Non-Timber Products of East Potentials for sustainable forest use Non-Timber Forest Products of - Potentials forsustainable forest use J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg (Tropenbos series 16) ISSN 1383-68 11 ISBN 90-51 13-030-9

© 1997 Stichting Tropenbos

No part of this publication, apart from bibliographic data and brief quotations in critical reviews, may be reproduced, re-recorded or published in any form including print photocopy, microform, electronic or electromagnetic record without written permission.

Cover design Diamond Communications, Ede, the Netherlands Cover photo (inset) -stall at the market (photo by J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg) Printed by GrafischeVormgeving Kanters, Kinderdijk, the Netherlands Distribution Backhuys Publishers, P. 0. Box 321, 2300 AH Leiden, the Netherlands Non-Timber Forest Products of East Kalimantan

Potentials for sustainable forest use

PROEFSCHRIFf

TER VERKRJJGING VAN DE GRAAD VAN DOCTOR

AAN DE RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT TE LEIDEN,

OP GEZAG VAN DE RECTOR MAGNIFICUS DR. W.A. WAGENAAR,

HOOGLERAAR IN DE FACULTEIT DER SOCIALE WE TENSCH APPEN,

VOLGENS BESLUIT VAN HET COLLEGE VAN DEKANEN

TE VERDEDIGEN OP WOENSD AG 5 FEB RUARJ 1997

TE KLOKKE 14.15 UUR

DOOR

JOHANNES LEONARDUS CORNELIS HENDRIKUS VAN V ALKENBURG

geboren te Breda in 1964 PROMOTIECOMMISSlE:

Promotor: Prof. dr. P. Baas Co-promotor: Dr. P. Ketner (LUW, Wageningen)

Referent: Prof. dr. R. Kiew (UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia)

Overige leden : Prof. dr. C. Kalkman Prof. dr. E. van der Meijden Prof. dr. H.A. Udo de Haes Non-Timber Forest Products of East Kalimantan

Potentials for sustainable forest use

J. L. C. H. van Valkenburg

The Tropenbos Foundation Wageningen, The Netherlands 1997 TROPENBOS SERIES

The Tropenbos Series presents the results of studies and research activities related to the conservation and wise utilization of fo rest lands in the humid tropics. The series continues and integrates the former Tropenbos Scientific and Te chnical Series. The studies published in this series have been carried out within the international Tropen­ bos programme. Occasionally, this series may present the results of other studies which contribute to the objectives of the Tropenbos programme.

ISSN 1383- 6811

Stichting Tropenbos TROPENBOS Wageningen � The Netherlands

Balai Penelitian Kehutanan Samarinda ( Research Institute Samarinda)

Rijksherbarium I Hortus Botanicus Leiden The Netherlands CONTENTS

Summary ......

Ringkasan (Ind on esian summary) ...... 4

I. Introduction ...... 7

2. Vegetation and description of the study sites ...... 11

2.1. Intr oducti on ...... 11

2.2. Descripti on of the study sites ...... 13

2.2.1. Wanariset forest ...... 14

2.2.2. P.T. ITCI concessi on ...... 14

2.2.3. Ap oKayan ...... 15

2.3. Met hods ...... 16

2.3.1. Data analysis ...... 17 2.4. Results 17

2.4.1. General aspects of the vegetati on ...... 17

2.4.2. Stand st ructure ...... 18

2.4.3. Fa mily comp ositi on ...... 20

2.4.4. comp ositi on ...... 21

2.4.5. Species comp ositi on ...... 23

2.5. Discussi on ...... 26

2.5.1. Comparis on of basal area and density ...... 27

2.5.2. Botanical diversity ...... 28

2.5.3. Imp ortance of fam ilies ...... 29

2.5.4. Imp ortance of genera ...... 31

2.5.5. Im portance of species ...... 33

Appendices ...... 35

3. Species yielding Non-Timber Forest Products and their abundance ...... 49

3.1. Intr oducti on ...... 49

3.2. Met hods ...... 49 3.3. Results 51

3.3.1. Species comp ositi on ...... 51

3.3.2. Imp ortance ofth e vari ous NTFP ...... 53

3.3.3. Comparis on of Kenyah and PROSEA classi ficati on ...... 53

3.3.4. Gaharu ( spp.) collecting in the Ap oKayan ...... 55

3.4. Discussi on ...... 56

4. Indigenous and edible nuts ...... 61

4.1. In tr oducti on ...... 61

4.2. Me thods ...... 61

4.3 Results ...... 63

4.3.1. Primary and sec on dary at the research sites ...... 63

4.3.2. Home gardens ...... 63

Long Sungai Barang (Ap oKayan) ...... 63

Benung (Bar ong Tongk ok area) ...... 65

The vicinity of Samarinda ...... 66 4.3.3. Samarinda market ...... 66

Ty pe s of fruit stalls in the market ...... 66

Fruits on sale outside the big markets ...... 66

Descri pt ion ofma jor species on sale ...... 68

Descri ption ofminor species on sale ...... 78

Seasonality and pe riodicity of su pply ...... 82

Places of origin ...... 84

Market census ofvolume on sale in Samarinda ...... 84

Tem po rary fruit stalls along the Ma hakam river ...... 85

4.4. Discussion ...... 87

4.4. l. Species com position ...... 87

4.4.2. Seasonality and pe riodicity ...... 87

4.4.3. Selection offru it species in ho me gardens ...... 88

4.4.4. In fluence of ethnic background ...... 89

4.4.5. Influence ofaccess to the market ...... 89

4.4.6. Presence or absence in urban markets ...... 90

4.4.7. Market po tential offr uit species ...... 90

Appe ndices ...... 92

5. Rattan: species composition, abundance, distribution and growth ...... 97

5.1. Introductio n ...... 97

5.2. Methods ...... 98

5.2.1. Permanent pl ots ...... 98

5.2.2. Additional pl ots ...... 98

5.2.3. General collecting ...... 99

5.2.4. Growth measurements ...... 99

5.2.5. Ef fect ofdisturbance on recruitment ...... I 00 5.2.6. Harvesting ex perim ent ...... 100

5.2.7. Calamus caesius pl antings ...... 10 I

5.3. Results ...... 10 I

5.3.1. Species com position, abundance and distribution ...... 10 I

5.3.2. Growth of rattan ...... 110

5.3.3. Harvesting of selected rattan clum ps in the Apo Kayan ...... 118

5.4. Discussion ...... 120

6. Trade in rattan ...... 129

6.1. Introduction ...... :...... 129

6.2. Met hods ...... 129

6.3. Results ...... 131

6.3.1. Rattan, a single name for a versatile for est pr oduct ...... 131

6.3.2. Trade in Samarinda and beyond ...... 133

6.3.3. Origi n of rattan traded in Samarinda ...... 135

6.3.4. Vo lume and monetary value ofharvesta ble rattan in the research pl ots ...... 136

6.4. Discussion ...... 144

6.4.1. Species in the ex po rt market ...... 145

6.4.2. Im po rtance for the local economy ...... 145

6.4.3. Im po rtance fo r the national economy ...... 147

6.4.4. Im po rtance for em ployment in Indonesia ...... 147

6.4.5. Maintaining forests for the rattan su pply ...... 147

6.4.6. Possibilities for develo pm ent ...... 148

6.4. 7. Effects of the 1988 ex po rt ban ...... 149 6.4.8. Rattan harvesting in natural for est...... 150

Appe ndices ...... 151 7. Possibilities and limitations of NTFP extraction ...... 155

7. I . Introduction ...... 155

7.2. Ecological , economic and social aspectsof NTFP extraction ...... 155 7.2.1. Ecolo gical aspects ...... 156

7.2.2. Economic aspects ...... 156

7.2.3. Social aspects ...... 157

7.3. Present lan d use in Kalimantan : some examples ...... 158 7.4. Illipe an d other NT FPs with potential for de velopment in East Kalimantan ...... 162

7.5. Management options in East Kalimantan ...... 163 7.5.l. Nat ure reser ves ...... 163

7 .5.2. Integration of NTFP production in commercial forest estate s ...... 165

7 .5.3. Integration of NT FP production in vi llage orcommunity forestry ...... 166

7.5.4. Pit falls ...... 167

7.6. Conclusions ...... 168

References ...... 17l

Acknowledgements ...... 187

Samenvatting ...... 189

Curriculum vitae ...... 193

Plates 1-7 ...... 195

SUMMARY

The area of primary tropical rain forests is declining at an alarming rate. Public aware­ ness grows that at least part of this irreplaceable biodiversity treasure should be safe­ guarded for future generations. It is increasingly acknowledged that sustainable ex­ traction of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP) can play an important role in conser­ vation and development of these areas. The present study on NTFP in East Kali mantan was concentrated in three areas: the Wanariset research station and surroundings in the coastal area between and Samarinda, the P.T. ITCI concession northwest of Balikpapan, and the vicinity of the village Long Sungai Barang in the Apo Kayan close to the Sarawak border.

In Chapter I a brief historical overview of the economic importance ofNTFP in South­ East Asia is given. In the present study the term NTFP comprises only products of indigenous , which predominantly grow in primary forest, whereby the products included are confined to non- products.

The aims of the present study are enumerated and the motivation for choosing the various research sites is given.

The aims can be summarized as follows: To provide an inventory of commercially important Non Timber Forest Products in selected parts of East Kalimantan, and to evaluate their economic potential. To compare distribution and abundance ofNTFP in various areas in East Kalimantan. To study the effects of on species composition and abundance of NTFP. To contribute basic data, needed for establishing guidelines forsustainable manage­ ment of the NTFP resource. The research sites were selected to study the effects of extraction and disturbance on the NTFP resource. Therefore, areas with a traditional land use, with no influence of commercial extraction, as well as areas with various levels of disturbance and com­ mercial extraction were chosen.

In Chapter 2 a description of the study sites, and general information on the research plots is given. Furthermore, the forest of the three research sites is compared with respect to species composition and abundance of species, genera, and familiesof . In permanent plots all trees with a dbh over lO cm were measured and mapped. The forests in the three sites are also compared by using the Importance Value Index (l.V.) of Cottam and Curtis (1956). The l.V. of a taxon (species, genus, ) consists of the sum of relative density, relative dominance and relative frequency. The species diversity as fo und in the Apo Kayan plots is the highest so farrecorded for Indonesia. In all the research sites the importance of is beyond dispute and Shorea can be considered the dominant genus. However, the heterogeneity of the for­ est in all sites is evident and differences in species composition and especially domi­ nance of individual species between the sites are great. In Chapter 3 an account of species composition and abundance of various end-use categories of NTFP in primary and logged-over forest in the research sites in East Kalimantan is given. The importance of these NTFP is compared with the timber spe­ cies present. Tree species yielding edible fruits account for 8 to 19 percent of all tree species, with lowest value (8 % ) in the most heavily logged ITCI plot. Of the commer­ cial fruit species all Garcinia and Mangife ra species are absent in the logged-over plots. For the Apo Kayan, the local Kenyah classification of tree species is compared with the use according the list of PROSEA (Jansen et al., 1991). Furthermore, the eco­ nomically important harvesting of gaharu wood (Aquilaria spp.) and the potential of Shorea species yielding illipe nuts (containing a commercial edible fat) is discussed.

Because of the importance in local and regional trade, fruit trees receive special atten­ tion. In Chapter 4 an account of indigenous fruit species encountered in natural forest, home gardens and local and urban markets is given. The major markets of Samarinda were surveyed twice weekly for three years (two and a half years, thereby covering three major fruiting seasons), to study species on sale and seasonality of supply. Many important indigenous fruit species showed distinct bumper years. This effect of bumper years is buffered in the markets of Samarinda. Still the absence of macro­ carpa, Baccaurea pyriformis and Dimocwpus longan in 1993 and the overall smaller volume of indigenous fruits on sale can be explained by an absence of abundant fruit­ ing in upriver source areas. A visit to home gardens in villages of various ethnic groups revealed that ethnic background influencesthe species composition of fruit trees planted. Artocmpus integer, a widely appreciated species with good market value, is neither planted nor consumed by the Lepo Tukung Kenyah of Long Sungai Barang. Baccaurea macrocGlpa, Dimoca1pus longan, Mangife ra pajang and Nephelium ramboutan-ake are the fruit species equally favoured by Tundjung and Kenyah Dayak, but not planted by Javanese transmigrants. The constraints and possibilities for future development of potential species is discussed.

Ecological and economic aspects of the rattan resource, the economically most impor­ tant NTFP, are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6. The inventory and assessment of its potential required new inventory techniques different from the methods used for tree species. Differences in the geographical distribution of species are apparent, as well as the influence of disturbance and moisture regime. Three new species were described (Van Valkenburg, 1995) that had a limited distribution, thereby confirming the rather high degree of endemism in rattan (Dransfield, l 992a, 1992b). Local variation in abun­ dance of rattan was observed throughout East Kalimantan and is further illustrated by the results of a line survey in the Apo Kayan. The average abundance was 362 mature plants and 902 mature canes per hectare, but variation ranged from 0 plants to 18 plants with 79 mature canes per 200 m2. Growth of the rattan plants was monitored over a time span of 24 months. Natural as well as man-induced disturbance signifi­ cantly (p < 0.05) increased the recruitment of rattan plants in the research plots. How­ ever, logged-over forest does not necessarily show an accelerated growth at any point in time. Furthermore, the logging as such results in great damage to the rattan popula-

2 tion and the soil compaction impedes the establishment of seedlings. A maximum harvesting experiment on clumps of three (potentially) commercial species (Calamus javensis, C. ornatus and Daemonorops sabut) revealed differences between these spe­ cies that might be an indication for a different survival strategy. Aspects of trade, rang­ ing from species traded, prices and processing of canes, both in former times and at present are described. Important rattan trade names have been linked to botanical spe­ cies, many of which unknown to be of commercial importance. The volume and value of standing stock as found in the present study, calculated at US$ 5-15(-25) ha-I, indicates that vast areas of permanent forest land are required to safeguard the future supply of rattan for the Indonesian rattan industry. The employment of almost 1 mil­ lion Indonesians depends on the rattan resource.

In Chapter 7, the ecological, economic and social aspects of NTFP extraction in gen­ eral are discussed. Furthermore, important present land uses in East Kalimantan are compared with respect to ecological and economic aspects. After discussing the poten­ tial for development of the various NTFPs in East Kalimantan, some management options are proposed. If short-term economic gain at local level is a guideline forland­ use planning then the extraction of NTFPs from primary forest areasin East Kaliman tan is not the economically most competitive land use. However, the direct financial re­ turn of multiple extraction forestry at a Net Annual Income of up to US$ 46 ha-I, points to the economic feasibility of this land use and if environmental costs are taken into account it is by far the best long-term economic land use for Indonesia. As logging concessions have already been granted and vast areas consist of logged-over forest, the best possible land use for these areas should be contemplated. These logged-over forests, preserved as permanent forest estate, could be used to boost the production of (large-diameter) rattan and illipe. The high labour input required for harvesting and processing is especially important for employment in rural areas. Apart from these commercial forest estates, the potential for enrichment planting in disturbed habitats involving local populations appears promising. The traditional systems could well be improved or even expanded by including impoverished logged-over areas.

