaches contradict traditional the realistic which appeared to phenomenon principles basic the on as agreement as well the USSR, the USand the between andtreaties arms of US-Soviet relations, reinforce our understanding of détente as a Despite the limited influence such actors had on state-centered international order, the order, international hadonstate-centered actors influence such limited the Despite issues. international debates overthe of forefront moved tothe were organizations non-governmental movements, political and national religious, with Along organizations. Daniel Papp, Stephen Krasner, The current thesis is based on the argument that traditional, state-centered traditional, that argument the on based is thesis current The 37 Even greater influence Even greater wasacquired non-governmental by the Contemporary International Relations: Framework for Understanding International Regimes (Ithaca: Cornell University 1995, 1983),Press, 1. 21 36 Thesigning trade the of (New CEU eTD Collection foreign policy were authoritieshadthe asaserious internal dissent relatedperceived actually challenge. that show directly reports, these following dissidents of arrests to multiple the and material, the rise ofParty, Communist the of echelons domestic dissent. In this regard, political engagement with reading engagement were andregime presumably which documents authors these representing. their the stability of the to threat potential the over more concerned increasingly became of documents of the and outside distributed of officially channels.approved With increaseof the number the [http://psi.ece.jhu.edu/~kaplan/IRUSS/BUK/GBARC/pdfs/dis70/dis70-r.html]. 40 [http://www.yale.edu/annals/sakharov/sakharov_list.htm]. Archive”, “Sakharov April 30,2010) [http://psi.ece.jhu.edu/~kaplan/IRUSS/BUK/GBARC/pdfs/dis70/ct2-71.pdf]; also Available on theweb of site the “Soviet Archive”, compiled Vladimirby Bukovsky. (Accessed 39 38 to allotted mostly was media such of role the context media beconventional channels,intheactivities Soviet could exercised through often Westerncertain such criticize Whileinsocieties or theadopt existingones. policies the gained address the opportunity to massesthe of people andcall upon governmentsthe to making. policy foreign the in role their of extent the examine to necessity the justifies involvement their of fact very See the section 3 “Suppression of“Suppression Dissidents” See 3 section the Archive”“Soviet ofthe website the on See,example, for the protocol of Committeethe Central of CPSU.Dated April 21, 1971. Feldbrugge, 2. This perceived threat raises the question whether certain aspects of of Soviet certain the aspects raises whether This perceivedthreat question the Despite the fact there is still no verifiable data testifying the scale of of public scale the testifying data noverifiable is still fact there the Despite Through Through massthe media, individualsparticular non-governmental and actors samizdat samizdat atleastfive times between 1965 and 1968, 40 materials, the number of reports highest to the of reports number the materials, that warned of the dangers of the spread of these 22 samizdat , the materials published materials the , 38 the authorities the 39 CEU eTD Collection (Cambridge, Schenkman, Mass.: 1985),115. 42 Non-Conformists 41 behavior. foreign conflict with measured the correlation positive direct inthe exists one, imagined an even strain, societal such of presence the that ahypothesis forward Gelleryetcome. put Daniel to be presentor to government was plausible, threat the that belief the around wereconstructed of dissidents the images official the However, nature. and sporadic itself in the Soviet context did not represent a seriousDissent societalstate. the of strain policies due foreign to its the localizationon impact an have regularly strains internal the scientists and scholars of international relations have come to a relative consensus that discourse on the both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, the two states had already depleted the had depleted already states two the Ocean, Atlantic of sides both the the on discourse scholarly and thepolitical entered détente time the By tool. national the unifying as me employed can enemy external the of image the which over span time the estimate laysin its inability to concept weaknessof my view,the Geller’s the World War.In potentially hadbeen aggressive force used byeach side eversince endof the Second the asthe side opposite image of the the of exploitation the that was situation of the in European The peculiarity the politics. periodthe of broughtrather tranquility relative but tensions, any international the of lead didescalation to not member Treaty states intheWarsaw problems and domestic the local since of the dissent rise USSR of the the by be externalto the suppressed publicattention drawing challenges. unification of a nation externalthe againstAny enemy. of kind potential turmoil can thus through self-preservingthe threatenedthe of aimedatdomestic policies elites political Daniel S. Geller, The idea isdeveloped by Walter Parchomenko This concept, atfirst glance, does not seem haveto relevance to the foreign policy (New York: Praeger,1986). Domestic Factors in Foreign Policy: aCross-National Statistical Analysis 23 41 in his study his in and thus strain the was assumedby the Soviet Images ofDissidents and 42 Thismechanism operates CEU eTD Collection détente with the United States. state, it can also be ranked as one of the crucial factors for the Soviet authorities tolaunch Soviet the of prestige and stance international the for presented dissent domestic that overspending definitely inmilitary sector played their role. Butgiven all challenges the limitthe needto the or constraints economic the side, For theSoviet détente. leaders of state. the in least of imagination the was presentat the threat evaluate; however,the Soviet Unionthe the extent of the potentialanalysis of domestic turmoil is hardly possible to of thedeepening Communist of the domestic crisis. party In lead the to might the tensions international of the escalation further of a state, foreign polices Uniteddocumentation States this crisis was real andshows visible.domestic In thatstrain theproves to be ratherquite opposite way. As long as the unifyinga force of reactionthe eternal threat is depleted, and the to the persistence of existing expansionistled to one of the few public protests ever conducted in the Soviet Union. foreigninstance, expansionist For Kremlin. theinvasionpolicies of of Czechoslovakia satellites, the by only oflessinterventionist adoption policies.Meantime,in USSRand its the the rising dissentbe pacified could movement civil rights the intensification of and war protests drastic was emerging anti- riots, student domestic violent The by Geller. of predicted one the opposite result as reaction toin forwar Vietnam,of the calls and the government’s containment communism hadthe the oppressive was by United exhausted potential “external States The of rhetoric. the challenge” domestic and This argumentdoes notdiscard interpretations other of motivationsthe behind a in policies détente the to is applicable concept Geller’s that argue I way, this In 24 CEU eTD Collection Casebook in History 43 these All East. – totalitarian West democratic of dichotomy classical inthe understood be But Europe. by cannot “totalitarianism”paralleled revolutions outside these of spread the was in “totalitarianism” Europe The resistanceeach against to other. contradictory At a first glance, these two against. who weredirected menace areal insurrections those to these since they presented types of revolutions, of revolutions mostfeasible types the constituted other, on the dictatorships, Communist as singled out by Berman, seem to be Church. religious changes, particularly in the field of popular music and in the role of the Catholic cultural the and brought “spiritual which revolution” to the connected was closely insurrection. type thepolitical revolution This of presented middle-class customs” which in “insurrection of type so-called the constituted movements other and African-American gay, ecological, feminist, universities, actions, of occupations street uprisings, anti-war of Student in world. the parts different samemoment the at were unleashing that undergroundtypes severaldifferent houses.Hedistinguished publishing revolutions of to thestreets the or world people to the brought around social injustices that against interpretations.different Paul Berman argued that this wasthe power idealsof fury and received have developments These states. both in time the of protest and dissent of nature into the bemadeinsighthas to and USA,aspecial between USSR the the détente vs. dissent détente Disruption”: Global 1.3 “The Paul Berman, “The Dream of a New Society,” Rebellion against Western imperialism, on the one hand, and the revolt against the To examine thehypothesis of determinants domestic the behind the bilateral 43 , ed. Jeremi Suri (New York : W. W. Norton, 2006), 302. 25 The GlobalRevolutions of1968:a Norton CEU eTD Collection 44 Overthe numbers highermuch students. of the wereaccepting Sovietuniversities the emergencethe of “Globalthe from Disruption.” Starting 1950s, both American the and behind only factor the not decadesis ofthepost-war trend Thedemographic injustices. challenge to existent andthe of hypocrisy elites young perceived the started the people these bureaucratization, militarization by and Union.War-related Instigated Coldthe and baby in Sovietthe United boom States 1955 and1975,following post-war the the political trends that emerged in the aftermath of the World War II. and social different the intersection of the of result werethe this period of explosiveness andthe peculiarity The Union. it inthehappened Soviet literature, as dissident the ortothe pagesof States, theUnited as it casein was the streets, tothe on anger poured publicthe anger,and the late 1960s, early 1970s became the bifurcation pointwhen this of precondition the War created Cold The governments. from their citizens the alienated hadstand-off, both bureaucratic machineson which hugemilitary established and sides, complex of developments events. “Global separated the Suri that the term refersuggested of thatDisruption 1968” to to had its peak that year. and political sense. is shifting from the elites to participants of the global the uprisingshared the same vision new the of age when power the masses, and the two systemsWest andthe leftist revolutionary ofthe Soviettraditions block respectively. The converge in the economic accused the domestic revoltspolitical elites shared of the betrayal the of thesame democratic aspirations. traditions of the The protesters and dissenters on the both sides Suri, Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Détente First young of drastically increasedbetween all, numberof aged15-29 people the not were world the around revolts the that view Berman’s shares Suri Jeremi 26 44 He held to idea that the bipolar , 4. CEU eTD Collection 46 45 between 665,000 1950 and 1965. In States. Sovietthe from Union alone, numberof the scientiststhe rose 162,500 to morein in than Union, SovietUnited andtripled countries. Theserates doubled the of period 1955-1970, enrollmentin rates higher education intuitions in both rose Union had to face harsh critics amongst its allies over the invasion of Czechoslovakia. of invasion the over allies its amongst critics harsh face to had Union standoff gotbogged incontinued. TheUnited States down Vietnam, the Soviet and crisis. Nuclear war did not missile followingCuban 1961 the arena, world the on stabilization seen therelative seem to pose an apocalypticin interested calming domestic down the The previous turmoil. decadeof 1960shas the threat anymore, but werehighly governments Sovietthe the USand spreading the globe, the around kept global and country, any particular to localized not was discontent popular Since the War camps. Cold both in disobedience domestic the and détente between link direct the suggested challenged the veryphenomenon. credibility and unorganized form the underground dissentof took the limited; therefore were quite of publicdisplay discontent the for possibilities Union, the Soviet the universities. In and thestudent movementsimbued with ideasthathadbeenthe spreadthrough networks the of authority massive the emergenceof to the this contributed States, ideas. Unites In the dissident of theinfrastructurestudents and for the provided scientists anefficientdissemination the of ruling elites, Jeremi Suri Ibid., 1-6, 8, 204. Suri, Power andProtest In view of In view which world-wide of the thoughts, proliferation dissidentthe of The growth The growth of and networks, universities the rapid surgein numberof the , 89, 270. 45 27 46 CEU eTD Collection and intellectual discourse of the Soviet and American establishment in 1960s. andAmerican of and late intellectual establishment the Soviet discourse the it anddétente whenpolitical the to oppose entered did actions to took the term this they ideas. reactionary progressive of to the powers”, archaic “concert as the détente denominations opposed of anddiverse dissidents protesters the Therefore, young masses stability, the reformation of of demanded existing people the order. and order domestic and international maintain and restore to in order détente of policy the adopted worldleading governments the While sides of barricades. the different on the states. in both elites ruling to the threats the and eliminate quo, thus status of current the preservation ensure the which neworder would world serveestablishing the of purpose was supposedto the – American In this way,détente challengers. domestic Soviet stances while discrediting have their strengthened closer cooperation could both sides sawthe opportunity a that negotiatingcontain table to in order pressurefrom the masses.the As Jeremi Suri it, puts Therefore, War confrontation. Cold and block politics to reaction extent the great to thecamp was leaders anymore.on The turmoil in the Unitedand States growing civil in disobedience Sovietthe the either throughside the constructionof the Coldescalation of the imageWar of of the the dividecivil certain discontent. external had The threats toold criticism. methods international come and could domestic the down calm to cooperation not of tofunctionunifying a the nation involve inacloser needed to and Moscow Washington in argument, Therefore, fromSuri’s within This work will analyze how the dissident groups within This will Union analyze dissidentwork groups howthe Soviet reacted In this argument, the proponents of détente and the dissident activists proved to be severe the avoid to way plausible only the not if necessary a became Détente 28 CEU eTD Collection challenge the Kremlin’s authority. Kremlin’s the challenge to in action order political for called which and government Congress United States to the in Soviet Union. the Butthemost significantoutcome of campaign this were the appeals rights human of observance the to threats plausible over the concern raise the to attempt SolzhenitsynAmerican Alexeeva, orLyudmila reachedoutto public in opinion an mobilized themselves for campaigningit. against more they them, the against asdirected détente wereseeing more dissidents The USSR. the in situation rights human overall the muting for a tool as seen also was cooperation internationaltwo states in its contemporary form would mean a serious blow the between to the observance cooperation the of of continuation that believed movement Democratic Soviet human the Leaders of movement. rights rights human Soviet the of cause