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On Mathematical Induction ON MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION* LEON HENKIN, Universityof California,Berkeley Introduction.According to modernstandards of logical rigor,each branch of pure mathematicsmust be foundedin one of two ways: eitherits basic concepts must be definedin terms of the concepts of some prior branch of mathematics, in which case its theoremsare deduced fromthose of the prior branch of mathe- matics with the aid of these definitions,or else its basic concepts are taken as undefinedand its theorems are deduced from a set of axioms involving these undefinedterms. The natural numbers,0, 1, 2, 3, are among those mathematical entities about which we learn at the earliest age, and our knowledge of these numbers and theirproperties is largelyof an intuitivecharacter. Nevertheless,if we wish to establish a precise mathematical theoryof these numbers,we cannot rely on unformulatedintuition as the basis of the theorybut must found the theoryin one of the two ways mentionedabove. Actually, both ways are possible. Starting with pure logic and the most elementaryportions of the theoryof sets as prior mathematicalsciences, the German mathematicianFrege showed how the basic notionsof the theoryof numberscan be definedin such a way as to permita full developmentof this theory.On the otherhand the Italian mathematicianPeano, taking natural number,zero, and successor as primitive undefined concepts, gave a system of axioms involvingthese termswhich were equally adequate to allow a fulldevelopment of the theoryof natural numbers.In the presentpaper we shall examine the concept of definitionby mathematicalinduction within the frameworkof Peano's ideas. In this developmentwe shall presuppose only logic and the most elementaryportions of the theoryof sets; however,we shall find that our subject is greatlyilluminated by the introductionof some of the termi- nologyof modernabstract algebra, even thoughwe do not presupposeany of this algebraic material as a basis of our proofsor definitions. 1. Models and the axioms of Peano. It will be convenient here to use the word modelto referto a system consistingof a set N, an element 0 of N, and a unary operationt S on N. A model (N, 0, S) will be called a Peano model if it satisfiesthe followingthree conditions (or axioms). PI. For all xCN, Sx#40. P2. For all x, yE:N, if x -y thenSx # Sy. P3. If G is any subsetof N such that (a) OG, and (b) wheneverxCG thenalso SxCG, thenG=N.T * This article-wastranslated into Russian and publishedin MatematicheskoeProsveshchenie, No. 6, 1959.This Englishversion appears with the consent of the editors of the Soviet publication. t A unaryoperation on N is a functionhaving N as its domainand havinga rangewhich is a subsetof N. For anyxE N, we let Sx be theelement of N whichis thevalue obtainedby operating on x withS. I In theterminology of set-theory, P1 and P2 respectivelyexpress the conditions that 0 is not in therange of S, and thatS is one-one.A subsetG of N whichsatisfies condition (b) ofP3 is said 323 This content downloaded from 76.99.59.20 on Mon, 14 Oct 2013 12:22:08 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 324 ON MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION [April If we consider the case when N* is the set of natural numbers as we know them intuitively,0* is the number zero, and S* is the successor operation (i.e., the operation such that for any natural number x, S*x is the next following number), then (N*, 0*, S*) is an example of a Peano model. Of course it was this example which suggested considerationof the Peano axioms in the firstplace. Note, however, that there are many other Peano models, forexample the sys- tem (N', O', S') where N' is the set of all positive even integers,O' is the number two, and S' is the operation of adding two. Condition P3 is called the axiom of mathematicalinduction. It will be useful to introducethe terminduction model to referto any model which satisfiesthis axiom. Thus we see at once that every Peano model is an induction model. But the converse is far fromtrue. For example, let N" be a set containinga single element, let 0" be this ele- ment,and let S" be the only possible unary operation on N", i.e., the operation such that S"O" = 0". Then clearly (N", 0"f,S") is an induction model, but it is not a Peano model since it does not satisfyAxiom Pl. For another example let ao and ai be two distinct objects, and let N"' be the pair {ao, a,} (i.e., the set having ao and a1 as its only elements). Let S"' be the unary operation on N"' with constant value a1 (i.e., S"'x =a, forall xGEN"'). Then (N"', ao, S"') is an induction model, but it is not a Peano model since it does not satisfyAxiom P2. The reader may notice