3 RINGKASAN

Luas kawasan hutan hujan tropis menurun cukup tajam. Masyarakat sadar bahwa setidaknya sebagian dari kekayaan alam berupa keaneka-ragaman hayati yang tidak dapat digantikan dengan apapun juga, hendaknya dipertahankan untuk generasi mendatang. Pemyataan pun meningkat bahwa pemanfaatan Hasil Hutan Bukan Kayu (biasajuga disebut sebagai Hasil Hutan Ikutan, yang dalarntulisan ini disingkat NTFP) secara berkelanjutan dapat berperan penting dalarn upaya pelestarian dan pengembangan wilayah ini. Penelitian mengenai NTFP di Kalimantan Timur ini megambil Iokasi di tiga wilayah: kawasan hutan penelitian Wanariset I Samboja dan sekitar kawasan pantai antara Balikpapan dan Samarinda, areal Hak Pengusahaan Hutan (HPH) P.T. ITCI yang terletak di sebelah baratlaut Balikpapan, dan sekitar kampung Long Sungai Barang, wilayah Apo Kayan dekat daerah perbatasan dengan Sarawak.

Dalam bab 1 diuraikan secara ringkas tinjauan sejarah mengenai nilai ekonomi NTFP di Asia Tenggara. Dalam penelitian ini yang disebut sebagai NTFP hanya meliputi hasil-hasil yang dihasilkan oleh jenis-jenis tumbuhan asli, yang umumnya tumbuh di hutan alam, dan hasil-hasil tersebut digolongkan sebagai hasil hutan bukan kayu. Tuj uan penelitian ini didaftarkan dan motivasi dalam menentukan berbagai lokasi penelitian juga diberikan. Tujuan tersebut dapat disebutkan secara singkat, sebagai berikut: - Mengadakan inventarisasi tentang nilai komersial NTFP di wilayah terpilih di Kalimantan Timur, dan menghitung potensi ekonominya. - Membandingkan antara penyebaran dan kerapatan NTFP di berbagai wilayah di Kalimantan Timur. - Mempelajari pengaruh penebangan terhadap kerapatan dan komposisi jenis NTFP. - Menyediakan data dasar yang diperlukan dalam pembuatan pedoman untuk pengelolaan sumber NTFP secara berkelanjutan. Lokasi penelitian yang dipilih untuk mempelajari pengaruh pengambilan dan penge­ rusakan sumber NTFP adalah wilayah-wilayah yang masyarakatnya masih menterapkan pola hidup tradisional (di sini faktor komersial belum berpengaruh) dan wilayah-wilayah yang mempunyai berbagai tingkat kerusakan dan pengaruh komersial.

Dalam bab 2 diuraian lokasi dan informasi umum mengenai petak-petak penelitian. Lebih lanjut, kondisi masing-masing hutan di tiga lokasi penelitian dibandingkan berdasarkan komposisi dan kerapatan jenis, marga, dan suku pohon. Di dalam petak­ petak penelitian semua pohon yang berdiameter batang lebih dari JO cm diukur dan dipetakan. Kondisi hutan di tiga lokasi juga dibandingkan berdasarkan lndeks Nilai Penting (l.V.) menurut Cottam dan Curtis (1956).1.V. suatu takson (jenis, marga, dan suku) merupakan jumlah dari kerapatan relatif, dominasi relatif dan frekuensi relatif. Keragaman jenis di petak penelitian di Apo Kay an sampai saat ini menunjukkan angka tertinggi untuk Indonesia. Di semua lokasi, Dipterocarpaceae terutama Shorea dapat dinyatakan sebagai marga yang paling dominan. Akan tetapi keaneka-ragaman hutan

4 di semua lokasi jelas dan berbeda menurut komposisi jenisnya, terutama perbedaan dominasi setiap jenis antara lokasi sangat besar.

DaLam bab 3 dikemukakan komposisi jenis dan keberadaan berbagai kategori manfaat akhir dari NTFP di hutan primer dan hutan bekas tebangan di lokasi penelitian di Kalimantan Timur. Arti penting dari NTFP dibandingkan dengan jenis-jenis pohon yang ada. Tiga jenis penghasil buah yang dapat dimakan dinilai 8 sampai 19 persen untuk ketiga jenis, dengan nilai terendah (8 %) terdapat di petak-petak penelitian di areal P.T. ITCI yang arealnya merupakan bekas tebangan dengan tingkat kerusakan berat. Jenis buah-buahan komersial dari marga Garcinia dan tidak dijumpai di petak-petak bekas tebangan. Untuk wilayah Apo Kayan, penggolongan secara lokal oleh suku Kenyah terhadap tiga jenis dibandingkan dengan kegunaannya menurut daftar yang dibuat oleh PROSEA (Jansen et al., 1991). Selanjutnya nilai ekonomi dari pemungutan (kayu) gaharu (AquiLaria spp.) dan potensi jenis-jenis Shorea penghasil tengkawang juga dibahas dalam tulisan ini.

Karena pentingnya dalam perdagangan lokal maupun regional, pohon buah-buahan mendapat perhatian khusus. DaLam bab 4 dikemukakan jenis buah-buahan lokal yang terdapat di hutan alam, pekarangan rumah, kebun milik penduduk, dan di pasar-pasar. Pengamatan di pasar-pasar besar di Samarinda dilakukan dua kali seminggu selama tiga tahun (dua dan setengah tahun, meliputi tiga kali musim pembuahan) untuk mengetahui musim danjenis buah-buahan yang dijual. Banyakjenis buah-buahan lokal yang penting menunjukkan produksi tahunannya sangat tinggi, tetapi ha! tersebut tidak nampak di pasar-pasar di Samarinda. Tidak adanya Baccaurea macrocarpa, B. pyri­ fo rmis dan Dimocarpus Longan di pasaran dalam tahun 1993, demikian juga untuk jenis-jenis lokal lainnya yang secara keseluruhan volumenya relatif kecil, dapat dise­ babkan karena tidak terjadi musim pembuahan massal di daerah sumbemya di hulu­ hulu sungai. Dengan mengunjungi kebun-kebun pekarangan di perkampungan berbagai suku dapat dinyatakan bahwa latar belakang kesukuan mempengaruhi jenis buah-buahan yang ditanam. Artocarpus integer, buah-buahan yang dikenal secara luas dan memiliki nilai pasar yang baik, tidak ditanam atau dikonsumsi oleh suku Lepo Tukung Kenyah di Long Sungai Barang. Baccaurea macrocarpa, Dimocarpus Longan, Mangifera pajang dan Nephelium ramboutan-ake merupakan jenis buah-buahan yang cukup disukai oleh suku Dayak Tundjung dan Dayak Kenyah, tetapi tidak ditanam oleh penduduk trans­ migrasi asal Jawa. Hambatan dan kemungkinan pengembangan jenis-jenis berpotensi di masa mendatang juga dibahas.

Aspek ekologi dan ekonomi sumber rotan, yang secara ekonomi merupakan NTFP terpenting, dibahas daLam bab 5 dan 6. Inventarisasi dan penilaian potensinya memerlukan metode baru yang berbeda dengan yang digunakan untuk meng­ inventarisasi jenis pohon. Perbedaan penyebaran geografi suatu jenis jelas kelihatan, sesuai pengaruh tingkat kerusakan dan kelembaban. Tiga jenis baru telah ditemukan (Van Valkenburg, 1995), yang memiliki penyebaran terbatas, dengan demikian menegaskan bahwa wilayah ini memiliki tingkat endemisme yang tinggi untuk jenis

5 rotan (Dransfield, I 992a, l 992b). Variasi kerapatan rotan untuk seluruh wilayah yang diamati di Kalimantan Timur, lebih lanjut dapat digambarkan berdasarakan hasil inventarisi menggunakan metode jalur di Apo Kayan. Angka rata-rata kerapatan menunjukkan 362 tanaman dewasa dan 902 batang rotan dewasa per hektar, bervari­ asi antara 0 sampai 18 tanaman dengan 79 batang dewasa per 200 m2. Pertumbuhan rotan diamati selama 24 bulan. Kerusakan hutan secara alami maupun karena ulah manusia berarti penting (p < 0.05) dalam meningkatkan pertumbuhan rotan di petak penelitian. Akan tetapi hutan bekas tebangan tidak perlu memperlihatkan percepatan pertumbuhan pada saat tertentu. Selanjutnya penebangan mengakibatkan kerusakan berat terhadap populasi rotan dan kepadatan tanah mengganggu pembentukan I pertumbuhan anakan. Percobaan pemungutan hasil maksimum pada tiga jenis rotan komersial (Calamus javensis, C. ornatus dan Daemonorops sabut) menyatakan per­ bedaan di antara jenis-jenis tersebut yang barangkali merupakan satu indikasi bagi kehidupannya masing-masing. Aspek perdagangan, mulai dari jenis yang diperda­ gangkan, harga dan pengolahan rotan, dahulu dan saat sekarangjuga diuraikan. Nama­ nama perdagangan untukjenis rotan penting telah dikaitkan dengan nama botani, banyak diantaranya tidak diketahui nilai komersialnya. Volume dan nilai rotan yang masih di alam berdasarkan hasil penelitian sebesar US$ 5-15(-25) ha, berarti banyak kawasan hutan yang diperlukan untuk mempertahankan hasil dimasa mendatang dalam rangka memenuhi kebutuhan industri rotan Indonesia. Terdapat hampir satu juta tenaga kerj a Indonesia bekerja di sektor ini.

Dalam bab 7, aspek ekologi, ekonomi dan sosial pemungutan NTFP dibahas secara umum. Selanjutnya pemanfaatan lahan saat ini di Kalimantan Timur dibandingkan berkenaan dengan aspek ekologi dan ekonomi. Setelah membahas tentang potensi untuk pengembangan berbagai NTFP di Kalimantan Timur, diusulkan beberapa alternatif untuk pengelolaannya. Secara sepintas pemungutan NTFP dari hutan alam tidak meru­ pakan suatu pemanfaatan lahan yang paling ekonomis. Finansiil secara berkelanjutan langsung diperoleh dengan pendapatan bersih tahunan mencapai US$ 46 ha. Bertitik tolak pada sektor ekonomi pemanfaatan lahan, dan apabila biaya masalah lingkungan juga disertakan, maka sejauh ini merupakan pemanfaatan lahan jangka panjang berwawasan ekonomi terbaik untuk Indonesia. Selama HPH diperkenankan dan banyak kawasan merupakan hutan bekas tebangan, kemungkinan pemanfaatan lahan terbaik untuk kawasan tersebut hendaknya dipikirkan. Hutan-hutan bekas tebangan tersebut dapat diperlakukan sebagai hutan produksi terbatas untuk mendorong meningkatkan produksi jenis-jenis rotan berdiameter besar dan tengkawang. Te naga kerja yang diperlukan untuk kegiatan ini, terutama dalam ha! pemungutan dan pengolahan hasil cukup banyak dan penting bagi masyarakat di pedesaan. Terlepas dari fungsi hutan produksi, masyarakat di sekitar hutan juga dilibatkan dalam pengelolaan lahan hutan bekas tebangan dengan melakukan tanaman perkayaan dengan menanam jenis-jenis lokal yang memiliki harapan baik. Sistem agro-hutani secara tradisional perlu diting­ katkan dan diperluas arealnya dengan memasukkan kawasan-kawasan bekas tebangan yang miskin.

6 1. INTRODUCTION

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) are at present receiving wide attention through­ out the tropics. It is increasingly acknowledged that the exploitation of NTFP can play an important role in the conservation and development of tropical rain forest areas (e.g., Counsell & Rice, 1992; Plotkin & Famolare, 1992; Wegge, 1993). Sustainable exploitation of NTFP is a possible alternative for the present non sustainable as practised in most of the tropical countries. These products provide food and materials for domestic use, while some of them also provide cash income when traded at local, national or international markets. Ecological and economic aspects of exploitation of these NTFP, not to mention social implications, are however not well known. A recent Tropenbos publication is a good introduction to these manyfold implications of NTFP extraction (Ros-Tonen et al., 1995). The present study focuses on the ecological and economic potential of NTFP in East Kalimantan.

Brief historical overview

Chinese seafaring traders from time immemorial carried NTFP (cloves, Areca nuts and others) from South-East Asia to China. The firstcentury AD must be regarded as the earliest period of regular connection between We st Malesia and Alexandria. Nut­ meg and (decidedly later) cloves reached Alexandria by the close of the 2nd century AD. From 700 to 1200 Arabs were active traders between the Persian Gulf and Pe­ ninsular Malaysia. From the I 3th century onwards land route explorers were active, amongst others Marco Polo (De Wit, 1949). The trade in spices was so profitable that European traders I nations tried to bypass the traditional land route through Asia and the Near East. In the 15th and 16th century Portuguese ships penetrated the East fol­ lowed in the I 7th century by the Dutch East Company (V. 0. C.). The search for economically useful plants had a high priority, as trade was the initial goal of the con­ quest of South-East Asia. Rumphius (1741-1747), was one of the first to document and illustrate the useful plants of the Moluccas. The enumerations of useful plants from South-East Asia by Heyne (1927), Burkill (1966), and Brown (1951-1957) testi­ fy to the importance ascribed to the multitude of plants presently designated as NTFP. The PROSEA ( Resources of South-East Asia) project can be considered the latest branch of this old tradition. One of its objectives is a multi volume handbook on the useful plants of South-East Asia, of which the first volume was published in 1989 (Westphal & Jansen, 1989). The basic list (Jansen et al., 1991) enumerates almost 6000 species of economic value including thousands of species with a primary or secondary use as NTFP. The economic importance of NTFP was dwarfedby the timber trade from the 1960s onwards but nowadays NTFP are receiving renewed attention. The fast dwindling of the primary forest area is an important incentive to study NTFP as an alternative way to simultaneously utilise and conserve tropical forestecosystems.

7 Chapter 1 What are Non-Timber Forest Products? First of all we have to define Non-Timber Forest Products. Does this term simply en­ compass all biological materials other than timber, which are extracted from natural forestfor human use? An enumeration of all these products on a global scale is, amongst others, given by Jacobs (1981, 1988), Lasschuit (1983), Van Eerd (1983), Hummel (I 984), and Smits (1989). Details for the region can be found in, for instance, De Beer & McDermott (1989) and the PROSEA basic list volume (Jansen et al., 1991). Or should we not restrict ourselves to tangible products and also include services like soil and watershed protection, and recreational value (Ashton & Panayotou, I 992; Gillis, 1992; Upton, 1994)? Should" a species exploited as an NTFP in its area of origin, still be con­ sidered an NTFP in an area where it is introduced, i. e. Hevea brasiliensis introduced in South-East Asia (Dove 1993, 1994)? In the present study the term NTFP comprises only products of indigenous plants, that predominantly grow in primary forest, whereby the products included are con­ fined to non-wood products. In addition 'specialized timber uses' such as shingles, tool handles and infected Aquilaria wood, used for medicinal purposes, in perfume and as incense, were also studied.

Aims of this study The aims of the present research can be summarized as follows - To provide an inventory of commercially important Non-Timber Forest Products in selected parts of East Kalimantan, and to evaluate their economic potential. - To compare distribution and abundance ofNTFP in various areas in East Kalimantan. - To study the effects of logging on species composition and abundance of NTFP. - To contribute basic data, needed for establishing guidelines for sustainable man- agement of the NTFP resource. The present research is part of the International MOF-Tropenbos Kalimantan Pro­ ject based at the Wanariset Research station in Samboja, East Kalimantan. The aim of this project is to develop appropriate techniques and guidelines for sustainable forest management. The project is executed by the Indonesian Agency for Forestry Research and Development of the Ministry of Forestry, the Institute for Forestry and Nature Research IBN-DLO, and the Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, in the Neth­ erlands, and the state forestry enterprises P. T. Inhutani I and P.T. Inhutani II.