to the asathreat détente perceive to came dissidents the that argue will I criticism. severe and obligations disillusionment the to rapprochement of newSoviet-American the prospects the over from excitement shifted speeches and writings which dissident in the discourse dominating The disobedience. domestic the Sovietthe against mightbe directed between superpowers the “peaceful coexistence” that state dissidents the awareness of thegrowing between several years 1975paralleling 1968 and had of Sovietcourse dissidents changed the amongst the over viewpredominant of détente taken on.Following argument the of Jeremi demonstrate study this will attemptSuri,that to This Internationally known dissenters, such as Andrei Sakharov, Alexander Sakharov, Andrei as such dissenters, known Internationally 29 CEU eTD Collection Norton,1979), 23. published both in the Unitedone States of andthe the toolsUSSR, as well to as curbcontemporary the studies,domestic to dissent, I will use the works of the dissidents Fred Warner Neal, Warner Fred government to gain more leverage over theissue of Soviet domestic affairs. See the argumentin the two states, and as aresult the growinginter-dependence,might have thus enabled US the influence any ontoproject the might Sovietgovernment over theissue of human opposition rights. The increased cooperation domestic between any that hope lost having rights, human of issue group of wasdissidentsthe adherent to Americantougher towardspolicies USSR the on the 47 rights in the USSR. also seenby importantstep inthem as an empoweringstand the Westto upfor civil was of détente, element necessary be a to considered dissidents the systems, which two the between convergence The intellectuals. Soviet leading the of many by cherished been undermine originally since intendedof to had theprospect a new détente order world not were These concerns states started. thetwo between rapprochement the after immediately Union emergedalmost in Soviet the rights civil causeof the tothe brought have might détente which repercussions the over concern The détente. of proponents and critics both by then perceived were superpowers the between relations new the how back trace isto it essential study, this For perspective. today’s seenfrom can beclearly other, the on USSR, in the reforms social the of proponents the and side, one on détente, the disillusionment and expectation original the ondétente: dissidents 2.1 Soviet in SovietDissidentDiscourse Chapter 2- Problems of Détente andJewish Emigration Fred Warner Neal brings the argument of Stephen F. Cohen which ascertained that the large The previous chapter has argued that antagonism between of hasantagonism arguedThe between proponents the that chapter previous Détente orDebacle: Common Sense in U.S.-Soviet Relations 47 In line with the Jeremi Suri’s concept of the détente havingbeen détente conceptof the Jeremi Suri’s Inlinethe with 30 (New York: CEU eTD Collection supervision of monopoly should of andbesupervision Unitedtrade on the state the terminated. Nations, be wereto revised under the Moscow hadbeen pressurefrom signed under the which treaties international The countries. of these domestic affairs the into interference non- the and guarantee member-states Pact Warsaw from all the troops withdraw the to weresupposed authorities Soviet the this behavior.” For purpose, international “humanist with the state democratic peaceful into the turn and communism militarist dissidents behind USSRshould the the document, have renounced this of doctrine doctrine”“weaker whichpromoted subjugation the the viewof peoples”. In the the of USSRof the previousthe decadeshadbeen based onthe “socialist-imperialist foreign policy the that Program argued of the authors The War camps. Coldthe between favoring were contained new clearly the document passageswhich phaseof relations butthe “détente”, mention term specifically the laterand inAmsterdam, did not ayear first in1969as published Program, anddétente.The cooperation Sakharov’s 1968Memorandum contained references of prospects to the international the the Both Union. Soviet two basic documentsdisillusionment with Theoriginal of policies enthusiasm the détente. inthe was obvious which proved slow of process of the however,wasthat trend, dominant cooperation. The to beSoviet-American particularly, and, key politics international on views texts contradictory often for the dissident discoursepossible dangersof allying with Moscow. in the Western aswelltothe in theirgovernments aboutthe warnings as their works, repeated analyze the points of criticism directed against détente and raised by the Soviet dissidents The diverse spectrum of dissent in the USSR represented a number of different, of number a represented USSR in the dissent of spectrum diverse The Program oftheDemocratic movement oftheUSSR 31 samizdat in the USSR and CEU eTD Collection socialist and capitalist systems. The core idea hisof plan was that in the coming ten years the of convergence future the of plan the proposed literally Sakharov West, the in on later 64., HU OSA 300-80-1, Box 888. synonyms and interchangeable notions. In essay,that publishedin Freedom Intellectual indirectly referred systems. two He and of convergence of détente theprospective about enthusiastic to these issues in the dissidentmovement was made name by Andrei Initially,Sakharov. academician the was of his essay wouldlater. cameyears way the work several détente unthinkable theinternal hope changes.over the without Thedisillusionment thisthat was were for theand dissidents waslargely détente Convergence accepted. state Soviet the of policies domestic in the trends same the about bring will relations international of by dissidents endthe 1960s. of the The assumption cooperation that andin“thaw” States. Union United and the the Soviet issue between debated in hot relations becomethe a suggestion of the dissidents behind the Program – the right to free emigration - was yet to 48 international commission, free flow of information and free emigration. by internationalinof borders revision special the Europe Germany, the of the reunification the process, disarmament the of inspections international disarmament, full friendship and cooperation”,, as the Program proposed, should have been followed by the of purpose for the countries capitalist the with convergence and “Reconciliation Program of theDemocratic Movement ofUSSR One of the most significant blows to détente that emanated from the Such viewslarge Program thoseexpressedincharacteristic group of as were the a Soviet , given that “peaceful coexistence” and “détente” were often used as wereoften “détente” and coexistence” “peaceful that , given 32 (Amsterdam: Fond Imeni1970), 63- Gertsena, Progress, Coexistence, and samizdat in 1968, and 48 Thelast CEU eTD Collection [http://www.hrono.ru/biograf/bio_m/medvedev_roi.html] (accessed May 30, 2010). “Khronos” Project History the of site web the visit information, more For for the publication of his book “Let the History Judge” in which he denounced Stalinist crimes. the early 1960s Medvedev wasan activist of thedissidentmovement, was excluded from the CPS In 1958-1961, he was working for the Academy ofthe Pedagogic Sciences oftheUSSR. From 51 50 Harrison E. Salisbury (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974), 110. also signed by famous dissident historian Roy Medvedev letter, in The 1970. CPS of March the Central Committee tothe letter the writing of the ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man.” the of fulfillment universal the insure is to policy international of goal “the that statement 49 economic improve the to USSR theleadersthe of encourage to attempt was an Turchin, and culture.” politics, economics, to approach democratic inascientific forces progressive and other class, working the intelligentsia, of interest “worldwide the of emergence the was plan master this of implementation the for preconditions necessary the Amongst observed. hadbeen “human ofmoral,character” the for values personal concern ethical and have revolution,technological whichcould and beensuccessful scientific if only the all-encompassing the by paralleled been have would developments These century. 20 the of end the by government world of establishment the to led have might plan, world’s problems including hunger and thein arms race.Such cooperation, Sakharov’s alienation, the United States overcomethe Having Europeansocieties. andinwould Eastern Soviet the emerge and the Soviet Union debates political heated the system and multiparty the with while socialism convergence would be able to solve many needof the lead to would countries in Western the internal forces leftist the victory of the of the Roy Medvedev –famous political activist, historian,dissident. was He born in 1925 in Tbilisi. Ibid., 71. Andrei Sakharov, “Progress, Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom” in Freedom” Intellectual and Coexistence, “Progress, Sakharov, Andrei 49 The idealist perspective of the academician was summarized in his in summarized was academician the of perspective idealist The 50 In the same spirit of hope, Sakharov participated in 33 51 and mathematician Valentin mathematician and Sakharov Speaks , ed. th CEU eTD Collection crucial with White of House. relations the improvement the from the acquired USSR benefited mostly theauthorities. latterAt that moment, as Amalrik perceivedit, cooperation between the US anddue the to economic andhave happened if only “serious democratic moves” would havebeen made by the Soviet political gains that the and statesactually doesnot real two the the benefit United might States, the convergence Kremlin détente fromtowards very the beginning. In 1969, he argued “friendship” that between Marxist-Leninist, acommunist. I would call myself a liberal.” a not am I beliefs… my modified have I now but then socialist a myself called I man. position Iknow abstraction.of Now many more and things amamuch more disappointed obvious hebeen having from of when himself: deluding repented a “Iwrote Icall what he that was“aacademician recognized was little By idealistic.” 1972, hisdisillusionment withinUnion. the Soviet on, contemplatinghis Later original enthusiasm, the imminent wouldbeliefwith the bring changes West new rapprochement the that leadership top of USSRwith the demands the democratization hisof testify initial to international prestige of the country. These attempts of Andrei Sakharov to appeal to the claimed, would not only benefit the Soviet society but would also enhance the 54 53 Feldbrugge, 97. in SakharovSpeaks 52 by ifof country.” itisdemocratization adopted our international consequences the “consider particularly to and of country the management Amalrik, 55-56. Andrei Sakharov , “Manifesto II” (A letter to the leaders of the Soviet Union. March 19, 1970) samizdat Similar pessimistic attitude to the prospect of détente was present in two other in waspresent two of détente prospect tothe attitude Similar pessimistic position optimistic a less adopted Amalrik, Andrei activist, dissident Another documents of the late 1960s – the so-called letter from numerous the letter of so-called 1960s–the late the documents , ed. Harrison E. Salisbury (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974) 130. 34 52 Democratization, as the authors asthe Democratization, 53 54 CEU eTD Collection at promotion of a more open society. aimed thepolicies while continuing superiority USSRachievemilitary the letting avoid is“behind amask,” West the and actions, capableof must dangerously unpredictable acountry Union, Soviet The might. administrative and its economic strengthen to détente of government advantage could take Soviet the warned thatpotentially threatening. He ideological,might havethan beingpolitical convergence, contemporary been rather sametime,the At risk the the war. of since capableof reducing détente was itsupported skeptical hisone. In foreign interview media to in August1973, capable of proposedthe changes in theirinternational and domestic policies. Sakharov’s scientific approach to politics, arguing that Soviet authorities would not be 56 were as widelycirculated texts Both Zorin andN.Alekseev. Wait!], “Vremya by signed [Time citizensNe Zhdet!” Will two Not ofLeningrad, the cooperation in provision of contacts among people, dissemination of information, as well as well as cultural and education exchange.information, innovative clauses The of of were section this advocating the dissemination people, among contacts of provision in cooperation was called “Cooperation in Humanitarian and OtherFields”. This section implied inter-states Science andTechnology and ofthe Environment”. Third most section – the controversial one– of fulfillment internationaland obligations. Second states, section wascalled” Cooperation in among the Field of Economics, of cooperation of peoples, equal self-determination and freedoms, rights fundamental and rights human for respect affairs, internal in nonintervention or threat the to non-resort use ofequality, force, inviolability of frontiers, territorialsovereign integrity, and peaceful settlements of disputes, sovereignty for respect relations: inter-state of relations in international Europe of at thattime. Firstsection – “Security in Europe” dimension – consisted of tenprinciples major the all encompassed which sections three into divided were lasted from September1973 toJuly 1975. The agreements signed theas ofresult the Conference, representativesof thirty-five European countries, including Unitedthe States and USSR,the Finland in November 1972.The working phase of the conference,which involved the high 57 The Helsinki Conference represented multilateral negotiations which in started the capital of Systems,” 55 “ representatives Andrei Sakharov, Andrei Donald R. Kelley, “The Debate Sovieton the Convergence of theAmerican & Soviet By 1973, Sakharov articulated the essence of the change in his position to a more to inhis position change theessenceof the By 1973,Sakharov articulated Polity 6,no. 2(Winter,1973): 174-196, 190-191. of the technical intelligentsia of the Estonians SSR" Estonians the of intelligentsia technical the of Andrei Sakharov: Memoirs 56 The ongoing Helsinki Conference Helsinki ongoing The (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990),386. 35 samizdat he stated that he had that hestated and criticized and and the essay the and 55 57 and the S. CEU eTD Collection HopkinsUniversity Press, 1975), 403 – 404. 60 Pro andContra 59 information, exchange of ideas, respect to human rights and freedom for movement. His freedom be by of process worldshould paralleled problems,democratization, and this the to issolution theonly hesystems, argued, the two between Convergence arms race. the curb and peace international maintain to efforts the of supporter a been always had he that heyear, recalled later that press in theWestern published In a statement USSR. attempt to clarify his position on the East-West relations and the domestic policies of the in 58 media. perspectives provoked afuriousdétente of campaign in scientistagainst the Sovietthe issue USSR and freedoms inthe concernpolitical this tothe the the tying regarding fact of raising merethe but dissidents, other certain of views asthe radically anti-détente anti- regime. democratic the before capitulation mean will USSR the with cooperation unconditional the intensification of domestic suppression, are correlated. The West needs to understand that and changes international trends, two the that claimed Sakharov negative. rather freedom of thought is concerned, the results of the international convergence proved to be freedom of movement of people, ideas, and information. For more information, see Raymond L. Raymond Garthoff, see information, more For information. and ideas, people, of movement of freedom direction. in right the assteps by academician interpreted the attempts of push USCongress the Sovietthe to moreliberalizationfor government were Rudolf L.Tokes, Sakharov, Andrei In 1973), 23, (August Journalists Foreign the to Interview Sakharov’s Andrei Andrei Sakharov Andrei Andrei Sakharov Andrei 60 As it has already demonstrated in this study, this position of Sakharov was not as Despite the fact that this campaign was not long-lived, Sakharov madean Sakharov long-lived, wasnot campaign this factthat the Despite Détente and Confrontation (Moscow: Independent PublishingHouse PIK, 1991),96-97. ’s Interview ’s Interview to the GroupofFrenchMedia Correspondents(August 21,1973) , ProandContra 59 Dissent intheUSSR: Politics, Ideology, andPeople (Moscow: Independent Publishing House PIK, 1991), 93. , 474-475. 