that the model (N", O", S") satisfies P2, while (N"', ao, S"') satisfies P1. It then becomes natural to ask whether there are inductionmodels which satisfyneither Pl nor P2. As it happens, thereare none: any model which satisfiesP3 must also satisfyeither Pl or P2. A direct proof of this fact, using only the laws of logic and the elementsof set theory,is rather troublesometo find-it is a task we leave forthe enterprisingreader. Presently we shall see that after the theory of definitionby mathematical induction is established, the result can be obtained quite simply. Now consider the followingtwo statements. P4. If y is any elementof N such thaty 0 Sx for all x E N, theny = 0. P5. For all x C N, x % Sx. We recognize that each of these is true for the Peano model (N*, 0*, S*) of natural numbers as we know them intuitively,and in fact we can easily show that each one is true of all Peano models by deriving it fromAxioms P1-P3. But there is an importantdifference between the two: the proofof P4 requires to be closedunder S. If we regard(N, S) as an algebraicsystem, a subsetG of N whichis closed underS wouldbe calleda subalgebraof thesystem. Thus P3 expressesthe conditionthat the only subalgebraof (N, S) whichcontains the element 0 is N itself.In algebraicterminology this condi- tionis expressedby sayingthat the element0 generatesthe algebra(N, S). It is also possibleto regardthe system (N, 0, S) itselfas an algebraicsystem. In thatcase, in orderto qualifyas a sub- algebraa subsetG ofN mustcontain 0 as wellas be closedunder S. Thus P3 expressesthe condition thatthe onlysubalgebra of (N, 0, S) is N itself.Hence the system(N, 0, S) is generatedby any one ofits elements. This content downloaded from 76.99.59.20 on Mon, 14 Oct 2013 12:22:08 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1960] ON MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 325 only Axiom P3, so that P4 holds for all induction models, but the proof of P5 requires Axiom P1 as well as P3, and our example (N", 0", S") shows that P5 does not hold forall induction models. 2. Operations defined by mathematical induction. The statemnentsP4 and P5 are examples of true theorems about natural numbers, but we generally regard theirmathematical content as quite trivial. In order to develop a richer theoryit is essential to introduceadditional concepts beyond the primitiveno- tions of number,zero, and successor; in particular,we must definesuch central concepts as additition, multiplication,exponentiation, prime number, etc. Let us consider addition first,and inquire how it can be defined. Addition is a binary operation on natural numbers; i.e., it is a function + which may act on any ordered pair (x, y) of natural numbers,the result of the action being again a natural number, x+y. Peano's idea was to define + by means of the pair of equations 1.1 x+O= x, 1.2 x+Sy =S(x+y). Of course on the basis of our intuitive knowledge of the operation of addition we recognize that these equations are true forall natural numbersx and y. But in what sense do the equations constitutea definitionof addition? In particular, does the definitionhold only fornatural numbers,or forarbitrary Peano models as well? In order to get a clear answer to these questions we firstconsider a re- lated but more general problem. The introductionof an operation by means of the pair of equations 1.1 and 1.2 is an example of what is called definitionby mathematicalinduction. To de- scribe this concept in general termswe must consider a Peano model (N, 0, S) and in addition a second model (N1, 01, S1) which,however, is not required to be a Peano model (or even an induction model). Being given these two models we say that the pair of equations 2.1 hO =O, 2.2 h(Sy) = Si(hy), defines (by mathematical induction) a function h: a functionwhich maps N into N1 and satisfies2.1 and 2.2 forall yEN. Again we may raise the question: In what sense do these equations definea function?The answer is provided by the followingtheorem. THEOREM I. No matterwhat Peano modelDI = (N, 0, S) we have,and no matter whatmodel 1 = (N1, 01, S1) we startwith, there exists a unique homomorphismof DI into 01; that is, thereexists one and only one functionh mapping N into N1 whichsatisfies 2.1 and 2.2 for all yEN.t t As remarkedin footnoteX, pp. 323-324,a model(N, 0, S) is an inductionmodel if and onlyif 0 is a generatorof the algebraic system (N, S). In algebraicterminology the content of Theorem I This content downloaded from 76.99.59.20 on Mon, 14 Oct 2013 12:22:08 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 326 ON MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION [April Beforeattempting to prove this theoremlet us see how it applies to the case of 1.1 and 1.2.
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