Site selection In order to study the effects of extraction and disturbance on the NTFP resource, areas were selected with a traditional land use, with no influence of commercial extraction, as well as areas with various levels of disturbance and commercial extraction (see Figure 2.1). Remnant forest in the Wanariset area surrounding the research station has been studied in detail for soil conditions and tree species composition (Beekman, 1990; Oldeman & lriansyah, 1990). A supplementary inventory of rattan was conducted for this study.

Chapter I 8 The P. T. InternationalTimber Corporation Indonesia (ITCI) concession, northwest of Balikpapan, was selected for a comparison of primary and logged-over forest areas. Research on soil conditions and species composition of trees in permanent plots had already been conducted in the framework of the Tropenbos project (Van Bremen et al., 1990; Van Eijk-Bos, unpublished). The village of Long Sungai Barang in the Apo Kayan 'provided' undisturbed forest in an area with a traditional land use not influenced by market demands. The site was formerly the location of a Man and Biosphere project and social aspects and ecology of have already received special attention (Kartawinata & Vayda, 1984; Mackie, 1986; Mackie et al., 1987; Soedjito, 1980, 1987; Soedjito et al., 1990; Vayda et al., 1980).

Presentation of results and discussion In Chapter 2 a comparison of the forest in the three research sites, with respect to species composition and abundance of species, genera and families of trees is given. In Chapter 3 an account of species composition and abundance of various end-use cat­ egories of NTFP in primary and logged-over forest in the research sites in East Kalimantan is given. The importance of these NTFP is compared with the timber spe­ cies present. Because of the importance in local and regional trade fruit trees receive special attention. The research extended from natural forest to home gardens and local and urban markets, to include a prolonged regular market survey in Samarinda (see Chapter 4). The inventory and assessment of the potential of rattan required new in­ ventory techniques different from the methods used for the tree species. Ecological and economic aspects of the rattan resource are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6. Finally, in Chapter 7 the research findings for East Kalimantan will be compared with results from other rain forest areas, to address a question of paramount impor­ tance: What is the potential value of sustainable NTFP extraction in East Kalimantan?

9 Chapter 1

2. VEGETATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY SITES

2.1. Introduction

The province of East Kalimantan is located in the Indonesian part of the island of (Figure 2.1). It covers approximately 21,144,000 ha, which is about 14% of the total Indonesian land area. Geologically East Kalimantan consists mainly of Te rti­ ary sedimentary rocks. The soils are mostly Alisols, but in the extensive limestone areas north of Sangkulirang they are classified as Luvisols (Van Bremen et al., 1990). Local patches of coarse sandy soils (Podzols) are found, covered with heath forest ('kerangas'). The province of East Kalimantan encompasses a variety of forest types comprising mangroves, swamps, evergreen tropical rain forest, and heath forest, stretching from sea-level up to almost 3000 m elevation. Mangrove and tidal swamp forest occur along the coast and in the estuaries of the major rivers. Periodically flooded forests are present along the lower reaches of the . The extensive swamp forests in the lake area (Kutai basin) have been influenced by man during a long history of human set­ tlement. Forests in the eastern part of the province, Kutai valley and ridge fold belt, Bulungan basins and ranges, and Mangkalihat Karst ranges (Voss, 1982), originally consisted of species-rich lowland evergreen rain forest dominated by Dipterocarpa­ ceae. Regional variation in species composition is considerable (Van Balgooy, pers. comm.). Some logging concessions, in the northern part of the province and near the bay of Sangkulirang were operated prior to World War II. However, large-scale exploitation of the rich dipterocarp stands did not commence until the 1970s (Smits, 1994). The Jaw on foreign investment of 1967 made it very profitable to start Jogging operations (Wiersum, 1978). By using modem heavy equipment, exploitation was no longer lim­ ited to easily accessible areas. Whereas the forest in the coastal area and along the major rivers is strongly influ­ enced by man as a result of logging and agricultural activities, vast stretches of pri­ mary forest (still) remain in the interior and upland regions. These areas not only com­ prise lush evergreen mixed tropical rain forest but also extensive stretches of stunted forest and heath forest ('kerangas') northwest of Tabang (pers. observ.). This heath forest grows on imperfectly drained dip slopes on sandstone plateaux. The well-drained scarp slopes carry mixed evergreen rain forest. On flatter sites interdigitation of the forest types occurs, similarly correlated with differences in soil. This combination of foresttypes is well described for Sarawak and and was expected also to occur in Kalimantan (Whitmore, 1984). Most of the remnant primary forest is at an elevation of 500-1 OOO m above sea­ level, but mountain ranges of over 1500 m exist in the western part of the province. The botanical diversity of Borneo is illustrated by the 84 families and 370 genera comprising at least one big tree species each (defined as either 35 cm dbh or over 20 m

II Chapter 2 110· 117' ...... _1'-'---- 119· [''t-- ... , ,/ '- ( I 5' 4' :::' I I I I "1 I I � / / I I I I I

2· 2·

o· o·

Sarong •Tongkok

. Eheng • Bonung

2· 0 50 100km �-�--� 115'

Figure 2.1. Map of East Kalimantan with the va rious research sites.

taJI) listed by Whitmore et al. (1990). Although a checklist exists, this does not mean that East Kalimantan is botanically well known. Ashton (1989) gives an estimate of l 0,000-15,000 species of higher plants (spermatophytes) and states that the flora of Borneo and especially the Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan is still undercollected. Whereas the collecting intensity forSundaland (excluding Peninsular Malaysia) is 46 numbers per 100 km2 and for Borneo as a whole is 35 numbers per 100 km2, Kali-

Chapter 2 12 mantan is covered by 12 numbers per 100 km2 only. Sarawak and Brunei have a col­ lecting intensity of 76 numbers per 100 km2 and Sabah 126 numbers per 100 km2 (Ashton, 1989). Recent collecting activities in Brunei, Sabah and Sarawak for the Brunei Checklist and Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak projects have only increased the gap between these regions and the Indonesian prut of Borneo. Collections by staff of the Wanariset Herbarium since 1991 up to November 1995 have added 8500 num­ bers to the collections of Kaljmantan (KeBler et al., 1992; KeBler, pers. comm.). These collections comprise mainly trees from the Balikpapan-Samarinda area. The forest in the research sites is commonly referred to as lowland evergreen rain forest or mixed dipterocarp forest. This forest type, dominated by the Dipterocarpaceae family, is the original vegetation cover of the non-seasonal lowland areas of Sundaland, comprising Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Palawan (Richards, 1952). Floristic composition and vegetation typificationof mixed dipterocarp fo rest in Penin­ sular Malaysia are well documented (Wyatt-Smith, 1949, 1961, 1966; Robins & Wyatt­ Smith, 1964; Kochummen et al., 1990). Detailed studies of structure and composition of the forest (Burgess, 1961; Ashton, 1964; Newbery et al., 1992; Nicholson, 1965; Richards, 1936) and vegetation typification (Ashton, 1964; Austin et al., 1973; Fox, 1972, 1978; Meijer, 1965; Proctor et al., 1983) for Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei have been published. The Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan, however, are poorly studied. The reports of Nieuwenhuis (1904, 1907) and Endert (1927, 1933) remain valuable sources of information on forests and vegetation of East Kalimantan. Recent publica­ tions by Bratawinata (1986), Soedjito (1980, 1987) and Mackie (1986) have added species lists and some quantitative data on forest composition to our scant knowledge on the forest in the upland areas. The detailed studies by Kartawinata et al. (1981) and Riswan (1987) yielded information on the botanical composition of the lowland ever­ green rain forest in the eastern part of the province. KeBler & Sidiyasa (1994) give an account of the economically or ecologically important trees in the Balikpapan­ Samarinda area, based on extensive collecting. The present account is based on plots of a limited size. The plots are situated both in the eastern and western upland part of East Kalimantan. Although similarity at family level was observed, the great variation in species composition illustrates the immense botanical diversity of the tropical lowland evergreen rain forest of East Kalimantan.

2.2. Description of the study sites

The main research activities were carried out in three areas: Wanariset forest, P.T. ITCI concession and Apo Kayan region. These are the areas where permanent plots were surveyed. Villages visited for other important aspects of the research are described in their respective chapters. The climate in the research areas, as described in RePPProT ( 1987), is classified according to the Koppen system ( 1931) as a tropical rainy isothermal climate with hot summers (hottest month more than 22 °C), no dry season (mean precipitation in driest month more than 60 mm) and two rainfall maxima.

13 Chapter 2 2.2.1. Wa nariset forest

The Wanariset research station is surrounded by 504 hectares of forest at altitudes . ranging from I 0 to 85 m above sea-level. The research station is situated at the junc­ tion of the Balikpapan-Samarinda road and the transmigration road to Semoi, at I 0 S and 116° 56' E (Figure 2.1). The research plot is located south of the transmigration road to Semoi. The climate of East Kali mantan has been described extensively in RePPProT ( 1987). For the Wanariset forest the data from the Samboja station, the nearest meteorological station, are used. The mean annual rainfall is 2373 mm (observation 1928-1960; Vo ss, 1982). There is no real dry season, but some years have a dry period. The months November till May are wet according to the RePPProT ( 1987) definition that a wet month has over 200 mm rainfall.Te mperatures are very constant throughout the year, with a nighttime minimum of 24 °C and daytime maximum of 31 °C (RePPProT, 1987). The geology is dominated by Early Tertiary sedimentary deposits. The sedimentary rocks (sandstones and mudstones) are strongly folded and faulted. The area where the plot is located is characterized by a series of SW-NE oriented ri dges, hogbacks, cuestas, anticlinal and synclinal valleys. Since part of the 1 ha plot established by Beekman ( 1990) was seriously affectedby fire, a selection of less affected subplots was made to get an impression of the tree species composition of the primary forest. This selection of subplots totalling 5100 m2 of plot Matthijs was delimited by the markers KIO, KO, HO, H7, A7 and AlO. A de­ tailed map of the plot can be found in Oldeman & Iriansyah ( 1990). Although the plot encompasses both poorly drained soils and well-drained soils no distinction was made for the present analysis, in view of the limited surface area. The soils are mostly deep and have a well-developed structure with an effective soil depth of > I 00 cm (Oldeman & Iriansyah, 1990). The parent material consists of Ter­ tiary sandstones and mudstones. The soils can be classified as Alisols (FAO/Unesco/ ISRIC, 1988). Locally in severely eroded gullies soils are classified as Cambisols.

2.2.2. P.T. ITCI concession

The ITCI concession, consists of an area of about 600,000 ha. It is located some 25 km

to the northwest of the city of Balikpapan, approximately between 0° 15'-l0 15' S and 1 16° 15'-1 17° E (Figure 2.1). The altitude of the selected research plots ranges from I 00 to 345 m above sea-level. The location of the research plots and detailed maps of each plot can be found in Van Bremen et al. (1990). The lTCI area, as well as the Wanariset forest, belongs to the Mahakam lowlands. The mean annual rainfall in the ITCI area ranges between approximately 2000 mm in the north, and 2500 mm in the south (Voss, 1982). At Kenangan in the period 1972- 1993 the mean annual rainfall was 2032 mm (Anonymous, 1994a). Te mperatures are very constant throughout the year, with a nighttime minimum of 24 °C and daytime maximum of 31 °C (RePPProT, 1987). In the ITCI concession Middle-Late Miocene and Early Miocene rocks dominate the geology (Voss, 1983). In general, the lithology in the ITCI area is dominated by

Chapter 2 14 alternating layers of sandstone, claystone, mudstone and siltstone of varying thick­ ness. Locally small areas comprise marls and limestones and coarse sandstones (Van Bremen et al., 1990). The geomorphology of the ITCI area is dominated by steeply dissected hills and hillocks (altitude between 10 and 300 m above sea-level) with short, steep to very steep slopes and narrow crests and valley floors. The primary plots selected for the present analysis, with a total area of 48,900 m2, were situated in a topo-sequence with plots 76-3a (5000 m2) and 76-3b (7500 m2) situated on crest and upper slope and plots 72-8 (20,000 m2) and 76-4 (16,400 m2) situated on middle slope and valley floor. The selected logged-over plots with a total area of 13,500 m2 were either of mixed geomorphology, plots 72-1 (5000 m2) and 72-2 (5000 m2), or situated on the valley floor, plot 77-2 (3500 m2). The study area is dominated by soils that are very deep to extremely deep, moder­ ately well to well drained, acid and clayey (Van Bremen et al., 1990), which can be classified as Alisols (FAO /Unesco/ISRIC, 1988). In limited areas, on very steep slopes where erosion is intense, less developed soils occur. These soils can be classi­ fied as Cambisols. Locally imperfectly to poorly drained variants are found of the Ali-sols and Cambisols mentioned above. Completely differentsoils are found on Mio­ cene sandstone formations. These soils have a limited depth and a sandy texture and can be classifiedas Podzols (FAO/Unesco/ISRIC, 1988), that are partly poorly drained.

2.2.3. Apo Kayan

The upland region at the headwaters of the is commonly referred to as the Apo Kayan. The research was concentrated in the Kenyah Dayak village Long Sungai Barang, Kayan Hulu subdistrict, Bulongan district. Long Sungai Barang is the upper­ most village on the Kayan river, at an approximate location of l 0 40' N and 115° E, and at an elevation of 750 m above sea-level. Research plots were located in primary forest south-east of the village, near the divide of the Boh and Kayan river at an elevation of 750-850 m above sea-level. The mean annual precipitation indicated for the entire Apo Kayan area is over 4000 mm (Voss, 1982). All months are wet according to the RePPProT ( 1987) definition that a wet month has over 200 mm rainfall. June, July, and August are usually drier months, however, and swiddens are made in this time. Records of rainfall are available for Long Nawang only. This village is the capital of the subdistrict, approximately 20 km downstream of Long Sungai Barang. Mean annual rainfall in Long Nawang is 4152 mm (observation 1917-1956; Vo ss, 1982). The mean temperature in 1982-1983 measured by Jessup (cited in Mackie, 1986) at Long Sungai Barang (measured in the village) was 23.5 °C, with a mean daily maximum of 27.4 °C and a minimum of 19.7 °C. The mean temperature is very constant throughout the year. Geological information for the area is scarce. The geology is composed of Paleo­ gene and undifferentiated Pre-Tertiary sedimentary rocks and basic volcanic rocks. Volcanic deposits like these are rare on the island of Borneo (Van Bemmelen, 1949; Vo ss, 1983). In the research plots pink and brown coloured siltstones and claystones

15 Chapter 2 have been found. The Apo Kayan area has moderately high, extensive rugged moun­ tains. Swampy areas occur locally. Undifferentiated hills and ridge systems are found over sedimentary rocks. Some hills are overlying metamorphic and igneous rocks. Volcanic cones and associated land forms are found on the south side of the area (RePPProT, 1987). Four permanent plots (subdivided in 10 x 10 m units) each totalling 1600 m2 were established in a topo-sequence from ridge crest to valley floor. In addition a line-plot

of 4 x 1200 m2 (subdivided into 4 x 25 m units) was established to include a greater variation in geomorphology and to buffer the effects of very local occurrence and/or dominance of (understorey) species. Although some variation in species composition correlated with geomorphology can be discerned, all plots combined, with a total area of 1 1,200 m2, are considered to represent the primary forest of this particular area. The soils in the permanent plots situated on upper and middle slopes have been de­ scribed as well drained to locally moderately well drained, with an effective soil depth of 65-105 cm (Oldeman & Iriansyah, 1992). The parent material consists of siltstone. The soils can be classifiedas (Haplic-)Alisols (FAO /Unesco/ISRIC, 1988). The soils in the plot on a small colluvio-alluvial terrace are moderately well to well drained, small swampy areas are present. Stoniness and gravel content decreases with distance from the stream. The soil can be classifiedas (Typic-)Cambisol.