36 58 Nevertheless, as far as as Nevertheless, (Baltimore: John (Baltimore: CEU eTD Collection HU OSA 300-80-1, Box 964. 62 Sakharov, 61 détentehadof or wouldconvergence been Most never have hostile. welcomedgenuine for moreopenness. was ready government to cooperate.pressure from the West and the necessityBut from the Soviet problem emigration the regarding sidethis to show more willingness move jamming foreign radiostations in September 1973and agreedon some concessions was not followed moves weremade inthis USSRstopped symbolic direction when the Certain openness. mean more would convergence the side, Soviet the From neither camp. to attractive by any other was convergence idea of the systems. Apparently, two the between convergence signs of necessity the of objectification theoretical to the connected were tightly Sakharov that the of inthe works realistic These goals onthe disarmament. negotiations systems, the and Soviet inhis viewbetween twothe cooperation comprehensive implied coexistence, peaceful denounced the Marxist-Leninist doctrine. Hewasfavorable of the he had that fact the given particularly come true, not did détente of hisexpectations after withposition more critical substituted was in articles earlier the expressed excitement Initial in of his statements. and previous more whenput context clearer the consistent democratization.” and accompaniednot by whichof growth istrust the seeming détente, pursued by Western and the governments. He called Soviet “the attention to dangersof policies real the from was far détente ideal of the that factthe to related was concern Robert Caiser, “Soviet Foes of Détente”, of Foes “Soviet Caiser, Robert Andrei Sakharov’s Press Conference to the Foreign Journalists (September 1973)InAndrei To sum up, the general attitude of the dissident movementsum thepossibility of To towards dissidentthe attitude general up, the Pro andContra 61 In this way, Sakharov’s position might seem ambivalent, butit seems (Moscow: Independent PublishingHouse PIK, 1991), 135. 62 . These developments were greatly influenced by the influenced weregreatly . These developments The International Herald Tribune 37 idea of détente, which , September 1973. CEU eTD Collection crackdown on dissent and nonconformist views”. nonconformist and dissent on crackdown policy…, agreater stressonideology and the sharpening of theideological struggle…, a characterized by “an increase in thehuman other power and rights”. During the yearsseveral of détente of speech in andthe early 1970s, the Sovietdomestic lifewasauthorityof freedom restrictions of the further and secretline internal police…,the of hardening a harsher cultural On pages Liberty/Radio 1-3Free Europe; dated May 2,1975, RL 182/75; HU OSA 300-80-1, Box 964,p.1-3. he argues63 that “despite Soviet interest in international détente there has been a and largescale launchedin persecution was early the 1970s, came true, immediately fearsthese factthat the Despite oppression. domestic intensify authorities would not only ignore the demands for democratization but, on the contrary, opinion, or rather fear, which soon after prevailed in dissident circles, was that the inter-governmental opposite The be woulddétente. parallel convergence to Soviet aprocess ideological believed that officials. He Soviet the toreach efforts continuous was manifested in his sincere hope thatinternal change waspossible and in his idealism Sakharov’s practice. and theory of dimension in the lay views in their difference détente which meant convergence of the two political and economic systems as well.The started to receive significant attention of many toreceive by attention started of significant 1970s. dissidents of the beginning the documents movementof dissident broader the of late1960s. However,the this issue was not specifically mentioned byininSakharov his1968Memorandum or other discourse dissident theSoviet in question” “Jewish ofthe emergence 2.2 The politics. international of factor a became which activism and debates dissident the of continuation lifeSoviet –name risethe of Jewishdissentthe –provided avital impetus for the See forexample F. Stephen Larrabee’s report “Détente and Human Rights” made for the Radio The right to emigrate, mentioned in the “Program of the Democratic movement” Democratic the of “Program in the mentioned emigrate, to right The 38 63 the new phenomenon of phenomenon new the CEU eTD Collection University 1991), Press, 288. they believed that the Jewish community and culture could be within could believed the USSR sustained culture they Jewishand community thatthe Jewry. Instead, preserve the Soviet the of culture only to the way wasnot “repatriation” and trend the revivalist” “cultural the time: the of movement Jewish the within “emigration”distinguished be movement was divided this Moreover, phenomenon. unified a over scarcely was movement thetrend.Jewish the strategymovement, the Jews should follow.The Two majorproponents trends can of the first one ascertained that the 65 Press, University Press of New England, 1999), 86. Jews, Free Soviet to friends acquaintances. and companies of “cells”or small in centered rather Jewish was activism other. each of existence the of unaware being wereacting of mostthem force aunited since constitute not did applicants All these numbers – tens of thousands - didnot sign the petitions but still appliedfor emigration. 64 most thedecadeafterover the1967War, of 1968andbetween them 1973. Israel almost petitions the emigration for to 5.5thousand that signed calculated people immediatelyevidentin WarMiddleBenjamin after the the Six-Day East. Pinkus emerge within the Soviet ofdétente. nature the over Union. debate the to tied very closely were emigration over Thedebates andthe of détente, process politicalemigration, andemigration in general, tobe proved one of seriousthe challenges tothe element Jewish the the issueof show, will As study time. this the at advocating Jews were Soviet of this phenomenonThe issue of emigration was closely tied to the issue of the “repatriation” that many became Yaacov Ro'I Yaacov Zvi Gitelman, “Creating a Cause and a Movement,” In the aftermath of Khrushchev’s “thaw,” the Jewish cultural life started to re- , The Struggle forSoviet Jewish Emigration, 1948-1967 ed. Murray Friedman, Albert D. Chernin (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University 39 A Second Exodus: the American Movement 65 Just as Soviet Democratic as Soviet Just ( Cambridge: Cambridge 64 Much larger CEU eTD Collection 67 Helsinki Federation for Human Rights,2001), 169. USSR] as well as some others. some as well as USSR] 68 Israel after 1948. The notion of period rooted in the literature on the Soviet Jewry. on Soviet inthe literature the rooted deeply is it already since change terminology the intend to not does this study However, Israel.” for to repatriation movement described as“Jewish be better which can movement currentof this largest, specific,though toreferthat “Jewishmovement” to using term the is studies, of other asmajority as well thesis, This studies. in most movement” “Jewish of secondthe -“emigrationist” which –current, is often as routinely referred to the theviews explores study avoid This be confusion. clarified soasto needs to terminology 1976)] ideologiia (1945-1976 gg.) 66 inpublishing thesame thoughts their The proponents USSRandJewry the from only that cansave believed “repatriation” oblivion. Soviet the of majorthe goal was two ideas activities. such were population could provide sufficient for the numberof Jews wouldbewho arrange able to not strictlyconcentrated in the big cities, such as Moscow, Leningrad, and Riga, where the density of divided.teaching of Hebrew, Judaism, and other aspects of the JewishThus, culture. Most of them were events aimed of at promotion Their Jewishthe culture. activities includedthestudy and they wereemigration. without this For “cultural the purpose, revivalists” avariety of organized often Alekseva,2001, 135-136. Liliia Belenkaia, Boris Zinger, Boris Belenkaia, Liliia Aliyah [The History of Dissent in the USSR: the contemporary period] contemporary the USSR: the in of Dissent History [The ( Given the differences in the agendas of different Jewish groups within the USSR, Minsk : Met, 2004),169; Ludmilla Alexeyeva (In Hebrew “ascent”) means the emigration of the Jews from Diaspora to the State of 66 aliyah The second - “emigrationist” - current was more numerous, and their , 67 i.e. they did not focus on the development of the Jewish life in life Jewish the of development the on focus not did they i.e. [Despite: the Jewish in Movement USSR andthe its ideology (1945- aliyah 68 Naperekor :evreiskoe natsionalnoe dvizhenie v SSSR i ego is one of the major underpinnings of the Zionist ideology. samizdat 40 periodical , Istoriia inakomysliia vSSSR :noveishii Evrei vSSSR Evrei (Moskva : International (Moskva [TheJewsinthe CEU eTD Collection (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983), 5. 71 1980),Press, 70 69 Victor Krasin, Pyotr Yakir -ormarried toJews or Jewesses. cent of the Soviet democrats were either Jewish -such as Pavel Litvinov, Larisa Bogoraz, them in were operating cooperation with DemocraticSoviet Infact, movement. 60-70 per apartfrom havethe infrastructure aserious Soviet domestic polices. domestic Soviet was purely political,many and ofconstituted the Jewish participantsratherfor Therefore, than moreJewish. Russian themselves Jews regarded Soviet most result, a part ofof a thelarger Democratic communisthegemonyproblem had totally changed the identities of many of the Soviet Jews. As a movement, of reforming the of decades in Six emigration. interested not actually were movement, in Democratic the causethe of emigration many was including participating Jews,Democratic movements of that those Soviet the the and Jewish the between interaction the of aspect important Another USSR. in the rights human the of violations the to attention Western the attracting for campaign in tool their becameaninstrumental rather issueemigration the of Jewish are concerned, community. Jewish behalf the of the on exclusively movementacted rarely of Democratic the activists concern of the Jewish members of the Democratica primary not movement,was problem” and"Jewish the the most observed of journalist, the and Jewish scholar American an Victor Zaslavsky and Robert J. Brym, J. Robert and Zaslavsky Victor Joshua Rubenstein, Joshua Leonard Schroeter Leonard The participants of Jewishthe movementby beginningthe of 1970s the didnot 70 153-154. Meantime, as far as the participants of the Soviet Democratic movement Democratic of Soviet the participants as the as far Meantime, , The Last Exodus Soviet Dissidents: Their Struggle for Human Rights 71 Out of Jews 3,000,000 living Outof approximately intheSoviet (New York:Universe Books, 1974), 377. Soviet-Jewishemigration and Soviet nationality policy 41 samizdat publications,many andtherefore of 69 But, as Joshua Rubenstein, (Boston, MA : Beacon CEU eTD Collection majority. the constituted still Jews the though even rare not were non-Jews emigrate, to right recollected in her memoirsAlekseeva, a famous Soviet and Russian dissidentthat and human rights champion,amongst who the supporters of the Jewish demands for the “Will Union Soviet the Survive until 1984.” Jewry was often addressed in different oftenaddressed Jewry was always been regarded as a part of dissidentof a a broader been always as part regarded Rights,2001), 123-124. the USSR: contemporarythe period] Jewish respect, In this movements. thedifferent ideas of the it spread helped since activities dissident of the crucial most, aspect if most, the not of the 74 73 (Washington : U. Government S. Printing Office, 1972),207-210. 72 illustrated by the analysis of the motivations. personal or goals final their of regardless movements both of emigration or for campaign the Union. However, theSoviet within reform domestic the instigate to latter the and visa, exit acquire the to merely or Union, in theSoviet Jewish culture revive to one, first the goals, different had movements two These movement. Democratic inattracted world,the theproblem Jewish emigration of unitedboth Jewishthe andthe was bestill high ignored. Due enough to to theenormous attention which had issuethis Union in Yiddish.1969, only 381,000 spoke Ludmilla Alexeyeva Amalrik, 35, 37. Soviet hearings, Jewry: session: Ninety-second first Congress, November10, 1971 9and The overlapping of the Jewish movement with the Democratic Movement can be can Movement Democratic the with movement Jewish the of overlapping The 74 aliyah , occurred to be a unifying cause which was appealing to the activist the to appealing was which cause be aunifying to occurred Istoriia inakomysliia vSSSR : noveishii samizdat (Moskva : International Helsinki Federation for Human for Federation Helsinki International : (Moskva samizdat publications of the time. the of publications 42 72 73 The number of applicants for emigration publications, including Amalrik's famous The same was confirmed by Lyudmila by confirmed was same The samizdat period samizdat . The plight of the Soviet [The History of Dissent in of Dissent History [The Samizdat publications have publications became one became CEU eTD Collection [CommunistCommission Youth Union], ofon the USSR AlexeiHuman Kosygin, the Ministers the of Soviet Council the of Rights, Ministry Chairperson the Meir, Golda Israel of of Minister Soviet Prime Foreign Cross, Affairs, the Unitedthe Red of Nations Organization AttorneyInternational the Presidium of Chairperson the USSR, the of Council Supreme General,of the of the Presidium the of Chairperson the Nations, United of the Secretary General 14 as welldemandingbeto emigration their right observed.Amongto the addresseeswerethe as parliamentsLeningrad, Moscow,Kiev and citieshadother been involved inaletter-writing campaign of Iskhod emigration toIsrael. emigration 76 [http://www.mhg.ru/publications/174F638] (Accessed may 3, 2010). samizdat Jewish life in the USSR. Some articles inthe articles Some lifeintheUSSR. Jewish of largerproblems Israel, or to emigration of question the to connected articles other and movement, Jewish the within developments latest the on information contained bulletin ɜɵɩɭɫɤ For more was arrested, the Chronicleinformation, ceased to exist. periodical were arrested, andwhen in 1983 thelast editor of Chroniclethe Yuri Shchikhanovitch movement. Over thissee time, the bulletin had more than sixty issues. Many of the compilers of the the being published during the of articleperiod 1968-1983., and became the ofcornerstone Democratic the was aimed at the recording of all violationsthe of humanthe rights in the SovietUnion.ofwas It