2.3. Methods

The vegetation analysis of the three major research sites is based on a survey of the permanent plots described above. The three sites have in common that the plots were situated in a topo-sequence from ridge top to valley floor. In these permanent plots all trees with a dbh > 10 cm (dbh, at 130 cm above ground level or, if buttresses present, 30 cm above buttresses) were measured using the circumference method. The loca­ tion, within the plot, of each tree was recorded with a 10 cm accuracy. For the Wanariset and ITCI plots, dbh and tree location data of the 1990 recordings by Beekman (1990) and Van Eijk-Bos (unpublished) were used. For the vegetation analysis of plot Matthijs, the identifications as cited by Beekman (1990) were used. The information on botanical identity of trees in the ITCI plots is based on a complete identification (with some corrections) of all trees by Van Balgooy & Kochummen in 1990 as given by Van Eijk-Bos (unpublished). In the Apo Kayan plots, location, dbh (with a 0.5 cm accuracy), vernacular name and local use were recorded. Each tree was labelled with a numbered aluminium tag and voucher specimens of all trees were collected by tree climbing. The specimens were identified with the assistance of botanists at the Wanariset Herbarium, Samboja and the Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden (see Appendix 2.1). Species quoted as Eugenia are considered by other authors as belonging to Syzygium. Identification up to species level of the Apo Kayan specimens was not attempted since all collections were sterile. Morpho-taxa are simply referred to by a number. The research in the plots was further supported by general botanical collecting at the research sites (see Appendix 2.2).

Chapter 2 16 2.3.1. Data analysis

The Importance Value index (I.V.) of Cottam & Curtis (1956) is used to describe and compare the tree taxa (family, genus, species) composition of the plots and the various research sites. The I.V. of a taxon is defined as the sum of its relative density (Rde),

relative dominance (Rd0) and relative frequency (Rrr) (I.V. = Rdc + Rdo + Rrr), which are calculated using the following equations :

Number of individuals of a taxon Relative density: x 100% Total number of individuals Basal area of a taxon Relative dominance: x 100% Total basal area of all taxa Frequency of a taxon Relative frequency: x 100% Sum frequencies of all taxa

The frequency of a taxon is definedas the number of subplots (each subplot 100 m2) in which a taxon is present divided by the total number of subplots. The theoretical range of values for relative density, relative dominance and relative frequency is 0 to 100. Thus, the range of values for the importance value index is O to 300. Example: Madhuca sericea in plot Matthijs, represented by 7 trees, in 6 subplots with a basal area of 2911 cm2.

Rdc : (7/264) * 100 % = 2.652

Rdo : (2911/16 3993) * 100 % = 1.775

Rrr : ((6/51)/(252/51)) * 100 % = 2.381

I.V. : 2.652 + 1.775 + 2.381 = 6.8

For the ITCI plots no I. V. index for families was available or could be calculated from the report of Van Eijk-Bos (unpublished). The ranking of families for the ITCI plots is based on the cumulative I.V. score of the genera belonging to that family.

2.4. Results

2.4. 1. General aspects of the vegetation

Wa nariset area The remnant primary forest in the Wanariset area has an upper canopy of 30-35 m and emergent trees may reach up to 50 m. Extensive patches of Marantaceae are com­ mon on the forest floor as these plants are highiy drought-resistant, judging from the ability to recover after their leaves have wilted. Oncosperma and Borassodendron palms are present in canopy and understorey and their fallen leaves locally hamper regenera­ tion. Much of the forest still bears signs of the fire that swept through the area in 1983 (Van Balgooy, pers. comm.).

17 Chapter 2 ITC/ concession The primary mixed dipterocarp forest on ridges in the ITCI concession is character­ ized by a very open understorey, and large emergent Shorea laevis trees are prominent­ ly present. On middle slopes and valley floor the understorey is more dense and the importance of Eusideroxylon zwageri greatly increases, whereas emergents and main canopy trees of dipterocarps and other species intermingle. Vast patches of Marantaceae are common on the forest floor. The forest on podzolic soils (rare in the area) is of a very different composition and structure, characterized by Agathis bomeensis, Ganua pallida and Cleistanthus sp. According to Van Eijk-Bos (unpublished) the most characteristic groups of species of the primary ITCI dipterocarp forest are: Shonw pauciflora, S. parvifo lia, S. smithiana, Va tica oblongifo lia, Madhuca sericea and the genera Eugenia, Diospyros and Litho­ cmpus. Due to their gigantic size, Shorea laevis, Agathis borneensis, and Eusideroxylon zwageri have very high I.V. scores. But these species are not present in all plots. No clear trends in relations between the number of tree species or genera and the primary or Jogged-over status of the plots could be discerned by Van Eijk-Bos. The logged-over forest plots at ITCI have an uneven canopy and locally a very dense understorey of saplings and Iianas. The single layered pioneer canopy is rela­ tively open and in plots 71-1 and 72-2 the Macaranga trees are over-aged and dying. The extent of pioneer canopy in plot 72-1 is smaller than in plot 72-2 and a species richness of 126 and 75 respectively further supports the impression than the latter plot has been more disturbed by logging.

Apo Kayan The primary forest in the vicinity of Long Sungai Barang shows a great heterogene­ ity both in composition and structure. This heterogeneity is often associated with vari­ ations in edaphic factors (Soedjito, 1984 cited in Mackie, 1986; Soedjito, 1987). For­ est on alluvial flats tends to have a distinct upper canopy of rather uniform height and the ground layer is densely covered by herbs (e.g., Zingiberaceae, Marantaceae, Begoniaceae) and ferns.The forest on slopes and ridges has an uneven canopy of inter­ mingling crowns of various height, where no distinct upper canopy can be discerned. The people in the area are knowledgable with respect to the areas where good stands of, e.g., meranti (Shorea spp.) or udjep ( leiocmpum) are to be found. Neither Shorea laevis nor Eusideroxylon zwageri, both prominent species in the ITCI area and Wanariset forest,occur in the Apo Kayan. The nearest stands of Eusideroxylon zwageri are found in catchment areas of tributaries to the Boh river.

2.4.2. Stand structure

Plot Matthijs The forest in plot Matthijs is characterized by a total number of 518 trees per ha with an average dbh of 23.0 cm, and a total basal area of 32.2 m2 ha-1 (Table 2. 1). Eleven trees belonging to l 0 species reach a dbh of more than 60 cm, with Eusideroxylon zwageri, Shorea laevis and S. ovalis attaining a diameter of over 100 cm.

Chapter 2 18 Table 2. 1. Tree density (dbh > 10 cm), basal area and average dbh in (primary) fo rest plots in East Kalimantan.

Area Density Basal area Average dbh (ha) (tree ha- 1) (m2 ha-1 ) (cm)

Wanariset Plot Matthijs 0.51 518 32.1 23.0 ITCI All primary plots* 6.54 567 41.7 30.5 Plot 76-3a 0.50 625 53.2 33.0 Plot 76-3b 0.75 662 53.0 31.9 Plot 72-8 2.00 477 28.0 27.8 Plot 76-4 1.65 473 32.1 29.5 Logged-over plots Plot 72-1 0.50 522 32.9 Plot 72-2 0.50 430 25.5 Plot 77-2 0.35 649 23.4 Apo Kayan All plots combined 1.12 670 35.5 25.9 1600 m2 plots 0.64 683 38.3 26.7 Line plot 0.48 654 31.7 24.8

*) Van Eijk-Bos (unpublished).

ITC/ concession Based on a sample size of 6.54 ha in primary forest (Van Eijk-Bos, unpublished), the ITCI forest is characterized by a total number of 567 trees per ha with an average diameter at breast height of 30.5 cm, and a total basal area of 41.7 m2 ha -1 (Table 2.1). The primary forest plots studied for NTFP research can be grouped in pairs, based on geomorphology. The plots 76-3a and 76-3b are located on crest and upper slope, and plots 72-8 and 76-4 are situated on middle slope and valley floor. Basal area and number of trees per hectare is clearly higher in the first mentioned two plots (Table 2.1 ). The logging in plots 72-1, 72-2 and 77-2 must have influenced the basal area and number of trees in the plots, but at present differences can no longer be discerned.

Apo Kayan The forest in the Apo Kayan plots is characterized by a total number of 670 trees per hectare with an average diameter at breast height of 25.9 cm and a total basal area of 35.5 m2 ha-1 (Table 2.1). The lower values for the line plot (654 trees ha-I, av. dbh 24.8 cm, and b.a. 31.7 m2 ha-1) as compared with the four permanent plots (683 trees ha-1, av. dbh 26.7 cm, and b.a. 38.3 m2 ha-1) might be ascribed to the steep slopes that were present in the line plot. Since distance was measured at ground level and no compensation for incline was made, total surface area of the plot was overestimated resulting in an underestimation of basal area and total number of trees per hectare. Twenty-five trees belonging to 19 species reach a diameter of more than 60 cm, with Dac1ydium sp., sp. and Palaquium rostratum attaining a diameter of over 100 cm; the latter species is present with a tree of 140 cm dbh.

19 Chapter 2 Table 2.2. Tree density, basal area and ImportanceVa lue (1.V.) of the 15 most common families in plot Matthijs (a) and the Apo Kayan (b) (I.V. = Rdc + Rdo + Rrr).ranked in order of decreasing Importance Value.

Density Basal area l.V. Rdc Rdo Rrr � (tree ha· I) (m2 ha·t)

(a) Dipte rocarpaceae 43 8.94 43.5 8.3 27.8 7.4 Lauraceae 41 3.94 28.4 8.0 12.2 8.2 47 2.78 27.7 9.1 8.7 10.0 59 1.52 26.0 11.4 4.7 10.0 Myrtaceae 45 2.18 23.7 8.7 6.8 8.2 Burseraceae 37 1.55 18.5 7.2 4.8 6.5 Leguminosae 26 1.44 15.0 4.9 4.5 5.6 Myristicaceae 29 0.79 12.9 5.7 2.5 4.8 Bombacaceae 20 1.43 12.6 3.8 4.5 4.3 Chrysobalanaceae 10 2.02 10.3 1.9 6.3 2.2 Annonaceae 20 0.57 9.0 3.8 1.8 3.5 Ebenaceae 16 0.28 7.4 3.0 0.9 3.5 Moraceae 14 0.41 6.5 2.7 1.3 2.6 Polygalaceae 8 0.70 5.4 1.5 2.2 1.7 Rubiaceae 10 0.49 5.1 1.9 1.5 l.7

Total (35 families) 518 32.1 (b) Dipterocarpaceae 71 4.64 32.3 10.5 13.1 8.6 Euphorbiaceae 83 2.45 31.3 12.4 6.9 12.I Fagaceae 46 2.84 22.0 6.8 8.0 7.2 Myrtaceae 43 2.38 19.7 6.4 6.7 6.6 Burseraceae 39 2.61 18.5 5.9 7.4 6.0 Lauraceae 46 1.63 14.2 6.8 4.6 7.1 Sapotaceae 18 3.03 11.8 2.7 8.5 3.0 Polygalaceae 37 0.85 10.3 5.6 2.4 3.9 Moraceae 15 2.04 9.8 2.3 5.7 2.3 Annonaceae 23 0.91 8.8 3.5 2.6 3.8 22 0.75 8.4 3.3 2.1 3.3 Theaceae 18 1.07 8.3 2.7 3.0 2.7 Rubiaceae 21 0.35 7.1 3.1 1.0 3.0 Flacourtiaceae 16 0.60 6.7 2.4 1.7 2.6 Guttiferae 15 0.56 6.3 2.3 1.6 2.4

Total (58 fa milies) 670 35.5

Rdc = relative density; Rdo =relative dominance; Rr, = relative frequency.

2.4.3. Family composition

Plot Matthijs At family level (Table 2.2a) Dipterocarpaceae have the highest l.V. score due to a high number of trees and a basal area that amounts to 27 .8 percent of total basal area. Lauraceae and Sapotaceae both representing important canopy trees have a compara- ble number of trees but a considerably smaller basal area. The Euphorbiaceae are repre-

Chapter 2 20 sented by the largest number of trees and show the greatest species diversity ( 15 spe­ cies). Since these species are in general small to medium-sized trees, their basal area is relatively low. Myrtaceae, Burseraceae and Leguminosae represent medium-sized to big trees that often attain the upper canopy. Myristicaceae are mostly medium-sized trees and Bombacaceae (Durio spp.) are important canopy trees.

ITC/ primary fo rest plots As mentioned before, no importance value for the families was available or could be calculated. The Dipterocarpaceae dominate the forest. Also Euphorbiaceae and Sapotaceae, Myrtaceae, Fagaceae and Annonaceae are of high importance. In the up­ per slope and crest forest Burseraceae, Bombacaceae and are of great importance. Whereas in the forest on middle slope and valley floor Lauraceae and Meliaceae are more important.

Apo Kayan At family level (Table 2.2b) Dipterocarpaceae have the highest LV. score, followed by Euphorbiaceae and Fagaceae. Dipterocarpaceae are represented by Va tica in the understorey and Shorea in the canopy. The high I.V. score ofEuphorbiaceae is a result of the great number of small to medium-sized trees (83 ha-1) belonging to 15 genera and 22 species. Fagaceae and Myrtaceae are prominent canopy and subcanopy trees. Burseraceae and Lauraceae are represented by medium-sized to big trees, with the lat­ ter family represented by relatively smaller trees. Sapotaceae are present with big canopy trees, whereas Polygalaceae and Annonaceae are in general small understorey trees. Moraceae are present with medium-sized to big trees belonging to Artocarpus and Ficus.

2.4.4. Genus composition

Plot Matthijs At genus level the high LV. of Shorea, Eugenia, Eusideroxylon and Pa laquium il­ lustrates the dominant role of these genera (Table 2.3a). Durio is of considerable im­ portance, while Dacryodes and Knema are present with many trees, but with much smaller basal areas. The high ranking of Cotylelobium and Parinari, both represented by a single spe­ cies, is a result of the large diameter of individual trees.

ITC/ primmy plots Differences at genus level (Table 2.3c) between the two upper slope/crest plots and middle slope/valley floor plots are reflected in higher l.V. scores. Except for Diptero­ carpus all genera are present in at least three out of the four plots. Differences in l.V. score can in general be ascribed to the abundance of a single species such as Eusider­ oxylon zwageri, Dipterocarpus tempehes, Lophopetalum sp. and Cleistanthus suma­ trana.

21 Chapter 2 Table 2.3. Tree density, basal area and Importance Value (I. V.) of the 15 most common genera

in plot Matthijs (a), the Apo Kayan (b) (l.V. = Rdc + Rdo + Rrr).ranked in order of decreasing I.V., and the I. V. of some characteristic genera in the ITC! plots (c).

Density Basal area I.V. Rdc Rdo Rrr � (tree ha·I) (m2 ha·I )

(a) Slwrea 30 7.02 33.0 5.7 21.8 5.6 Eugenia 41 2.09 22.4 8.0 6.5 7.9 E11sideroxy/011 24 2.70 17.7 4.5 8.4 4.8 Palaquium 24 2.00 15.0 4.5 6. l 4.4 Durio 20 1.40 12.2 3.8 4.5 4.0 Dac1J•odes 24 0.75 11.2 4.5 2.3 4.4 K11ema 24 0.35 10.4 4.5 ).] 4.8 Koompassia 16 0.84 8.8 3.0 2.6 3.2 D1ypetes 14 0.57 7.2 2.7 1.8 2.8 Diospyros 16 0.28 7.1 3.0 0.9 3.2 Mad/111ca 14 0.57 6.8 2.7 1.8 2.4 Artocarpus 14 0.41 6.3 2.7 1.3 2.4 Aporosa 12 0.29 5.6 2.3 0.9 2.4 Cotylelobi11111 4 1.23 5.4 0.8 3.8 0.8 Pari11ari 2 1.48 5.4 0.4 4.6 0.4 Xa11tlwphyl/r1111 8 0.70 5.3 1.5 2.2 1.6

Total (76 genera) 518 32.1 (b) Eugenia 39 2.09 17.7 5.9 5.9 6.0 Slwrea 23 3.37 16.6 3.5 9.5 3.6 Va tica 47 1.27 15.8 7.1 3.6 5.1 Lithoca1pus 30 2.12 14.5 4.1 6.0 4.4 Xa11tlrophyllu111 37 0.85 11.8 5.5 2.4 3.9 Palaquium 10 2.77 10.9 1.5 7.8 1.7 Dac1)'odes 21 1.43 10.7 3.2 4.0 3.5 Q11erc11s 17 0.58 6.7 2.4 1.6 2.7 Hyd11ocarpus 16 0.60 6.7 2.4 1.7 2.6 Ma/lotus 21 0.25 6.3 3.2 0.7 2.4 Artocarpus 13 0.59 5.5 1.9 1.7 2.0 Baccaurea 14 0.24 4.8 2.1 0.7 2.0 Ficus 3 1.44 4.8 0.4 4.1 0.3 Ca11ari11111 10 0.55 4.5 1.5 1.6 1.5 Craton 13 0.23 4.5 1.9 0.6 2.0

Total ( 136 genera) 670 35.5

Rdc = relative density; Rdo = relative dominance; Rrr = relative frequency.

ITC! logged-over plots At the genus level Shorea has a high T.V. score due to the many species present. The genus ranks fifth, fourth or first in the three plots (Table 2.3c). Eusideroxylon, Macaranga and Anthocephalus always belong to the five highest ranking genera. The I. V. scores of Eugenia and Va tica are considerably lower than in the primary forest.

Chapter 2 22 (Table 2.3 co111i1111ed) - (c) :::----_ Primary plots Logged-over plots 76-4 72-8 76-3b 76-3a 72-1 72-2 77-2

Shorea 52.8 52.8 78.2 66.2 43.2 21.6 15.0 Eugenia 8.9 13.I 22.9 19.1 6.9 I. I 2.1 Va rica 2.5 6.8 10.4 12.8 2.5 1.3 li1hocarp11s 6.5 14.5 5.3 8.9 0.9 Hopea l.J 2.8 7.0 26.8 3.7 2.1 D11rio 0.6 1.6 9.2 10.4 G/11ta 0.6 0.7 7.6 8.0 1.0 Cleisra111/111s 0.3 13.l 13.0 l.5 lophopeta/11111 0.6 7.8 8.8 Dipte1vcarp11s 28.4 E11sideivxy/011 20.4 18.8 0.5 27.3 28.5 20.8 Macaranga 8.5 11.0 l.2 21.J 28.3 117.3 Koilodepas l.J l.5 l.O 11.8 11.1 A111hocephaltts 13.4 40.0 20.3 D11aba11ga 10.4 Ge1111sia 4.2 16.4

ITC/ concession For the ITCI concession in general, Artocarpus, Eugenia, Knema, Nephelium and Shorea occur in all of the 14 plots studied by Van Eijk-Bos (unpublished). Only Shorea usually has a high I.V. score, the I.V. score of Eugenia varies from plot to plot, while Artocarpus, Knema and Nephelium always have modest I.V. scores. The 10 genera with the highest cumulative I.V. (I.V. of all plots tallied) are: Agathis, Anthocephalus, Cleistanthus, Diospyros, Dipterocarpus, Eugenia, Eusideroxylon, Hopea, Macaranga and Shorea.

Apo Kayan At genus level (Table 2.3b) the high I.V. of Lithocarpus stresses the importance of the 17 morpho-taxa belonging to this genus. Eugenia is represented by 12 taxa and has the highest l.V. as a result of both a high density and basal area. Shorea is represented by I 0 species and ranks fifth with respect to density but has the highest basal area of all genera. The high score of Va tica and Xanthophyllum results from their high number of trees. Whereas Pa laquium (3 species) is represented by a limited number of big trees. The I.V. score of over 10 illustrates the importance of Dacryodes represented by trees of all diameters.

2.4.5. Species composition

Plot Matthijs The 15 species with the highest I.V. scores in plot Matthijs are listed in Table 2.4a. A full enumeration of all species with their respective I.V. is given in Appendix 2.3. Eusideroxylon zwageri, Palaquium rostratum and Eugenia cf. dyeriana are present

23 Chap/er 2 Table 2.4. Tree density, basal area and Importance Value (l.V.) of the 15 most common species

in plot Matthijs (a), the Apo Kayan (b) (l.V. = Rdc + Rcto + Rrr). ranked in order of decreasing I.V., and the I.V.of some characteristic species in the ITCI plots (c).

Density Basal area I.Y. Rdc Rdo Rrr � (tree ha-I) (m2 ha-1) (a) Eusideroxylon zwageri 24 2.70 17.7 4.5 8.4 4.8 Palaquirmr rostrarr1111 24 1.96 15.0 4.5 6.1 4.4 Eugenia cf. dye riana 24 1.62 14.0 4.5 5.1 4.4 Slwrea laevis 6 3.13 12.0 I. I 9.7 1.2 Dacryodes rugosa 16 0.60 8.1 3.0 1.9 3.2 Slzorea ova/is 8 1.86 8.9 1.5 5.8 1.6 Koompassia malaccensis 16 0.84 8.8 3.0 2.6 3.2 Durio lanceolaws 12 l.16 8.3 2.3 3.6 2.4 Madlwca sericea 14 0.57 6.8 2.7 1.8 2.4 Slzorea pauciflora 10 0.77 6.3 1.9 2.4 2.0 Diospyros bomeensis 14 0.26 6.2 2.7 0.8 2.8 Drypetes kikir 10 0.50 5.4 1.9 1.6 2.0 Cotylelobium melanoxy/011 4 1.23 5.4 0.8 3.8 0.8 Parinari oblongifolia 2 1.48 5.4 0.4 4.6 0.4 Xanthophy/111111 stipitatum 8 0.70 5.3 1.5 2.2 1.6 Total ( 117 species) 518 32.16 (b) Va tica umbonata 38 I.JO 12.3 5.6 3.1 3.6 Xmrrhophyllum grifjirlzii 29 0.53 8.7 4.4 1.5 2.8 Quercus argentata 15 0.53 6.2 2.3 1.5 2.4 Ma/lotus wrayi 20 0.23 5.7 2.9 0.7 2.1 Dacryodes rostrata 9 0.86 5.1 1.3 2.4 1.3 Pa laquirmr rostrat11111 2 1.42 4.6 0.3 4.0 0.3 Hydnocarpus s11111atrana II 0.44 4.5 1.6 1.2 1.6 Ficussp. 2 2 1.42 4.4 0.3 4.0 0.2 Lithocarpus coopertus 7 0.73 4.3 1.0 2.1 1.2 Baccaurea sarawakensis 13 0.20 4.1 1.9 0.6 1.6 Neoscorteclrinia kingii 10 0.32 4.0 1.5 0.9 1.6 Shorea ova/is 3 1.08 3.9 0.4 3.0 0.5 Croton ob/ongus II 0.20 3.8 1.6 0.6 1.6 Palaquium sp. I 3 0.93 3.5 0.4 2.6 0.5 Eugenia sp. JO 5 0.52 3.2 0.8 1.5 0.9 Total (264 species) 670 35.5

Rctc = relative density; Rcto= relative dominance; R1, = relative frequency. with individuals of all sizes. The high I.V. scores of Shorea laevis, Shorea ova/is, Cotyle­ lobium melanoxylon and Parinari oblongifolia have to be attributed to the big diam­ eters of individual trees. Dacryodes rugosa, Drypetes kikir and Diospyros borneensis are present as small to medium-sized trees.

ITC! primary plots Differences in I. V. scores of the dominant or characteristic tree species can be dis­ cerned (Table 2.4c ). Shorea laevis, Shorea patoiensis, Hopea mengerawan, Cleistanthus

Chapter 2 24 (Table 2.4 comi1111ed) - (c)

Primary plots Logged-over plots

. ::::------_ 76-4 72-8 76-3b 76-3a 72-1 72-2 77-2

Dip1eroca1p11s rempelres 27.8 Shorea parvisripu/ara subsp. albifolia 16.5 15.3 Te ijs111aw1iode11dro11 bogoriense 2.4 5.1 Dimorplrocalyx 11111rica111s 3.6 3.0 0.9 Macaranga lowii 5.7 4.8 13.8 Slrorea jolroren sis 4.8 12.3 7.8 1.8 9.6 Eusideroxy/011 zwageri 20.4 18.6 0.6 27.0 28.2 19.8 S/rorea pan1ifolia 1.8 I0.2 3.6 6.6 2.4 3.6 Slrorea pauciflora 1.5 3.3 7.5 5.4 10.8 2.1 Slrorea s111itlria11a 2.7 1.2 2.7 2.4 6.3 Madl111ca sericea 1.2 2.4 3.3 1.8 0.9 Va tica ob/011ga 2.1 4.5 5.1 9.3 0.9 Slzorea laevis 0.3 36.6 41.4 2.7 Slrorea patoie11sis 1.0 20.7 11.4 Hopea 111e11gerawa11 0.6 4.8 24.9 loplropeta/11111 sp. 0.3 7.5 6.9 Cleista111/r11s s11111atra11a 12.6 12.0 Durio exce/sa 8.7 10.2 Glttta walliclrii 5.4 4.8 Macara11ga lrosei 1.2 2.4 0.6 18.0 22.2 77.1 Macara11ga lrypoleuca 2.7 2.4 3.3 9.6 Macaranga gigalllea 0.3 1.5 26.7 Alltlroceplralus clri11e11sis 13.2 39.6 19.5 D11aba11ga 1110/11cca11a 10.2

sumatrana, Durio excelsa, Gluta wallichii and Lophopetalum sp. have high l.V. scores in the crest and upper slope plots but have low l.V scores or are absent in the middle slope and valley floor plots (72-8, 76-4). Whereas Eusideroxylon zwageri, Shorea parvistipulata subsp albifo lia, Shoreajohorensis, Dipterocarpus tempehes, Macaranga lowii, Dimorphocalyx muricatus and Te ijsmanniodendron bogoriense have high l.V. scores in the middle slope and valley floor plots but low I.V. scores or are absent in the other plots. This difference in I. V. of species that plots have in common in combina­ tion with species that are restricted to either the crest and upper slope plots or the mid­ dle slope and valley floor plots indicates that two forest types can be discerned.

ITC/ logged-over plots The canopy in the logged-over plots is locally dominated by pioneer species like Anthocephalus c/1ine11sis, Duabanga moluccana, Macaranga gigantea and Macaranga hosei (Table 2.4c). Relatively the l.V. of Eusideroxylon zwageri has increased as the concession holder has no permit to log this species. Only people with traditional landowner rights are

25 Chaprer 2 allowed to fell Eusideroxylon zwageri trees, but not, e.g., P.T. ITCI. Furthermore the species is very resistant to disturbance. The I.V. scores of individual Shorea species are in general reduced because of the logging, resulting in an on average lower basal area of remaining individual trees and in general less individuals per hectare.

Apo Kayan The 15 species with highest l.V., for all plots combined, are listed in Table 2.4b. A full enumeration of all species with their respective l.V. scores is given in Appendix

2.4. Va tica umbonata is by far the most common species (38 trees ha - t ). It is an understorey tree of up to 31 cm dbh. Xantophyllum griffithii and Ma llotus wrayi are common understorey trees with a dbh less than 20 cm. Dac1yodes rostrata, Lithocar­ pus coopertus, Quercus argentata and Eugenia sp. I 0 are important canopy trees. Pala­ quium rostratum, Pa laquium sp. 1 and Shorea ovalis are impressive emergents. The high score of Ficus results from a two-stemmed ( l I 0 cm, 90 cm dbh) strangling fig with a high basal area. Its impressive stiltroots occupy cathedral-like an area of 12m2. Some species show a preference for(dry) ridges, e.g.,Artoca1pus intege1; Artocarpus /anceifolius, Agathis borneensis, Dac1ydium sp., Xanthophyllum griffithii, Mallotus wrayi and Va tica umbonata. Other species were only encountered along streams, e.g., Baccaurea sarawakensis and Shoreajohorensis. Among understorey species some appear to have a clustered distribution, e.g., Ma llotus wrayi (18 trees in 9 subplots; 22 trees in 13 subplots), Va tica umbonata (28 trees in 17 subplots; 42 trees in 24 subplots) and Xanthophyllum griffithii (33 trees in I 9 subplots).

2.5. Discussion

The species diversity of the tropical rain forest is so immense that only specialists can give an adequate identification, if provided with good herbarium material. Still large families remain, where no recent revision has been published. Identification of the Lauraceae, Sapotaceae, Guttiferae, and Eugenia/Syzygiwn poses great problems, even when good flowering or fruiting material has been collected. Therefore, producing a reliable identification list of in general sterile trees in research plots poses serious problems. Comparison of the research findings on the vegetation of primary forest with data from other authors is complicated. Data are often incomplete and/or authors use dif­ ferent methods of calculation to express the importance of species, genera or families. Sometimes I.V. scores are given whereas in other publications only numbers of species and trees per taxon are given. Sometimes the area on which the vegetation typification/ description is based varies considerably or is simply too small to be representative. Reliability of species names cited is often questionable when voucher specimens are not collected and local names have simply been translated to scientific names using reference lists.

Chapter 2 26 2.5.1. Comparison of basal area and tree density

The Apo Kayan forest has the highest tree density of the East Kalimantan plots (Table 2.5); this is probably a result of the higher elevation (Paijmans, 1976; Richards, 1952; Van Valkenburg, 1987). The ITCI forest has an intermediate density of trees but the highest basal area. The high basal area of the ITCI forest is largely a result ofthe upper slope plots (see Table 2. 1 ).The average dbh value as found in plot Matthijs (23.0 cm), the Apo Kayan plots (25.9 cm) and the ITCI plots (30.5 cm) is in accordance with the basal area ranking (Table 2.1). The forest plots described by Kartawinata et al.(1981) in Wanariset, and Riswan (1987) in Lempake as well as plot Matthijs can be considered as representative for the Balikpapan-Samarinda area in terms of basal area and tree density (Table 2.5). The plot at Lempake has the lowest density of trees but the trees have a higher basal area. The present Apo Kayan plots and the Fagaceae-forestplot of Bratawinata ( 1986) have a comparable density of trees and an equally high basal area. In general higher timber stocking on ridges is also observed in Peninsular Malaysia (Anonymous cited in Whitmore, 1984) where Shorea curtisii dominates ridges similar to Shorea laevis in the ITCI forest. The plots in East Kalimantan are not so different from lowland sites in Sabah (Kamarudin, 1986 cited in Newbery et al., 1992; Newbery et al., 1992) and Peninsular Malaysia (Manokaran & LaFrankie, 1990; Wyatt-Smith, 1949, 1966), but the higher density of trees in the Apo Kayan plots is still obvious. The very high values for the dipterocarp plot on Gunung Mulu at 200-250 m above sea-level have to be attributed to the fact that the sample plot was not representative for the area with respect to soil, topography, and floristic composition (Proctor et al., 1983).