LyudmilaLyudmilaAlexeeva recollected later, became the herald of thedissident movement. The bulletin Alexeeva75 “35 Starting from the 13 1970s – of the major the of analysis the through identified be clearly can movements This periodical had fourissues in1970and 1971. Feldbrugge,53. Chronicle of Current Events « The cooperation between the activists of the Democratic and the Jewish and the Democratic of the between activists the The cooperation according to which numbers Jewsaccordingthe of largeMinsk, to the from Riga, Vilnius, ɪɧɤɬɤɳɯ ɫɨɛɵɬɢɣ ɬɟɤɭɳɢɯ ɏɪɨɧɢɤɢ periodical Khronika Tekhuschcikh Sobityi Tekhuschcikh Khronika th 76 Iskhod issue of the OnAugust1970, the 31, [Exodus] which devoted all which [Exodus] itsdevoted the issue attention to of , as one of the active members of the Democratic movement Democratic of the members of active the , asone Chronicle »” ontheweb site of the Moscow Helsinki Group 43 on April 30, 1970, almost each issue of issue the April each of 30, 1970,almost on Chronicle [The Chronicle Currentof Events]. Chronicle were republished from from another wererepublished th republished the report form republishedthereport Convention of Komsomol ɥɟɬɧɚɡɚɞɜɵɲɟɥɩɟɪɜɵɣ samizdat periodical 75 CEU eTD Collection (Accessed April 13, 2010). [http://www.vaadua.org/josifkniga/299.htm] Ukraine of Communities and Organizations 79 organization “Memorial” [http://memo.ru/history/diss/chr/]. available on web site of the Soviet/Russian human rights and educational non-governmental did not identify themselves as Jewish. In its struggle for the human rights in the Soviet in the rights human the for struggle its In Jewish. as themselves identify not did importance for the current study whether the advocates of the right to emigration did or is no of It people. of these Jewishness of perceived the regardless movements and Jewish and the lack of unified position, this work focuses on the activists of both the Democratic inmovement of dissidentthe 1970s. peculiarthe characteristic wasa match This (KGB). Committee Security State the asfrom aswell governments and public Western the from attention significant attract to managed movements both aspirations of the Jewish and non-Jewish dissident activists. By unifying their efforts, USSR. This way conceptualizingof the the issueprovided forcertain the match of the in situation human the larger of rights context a by many Jewsasapart was perceived issue emigration of the that demonstrates movement with Democratic the collaborated fact many that The emigration. problem preoccupiedthe of exclusively with them of leave. to their for desire Jewspersecuted the had a special section dedicated to the activities of the Jewish movement as well as lists of first half of the 1970s. From the 17 78 [http://memo.ru/history/diss/chr/]. human educationalrights and non-governmental organization “Memorial” 77 campaign was evident throughout the entire existence of the Western countries. mostly different, Joseph Zisels, “Jewish The issue from 17 The 15th issue of theChronicle of CurrentAffairs, available on web of site the Soviet/Russian Given the lack of sufficient coordination within the Jewish movement at the time the at movement Jewish the within coordination sufficient of lack the Given assume Jewishundergroundthe activists were to wouldbe that not It correct th to 32 Samizdat nd ofthe ofChronicle Current Affairs from the period 1970-1974, : 60s-80s”, on the web site of the Association of Jewish th issue on December1970, the 31, 77 The large scope of of Jewishletter-writing the Thelarge scope 44 78 Chronicle 79 Chronicle , especially in the regularly CEU eTD Collection issue in USSR.Unlikethe some otherprominentdissidents, like Alexander Solzhenitsyn, domestic overthe in debate any weight moral and huge authority hehad a First, reasons. world public opinion. and negotiations inter-governmental the of center in the – time at the important most policies which would issue putthe human –with of rights rightthe of emigration as the suchinternational elaborate to in order useof détente take to necessity the advocating "Jewish question." "Jewish the movement addressed of way Democratic the major characteristic becamethe citizens, which,insisted, movement asthe provided Democratic emigration for the to right all the This of law toemigratestrategy asserting Jews by the of right Soviet the referring tothe of forresidence. guaranteedthe right of and country the choice citizenship to theauthors, law by according to Sovietthe inthetext which, wasjustified forreferring “repatriation” 82 81 Soviet UnionSoviet languageis aJewish where taught." "...young Jews do notknow how to read Jewish books because there are no schools in the society: in Soviet the problems specific very facing were Jews the emphasized that It emigration. Jewish the of issue the on views Movement’s Democratic the of quintessence 80 in the circulating in 1970 heof writingthe "Letter 39"whichwas of participated the so-called the Rights Committee, behalfhad of the Sovietoften Jewry. Valeryaddressed Chalidze, one of the cause the of supported movementfounders Democratic Union, the theof the Moscow problems Human of the Jewish movement, and in Ibid.,166 – 167. Rubenstein, 166. Victor Zaslavsky and Robert J. Brym J. Robert and Zaslavsky Victor The position of Sakharov on the issue of emigration was crucial for several 82 samizdat By raising the issue of By Soviet the theissueraising were of dissidents infact emigration, as well as published abroad. as aswell published , 44. 45 81 Meanwhile, the demand for the right the for demand the Meanwhile, 80 aliyah The letter represented a , and often acted on acted often , and CEU eTD Collection ed. Harrison E. Salisbury (New York: Alfred A.1974), Knopf,161. dissidenthistorian Roy inMedvedev. viewssetout His the growing attention humanitarianthe to problemsinterrupted was in 1973,by October, the for an punishments leaveattempt to Israelby for hijacking aplane. severe citizens to weresentenced the“1970several Soviet others, Leningrad case”when among mentioning months,” issueof “trials of the recent to the asaresult attention his hadhe drawn that mentioned academician The wasclear. of context appeal the 84 2010). [http://www.yale.edu/annals/sakharov/documents_frames/Sakharov_037.htm] (Accessed May 15, emigrate” on web the of site Yale the University 83 emigration and ensure the rightas toallowfree shouldbe revisedso law the emigration on that stations, heinsisted radio of the Soviet citizens to resideby foreign transmitted which was of USSR, the (Soviet) Council Supreme the appeal to abroad. for standards.observecriticizing failing humanrights an to In the Soviet government the of first for the issueemigration, the time hedirectly front, addressed ideological on the convergence the imply would détente whether doubts had already academician the when andParty of Communist his In1971, activities the regarding Sakharov colleagues. close up till endof the 1974, KGB eighty-six theCentral submitted repots Committee of the masters of the for Kremlinas 1968and Sakharov the wereobvious possessed Since well. influencehadthat Medvedev, andauthority The Marxist-Leninist denounced doctrine. instance theWesternpoint governmentssincehe,unlikefor for of Roy reference a as serve could views his time, same the at rhetoric; religious-mystic employ not he did Andrei SovietSakharov,Emigrate” the Citizens “Let 1971) (October 7, to right the on statement Sakharov's Suslov, to “Andropov file, KGB Sakharov Andrei Almost unanimous condemnation of the failures of détente to provide for the 46 samizdat 84 article “Problems of “Problems article in SakharovSpeaks 83 The“Jewish” , CEU eTD Collection [http://www.newleftreview.org/?page=article&view=965] (Accessed May 134, 2010). 86 85 majority. dissident of the those radically contradicted Détente” and Democratization dissidents, he suggested that these restrictions are merely a result of acertain of aresult merely are restrictions these that he suggested dissidents, on imposed the harsher restrictions was by accompanied thatAdmitting détente human problemsin rights of issue theJewish emigration out Soviet society.all the of including and Sakharov Solzhenitsyn. singlingalso opposed strategy the the of He out movement, of Democratic the participants by some used tactics “extremist” the criticized movementbuthe harshly Democratic ideasof the the Medvedev supported In general, opinionthe oppositetothatof the leadingother dissidents: to held historian famous the Israel, to emigration for movement Jewish the of demands hotly issueof particularly the and emigration, debated causedemocratization. the On of character” of behavior of some of the well-known dissidents is in no way helpful to the provocative objectively and “the unprincipled that resented Medvedev movement, Democratic the With to regard humankind. for entire the Warcamps wasbeneficial the Cold between of relations the improvement the andargued that worldpeaceful order, praised the great role played by the Soviet Union in the establishment of a new, more Roy Medvedev, “Problems of Democratization and Détente,” and of Democratization “Problems Roy Medvedev, Feldbrugge, 167. has also begun, although still experimentally. emigrate. Very recently, dispatchabroad of dissenters from other non-Jewish nationalities rights and liberties in the USSR and had no intention of leaving theof civil country, enlargement the for worked began actively to had before long not who relatives their and easing of emigration to Israel.noticeable the by Under reduced also thewas tendencies influence democratic various of strength of The the new situation, even those Jews 47 86 New Left Review I/83(1974), 85 He CEU eTD Collection outlined by Barghoorn, 72-86. 88 87 discourse. thoughcontroversialimportant, of SovietUnion dissidentthe development an as democracy. to swifttransition intelligentsia, any activities from dissident and“below” pressures wouldnot resultin the “above.” In the conditions of the passivity of the working class andlarge segment of inpossible, but argumentthe of Medvedev can a process such frombe only started was democratization Nevertheless, obstacles. temporary of these regardless continued shouldbe Party, andthatdétente Communistfraction Soviet within conservative the replies were full of resentment, and attacked Medvedev’s position on different grounds. Medvedev’s andattacked different on position replies of werefull resentment, the All Chalidze. Valery mathematician and Maksimov, Vladimir émigré future and writer dissident Agursky, Mikhail movements Democratic and Jewish the of participant that. to testifies Medvedev in responses of number the and did, dissidents the of most issueas same the Medvedev addressed that Itisclear held to. ideology participants the which significance highest the of not was it time, that of discourse dissident the for finallywhat brought back him the ranksto in theCommunistin Party Apparently,1989. fitdidinto not thatdefinition since he always thought of himself as and a Marxist, thisis supposed tobe comprised individualsthe of non-Marxist confessing beliefs. Medvedev movementchapter, the is indissident. Departing first dissident definition the from the sa beliterally not considered factcan the Roy despite Medvedev discourse dissident The course of thedebates concerning the Mededev’s article between the dissidentsSoviet was Ibid. The appearance of this article is interpreted by many scholars of dissent in the Replies to MedvedevReplies to immediately wereby Solzhenitsyn,Sakharov, published the 88 For this study, itis essential to put the publication into the framework of the 87 48 samizdat to the article of CEU eTD Collection advocatingshould USgovernment the pressure try to government Soviet the the on were one, Soviet of the systems democratization andthe two of the convergence the Jews; while those who believed that true détente was only possible if accompanied by forfreedom,emigration for freedom more for government the and Soviet to particularly, side, those favoring On thediverse mirrored viewsdétente. thus emigration shouldwhat of one constitute contemporary détentemoreshould pressure put on Sovietthe authorities in the question of Jewish the did not support the West the of inThequestion whether claims early of1970s. the stage during initial détente the of pressuring attention the entire violationssilencing thehuman problem inthe theto of rights USSR West anddraw reach tothe out to Democrats Soviet opportunity for window the of significantly concentrated inthe United States, issueof the Sovietopenedthe Jewry a Given the of in peculiarthat period features characteristic history andthe international War. Cold specificity the were movement Democratic levelbythe Soviet international the this issue to of lifting andthe movement émigré Jewish the of intensification The chapter. next the of the in be dissidentactivism aspectof Sovietthe will explored thoroughly “internationalist”, Jewishthis, But USCongress. the reached even its consequences and media, Western the Diaspora, dispersed all over the world, and Box 286. 89 mistaken.” is forces leftist freely liveto “explicitly think.”The Medvedev, and position so-called of appealing tothe Medevedev against sethimself pursue “moral all who those humanstruggle for the right inSakharov his“Statement R. and on Zh. Medvedevs” inclaimed that his publication Sakharov’s “Statement on Zh.R. and November Medvedevs”, 1973, HU 20, OSA 300-80-7, 89 This debate between was This in dissidents the widely debatebetween publicized 49 CEU eTD Collection allow for free emigration. to movement Jewish the of demands numerous the particularly and problems, domestic 50 CEU eTD Collection 91 documentary research] Pharaon:SSSR vposlednee stalinskoe desiatiletie :dokumentalnoe issledovanie political persecutions of the Jews in the USSR during the last Stalin’s decade: 21. Jews Soviet for many Soviet citizens, particularly for the Jews. The American Jewish Communityyears” “black as known became Stalin as of death the to years prior several The abundant. publicanti-Semitism.”Soviet opinion against mobilizeundera numberJewishorganizations of the to in sponsorship of "world order launch arally to decision the was meeting the of outcome The Jewish organizations. American and the organizations, convenedCouncil ameeting Zionist major of national Relations Advisory Council, one of the leading American Jewish non-profit 90 accident. car staged a in order Stalin’s on Mikhoels, Solomon Committee, the of assassination the writers, Yiddish some as well as in 1948, dissolution its after Committee Anti-Fascist Jewish arrest and includedthreats, persecutions enlisted deportations of members formerthe of Union. The Soviet Stalin’s Jewsinthe of mentioned thepersecution the fortime first the the afterWord War.In 1950, theSecond in States United the Jewry Soviet the of Issue the Politicizing Community: Jewish 3.1 American emigration Chapter 3-TheSovietDissidents Jewish andthe Murray Murray Friedman Albert and D.Chernin Gennady The first efforts to address the plight of the SovietJewry were originally launched (Hanover,UniversityUniversityNH: Brandeis Press, of New Press 1999), England, Kostyrchenko, 90 ( Moskva : Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia,1994), 97. Distressed by these developments, the National Community V plenu krasnogo faraonau : v politicheskie presledovaniia evreev , A Second Exodus: the American MovementFree to 51 91 The reasons to conduct such rally were American Jewish Yearbook [In Captivity of the Red CEU eTD Collection Press, 2003),Press, 40. 