Ta ble 2.5. Density of trees and basal area in primary forest plots in East Kalimantan, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia.

Area Density Basal area Reference (ha) (tree ha-I) (m2 ha-1)

East Kalimantan Wanariset, plot Matthijs 0.51 518 32.3 present study Wanariset 1.6 541 29.7 Kanawinata et al. ( 1981) Lempake 1.6 445 33.7 Riswan ( 1987) ITCI 4.90 599 41.8 present study Apo Kayan 1.12 670 35.5 present study Apo Kayan, Fagaceae plot 0.8 719 36.0 Bratawinata ( 1986) Sa bah Danum Valley 1 8.0 434 26.3 Newbery et al. ( 1992) Danum Valley 2 1.0 431 42.8 Kamarudin (1986)* Sarawak Gunung Mulu, dipterocarp plot 1.0 778 57.0 Proctor et al. (1983) Peninsular Malaysia Pas oh 50.0 530 25.2 Manokaran & LaFrankie ( 1990) Sungai Menyala 1.62 488 32.9 Wyatt-Smith ( 1966)*

*) as cited in Newbery et al. ( 1992).

27 Chapter 2 Ta ble 2.6. Number of families, genera, and tree species (dbh > 10 cm) at various sites in East Kalimantan, compared with species diversity in primary forest plots in Sabah, Sara­ wak and Peninsular Malaysia.

Area No. No. No. Rainfall References (ha) families genera species (mm/year)

East Kalimantan Wanariset, plot Matthijs 0.51 35 76 117 2373 present study Wanariset 1.6 45 122 239 2373 Kartawinata et al. (1981) Lempake 1.6 44 125 209 2012 Riswan ( 1987) ITC! crest I upper slope 0.5 31 62 104 2032 present study (76-3a) ITC! middle slope I valley 1.65 44 108 198 2032 present study (76-4) Apo Kayan* 1.12 58 136 264 4159 present study Apo Kayan, Fagaceae plot 0.8 42 78 175 4159 Bratawinata ( 1986) Sabah Danum Valley ** 4.0 242 2800 Newbery et al. ( 1 992) Danum Valley ** 4.0 247 2800 Newbery et al. ( 1992) Sarawak Gunung Mulu, alluvial plot 1.0 223 5100 Proctor et al. (1983) GunungMulu, dipterocarp 1.0 214 5100 Proctor et al. (1983) plot Peninsular Malaysia Pasoh 1.0 210 2000 Kochummen et al. (1990)

* If a plant was not identifiedto family level it was not taken into consideration forthis table, for other calculations they were considered as a single taxon. If a specimen was identified to family only it figures as a single genus per family. ** = Trees > 12 in. (30.5 cm) girth at breast height.

2.5.2. Botanical diversity

The plots in the Apo Kayan have the highest botanical diversity so far recorded in Indonesia. This may partly be influenced by the factthat the plot was not a single continuous plot of 1.12 ha. In his review of natural vegetation studies in Malesia, Kartawinata (1990) states that a 1.6 ha plot at Wanariset (Kartawinata et al., 1981) with 239 species is the richest forest (plot) in Indonesia. The inventory of the Apo Kayan plots has, however, yielded a higher number of species (264) on a smaller area (1.12 ha). The species-area curve of Kartawinata et al. (1981) gives a value of less than 200 species for 1.1 ha. Therefore it can be assumed that the species richness in the Apo Kayan forest is considerably higher and that this forest can now be considered as the richest forest (so far recorded) in Indonesia (Table 2.6). The species diversity as found in the Apo Kayan is also higher than the approxi­ mated 210 species ha-1 found in the 50-ha plot at Pasoh in Peninsular Malaysia (Kochummen et al., 1990) and the 223 species ha-1 in alluvial forest and 214 species ha-1 in dipterocarp forest on a hillside at Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak

Chapter 2 28 (Proctor et al., 1983). The 247 and 242 species of over 30 cm girth at breast height in two 4-ha plots as recorded at Dan um Valley in Sabah (Newbery et al., 1992) represent a considerably lower species diversity. Reitsma (1988) observed a correlation between rainfall and species richness in Gabon, with the greatest species richness corresponding with the highest rainfall. A positive correlation between rainfall and species richness can also be discerned for the East Kalimantan plots but is not applicable for the other plots (Table 2.6). However, not the absolute amount of rainfall but the periodic occurrence of water deficits is a decisive factor (Kramer & Kozlowski, 1965; Longman & Jenfk, 1974). No informa­ tion could be deduced from the existing meteorological records on this. Ashton & Hall ( 1992) showed that stature and density of emergents can also be attributed to periodic­ ity of water deficits and not to soil nutrients.

2.5.3. Importance of families

The general statement that the lowland evergreen rain forest of Sundaland is domi­ nated by dipterocarps (Richards, 1952) is also confirmedby the results of the present study (Table 2.7). Dipterocarpaceae rank first with respect to basal area similar to the forest at Pasoh in Peninsular Malaysia (Kochummen et al., 1990) and the forest at Dan um Valley in Sabah (Newbery et al., 1992). The importance of Euphorbiaceae is

Table 2.7. Highest ranking families (tree > 10 cm dbh) at various sites in East Kalimantan, based on Importance Value except forWa nariset and Lempake, which are based on number of species.

Apo ITC! ITC! Matthijs4 Wanariset5 Lempake6 Kayan1 76-3a 72-8 76-b2 76-43

Dipterocarpaceae I I I 2 6 Euphorbiaceae 2 2 3 4 I I Lauraceae 5 2 2 3 3 Myrtaceae 4 3 6 5 8 Sapotaceae 7 4 4 3 4 Burseraceae 5 5 6 6 9 Fagaceae 3 8 5 Annonaceae JO 9 8 II 8 2 Myristicaceae II 9 8 5 7 Bombacaceae 6 9 Leguminosae 10 7 JO Meliaceae II 7 7 5 Anacardiaceae 7 Moraceae 9 13 9 Polygalaceae 8 14 Chrysobalanaceae 10 Rubiaceae 13 15 10 4

1 2 3 4 = present study; 5 = Kartawinata et al. (1981 ); 6 = Riswan (1987).

29 Chapter 2 Table 2.8. Dipterocarpaceae, species diversity, density of trees (dbh > 10 cm), and basal area in forest plots in East Kalimantan, Sabah and Sarawak.

Area No. Density Basal area References (ha) species (tree ha-1) (m2 ha-1)

East Kalimantan Wa nariset, plot Matthijs 0.51 8 43 8.9 present study Wanariset 1.60 14 56 10.2 Kartawinata et al. (1981) Lempake 1.60 12 28 13.2 Riswan (1987) ITC! primary plots 76-3a (crest/upper slope) 0.50 13 196 26.8 present study 76-4 (middle slope/valley) 1.65 16 110 13.7 present study ITCI logged-over plots 72-1 0.50 17 104 8.3 present study 72-2 0.50 8 22 3.3 present study Apo Kayan 1.12 14 71 4.6 present study Sabah Danum Valley 1 * 8.00 19 91 13.1 Newbery et al. ( 1992) Sarawak Gunung Mulu, dipterocarp plot 1.00 114 24.6 Proctor et al. ( 1983)

* = Recalculated by combining tables 5 and 7 in Newbery et al. (1992).

obvious in all sites, both with respect to l.V. score and species richness. This is compa­ rable with the forest at Pasoh (Kochummen et al., 1990) and Danum Valley (Newbery et al., 1992). The importance of Lauraceae varies but is always high, the presence or absence of Eusideroxylon zwageri greatly influences the l.V. score. Myrtaceae, Sapota­ ceae, and Burseraceae are important medium-sized to big trees in all sites. The Fagaceae are more important in the Apo Kayan forest where they rank third in both density and basal area and account for 8 % of total basal area. At Pasoh (trees > 1 cm dbh) where the family ranked only seventeenth in density (Kochummen et al., 1990) although ranking fifth in basal area it only accounted for 4.6 % of the total basal area. At Danum Valley the Fagaceae ranked seventh in basal area accounting for less than 4 % of the total (Newbery et al., 1992). Annonaceae and Myristicaceae are omnipresent in the research sites, with many species but in general with small to medium-sized trees. The importance values of Bombacaceae and Leguminosae that are often represented by large canopy trees varied per site. Also the presence of Moraceae and Meliaceae, in general medium-sized trees, and Polygalaceae and Rubiaceae, in general small trees varied between sites. Looking only at the differences in Dipterocarpaceae the species richness is compa­ rable in all of the East Kalimantan sites, despite differences in plot size. Differences in basal area and tree density can clearly be discerned (Table 2.8). Species richness can­ not be compared with the Pasoh (50 ha) and Danum Valley (4 ha & 4 ha) plots due to the differences in plot size. The basal area of dipterocarps is lowest in the Apo Kayan (4.6 m2 ha·t ). The basal area value of the Balikpapan-Samarinda forest of 8.9-13.2 m2 ha·' (Wanariset, Lempake, plot Matthijs) is comparable to the value of the ITCI

Chapter 2 30 plot situated on middle slope and valley floor (13.7 m2 ha-1) and the Danum Valley plots in Sabah ( 13. l m2 ha-I). The ITCI forest on crest and upper slope (76-3a) clearly has the highest basal area value (26.8 m2 ha-1), because of the big Shorea trees. The lower value for the logged-over plots is a result of the removal of big dipterocarps during logging. Not only the highest basal area but also the highest density of dipterocarp trees, both big and small, is found in the ITCI plots. Despite a low density of trees in the Lempake plot (Riswan, 1987) it still has a high basal area as a result of the big size of the trees present (average b.a. 0.47 m2). In the Apo Kayan plots the average size of the dipterocarps is smaller than in the other sites. This can largely be ascribed to the dominance of Va tica umbonata an understorey species. Individual Shorea trees reach diameters of over 80 cm.

Table 2.9. Importance Values of some characteristic genera in various primary forest plots of East Kalimantan.

Apo Kayan Wanariset ITC! � 72-8 76-4 76-3b 76-3a

Slzorea 16.6 33.0 52.8 52.8 78.2 66.2 E11ge11ia 17.7 22.4 13.1 8.9 22.9 19.1 Litlzocarpus 14.6 3.2 14.5 6.5 5.3 8.9 Va tica 15.8 2.0 6.8 2.5 10.4 12.8 Palaq11i11111 10.9 15.0 2.5 1.7 8.3 6.2 Eusideroxy/011 0.0 17.7 18.8 20.4 0.5 0.0 Durio 0.8 12.2 1.6 0.6 9.2 10.4 Artoca1p11s 5.5 6.3 2.7 4.4 1.7 0.7 Xa11tlzoplzyl/11111 11.8 5.3 0.0 1.4 2.3 0.8 K11e111a 1.0 10.4 5.5 3.4 6.4 6.5 Dacryodes 10.7 11.2 2.2 1.3 6.8 7.9

2.5.4. Importance of genera

In all sites Shorea can be considered the dominant genus (Table 2.9), representing the highest l.V. scores in plot Matthijs and the ITCI primary plots, and although ranking second in l.V. it has the highest basal area in the Apo Kayan plots (Table 2.3b). Eugenia represented by both medium-sized and big trees ranks mostly second. The importance value of Lithocarpus is highest in the Apo Kayan where it ranks fourth in LY. score. In the ITCI forest it still is of considerable importance (ranking 3-8). Eusidervxylon, equally important in the ITCI and Wanariset forest, is absent from the Apo Kayan plots. Palaquium represented by big canopy trees and Dac1yodes represented by me­ dium-sized and big trees in both the Wanariset forestand the Apo Kayan plots are less important in the ITCI forest. No comparison can be made with the Lempake plot by Riswan (1987) or the Wanariset plot by Kartawinata et al. (1981), as importance values at genus level are not given and could also not be calculated in absence of a complete species list.

31 Chapter 2 Table 2.10. Ten highest ranking species in primary forest plots in East Kalimantan, ranking based on Importance Value except for Lempake plot.

Apo Apo Plot Wana- Lem- ITC! ITC! Kayan• Kayan2 MatthijsJ riset4 pakeS 72-8 76-3a :::------76-46 76-3b7

Quercus arge111ara I 3 Eugenia sibulanensis 2 Eugenia acmangu/11111 3 Quercus s1111daica 4 Elateriospemrum rapos 5 Aglaia tome/l/osa 6 Euge11ia sp. 7 litsea sp. 8 Ma/lotus leptoplryllus 9 Va tica umbonara I Xm1tlroplryl/11111 grij]itlrii 2 Ma/lotus wrayi 4 Dacryodes rostrata 5 Pa laq11i11111 rostra/11111 6 2 Hydnocarpus s11111atrana 7 Ficus sp. 2 8 litlrocarpus coopertus 9 Baccaurea sarawakensis 10 Slrorea ova/is 6 9 4 Eusideroxylon zwageri I 6 2 Eugenis cf. dyerimra 3 Slrorea /aevis 4 Dacryodes rugosa 5 Koompassia ma/accensis 7 4 Durio /a11ceolatus 8 Madlruca sericea 9 10 Slrorea pauciflora 10 8 Diospyros bomeensis 3 Dryperes sp. 2 Girom1iera 11ervosa 5 Ma/lotus eclrinatus 8 Eugenia sp. 7 Slrorea parvisripulara subsp. a/bifolia 2 Dipterocarpus tempelres 3 Slrorea jolrorensis 6 4 laevigatus 5 Slrorea parvifolia 5 6 10 Gamwkingii 7 Macarm1ga lowii 8 Slrorea fa llax 9 Ocl1a11osraclrys ame111acea 10 10 Slrorea patoiensis 2 Hopea mengerawan 3 Cleista/l/lrus s11111atrana 4 Durio exce/sa 5 Va tica oblonga 6 Loplropetalwn sp. 7 Glma wal/ic/1ii 9 Slrorea polym1dra I Dryoba/anops beccarii 3 lllfsia palembanica 7 Diospyros 111acrop/1ylla 8 Slrorea assamica 9 Quercus gemelliflora 10

1 = Fagaceae plot Bratawinata ( 1986); 2 J 6 1 = present study; 4 = Kartawina1a er al. ( 1981 ); s = Riswan ( 1987).