93 Committee], 1966),216-217; also see 52. Ro’I, Working Jewish American York: [New komitet rabochii evreiskii :Amerikanskii Iork [The inJews SovietUnionthe from the Beginning of the Second World War(1939-1965)] (Niu- 92 Semitism and anti- state of for escalation coming the background setthe This trial traitors.” nationalist anti-Jewisheleven of campaignwho were Jewish,1952, during the inSlansky’s trial Czechoslovakia, fourteen leading Czechcommunists, werein denouncedthe Soviet mindsas “Trotskyite-Titoist, of manyUnion. of the Partycosmopolitan functionaries Zionist,anti- the of that aware were bourgeois- Administration campaign,Presidential and during Congressmen as well the orlast “witch two years hunt”, of Stalin’s which preoccupiedrule. In the official press and the regardingauthorities appeal Soviet the to directly to attempts The strategy. comprehensive the existing a ratherthan avariety protests sustainedof different andconstituted 1950swerenot the in campaigns sporadic such However, camp. Communist in the events anti-Jewish the on concern aimed awareness the atraising Committee, Jewish Labor Council, Zionist and American over the by Jewish Committee, American was thebeginningthe conducted a campaign, of plight including people of minorities the persecution of This the"increasing faith." Jewish the of the Soviet states" treated religious itsandgovernmentthe "puppet condemned ways Soviet the Jews did notDoctors’ trial took place in the USSR. prove Yaacov Ro’I, Yaacov Solomon M. Swartz, On background,this U.SSenate passed the a resolution in July1953 which The Struggle for the Soviet Jewish Emigration Evrei vSovetskom Soyuze sNachalaVtoroi MirovoiVioni (1939-1965), 93 52 (Cambridge: Cambridge University 92 A year later, the Jewish later, Ayear CEU eTD Collection (Hanover,NH: BrandeisUniversity Press, University Press of New England, 1999),22-28. Friedman and Albert D. Chernin his trip to the United States in 1959. Albert D. Chernin, “Making Soviet Jews an Issue” in Murray 95 successful into the National Conference on Soviet Jewry (NCSJ), was to "mobilize public opinion transformed later was which Conference, The aimof the established. was organizations, Jewish American of twenty-four comprised Jewry, Soviet on Jewish Conference bemight launched. long-term campaign an organized where environment the create to bechanged to had strategy the Therefore, any attain success. in to order more publicity needed still pursuits have anysignificantconsequences.Apparently, theybecame convinced that these i.e. diplomacy,” attempts to push Sovietthe governmentwithout making the issue dida publicmatter, "quiet not use to attempt these all Still, citizens. Jewish its towards policies Soviet the solely to dedicated meeting was Anatoly Dobrynin. The Ambassador, Soviet Goldberg, the associateOctober 1963,Senators Jacob Javits and Abraham Ribicoff along with Arthur J. justice of the SupremeForeign In MinisterAndrei conveyed the Soviet byPresident John Kennedy Gromyko. to Court, had a personal were concerns these Jewishorganizations, insistence several the of at summer 1963, meeting with theAmerican in theJewish United States, over the oppression of the Jewish population of the USSR forced the groups to address strategy of pressuring the U.S.government todirectly influence the Kremlin. the higher echelons of the US government. In For instance, Khrushchev was directly asked about anti-Semitism in the Soviet Union during Union Soviet the in anti-Semitism about asked directly was Khrushchev instance, For A milestonein inApril was this direction reached 1964 when American the By beginningof the 1960s,the growing the concernin and West, the particularly 94 , and starting in the late 1950s, the American Jewish groups adopted adopted in 1950s,theAmerican the late , andstarting Jewishgroups the , A Second Exodus: the American Movement toFreeSoviet Jews 53 95 CEU eTD Collection 98 97 Brandeis University Press, Published Universityby Press of New England, 1999),36. Jews Soviet toFfree Movement 96 into the world wide moral force which will save the [Soviet] Jewish Community.” “Jewish problem.” “Jewish theSoviet regarding public the and officials theAmerican of increased awareness the Republican parties, Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and the President, providing for and Democratic of the conventions national Secretary of State, tothe appealed minority. Jewish the more Congressmenbecame involved in discussionsthe of Sovietofficialthe handling of madehis first significant statementin Congress on Soviet anti-Semitic policies, more and from 1958, when JacobK. Senator the advocate Javits, aprominent for SovietJewry, public demonstrations – it tried involveto the US government smuch as possible. Staring from to Australia.Europe American Butthe Jewish Community not confine did itself to implied the organization of a number of events, rallies and conferences all over the world, according to which the potential emigrants who had acquired a state-guaranteed free which whohad astate-guaranteed acquired potential accordingthe emigrants to when the Presidium of the SupremeFloor the to Brought Proposal Jackson’s 3.2 Senator Soviet of the USSR enactedgreater mediaandpublicawareness. at a new regulationralliesprotest which allover United the often by States, were supported students, aimed Chernin, 39-41. Albert D. Chernin, “Making Soviet Jews an Issue” Yaacov Ro'I, 145. The new era inThe new era debates over fatethe the Jewry inof Sovietthe August1972 began 98 Their activities also involved the sponsorship of multiple community multiple of sponsorship the involved also activities Their 97 Over the course of 1960s, the members of the NCSJ repeatedly , ed. , Friedman Murray Albert and Chernin,NH: D. (Hanover, 54 In A second Exodus: the American 96 This CEU eTD Collection Brandeis University Press, Published Universityby Press of New England, 1999),97. Jews Free Soviet to Movement 100 USSR 99 the that Hoping Act. the withdrew Nixon Richard President US the USSR, the to status the legislation some in introduced inSenator JacksonlearningCongress attach 1972.After intended that to to conditions whichbe to wassupposed such treatment, authorizing Act, Relations Trade East-West would regulate Sovietthe possibility Union signed ofthe status of the Most-Favored-Nationgranting (MFN) trade. InOctober of 1972, the United States and the agreement MFN providingUS and Soviet governments. One of the pointsfor of negotiation reciprocal was granting the USSR the emigration. MFN treatment. Thewhich, he allow pressuretheSoviet as argued, would authorities forafreedom of to Sovietauthorities Jackson would-be for Senator the suggested aproposal emigrants, by Jewishthe culture within USSRand introduced the obstacles the newbureaucratic the developments in the USSR.At this meeting, as a reaction tothe continuous oppression of regulation an prompted emergency meetingNCSJ in todiscussorder the recent many education.had new Theapplicants, adoption of who higher receivedthe of this number increasing against the this of regulation was primarily newSovietJewish directed donors. external from help without tax the pay to impossible the was tax so salary, engineer’s seven yearsan to five average of amounted "diplomaof from tax.”this Theamount 25,000 rubles taxranged which 4,000 to higher in education the Sovietcompensate had Union forit to by the so-calledpaying Colin Shindler, William Korey, “Jackson-Vanik. A ‘Policy of Principle’” A ‘Policy “Jackson-Vanik. Korey, William (London: Bachman &Turner,1978), 36. 100 The proposal was a response to the ongoing trade negotiations between negotiations between the ongoing the trade response to Theproposal wasa Exit Visa: Detente, HumanRights and the Jewish EmigrationMovement inthe ed. Murray Friedman and Albert D. Chernin, (Hanover, NH: 55 in A secondExodus:the American 99 There is little doubt that doubt Thereislittle CEU eTD Collection ORID%3A11&q=jackson+vanik+2005#1149] (Accessed may 17, 2010). [http://www.fas.org/search/index.html?cx=011272476961064978591%3Alx1cammk60s&cof=F On websitethe of the Federation of American Scientists Survey 102 1967-1989 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University 2007), Press, 113. 101 MFNUnion.to Soviet status tendencies of the Soviet system,” and“leaven autarchic the Union would trade with Soviet the was convincedthat thereforeUSSR, was the the major and States United the proponent between détente of proponents major the of of one and grantingAdvisor, the Act of this TradeReform 1973. as time known of the next session, thestir agreements with Union by trade the would over Sovietthe calm beginning the down President re-introduced virtually the same document next year, The operative paragraph stated: The operative paragraph to. referring was it state which doubt no was there time, the of context in the but Union, Soviet specifically mention not did Amendment the of text The Act. Reform Trade new asan on to the RelationsMarch andthen 1973, Amendment Act, Trade 15, re-introduced in Congress on Octoberintroduced bytheNCSJ,was supported proposal, emigration. This of right the restricted 4, 1972, for the first proposal wouldMFN was that status not be granted tonon-marketeconomies which time as an Amendment Act. Trade Reform re-introduced tothe hisconditions and attached to the East-West Congressional Research Service Report for US Congress, US for Report Service Research Congressional Henry L. Feingold, L. Henry , Updated August 1, 2005. United States which extends credit or credit guarantees, directly or indirectly, directly guarantees, or credit credit extends which States United nation treatmentor to participate in any program of the Governmentof the most-favored- to receive eligible be economycountry shall non-market …no significant Jackson heldBut Senator persistence different views.Hedemonstrated Silent no more: saving the Jewsof Russia, the American Jewish effort 101 56 Henry Kissinger, national then Security The Jackson-Vanik Amendment: A 102 The essence of the Theessenceof , CEU eTD Collection Reagan 104 1990 103 legislation. futurethe become and of 1973, seventy-six agreed cosponsors the 238representatives to Senators acquire MFN status wereVanik. welcomed The first by the discussions both Charles was Amendment of the major advocate the of Representatives, House In the chambers of theof theproposed Congress. conditions By March under which the USSR might 105 Brandeis University UniversityPress, Press of New 1999),99. England, movement ed. to free Jews,SovietFriedman Albert Murray and D. Chernin,NH: (Hanover, penalties”. and in“incentives was of manipulating an exercise entiredétente concept Kissinger the for humanitarianbe thatwouldorder Raymond values. basedon Garthoff claimed that newworld the into détente of hadturning aplan never USadministration the dissidents, grounds it that would impede theimplementation of détente. Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger opposed the adoption of such legislation on the William Korey, “Jackson-Vanik. A ‘Policy of Principle’” of A ‘Policy “Jackson-Vanik. Korey, William Petrus Buwalda, Raymond L. Garthoff, L. Raymond (Washington, DC:Woodrow Wilson Center Press,1997), 96. (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1985), 12. States determines that such country during the period beginning with datethe on which the ofPresident the United For them detente was not a goal in itself. Contrary to the views of Soviet the viewsof to the ina goal itself. wasnot Contrary For them detente 105 3. 2. 1. The increasing cooperation would resultin the greater involvement of the country of his choice… the to emigrate to citizen ofsuch desire of the a consequence as citizen any on charge other or fee, fine, levy, tax, nominal than more imposes or whatsoever, purpose any for emigration, for required documents other or visas the on or emigration on tax nominal a than more imposes their choice; denies its citizens the right oropportunity emigrateto to the country of They Did Not Dwell Alone: Jewish Emigration from the Soviet Union, 1967- 104 However, the U.S. administration stood in its way. President way. its in stood administration U.S. the However, Détente and confrontation: American-Soviet relations from Nixon to 103 57 In A second exodus : the American CEU eTD Collection Massachusetts Press, 1979), 139. Amendment, Nixon and Kissingerheld meeting one more regarding theissuenext the 106 with the President. lessemigration not thanyear, 35,000 a two of – Senators the Mansfield– andsided Scott level “diploma the of allegedly andon thekeeping tax” suspension of the agreedon After reading two the unsigned communications with inMoscow which Kremlinthe cause. for Jewish wasmore beneficial the government, with Soviet the “closed doors” Aiken in– topersuadeorder them “quietthat diplomacy,”i.e. negotiations behind and Scott, Mansfield, Javits, Ribicoff, Jackson, - Senators Amendment the of cosponsors negotiations behind closed would doors, be over. Kissinger’s tactic of“quietdiplomacy,” atpushing aimed the Soviets during the Unionfor Soviet adopted, wiould negotiations,there beless space was and the onthe binding pressure long-lasting and intheIf the détente world. American the role humanit Nixon Kissinger of asamenace saw observance rights, and prospectof to the legislation, questionwould which subjugateanimportant to of East-West trade the an adopt to binding decided When Congressunexpectedly andthe Kissinger desired. Nixon way the détente of implementation the to threat no was there USSR, in the rights human violationsnon-bindingissuing declarations expressing the the over of concerns hadbeen ties.As Congress long as bilateral the issueof on the position centralized aunified,demonstrate wasmanipulate to behavior, States United the Soviet to in order increased inter-dependence.incentives purpose of introducing Forthe such penalties or andleadtothe thus States, with United the andnegotiations in agreements the USSR William W.Orbach, William On April 18, President Nixon meetingand Kissingerheld with a principal 106 In order to reinforce its first success in the battle against the The American Movement to Aid Soviet Jews Soviet Aid to Movement American The 58 (Amherst: University of CEU eTD Collection sanctions on the Soviet Union. Soviet the on sanctions imposing without problem the manage might Administration Nixon the that agree to inclined were Community Jewish American the of leaders the of some trends, positive which “asked the help of beenforhelphad 100,000 Sovietwhich the “asked refused the of president the Jews who Jewry, and the Council of Jewish PresidentsAmericanSoviet ofMajorConference on theNational JewishOrganizations, Federations and Welfare Fundsin Conference –the of meeting White atthe House the represented organizations, - released a statement Jewish leading three of representatives the House, White in the meeting the following AmendmentJackson–… it of in will the of closing Russia.” result doors it]of for enactment isnot the the that [decided leadership Jewish American meeting “the permissionsthe toleaveleastdoubled at in as compared1971.1972 to Indeed, emigrants. in “diplomathe April tax” wassuspended 1973, that the Kremlin had agreed was byKissinger leaders Jewish tothefifteen message read President’s of the argument to fully rescind the impositionthe leaders of theof thetax Jewishon the would-beadoptionCommunity of the Amendment. The Nixon administration seemed to weaken the firmness of over the necessity of the Amendment. The major 111 110 Macmillan, 1992),108. Politics andNationality in Contemporary Soviet-Jewish Emigration(1968-89) emigrants rose USSR Laurie Salitan, form 13, 022in1971to the 31, 681in1972. form P. 109 108 107 the Amendment. day, this time with the leaders of the American Jewish Community, major proponents of Orbach, 140. Orbach, Rubenstein, 179. According to the data of the National Leonard Schroeter, Conference on Korey, 102. Soviet Jewry, the number of the Jewish 107 This meeting was one of the crucial points in the debates over the The Last Exodus 110 As Rabbi Hertzberg recollected later that year, after this after year, later that recollected AsHertzberg Rabbi (New York:Universe Books, 1974), 362. 