Chapter 2 32 2.5.5. Importance of species

Although species might occur in a wide range of habitats with diverse geomorphological or soil conditions, their density in a particular habitat can differ considerably. There­ fore it is important to discern vegetation types not merely on the basis of presence or absence of species but also based on their density/importance. The limited plot size is often a severe handicap to typify the vegetation of an area. Fieldwork in Brunei by Ashton (Ashton, 1964; Austin et al., 1973) revealed that dipterocarp species have a well definedand often very limited ecological range. Floristic composition within the lowland rain forest of Brunei varies predictably in relation to soil nutrients and topog­ raphy, and therefore, by inference, to water relations. Forest types were also defined on the basis of dipterocarp species by Fox (1972, 1978) for Sabah. The mixed tropical lowland rain forest in Sundaland is characterized by a very low dominance of single species. At Pasoh in Peninsular Malaysia (Kochummen et al., 1990) the most abundant species Xerospermum noronhianum accounted for only 2.3 % of trees over l 0 cm dbh. In the Apo Kay an the understorey species Va tica umbonata accounted for 5.6% of trees over 10 cm dbh. This species, however, was not evenly distributed and might well be over-represented due to the limited size of the plots. For Surinam Schulz (1960) noted also that many understorey species tend to form locally gregarious communities. However, Jonkers (1987) found tendencies to clumping for only two angiosperm species. Certain genera are particularly species-rich like Eugenia (> 11 spp.), Lithocarpus ( 17 spp.), and Shorea ( l 0 spp.) in the Apo Kayan plots. This is partly caused by species radiation that resulted in high numbers of congeneric species (cf. Ashton, 1982). The sympatric occurrence of closely related species in apparently the same habitat, a com­ mon phenomenon in mixed tropical lowland rain forest, can only be explained by refined breeding systems that seek a balance between retaining physical differences or promoting genetic variability (Baker et al., 1983). This can be accomplished by a mark­ edly synchronized flowering of closely related species as in Shorea species (Chan & Appanah, 1980) or even finely tuned flowering (complete synchronous dichogamy) within a population as in species belonging to the Polyalthia hypo/euca complex (Rog­ stad, 1994). Both agamospermy as in species of Garcinia (Ha et al., 1988a) as well as self-incompatibility in Durio griffithii and Nephelium lappaceum (Ha et al., 1988b) are found in the understorey. Various strategies to avoid wastage of pollen on incom­ patible flowers and promote outcrossing have evolved in Shorea although occasional inbreeding occurs (Appanah & Chan, 1981; Chan, 1980, 1981; Chan & Appanah, 1980). Comparison of the most common species in primary forest at the various sites in East Kalimantan (Table 2.10) is slightly complicated as different authors use methods of calculation, which are not comparable. Furthermore, as a result of the limited size of the plots and the great species diversity in general and certain genera in particular (e.g. Shorea, Eugenia, Lithocarpus), differences will be accentuated. Of the ten highest ranking species in the Fagaceae-plot of Bratawinata ( 1986) only Quercus argentata figures among the ten highest ranking species of the Apo Kayan plots (Table 2.4b). This further testifies to the great heterogeneity in vegetation in the vicinity of Long Sungai Barang.

33 Chapter 2 Among the highest ranking species in the Apo Kayan plots several understorey spe­ cies figure; none of these were of importance in the other sites. Only Pa laquium ros­ tratum is among the ten highest ranking species both in Apo Kayan and plot Matthijs. Of the ten highest ranking species of Wanariset (Kartawinata et al. , 1981) only Giron­ niera nervosa and Mallotus echinatus do not belong to the fifteen highest ranking spe­ cies of plot Matthijs (Table 2.4a). This shows the similarity of two plots located at close proximity. Whether Drypetes kikir and Eugenia cf. dyeriana in plot Matthijs are the same species as Drypetes sp. and Eugenia sp. in the other plot could not be verified. Of the ten commonest species (5 Shorea spp.) in the Lempake plot (Riswan, 1987) only two species (Eusideroxylon zwageri, Shorea ovalis) were among the high ranking species in plot Matthijs (3 Shorea spp.), or the Wanariset plot of Kartawinata et al. (1981 ). This is an indication for the heterogeneity of the forest in the Balikpapan­ Samarinda area. The two pairs of ITCI plots have only three of their highest ranking species in com­ mon. Although they still have many other less ranking species in common this points to differences in fo rest-type correlated with differences in geomorphology. Table 2.10 testifies to the great heterogeneity of the forest in East Kalimantan, but caution is required to interpret the result as strict vegetation types. Both canopy and understorey species are present in the table and may respond differently to environ­ mental factors (Ashton, 1964). The total number of plots is small, size of the plots is rather limited and might be a handicap, and detailed information on environmental factors is inadequate. A larger surface area, however, will introduce a possibly greater variation in abiotic factors, thereby obscuring differences between vegetation types. Aspects of minimum sample size, preferred lower diameter limits and whether to con­ centrate on the more frequently occurring species instead of all species present are elaborately discussed by Hommel (1987) and Austin et al. (1973). Furthermore some of the species among the ten highest ranking in one of the sites, although absent from the ten highest in another site, belong to the fifteen highest rank­ ing in that site, i. e. Diospyros borneensis, Ganua kingii, Shorea ovalis, Va tica oblonga. A comparison with the plots at Gunung Mulu, Sarawak (Proctor et al., 1983) and Danum Valley, Sabah (Newbery et al., 1992) was not possible in the absence of a spe­ cies list. Comparison at species level with plots in Peninsular Malaysia was considered not relevant in view of a high degree of endemism especially in dipterocarps. The heterogeneity of the forest in both the Apo Kayan region as well as in the Balikpapan-Samarinda area is evident. Only in the ITCI plots a pattern in species composition related to topography could be discerned. Differences in species composition and especially dominance of individual species between the sites are great. More detailed surveys with different sample sizes for canopy trees (> 60 cm dbh) and trees over 10 cm dbh are necessary to definevegetation types. Especially for the canopy trees a total sample size of only a few hectare is inadequate. The heterogeneity of the forestin general, and differences between the sites demon­ strate that caution is required with respect to generalisations on species occurrence and abundance. This similarly applies to the occurrence and abundance of NTFP species. Therefore the ecological and economic potential is expected to differ considerably between regions.

Chapter 2 34 APPENDIX 2.1. Selection of voucher specimens in permanent Apo Kayan plots.

ACTINIDIACEAE - Saurauia sp. T744. ANACARDIACEAE -Buchanania sessifolia Blume T617 - Gluta sp. T726- Ko ordersioden­ dron pinnatum (Blanco) Merr. T288 - Mangifera sp. 1 T48; M. sp. 2 T214; M. sp. 3 T 296 - Semecarpus cf. bunbu1)1m1us Gibbs T 570. ANNONACEAE - Cy athocalyx carinatus (Ridl.) J. Sinclair T561; C. sp. T263 - Monocarpia sp. T687 - Neo-uvaria sp. T 164 - Polyalthia cf. rumphii (Blume) Merr. T 159; P. sumatrana (Miq.) Kurz T604; P. spp . Tl74, 483, 506 - Popowia pisocarpa (Blume) Endl. T534. APOCYNACEAE -Alstonia angustifolia Wall. ex A. DC. T465; A. scholaris R. Br. T 638. AQUIFOLIACEAE - llex sp. 1 T472; /. sp. 2 T655; I. sp. 3 T292, 297, 305, 333, 498. BIGNONIACEAE - Deplanchea sp. T458. BOMBACACEAE - Durio lanceolatus Mast. T 428; D. sp. 1 T 426; D. sp. 2 T 43 1. - Pteleocarpa lamponga (Miq.) Bakh. T 178. BURSERACEAE - Canarium maluense Laut. subsp. borneense Leenh. T348; C. littorale Blume T78, 576, 594, 650; C.littorale Blume f.pu1purascens Leenh. T 193, 330, 622, 623; C. sp. T208, 370 - Dacryodes incurvata H.J. Lam T42, 187, 359; D. rostrata H.J.Lam Tl9, 90, 148, 21 1, 593, 610, 620, 643, 645, 735, 749; D. rostrata f. cuspidata H.J. Lam T33, 84, 136, 486; D. rostrata f. pubescens H.J. Lam T53, 519, 546; D. rugosa H.J. Lam var. rugosa T578; D. sp. T312, 731 - Santiria apiculata Benn. var. apiculata T307, 310, 317,440;S. oblongifolia BlumeT404; S. tomentosa Blume T89,427; S. sp. T 13, 37 l. CAESALPINIACEAE - Koompassia malaccensis Maing. ex Benth. T 443 - Sindora sp. T20. CELASTRACEAE - Bhesa paniculata Arn. T3 - Euonymus castaneifolius Ridl. T507; E. sp. T732. CONIFERAE - Dacrydium sp. T324 - Podocarpus sp. T289. CORNACEAE - Mastixia pentandra Blume T423. DILLENIACEAE - Dillenia sp. T 531. DIPTEROCARPACEAE - Shorea johorensis Foxw. T238; S. ovalis (Korth.) Blume T 196; S. parvifolia Dyer subsp. parvifolia T36l; S. parvifo lia subsp. vel11tinata Ashton T422; S. sp. JT517; S. sp. 2T627;S. sp. 3T262;S. sp. 4T690; S. sp. 5T709; S. sp. 6T575 - Va tica umbonata (Hook. f.) Burck T595; V. sp. 1 T207; V. sp. 2 T653; V. sp. 3 T695. EBENACEAE - Diospyros sp. 1 T 1 10; D. sp. 2 T 48 l. ELAEOCARPACEAE - Elaeocmpus stipularis Blume T92; E. sp. T7. ERYTHROXYLACEAE - E1ythroxylon sp. T683. EUPHORBIACEAE - Antidesma sp. T628 - Aporosa subcaudata Merr. T88 - Baccaurea macrocarpa (Miq.) Milll. Arg. T679; B. sarawakensis Pax & Hoffm. T701; B. sp. T527 -Blumeodendron sp. 1 T81; B. sp. 2 T654- Bridelia sp. T746 - Chaetocarpus cas­ tanocmpus (Roxb.)Thwaites T 75 -Cleistanthus sp. T 598 -Croton oblongus Burm. f. T234; C. sp. T 516 - Dimorphocalyx muricatus (Hook. f.) Airy Shaw T 197, 528 - Drypetes sp. T599 - Glochidion sp. T226 - Macaranga conifera (Zoll.) Milll. Arg. T580; M. hypoleuca (Rchb. f. & Zoll.) Milll.Arg. T521; M. lowii King ex Hook. f. T535 - Mallotus eucaustus Airy Shaw T752; M. wrayi King ex Hook. f. T448 - Neoscortechinia kingii (Hook. f.) Pax & Hoffm.T 140, 626 - Pimelodendron sp. T77. FAGACEAE - Castanopsis sp. T229 - Lithocarpus conocarpus (Oudem.) Rehder T63 l; L. coopertus (Blanco) Rehder T221; l. echinife r (Merr.) A.Camus T569; L. porcatus Soepadmo T 129; l. pulcher (King) Markgr. T 403; L. ruminatus Soepadmo T 496; l. sp. 2T116; L. sp. 3 T186; L. sp. 4 T523; L. sp. 8 T67 l; l. sp. 9 T691; L. sp. JO T222; L. sp. JI T522; l. sp. 12 T555; l. sp. 14 T660; l. sp. 16 T515; l. sp. 17T450; L. sp. 19 T614- Quercus argelltata Merr. T285; Q. e/meri Merr. T625; Q. subsericea A. Camus T321 .

35 Chapter 2 (Appendix 2.1 collfi1111ed) FLACOURTIACEAE - Hydnocarpus sumatrana (Miq.) Koord. var. sumatrana T326; H. sp. J T733; H. sp. 2 T677; H. sp. 3 T706, 720. GUTIIFERAE - Ca/ophyllum sp. 1 T347; C. sp. 2T123 - Garcinia parvifolia (Miq.) Miq. T83; G. sp. 1 T163; G. sp. 2 T386; G. spp. T250, 355, 490, 608 -Mammea sp. T699. HYPERICACEAE - Cratoxylum sp. T76, 607. - Platea latifolia Blume T550. JUGLANDACEAE - Engelhardia serrata Blume T717. LAURACEAE - Actinodaphne sp. 1T115; A. sp. 2 T276; A. sp. 3 T524 -Alseodaplme sp. T473 - Beilschmiedia sp. 1 T195; B. sp. 2 T494 - C!yptocarya sp. 1 T130; C. sp. 2 TI88; C. sp. 3 T 587; C. sp. 4 T336; C. sp. 5 T334; C. sp. 6 T282; C. sp. 7 T 308; C. sp. 8 T236 - Dehaasia sp. T399 - Endiandra sp. T366- Litsea elliptica Blume T708; L.ferruginea Blume T 157; L. sp. 1 T337; L. sp. 2T105 -Nothaphoebe panduriformis Gamble T271; N. sp. 1 T147; N. spp. T41, 80, 120, 171, 172, 457, 505, 662, 681. LECYTHIDIACEAE - Planchonia sp. T9. LINACEAE (CTENOLOPHONACEAE) - Ctenolophon sp. T471. LOGANIACEAE - Fa graea sp. T437. MAGNOLIACEAE - Magnolia candollii (Blume) King var. candollii T 484- Magnolia candol­ lii (Blume) King var. singapurensis (Ridl.) Noot. T275 - Michelia sp. TI. MELASTOMATACEAE - Memecylon sp. T73, 704 - Pternandra sp. T259. MELlACEAE -Aglaia sp. I T47; A. sp. 2 T200; A. sp. 3 T497; A. sp. 4 T286; A. sp. 5 T698; A. sp. 6 T 642 - arborescens Miq. T 420; D. sp. I T 539; D. sp. 2 T 629 - Sandoricum spp. T364, 666. MIMOSACEAE -Archidendron sp. T350. MORACEAE - Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr. T724; A. /anceifolius Roxb. T 387; A. sp. I T31, 738; A. sp. 2 T686 - Ficus sp. 1 T156; F. sp. 2 T218. MYRISTICACEAE- Gym nacrantheraforbesii (King) Warb. var. crassinervis (Warb.) J. Sinclair T 139, 375 - Horsfieldia fr agillima Airy Shaw T4, 444; H. grandis (Hook. f.) Warb. T7 l 2; H. punctatifolia J. Sinclair T293 - Knema ashtonii J. Sinclair var. ashtonii T 480; K. percoriacea J. Sinclair var. percoriacea T204 - My ristica iners Blume T633. MYRSINACEAE - Ardisia sp. T 227. MYRTACEAE - Eugenia sp. 1 T616; E. sp. 2 T369; E. sp. 3T198; E. sp. 4 T67; E. sp. 5T206; E. sp. 6T499; E. sp. 7T372; E. sp. 8T322; E. sp. 9T487; E. sp. JOT442; E. sp. 11 T35; E. spp. T228, 376, 549, 664, 745 - Rhodamnia cinerea Jack T306 - Whiteodendron sp. T477. OLACACEAE - Ochanostachys amentacea Mast. T26 - Scorodocaipus borneensis (Baill.) Becc. T 111. OLEACEAE - Chionanthus calophyllus Blume T504; C. macrocaipa Blume var. macrocarpa T 169; C. pachyphyllus (Merr.) Kiew T 135, 601. OXALIDACEAE - Sarcotheca sp. T 165. PAPILIONACEAE - ?Adenanthera sp. T344- Fordia splendidissima (Blume ex Miq.) Buijsen T351. POLYGALACEAE - Xanthophyllum affi ne Korth. ex Miq. T 131; X. griffithii Hook. f. subsp. angustifolium (Ng) Meijden T409; X. obscurum A.W. Benn. T573; X. sp. I T99; X. sp. 2 T 168; X. sp. 3 T635. PROTEACEAE - Helicia sp. T7l 9. RHIZOPHORACEAE - Gynotroches axillaris Blume T544. - arborea (Blume) Kalkm. var. arborea T675, 750; P. beccarii (Rid!.) Kalkm. T 505, 525. RUBIACEAE - Canthium sp. T710-/xora sp. 1 T673; !. sp. 2 T659 -Lasianthus sp. T 103 - Neonauclea sp. T 630 - Porterandia anisophylla (Jack ex Roxb.) Rid!. T 87 - Roth­ mannia sp. T696 - Ta renna ciliolata (Korth.) Bremek. T220; T. sp. T 155 - Timonius sp. I T28 l; T. spp. T96, 98, 176, 223, 454, 461, 651, 693.