59 108 and the number of 109 111 Given these Given As a result, (London : (London CEU eTD Collection 114 [http://www.ajcarchives.org/ajcarchive/DigitalArchive.aspx] (Accessed may 11, 2010). Archives Committee Jewish American challenges USSR the to issue visas for tenAmerican religious leaders” on website the of the 113 112 Human Rights.” whichmigrate is afundamental by freedom guaranteed Unitedthe Declaration Nations of clamors until that nation concessionsgrant willRussiawhichit for trade to not those States people United the of guarantees to allremain entire unyieldingand Congressthe proclaimonceagainto the world andthe that individuals in the from and pressure surrender tothe “will White House, wouldthe not Jewish leaders Soviet Union that right the hishopethat in expressed the House, Amendment of of adoption the the advocates to seeming reluctance of continueNCSJ to its support. this debatedwasunleashed meeting, aheated the future given of Amendment, on the the hadbeenduring for themeeting theApril 26. scheduled which executive of The toclarify NCSJwas Amendment. committee the its position supposed of itsthe continue an support would JewishCommunity the uncertainty whether created Amendment. This statement make theproposed failed to reference any exitvisas,” but to “diploma wasrepealed. “diploma tax” the that Moscow, visiting then Committee, Commerce the Senate of members seven positionsthe Amendment, of whenLeonid of proponents the Brezhnevassuredthe the Orbach, 141. Orbach, “Statement Korey, 103. of Congressman Robert F. Drinan responding to the message from the Kremlin, In view of In viewF. April of Drinan,oneofthe on this, Robert 21, Representative 113 Twodays Kremlinitself the after, madeaseriousundermine move to 114 60 112 Several days prior to CEU eTD Collection task: difficult a still was education higher with individuals the for emigration that fact the to pointed letter to the signatories The would supportAmendment bedecided. of future the the Nixon’s message to the between period short the April 23, during wasreceivedon letter This Union. Sovietthe Jewish Community and the against the adoption sanctions of Congress Jewish and leadersregarding American the meeting of the NCSJ when itself.the At the crucialJacksonits wasloosingin popularity, due part effortsto the of Sovietthe government point one hundredAdministration in its struggle with Congress. Theoriginally well-received idea of Senator Soviet Jewish activists sent a letter to the US Proposal Jackson’s over the Debate in Dissidents Soviet ofthe Role 3.3 The detaining thousandsother of people in yearscountry and the for years? The real What real issuingisreasonthe authorities the that are permanent and refusals society. the for visa are automatically excluded from life the of the society and become useless matters of state security. undoubtedlyAside show completethe noninvolvement of thedetained persons in from this, persons whodemanding in vain,of each concrete ofcase have prevention from emigration would applied for been have we which an analysis, exit unbiased an .Yet, state… of the security stating that theemigration of detainedthe persons may, allegedly,harm the authoritiesexplain selectivitythis to those outside the borders oftheUSSR by In short, the system of detention of Jews is based on the selectivity principle. The The first half of 1973 seemed to be tremendously successful for the Nixon 61 CEU eTD Collection for the Soviet citizens. Nixon himself was one of those who originally encouraged originally thosewho of himself wasone Nixon citizens. Soviet for the with pursuits the push of Whitethe Houseto more freedom Kremlinthe for movementof Moreover, campaign the for the Jewish in emigration much in Congressthe wasvery line Union. Soviet in the rights human for up stand to Congress of effort the oppose emigration of Jews. the emigration of in impliedfor toallownegotiations "behindclosed the agreater doors" conduct order efforts to influenceAdministration’s to Kissinger referred State, of his nomination as Secretary regarding the Soviet treatmentduringSeptember 10,1973, his the testimony Foreign Senate to Affairs Committee of the Jews throughthe expansion of trade with the USSR as an instrumental tool in the pursuit of détente. On "quiet diplomacy" which decided tocontinue its promotion of its adoption. of Amendment, the supporter asaprincipal fractions, NCSJ, different between the tension allthe day, despite Onthat meeting. April 26NCSJ the preceding debate the and Henry L. Feingold, have expressedtheopinion thisthat was letter the inturning point Orbach W. William Korey, William including field, in the scholars leading the of Some USSR 117 116 115 Colin Shindler, Korey, 104. Schroeter,364-365. (London: Bachman &Turner,1978), 80. However, the Nixon Administration did not give up and continued its support of emigration. for applying start to, dare not do but to, want who Jews of thousands “refused ones.” Their tragic fate is to serve as afrightening example for themany aim of such a selective policy is to create a wide enough category of the so-called ExitVvisa: Detente, Human Rights and the Jewish EmigrationMovement in the 115 117 As he later recalled, the Nixon Administration did not mean to 62 116 CEU eTD Collection 119 118 world in process… .” both countries haveUnionus remember with we seek for that détente overwhelming Soviet the one reason, the capability toshould be on made dependent transformationthe of Sovietthe domestic structure….Let destroy– relations trade each our of normalization as such policy that otherof component essential an – and most of the even –or foreign policy entire our that principle the accept not “We can restdétente: bilateral of the regarding his attitude towards tyingof protection the human in rights USSR tothe statement very clear made a Kissinger Committee, Finance Senate the when addressing emigration.” Jewish of issue the to relations East-West all subordinating Jewish emigration, but, as Kissinger testified, the president “drew the line at Congress continueto its of support Amendment.the upon playedavital byopenly calling SovietJewish role the movements and Democratic argue, I Congress, the and Administration Nixon the between stand-off this In attention. international for matter serious a become will human rights, asother well Jews,as the including emigrate for can everyone, to détente right ifthe begin true only insisted that movement Democratic the of activists the emigration, to right the for solely pushing WhileMovement. Jewish theSoviet movement inthe inUSSR was,its part, largest changein the Soviet Union, orat least negotiations on the issue of human rights. necessarily didnot between imply superpowers two the domestic understanding, détente humanitarian into currentproblems the bilateral negotiations with Kremlin.histhe In inclusion the of direct of the against explicitly and was USSR, States United the between Colin Shindler,86. Kissinger, Henry An opposite view was held by many of the participants of the Soviet Democratic Soviet the of many participants viewthe heldby of was An opposite Diplomacy 119 In other words, Kissinger, as one of the architects of détente (London: Simon & Schuster,1994), 754. 63 118 In1974, CEU eTD Collection E. Salisbury (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974),205. 121 Sakharov Speaks 120 Committee. This time Affairs Foreign Senate the at speech just Kissinger’s four after days 1973, September 14, Sakharov explicitly letter incitizens USCongress hisopen to the Soviet wasbySakharov dated offered endorsed the adoption of Jackson’s proposalterritory of the USSR. which many factors historical specific forwere peculiar Jewish especially history, on the by face society hadwere conditioned in Soviet to life Jews problems the the and the cultural Jewish the since justified” “totally was view, in his context, This emigration”. Jewish of context in the cited “often is Amendment this although Jews, the for inhis view,the Amendmentwas aimed notonly protection the at of of rightthe emigrate Sakharov said that, inlateAugust. media Western the correspondents in to his interview to emigration.ensuring right the the Soviet system needs to be changed, and the most important of these changes would be of all,first that, out pointed Sakharov of affairs, state of contemporary the repercussion wouldWhen bevery bad.” question whatanswering be in the avoid can order done to the implemented: was détente “Possiblywhich in way the of dangers the of he warned in which Radio, Swedish the the foreign world will soon interviewof correspondent In tothe continue gaveefforts. July,1973, Sakharov an their accept our rules of the Congressmen to the encouraged which from Union Soviet the voice authoritative game. That another represented Sakharov Andrei Professor of views the Community, Jewish Interview withWestern Correspondents,(August 21,1973)In Sakharov interview with Olle Stenholm, Swedish Radio Correspondentin (July 3, 1973), Along with the petition from from Along USCongress leading tothe and with Sovietdissidents petition the A more elaborate vision of the necessity promoteto the right toemigration for the , ed. Harrison E. Salisbury (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974), 175. 121 120 The same attitude Thesame bytheacademician was expressed attitude 64 Sakharov SpeaksSakharov , ed. Harrison CEU eTD Collection ed. Harrison E. Salisbury (New York: Alfred A.1974), Knopf,213-214. 122 narrowing down ofCongressional topush efforts Sovietsthe for more freedom movement. Thisof focus and the debate to thein issuethe ofWest Jewish replies of and these coverage the dissidents from other itself, replies was the issue of détente émigré mostly testifies the histo article part of largest the dedicated Medvedev fact the focused Despite media. Western how crucial on thethe which lettersprang from that in dissidentSoviet circles wasthoroughly by covered the problem Congress push to Sovietthe governmentfor more freedom of emigration. The debate of Jewish emigration,which the author in 1973, October Roy mentionedfamousdated Medvedev essay of the previous chapter set and himself The the developments. international contemporary the againstof US context in the emigration of issue all the attempts the andplaced movement, in Democratic the involved alsoactively who were USSR, the of the Soviet dissidents andand only in case this should the idea of survive.détente US of détente, be asapart solved should humanitarian questions he believed that Kissinger, be traced mankind.” future of entire andthe détente, confidence, international for throughit, emigrate, asSakharov wouldhaveput “consequences… to destructive rightensure the all thelong time. Among them,the situation with the Jews was particularly tragic. The failure to Sakharov’sof Soviet citizens of statementsconditions in would SovietUnion the improved. Hementioned be different thattens of thousands rights human nationalities if the only successful become might détente that claimed repeatedly and had beenon seeking the to leave Amendment. the country for a Contrary to Andrei Sakharov, “A letter to the US Congress” (September 14, 1973), In Such views were shared by some of the participants of the Jewish movement of movement Jewish the of participants the of some by shared were views Such 65 122 Sakharov Speaks This idea can , CEU eTD Collection those leaving,those for butalsostaying.” those notforonly is necessary [freedom emigration] “I of that… emigration: am convinced freedom of of of importance the downplaying agree with Medvedev’s could not D-B6A7-0BF1-7D64BDFF4175123C] (Accessed May 12, 2010). [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ondemand/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.play&mediaid=1B6BBBD of Jackson-Vanik: Reassessing Human Rights in21stCentury February Russia,” 2010. 124 300-80-7 Box 286. AC N1505. 123 only negative inbring results. External couldhispressure, argument, bring limited only domestic would andthatanysanctions in lead USSR, the to change would ultimately détente that was Medevedev’s position Union. Soviet the against sanctions the adopt criticizedhis ofRoy Medvedev for opposition toCongressional efforts position to the movements, both of activist an Agursky, Mikhail activists. Soviet outspoken other some persecution for political reasons emigration.through escape always can they fact the to due government the towards criticism their voice to be empowered they any could point, of out at movecountry the couldfreely good for Once citizens they wanted. whenever leavethecountry to polices, domestic with the satisfied not are who citizens all enabled it since right basic the was emigration of right an active participant of the Democratic movement. As she reasoned,for the dissidents the by Alekseeva,such zealwas explainedof one Lyudmila later allies and Sakharov, the of importance of the right of emigration that was advocated by the Soviet dissidents with détente. ofattitudes towards differentthe manifestation this proposal over was asymbolic future of Jackson’sthe for proposal bothsupporterswas and critics The of détente. debate LyudmilaAlexeeva, Kennan Speech at Conference Institute’s “The Legacy Consequences and Sakharov’s Statementon Medvedev in published Sakharov’s persistence in supporting the right to emigration was supported by wassupported emigration to insupporting the right Sakharov’s persistence In November, a new article of Sakarov appeared in 66 123 This rigid insistence on the primary the on insistence rigid This samizdat 124 , November1973. HU OSA 20, samizdat . He stated that he CEU eTD Collection [http://www.newleftreview.org/?page=article&view=965] (Accessed May 134, 2010). 125 Agursky,in his inpublication Russian the émigré periodical Medvedev as “a mistaken step, both tactically and substantively.” by weredescribed USCongress the his to appeal and position Sakharov’s Therefore, Soviet governmentin the difficultsituation, when it can not make concessions anymore. “behind doors,” andthe bringing closed public issuethis of to attention would putthe believe thatbe theproblem punishments”, Medvedev emigration could negotiated of and “incentives of policy Kissinger’s linewith In society.” Soviet of democratization on contrary,the them intoundesirable provoke action and thereby the hinder may, it cases inother and deeds, from certain power of agencies our casesrestrain some in may It role. negative a and positive a both play can outside from “Pressure benefits: right to emigration for everybody, but he also specifically mentioned that one can not can one that mentioned specifically he also but everybody, for emigration to right people. Inline with push for AgurskywasSakharov, arguing necessity the the about to Amendment within the United States were working against the traditions of the American ofJackson’s opponents he argued,the In this regard, reach West. the to opportunity view,Agursky’sin agreat thetime -represented, challenges of domestic Soviet goals but as a warning to the rest of the world. Theissue of emigration - one of the salient its not own onlyfor thesakeof system Soviet injustices of the to the attention Western the Soviet societylife which of theinner influence factors still opinion could was oneof fewdeterrent the and the Kremlin’sdepend USSR didnot on bilateral Western rapprochement with public Unitedthe States. policies.denouncedThought] Medvedev’s arguments, claiming domesticthe that of policies the The “Soviet opposition” should attract Roy Medvedev, “Problems of Democratization and Détente,” and of Democratization “Problems Medvedev, Roy Another active member of both the Democratic and Jewish movements, Mikhail movements, Jewish and Democratic the both of member active Another 67 New Left Review Russkaya Misl’ 125 I/83(1974), [Russian CEU eTD Collection Nyheter US-based 126 French – such as periodicals authoritative The most promoteAmendment. the indissidents and to Americanadoption the order of activists launchedby Soviet the campaign was by Theiraccompanied large-scale the defeat House advocatingSpeaker of the rejection the of –didsucceed. Amendment the not momentto the a letter last the –with at Kissinger’s Nixon efforts sending and Nixon’s in 80. Amendment the 11,1973byalargemajority Houseon – 319to December sanctions. such of favor in were Agursky and Sakharov that and Union, Soviet the with trade the on sanctions impose to Congress opportunity to state that the debate is connected to the contemporary efforts in the argumentthe of Sakharov andhis Agursky. supporter Thearticle didnotmiss the points of both sides of the debate, the authoroutlined the “quarrel” leading between the While havinghighlighted dissidents. the of the article devoted much more spaceNovemberthe 25,1973, to On media. in Western interestthe significant caused circles dissident theSoviet within USSR and the Soviet Jewry if the Jews would not be prevented from emigration….” take away the “Jewish” context of the Amendment: “It would be a great good for both the Tribune 1976)] ideologiia (1945-1976 gg.) 127 “Sakharov, Medvedev overQuarreled US Influenceon the Russia” in Liliia Belenkaia, Boris Zinger Boris Belenkaia, Liliia ( (November24, 1973).HU OSA 300-80-7. Box 286. Minsk : 2004), Met, 312. The internal and external pressure on the US Congress led to the passing of the of passing the to led Congress US the on pressure external and internal The Amendment and Jackson’s détente the over debate the earlier, As wasmentioned – conducted interviews republished dissidents with and or –conducted Sakharov other such International HeraldInternational Tribune [Despite: the Jewish in Movement USSR andthe its ideology (1945- International HeraldTribune , Naperekor : evreiskoe natsionalnoedvizhenie, Naperekor v :evreiskoe ego SSSR i 127 and 68 New YorkTimes L’Express published an published which article an , German , the Swedish , the International Herald Der Schpiegel Dagens 126 , CEU eTD Collection 129 PIK, 1991). 130 7. Box 292. 128 answerthe should havebeen from clear in passage the a famouswhich quoted Brumberg And be pursued? détente what price should -at activists Soviet the of concerns with the sources. other from stories authorities. siding with Sakharov on as in article the was quoted before, issue that emigration the on Jewish of silent who hadkept issue and Solzhenitsyn, Even encouraging dissidents. the of number large the by welcomed not were arguments the external pressure these However, arguments.” “closely reasoned some brought he had that claimed on the Soviet freedom material welfare.” and greater Soviet citizens to leaveof desire the would discourage that measures adopt to Union Soviet the forceeventually their countrywould emigrate to – right that untrammeled “the is that is,Amendment the of favor in toargument reform the system in the bewould “abetrayal of direction thousand themost non-Jews”;the of crucial fourth, Jews and of “abandonmentthe third, andrejection of principle” policy the of Jackson’s proposal of is human rights; movement basic of freedom the one mustfollow”; of second, west the that believes Sakharov policy of kind the of symbol a as serves Amendment Jackson “the first, Amendment: the advocating been had Sakharov why reasons the of interpretation Jackson’Abrahamthe authorof Amendment. Brumberg, the his article,the gave long article with the summary of the developmentjournal expert another of Representatives, House of the Soviet dissent and the stir over Abraham Brumberg, “Dissent in Russia” in Ibid.,793. See, for example, Andrei Sakharov, Andrei example, for See, 130 Without taking sides, the article raised an important question, resonating 128 In 1974, after Amendment the was already by approved the Pro etContra 129 Regarding positionthe of theauthor Medvedev, Foreign Affairs 69 (Moscow: Independent Publishing House Foreign Affairs (July OSA 300-8- 1974), 792.HU published 18-page an CEU eTD Collection Jackson it agreedtoreduce to 60,000 which was still much higher than Sovietthe should USSRallow. the Afterinitially proposing the of rate 100,000 peryear, Senator 131 aredeciding politicians US two the that aware of these negotiations wasinsisted,Jacksonbe should leave allowed Soviet to Union the mainirony annually. The that the Soviet government Kissinger the number which, emigrants negotiated andletters, future andJackson of as was not a party to it anduse Jacksoninfluence decided directly.thisa seriesofmeetings Senator In promise to to was not year,Kissinger40, 000a level wouldup to of atthe be sustained flow emigrants of the unofficial assurances from the General Secretary of the CPSU, Leonid Brezhnev, that the with change forced Sovietthe Union Kissinger to in tactics 1974.Havingreceived movement. Sakharov’s position was clear. So was the one of the participants of the Soviet Jewish camp: Communist in the rights human of advocacy and protection the continuing while East the with relations of type new advocating been has who Pisar, Samuel activist Jewish American Polish-born 7. Box 292. Abraham Brumberg, “Dissent in Russia” in In looming 1974, the perspective of Congressadoptingthe the sanctions on trade what he thinks about that question....” precisely know to need We urgently ofdétente… path the along forward move to agree What are we asking Sakharov is to tell us… the conditions under which he thinks we can 131 Foreign Affairs 70 between themselves between (July OSA 300-8- 1974), 798.HU howmany emigrants CEU eTD Collection oversighting the compliance of the Kremlin to its promises had to beitshad established. to Kremlin promises to of the oversighting compliance the side to maintainSoviet the of agreement verbal the that stated They Kremlin. the the of untrustworthiness emigrationthe about ratesgovernment US the warned they in which emigrate, couldto right the refused been had not be relied on, and thus a formal way of September of September1974, the of In from Congress. be only the concession to expected was of emigration, rates agreed in Soviets if wouldpossible allegedly case tothe of Amendment, the waiver stick the of Congress adoptto binding the legislation addressing problem the emigration.of The eliminate determination the not did of emigration proponents demandsthe of degree the a certain to satisfy to allegedly agreed government theSoviet The factthat Amendment. Jackson, information this itwas published, did notlead totherenunciation of the facilitate large-scale emigration Israel.” to emigration large-scale facilitate would […] that agreement “Soviet-American of coming the prospects the about writing September, the September, private. and unofficial remain governments two the between government, emphasizing thisthat would suggestion hold aslong as settlements these Kissinger wouldbenumber Soviet for the message50,000 of tolerable thateven the to emigration with Kissinger. with emigration Jewish the negotiating when make concession ready to Soviets was the what extent 135 134 133 132 governmenthad promised Kissingerin discussions.private 136 OSA, 300-80-1,Box 1187. “US-Soviet Pact on Jews Expected” In Expected” Jews on Pact “US-Soviet Buwalda,104. Feingold, 141 Buwalda,100-106; Raymond L. Garthoff,454-458. Feingold, 137. Los Angeles Times New York Times New 133 The Soviet Ambassador, Andrei Gromyko, conveyed the conveyed Gromyko, Andrei Ambassador, Soviet The and the and International Herald Tribune published the letter from the Soviet Jews, who 71 135 International HeraldTribune When, at the insistence of the Senator the of insistence the at When, 132 134 It still remains unclear to unclear remains still It But they did not. In (SEptmber1974). HU 8, werealready 136 In CEU eTD Collection 143 Congress. of the chambers both in major its sponsors both after named was Amendment the Therefore, Vanik. Charles was Representatives 142 1995), 344. in side thedrasticdecline from response was Soviet the the immediate controversial since Amendment, Vanik Jackson- as the known isstill which proposal, Jackson’s and thus Act, Reform Trade into the military. Sovietthe authorities of thosewhopunishing had applied by for emigration them drafting Jackson regarding practice of the appealed theSenator letter tothe to hundred signatories 141 140 139 OSA, 300-80-1,Box 878 138 HU OSA Box 878. 137 of supportive his Jewishthe causethan predecessor. more was USSR, the with relations of improvement the to his adherence despite Act 20. Reform December infavorTradeon of the voted resolutely Congress US the of chambers both Congressmen, some with negotiations curtains” Kissingermanipulations of secrethaddiplomacyto who resorted and“behind the reduction of emigration. aimed at government Soviet policies of the recent in the outlined they GeraldFord, of which tothenew Unitedthe States, letter President inthe appeared Jewishactivists from letter Soviet the Amendment. the adopt to necessity the reiterating Jackson andSenator Kissinger Henry USCongress, tothe letter a new sent Sakharov October, Orbach, 153. Orbach, As itwasmentioned prior, the major advocate of the Amendment in n of the House Yaacov Ro'i , Garthoff, 459. Korey, 109. “Plea to Jackson1974) (October Jackson Senator and Kissinger Henry by Congress, US the to SovietLetter Sakharov’s Jews” in With the ambivalence of the Soviet government on the issue, and the unclear Jews andJewish lifeinRussia and theSoviet Union 138 142 Finally, on Finally,nineon November leading 21, sentan activist Jewish open became law. 143 The results of the enactment of the Amendment are International Herald Tribune 72 141 International Herald Tribune On heJanuary 3, 1975, signed the 137 On November 4, another 4, November On (Portland, Ore.: Frank Cass, (November1974) HU 4, 140 139 Gerald Ford, . One . CEU eTD Collection and adopt a unified stand towards the “totalitarian character” of society. Despite of Soviet character” “totalitarian the a unified towards stand andadopt disagreements, their overcome governments Western the unless opinion, his in effective, and humanistic traditions of the American people.” But this measure would not be democratic best the which continued significance historical “an act of as was described disarmament. unilateral against warned USSRand the in rights human of violations the to indifference for liberals Western leftist the of many previous writings,but rather the “dangers, errors, and dramas of the day.” his been had itwith case the as futurology,” an “optimistic represent does not work Country and the World” (“O Strane iMire”). Strane (“O World” the and Country acute until of end acute the andhuman as particular issueof –were asits case-Jewishemigration the well rights, introduction economicthe of sanctions against Sovietthe Union,end did not upin 1975, by the challenged which seriously was Détente, activists. non-Jewish Jewish and the human rights. with with the Soviet Union by the US Congress was the first time the USSR was confronted 145 Macmillan, 1992),108. Politics and nationality incontemporary Soviet-Jewish emigration, 1968-89 allowed emigrate in to 1973; 20,628in 1974; and only13,221in 1975.Cited in Laurie P. 144 inemigration 1975. 147 146 1976). [Translation of the author ofthe thesis] Andrei Sakharov, Andrei According fromto the data the National Conference on Soviet Jewry, 34,733Jewswere Ibid., 79 Ibid., 20 de-facto In June 1975, Sakharov completed his new his completed 1975,Sakharov In June The adoption of this legislation was not the end of the fightfor many of the Soviet economic asfor punishment imposed sanctions domesticthe of violations 144 O Strane I Mire perestroika But, at the same time, the adoption of the legal restrictions on trade . [About the Country and the World] (New York: Khronika, York: (New World] the and Country the [About 73 145 As the author himself says in the text, the 147 samizdat The Jackson-Vanik Amendment essay“Concerning the 146 Hecriticized (London : Salitan, CEU eTD Collection 148 of détente”. for thecourse test tobeasignificant happened residence of of freecountry of the choice Sakharov summarized themeaning of the Amendment and debates about it, “the question War the humanistic ideals were set as the highest standard of the international politics. As Cold the during time first the for And rights. human the to approaches in their different legitimacy the two politicalquestioned between the cooperation were so camps,of which and,indirectly, state Soviet of the practices domestic tothe attention enormous drew Amendment overthe debates very the of process The been achieved. success had up by toliveSoviets standards the text setAmendment, upto of hefelt the that the forceactually the to possibility slight to the connected difficulties and technicalities Western position regarding adoptionrather but the result Amendment, the of in and lack discrepancies of unity of the the violations tothe response a Soviet was not argued, Sakharov leavecountry, the to permissions of human rights in of number in the drop temporary The the easier. one, least Jewish the at emigration, USSR. Regardless madehadof of process the government Sovietthe had on been carried out pressure that his own, he argued,Amendmentleaveremainedto The unchangeable. right including ensured country,any was the temporarya backlash relatedprecondition to the falling rate of emigration, his position on the for a more open Soviet society. Consistent Andrei Sakharov, Andrei 148 O Strane I Mire , 56. 74 CEU eTD Collection pursued by Western and the governments. He called Soviet “the attention to dangers of détente of ideal the that factthe to related was concern information, exchange of ideas, respect for human rights and freedom of movement. His problems, and this process should beparalleled by freedom democratization, of Convergence between thetwosystems, he argued,is onlythe solution worldthe to alwaysbeen a supporter of efforts to maintaininternational peace and curb the arms race. he had that Herecalled Western press. in the published statement isSakharov’s examples illustrative themost of One society. Soviet inthe human rights causeof to the as athreat disillusionment and severe criticism. Iargued that the dissidents cameperceive to détente to rapprochement Soviet-American new the of prospects the over excitement against them. havedirected been might superpowers the between coexistence” “peaceful that dissidents paralleled of awareness yearsof growing the the 1968 andseveral between 1975.It course the changed over dissidents Soviet amongst the viewdétente of predominant the domestic civil disobedience, hypothesisincluding that détente the Suri’s one Jeremi the from inDeparting the relations. international Sovietof history the and dissent Soviet Union, I tried to show that Conclusion The in discoursedominating dissident writings speeches and from the shifted of studies the of intersection in the conducted was work in this analysis The was, among other things, directed at the suppression of the 75 was far from the real policies real the from far was CEU eTD Collection Contra 149 democratization.” and accompaniednot by whichof growth istrust the seeming détente, military achievements of the Communist camp, but its domestic problems as well. the only not explore to chance the got media mass American War. World Second the of end the since ever tobemore positive seemed relations international of the prospects domestic circumstancesseem to be imminent threat anymore, of the US publictheir started to show greater interesteasternnot did conflicts in international of plausibility Since the the each other. with communicate rival. The waran in Vietnamenvironment was over, and alsoUnion, Soviet States of created United between the government cooperation the and thein whichfor greater whichallowed the Détente, influencingpolitics. international actors the citizensdissidents, particularly the participants of the Sovietof Democratic movement, becameboth the phenomena, periodof the early gives unique us explore1970s the opportunity to how the states became capablethem, the more they mobilizedto themselves to campaign againstit. increasingly against as directed wereseeing détente more dissidents in USSR.The situationthe rights had taken on. This cooperation was also seen as a tool for mutingstate the overall Soviet the human which obligations rights human international of observance the to blow mean inform a serious states would its contemporary between two the cooperation the of continuation that believed movement dissident Soviet the of Leaders circles. dissident Andrei Sakharov’s Press Conference to the Foreign Journalists In Andrei Sakharov, In Andrei Journalists Foreign the to Conference Press Sakharov’s Andrei (Moscow, Independent Publishing House PIK, 1991), 135. Since the rise of dissent and emergence of détente were simultaneously unfolding weresimultaneously détente of and emergence dissent of rise Since the Sakharov’sAs Ihave in viewssimilar to dominantargued, the Sovietwere 149 76 Pro et CEU eTD Collection both the USSR’s position on the world stage and the bilateral détente between the Cold betweenthe détente bilateral andthe stage theworld position on USSR’s the both movement, but Soviet bythebroader it dissident movement, had for impacta serious help. hundredsforced of in appealing dissidents the USSR tostart the the West to askingfor relaxation of internationalthe inducing tensions, the Kremlin make to some concessions, on the Soviet regime. With the advent of détente, thehope that increased cooperation and withStates its influential interfereJewish Diaspora, would relevant andputthe pressure United the West, andprimarily the that hope the longhad cherished Jews Soviet the attention, international for hoping and mind, in that Bearing controversy. the of objects andtheimmediate victims, witnesses, first-hand were forcrucial they were the West, Jewish dissident activists on the Eastern side of the Iron Curtain, and their publicity in the non- and Jewish the of views The Union. Soviet the within from voices the for been Israel. thisissue However, havenever would if such acquired itgreat attention had not American Jewish activists the of itwas thepersistence Infact, movement. Jewish American rolethe of the that allowed thousands downplay Thisstatementregardingnot humanobservance. does rights’ the problem of of the Sovietauthorities Soviet the on Jewspressure put to Israel to to emigration freelyJewish the of issue the used move to and magazines,thusinfluencing the American public opinion as well as lobbying groups. newsin republished papers views numerous were official news agencies.Soviet dissident sources of information regarding the internal problems of the USSR apart from Soviet For theAmericanFor public,dissidents Soviet the wereone mostof the important Since these appeals were conveyed not only by the members of by Jewish only the not membersof the appealswereconveyed Since these the Western successfully in with NGOs In myview,cooperation dissidents Soviet 77 CEU eTD Collection another term”. another find we have andif hadbeen already to thisword discredited, détente… need] true be:“[We it way implied to the hasbeenpursuedwasnot Solzhenitsyn way the détente 152 is détente claiming necessary “as air”. Solzhenitsyn,Sakharov, that agreeing with War. World Second theend of the Union since of in favor Soviet the West made bythe had been that concessions the bluntly criticized theseveral andover decades, preceding Soviet writer outlined the history of the mass violations of the human rights in the USSR On of international the particularly détente. June 1975,the situation, course contemporary regarding violations in situation human and the domestic the USSR, the rights 1975, after emigration the United the to States, he deliveredanumberof speeches states”. “totalitarian of the parasitism” “intellectual inspiring for détente blaming message husband’s her read wife Sakharov’s speech, Prize Nobel 1975’s In over. not was rights human the for movement. sanctions on the Soviet Union as a “punishment” for the restrictions on the freedom of 150 USCongress American of Jewish community, the involvement the andwith demands directactivists Sovietthe the from repeated after War In1974, rivals. Solzhenitsyn, 151 fields. humanistic other and art literature, bureaucracy. Without intellectual freedom, argued, Sakharov there can no be development of inevitablywill intellectual bethe ofthe result bondage, of conformism and thepower pitiful Knopf, 1978), 9-10. What is actually meant herein the presupposed intellectual decline that Ibid., 223 A. Sakharov, A. AlexanderSolzhenitsyn, “Speech in Washington D.C. June 30, 1975”,In Alexander Another vociferous critic of the politics of détente was Alexander Solzhenitsyn. In Following adoption the of Jackson-Vanikthe thedissident Amendment, struggle Sobranie Sochinenyi 152 Alarm andHope, 150 , v. 9, (Vermont, Paris: YMCA Press, 1981), 223 ed. Efrem Yankelevich and Alfred Friendly (New York: (New Friendly Alfred and Yankelevich Efrem ed. 78 de-facto imposed 151 But CEU eTD Collection 34,733 Jews were allowed emigrateto in 1973; 20,628 in 1974; and only 13,221 in 1975. 153 is somuchis by détente, in thiswork what that opposed field obvious study. But this of adoption of the Jacksonthe Whether bilateral détente. of Soviet-US factor a significant - dissent Soviet the Vanik Amendment was a right decision or not is beyond military by only otherconsiderationsby but standards. economic, or humanistic the emigration law relationsinter-state – intheUS setaprecedentof being the not regulated to right the – right human the of codification The driven. is politics international numberJewish tochallenge of prominent activists attempted bywhich the principles a with along movement Democratic Soviet of the participants most détente, so-called of the campaign for Jewish emigrationAmendment. Iconcluded from the debates within the Soviet dissidentwas circles that the goal a different one. With of the to adoption prior the freeremigration allow a to were ready authorities Soviet the all the aversion to the Asin Ihave demonstrated, wasnotagoal itself. the Amendment activists non-Jewish and solved. not problem emigration was of Agreements. concentrated on the complianceothers and Solzhenitsyn of the Sakharov, with Soviet along – Sharansky practices Nathan Alexeeva, Lyudmila with the recently signed Helsinki new members– from active issue. 1975, the another Starting to shifted activism andletters publicbeingmade still focus primary addresses were butthe dissidentthe of petitions, collective The movement. Democratic the for prominence its lost emigration As it was cited earlier, according to the data from the National Conference on Soviet Jewry, With adoption the of Jackson-VanikAmendment,the the problem Jewish of Thus, I claim that prior to 1975, it was the issue of Jewish emigration that made the USSR the on sanctions economic the of adoption the with that is clear It 153 However, in my view, for most Soviet Jewish Soviet most for view, my in However, 79 CEU eTD Collection repercussions of the “Soviet Jewry question.” many human activistrights all world, the didover notmanage toovercome the 80 CEU eTD Collection . Sakharov, Andrei. 63-64.,1970), HUOSA 300-80-1, Box 888. Program of the DemocraticBoxOSA 300-80-1, 964. Pravda, March 31, 1971, Cited inMovement F. Stephen Larrabee,“Détente and Human Rights”, HU of USSRHU OSA 300-80-1, Box 964. (Amsterdam:CitedinPravda, June21,1972, and “Détente p.4, Larrabee, F. Stephen Human Rights”, Fond ImeniDemocracy] :Editions Paris etFasquelle, Grasset 1972. Gertsena, Medvedev, Roy Liberty/RadioFree May Europe; dated RL2, 1975, 182/75; HU OSA Box 300-80-1, 964. Radio the madefor Rights” andHuman “Détente Report Stephen. Larrabee, A Survey Amendment: USCongress, for Report Service Research Congressional 1973. HUOSA300-80-1, Box964. Détente”, Foes of “Soviet Robert. Caiser, 300-8-7. Box 292. in in Russia” “Dissent Abraham. Brumberg, Union Survive Until 1984?] (Amsterdam: Fondim. Gertsena, 1969). Amalrik HU OSA, Box 300-80-1, 1187. In Jews Expected” Pact on “US-Soviet Herald Tribune “Sakharov, HU OSA, Box 300-80-1, 878. Medvedev Quarreled over the US Influence on Russia” in “Plea to Jackson by Soviet Jews” in Jews” by Jackson Soviet to “Plea Primary Sources Bibliography , Andrei. (November 24,1973).HUOSA 300-80-7. Box 286. . Knigao sotsialisticheskoi demokratii Pro and Contra Prosushchestvuet li Sovetskii Soiuz do 1984 goda? Soiuzdo1984 Prosushchestvuetli Sovetskii , Updated August, Updated 1,2005. . Moscow: Independent. Moscow: Publishing PIK, House 1991 International Herald Tribune International Herald Tribune The InternationalHeraldTribune 81 Foreign Affairs [The Book on Socialist (July 1974), 792. HU OSA (July 1974),792. (November 4,1974) (SEptmber 8,1974). The Jackson-Vanik [Will the Soviet the [Will International , September CEU eTD Collection Shenkar, Ann,ed. 1974)HUOSA(October Box 878. Jackson” Senator Kissinger and Henry tothe USCongress, “Letter Andrei. Sakharov. Sakharov, Andrei. Sakharov, et Contra Andrei In Journalists Foreign the to Conference Press Andrei. Sakharov, Sakharov, Andrei the ForeignJournalistsAndrei.(SeptemberSakharov, 1973)In Conferenceto Press Khronika, 1976. Aviv February/March 1972. Sakharov, Andrei. Sakharov, Andrei. Interview with Olle Stenholm, Swedish Radio Correspondent (July 3, (July in 1973), Correspondent Radio Swedish Stenholm, Olle with Interview Andrei. Sakharov, PIK, 1991. 1973) Correspondents Media French of Group the to Interview Andrei. Sakharov, Sakharov, 23, 1973),In Andrei Foreign Sakharov, the Journalists (August Andrei.Interview to 300-80-7, Box 286. Sakharov, Andrei.“Statementon R. and Zh.Medvedevs”,HUOSA 20,1973, November Box 286.AC N1505. Sakharov, Andrei.“Statementon Medvedev,” NovemberHU OSA 20,1973. 300-80-7 Speaks in Freedom” andIntellectual Coexistence, Andrei.“Progress, Sakharov, 1970) Union.19, leaders March tothe of Soviet II” the (A letter “Manifesto Sakharov, Andrei. Speaks Sakharov,“Let (October Andrei. Sovietthe Citizens 7,1971) Emigrate” Speaks Sakharov, “A letter Andrei.to USCongress”the In (September 14,1973), in SakharovSpeaks , ed. Harrison E. Salisbury. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974. , ed. Harrison E. Salisbury. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974. , ed. Harrison E. Salisbury. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974). in . Moscow, Independent. Moscow, Publishing HousePIK,1991. Sakharov Speaks Andrei Sakharov Pro andContra Pro andContra Pro etContra News onSovietJewryBulletin O Strane iMire , ed. Harrison E. Salisbury. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974. . Moscow: Independent. Moscow: Publishing PIK, House 1991. , ed. Harrison E. Salisbury. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974. , ProandContra .Moscow: Independent.Moscow: Publishing HousePIK,1991. . Moscow: Independent. Moscow: Publishing PIK, House 1991. [About the Country and the World] New York: 82 . Moscow: Independent. Moscow: Publishing House , Vol. 2N.213.Ed.Ann Tel Shenkar. (August21, in Sakharov Sakharov Sakharov Pro CEU eTD Collection Transition Dulles, Eleanor Lansing and Robert Dickson Crane, Wielgohs. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004. andDemocratic Transition Europe: Origins Civil Society of Detlef,, Pollack and Jan Wielgohs. NH: Brandeis University Publishedby Press, University Press of New England, 1999. Soviet Jews Movement toFree Jews D. “MakingAlbert an Issue,” Soviet Chernin, Effort Feingold, Henry L. 1967-1990 Buwalda, Petrus. Casebook inHistory “The Dream of Berman,a NewSociety,” Paul ideology (1945-1976)] ego ideologiia(1945-1976 gg.) Zinger. Boris Liliia, Belenkaia, FreeYork: Press,1976. Barghoorn, Frederick C. forFederation Human 2001. Rights, period] in contemporary USSR:the the Dissent Alexeyeva period] contemporary in the USSR: Dissent the Alexeyeva Secondary sources (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1972). and 10,1971 firstsession: November 9 Congress, hearings, Ninety-second Jewry:Soviet 1981. Solzhenitsyn, Alexander. Parker. NewYork :NewAmerican Library, 1963. Solzhenitsyn, Alexander. Solzhenitsyn, , 1967-1989.Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2007. . , , . Ludmilla. New York : Praeger, 1965. Washington, DC:Woodrow Wilson 1997. Center Press, Ludmilla They DidNotUnion, EmigrationfromtheSovietAlone: Jewish Dwell Silent NoMore: Saving the JewsRussia, the American Jewish of , ed. Jeremi Suri. New York : W. W. Norton, 2006. . Istoriia inakomysliia v SSSR :noveishii . Istoriia inakomysliiavSSSR Istoriia inakomysliia v SSSR :noveishii Istoriia inakomysliia vSSSR Minsk 2004. :Met, Détente and the Democratic Movement intheUSSR Détente andtheDemocraticMovement One day in the life ofIvanDenisovich One dayinthelife Sobranie Sochinenyi , ed. Murray Friedman and Albert D. Chernin. Hanover, Naperekor : evreiskoenatsionalnoe dvizhenie vSSSRi [Despite: the Jewish Movement in the USSR and its and USSR in the Movement Jewish the [Despite: Dissent andOppositioninCommunist Eastern 83 The Global Revolutions of1968:The aNorton Benson, Vt. : Khronika, 1984. , v. 9. .Vermont, Paris: YMCA Press, Détente : Cold War Strategies in Moscow : International Helsinki : International Moscow A second Exodus : the American A secondExodus:the , ed. Detlef Pollack, Jan period period . Trans. by; Ralph [The History of [The History of . New CEU eTD Collection Krasner, Stephen.Krasner, 1994. research] Stalin’s last decade:documentary Captivity Redthe of Pharaon:political of persecutions JewsintheUSSRthe during the issledovanie :dokumentalnoe desiatiletie stalinskoe evreevv SSSRposlednee Gennady, Kostyrchenko, 1999. Hanover, Press, PublishedbyUniversity of NH:Brandeis University England,Press New Soviet Jews Free to American Movement Pursuit ofStability. Litwak, RobertS. Korey, William. “Jackson-Vanik. A ‘Policy of Principle’” of A ‘Policy “Jackson-Vanik. William. Korey, Henry. Kissinger, Froman, Michael. England, 1999. Jews Free Soviet Gelman, Harry. Gelman, Analysis S. Daniel Geller, Nixon toReagan Garthoff, Raymond L. Chernin D. Albert and Murray Friedman, Sijthoff, 1975. Systems,” Kelley, Donald R. “The Soviet Debate on the Convergence of the American & Soviet Basic1975. Books, I. Marshall Goldman, Brandeis University Press, University Press of New England, 1999. Jews, FreeSoviet to Movement a “Creating aCauseand Gitelman, Zvi. Movement,” University Press, 1984. Feldbrugge, F. J. M. . Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1985. Polity The Brezhnev PolitburoandtheDeclineofDétente . Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1985. 6,no. 2 1973): 174-196.(Winter, . 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