Chapter 2 36 (Appendix 2.1 co11ti1111ed) RUTACEAE - Melicope sp. T 468. SABIACEAE - Meliosma sumatrana (Jack) Wa lp. T435; M. sp. T649. SAPINDACEAE - Nephelium cf. lappaceum 1 T730; N. cf. lappaceum 2 T255; N. cf. lappa­ ceum 3 T295; N. cf. lappaceum 4 T33 I;N. sp. TI06- Wa lsura pinnata Hassk. T689- Xerospermum noronhianum (Blume) Blume T 10. SAPOTACEAE - Chrysophyllum roxburghii G. Don T 101 - Madh uca sp. 1 T261; M. sp. 2 T439 - Pa laquium calophyllwn (Teij sm. & Binn.) Pierre T269; P. leiocarpum Boeri. T 180, 624; P. rostrat11111 (Miq.) Burck T24; P. sp. T72 - Payena johanii Vink ined. T723; P. leerii (Teijsm. & Binn.) Kurz T 194, 365; P. sp. T 194. STAPHYLEACEAE - Turpinia sp. T24 l. STERCULIACEAE-Scaphium sp. T390-Sterculia sp. 1 T279, 384; S. sp. 2T479, 700; S. sp. 3 T256. STYRACACEAE - Styrax sp. T 520. SYMPLOCACEAE - Symplocos sp. T 56, 553. THEACEAE - Adinandra sp. 1 T665; A. sp. 2 T397, 657 - Gordonia sp. T652 - Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. T581 - Te mstroemia sp. T425 - Te tramerista sp. T667. - Gonystylus sp. T 558. TILIACEAE - Microcos cf. cinnamomifolia Burrel T621. ULMACEAE - Gironniera sp. T 432. VERBENACEAE - Te ijs111anniode11dro11 sp. T28 - Vitex sp. T560.

APPENDIX 2.2. Van Valkenburg collections in East Kalimantan.

ACTINIDIACEAE- Saurauia spp. 1046, 1072, 1278. ANACARDIACEAE - Buchanania sessifolia Blume 1362 - Gluta aptera (King) Ding Hou 1232-Mangifera decandra Ding Hou 1426, 1427; M. laurina Blume 1415; M. odorata Griff. 1414; M. pajang Kosterm. 1203, 1388; M. spp. 1199, 1416. ANNONACEAE - Cy atlwcalyx carinatus (Rid!.) J. Sinclair 1361 - Goniothalamus sp. 1012b, 1093, 1105, 1158-Mitrephora glabra Scheff. 1059-Polyalthia sp. 1 151 -Popowia pisocarpa (Blume) End!. 1359. APOCYNACEAE -Tabemaemontana corymbosa Roxb. ex Wall. 1 163; T.sp. 1168- Willughbeia a11g11stifolia (Miq.) Markgr. 1161. AQUIFOLIACEAE - /lex cymosa Blume 1241; 1. sp. 1364. ARACEAE - Piptospatha grabowskii (Engl.) Engl. 1040. ARALIACEAE - Scheffiera 1117 1084. ASCLEPIADACEAE - Hoya cf. waymaniae Kloppenburg 1190; H. sp. 1407. BALSAMINACEAE - Impatiens 1301. BEGONIACEAE - Begonia spp. 1080, 1098, 1099, 1221, 1222, 1280, 1305. BOMBACACEAE - Durio kutejensis (Hassk.) Becc. 1244, 1381, 1382. BURSERACEAE - Dacryodes rostrata (Blume) H.J. Lam 1412-Sallliria apiculata Benn. var. apiculata 1275; S. tomentosa Blume 1219. CAESALPINIACEAE - Dialium indum L. var. bursa (De Wit) Rojo 1383; D. indum var. indum 1428. CELASTRACEAE-Celastrus monospennoides Loes. 1022 -Kokoona ochracea (Elmer) Merr. 1230. COMPOSITAE - Ve rnonia arborea Buch.-Ham. 1242. CRYPTERONIACEAE - Crypteronia pa11ic11/ata Blume 1263. CUCURBITACEAE - Momordica coch i11chi11ensis (Lour.) Spreng. s. l. 1024. CUNONIACEAE - We inmannia sp. 1082, 1298.

37 Chapter 2 (Appendix 2.2 co11ti1111ed) ELAEOCARPACEAE - Elaeocarpus pseudopa11icu/atus Comer 1237; £. sp haeroblastus Stapf ex Rid!. 1264; E. stipularis Blume 1176. ERICACEAE - Rhodode11dro11 11ie11wenl111isii J.J. Sm. 1021; R. spp. 1023, 1272, 1273, 1274. EUPHORBIACEAE -A11tidesma neurocarp11111 Miq. I 075, 1108; A. ve11e11os11m J. J. Sm. 1049; A. sp. 1014 -Aporosa chondroneura (Airy Shaw) Schot 1047, 1048; A. grandistipula Merr. 1128 - Bacca urea edulis Merr. 110 I; B. /anceo/ata (Miq.) Miill. Arg. 1394; B. macrocarpa (Miq.) Mill!.Arg. 1267, 1391; B. pyriformis Gage 1420, 1420a; B. sarawakensis Pax & Hoffm. 1129- Croto11 singularis Airy Shaw 1169- Glochidion spp. 1030, 1 149, 1299 - Macara11ga winkleri Pax ex Hoffm. 1065; M. sp. aff. petano­ styla I /1111/etii I bomee11sis 1261 - Mallollts macrostachyus (Miq.) Miill. Arg. 1208. FAGACEAE- Casta11opsis megacarpa Gamble I 088 -Lithocarpus co11fer11ts Soepadmo 1115; L coopertus (Blanco) Rehder 1090, 1 166, 1 167; L echi11ife r (Merr. ) A. Camus 1156 - Quercus argentata Korth. I 068, 1238, 1300; Q. subsericea A. Camus I 09 1. GNETACEAE - Gnellfm sp. I 092.

GUTTIFERAE - Calophyll11111 biflorum M.R. Hend. & Wyatt-Smith 1400; C. teysmannii Miq. var. i11ophyl/oides (King) P. F. Stevens 1399 - Cratoxylum arborescens (Yahl) Blume 1239- Garci11ia ba11cana Miq.1403; G. beccarii Pierre 1096; G. parvifolia (Miq.) Miq. 1270; G. spp. 1259, 1292. LABIATAE - Salo111011ia ca111011ie11sis Lour. 1304. LAURACEAE- Beilsc/1111iedia 1286 - Litsea garciae Vidal 1417; L. sp. 1279, 1297 - Phoebe sp. 1182. LILIACEAE - Dracae11a sp. 1281. LORANTHACEAE - Dendrophthoe sp. 1 100. MAGNOLIACEAE- Magnolia uvariifolia Dandy ex Noot. 1244. MARANTACEAE - Phrynium sp. 1277. MELASTOMATAC EAE -Aneri11cleisllfs sp. 1145 -Diplectria divaricata (Willd.) 0. Ktze 1255; D. stipularis (Blume) 0. Ktze 1041 - Macrolenes spp. 1081, 1252 - Medinilla spp. 1020, 1083, 1086, 1153 -Melastoma malabathricum L. 1247 - Oxyspora sp. 1138 - Pachyce11tria sp. 1032 - Ptema11dra sp. 1 102. MELIACEAE-Ag/aia spp. 1107, 1262, 1268, 1294, 1401 -Dysoxylum arborescens (Blume) Miq. 1357 - La11si11111 domesticum Correa 1380. MIMOSACEAE-Albizia chinensis (Osb.) Merr. 1234-Archidendron clypearia (Jack) Nielsen subsp. clypearia var. casai (Blume) Nielsen 1236; A. jiri11ga (Jack) Nielsen 1390 - Cal/erya eriantha (Benth.) Schol 1293 - Parkia speciosa Hassk. fruit coll. MORACEAE-Artocarpus a11isophyl/11s Miq. 1384; A. elasticus Reinw. 1386; A. integer (Thunb.) Merr. 1127, 1379; A. /anceifoli11s Roxb. 1393; A. odoratissimus Blanco 1291, 1392; A. rigidus Blume 1375; A. sp. 1352 - Ficus deltoidea Jack 1178; F. spp. 1033, 1147, 1171, 1227, 1253, 1271. MYRISTICACEAE - Horsieldia grandis (Hook. f.) Warb. 1037; H. polyspheru/a (Hook. f.) J. Sinclair var. maximaf W.J. de Wilde 1122 - K11e111a latifolia Warb. 1062; K. luteola W.J. de Wilde 1288. MYRSINACEAE -Ardisia spp. 1087, 1406 - Embelia sp. 1172. MYRTACEAE - Eugenia spp. 1031, 1184, 1260. OCHNACEAE - Gomphia serrata (Gaertn.) Kanis 1287. OLACACEAE - Scorodocarpus bomeensis (Bail!.) Becc. 1 164. ORCHIDACEAE -Eria spp. 1120, 1142, 1175, 1197, 1269-Bulbophyllum sect. Cirrhopeta/um 1231; B. flavesce11s (Blume) Lell. 1202; B. poeki/011 Carr 1198; B. cf. hodgso11ii Hend. 1 141 - Cala111he pulchra (Blume) Lind!. 1192- Coelogy11e cf. ender/ii J.J. Sm. 1 160; C. cf. exa/ata 1121; C. swaniana Rolfe 1 150 - Cymbidium lancifolium Hook. 1210 - Dendrobi11111 sect. Distychophyllum 1119 - Dipodiwn scandens (Blume) J. J. Sm. 1135 - Liparis spp. 1155, 121 1 - Pholidota gibbosa (Blume) De Vriese 1207 - Thecostele alata (Roxb.) Parish & Rchb. f. 1 191.

Chapter 2 38 (Appendix 2.2 co11ti1111ed) PANDANACEAE- Pandanus sp. 1248. PEN TAPHRAGMACEAE -Pemaphragma albiflonmz H.H.W. Pearson 1223. PIPERACEAE- Piper sp. 1 148. POLYGALACEAE - Xanthophyllum amoe1111111 Chodat 1200; X. ecarinatum Chodat 1243; X. obscurumA.W. Benn. 1218. PROT EACEAE - Helicia sp. 1398. ROSACEAE -Primus sp. A 1265; P. sp. B 1 177, 1296. RUBIACEAE-Acra11thera sp. 1015-Aidia bomeensis Ridsd. 1074-Argostemma spp. 1029, 1212-Borreria sp. 1303 -Gardenia sp. 1104, 1174-lxora spp. 1036, 1144, 1289 -Lasiantl111s sp. 1085 -Na11clea s11bdira (Korth.) Steudel 1245, 1276-Neonauclea excelsa (Blume) Merr. 1025 - Pleiocarpidium sp. 1106 - Porterandia anisophylla (Jack ex Roxb.) Rid!. 1069, 1079 -Tarenna sp. 1173 -1i111011i11s spp. 1045, 1235 - Uncaria calophylla Blume ex Korth. 1251 -Urophyllum spp. 1 146, 1220, 1225, 1226, 1257, 1284-Rubiaceae sp. 1285. RUTACEAE- Melicope sp. 1 154. SAPINDACEAE -Dimocarpus longan Lour. 1389, 1408, 1410; D. lo11ga11 subsp. malesianus Leenh. 1385-Guioa pleuropteris (Blume) Radlk. I24 9-Nepheli11m c11spidatu111 Blume var. eriopetalum (Miq.) Leenh. 141 1; N. lappaceum L. 1266, 1376, 1377, 1378; N. main­ gayi Hiem 142 l, 1421 a; N. rambolltan-ake (Labill.) Leenh. 1201, l 387 -Sapindaceae sp. 1409. SAPOTACEAE - Palaquium calophyllum (Teijsm. & Binn.) Pierre 1355; P.jolianii Vink ined. 1228, 1350; P. leiocarpum Boeri. 1405; P. sp. 1353, 1354, 1363-Payena leerii (Teijsm. & Binn.) Kurz 1229. SCROPHULARIACEAE -Lindemia sp. 1302. SIMAROUBACEAE -Eurycoma longifolia Jack l 162, l 165. SYMPLOCOCEAE - Symplocos coclzinchinensis (Lour.) Moore subsp. cochincl1inensis var. cochinchinensis 1429. THEACEAE -Adinandra clemensiae Kob. 1 159 -E11rya trichocarpa Korth. 1050 -Schima wallicl1ii (DC.) Korth. 1 170- Temstroemia sp. 1358. TILIACEAE-Microcos opaca (Korth.) Burrel 1043. ULMACEAE -Gironniera lzirta Rid!. 1233; G. subaequalis Planch. 1180. YITACEAE - Cissus ang11lata Rid!. 1044 - Tetrastigma diepenhorstii (Miq.) Latiff 1012; T. ped1111c11lare (Wall.) Planch. 1097, 1246; T. steenisii Latiff l 130. PALMAE -Arenga undulatifolia Becc. 1058 -Cala11111s caesi11s Blume l l 11, 13l O; C. coni­ rostris Becc. 1010, 1017, 1019, l 136; C. convallium J. Dransfield 1124; C. fimbriatus Yalkenburg 1313, 1418; C.jlabellat11s Becc. 1317; C. gonosper11111sBecc. l 194, 1404; C. hispidul11s Becc. 1 133; C.javensis Blume 1064, 1320; C. laevigat11s Mart. var. /aevigatus 1061, 1089; C. manan Miq. 1311; C. marginatlls (Blume) Mart. 1188, 1314; C. matta­ nensis Becc. l 113, 1125; C. 111uricat11s Becc. 1026, 1027, 1077, l 116; C. optimus Becc. 1425; C. omatlls Blume LOOI, 1079; C. pandanosmus Furt. 1187; C. pilosellus Becc. I 038, I054, 1 131, 13l 8; C. cf. erioca11tlzus Becc. 1126, 1195 (pogonocamlzus l); C. cf. pogonocaml111s Becc. ex H. Wink!. 1005, l 009, I053, 1070, 1134, 1189, 1204 (pogono­ canthus 3); C. pseudoulur Becc. 1112, 1l12a; C. rhytidomus Becc. 1 186, 1309; C. scipio­ m1111 Lour. 1312; C. tomentosus Becc. 1110, 1157; C. trachycoleus Becc. 1321 - Ceratolob11s conco/or Blume 1034, 1067, 1132; C. s11bang11/at11s (Miq.) Becc. 1316, 1424 -Daemonorops atra J. Dransfield 1039, 1123, 1137; D. crinita Blume 1315, 1413; D. cristata Becc. 1185; D. didymophylla Becc. 1008, 1009; D.fissa Blume 1004, 1004a, 1007, 1018, 1035, 1060, 1078, 1308; D. hystrix (Griff.) Mart. var. exulans Becc. 1095; D. lzystrix var. hystrix 1002; D. kortlzalsii Blume 101 1, 1016, 1057; D. pumil11s Yalkenburg 1396; D. sabut Becc. 1000, 1003, 1051 - Kortlzalsia cheb Becc. 1206;

39 Chapter 2 (Appendix 2.2 co11ti1111ed) K. debilis Blume 1422; K. echi110111etra Becc. 1319; K.ferox Becc. 1066, 1306; K.furta­ doana J.Dransfield 1307; K. hispida Becc. 1063; K. rigida Blume 1006; K. rostrataBlu me

1055; ?K. sp. 1423 - Licua/a sp. 1094 - Pinanga sp. 1013, I 192b - Plectocomia mulleri Blume 1042 -Plectocomiopsis ge111i11ijlora (Griff.)Becc. 1028, 1076; P. mira J. Dransfield 1419.

PTERIDOPHYTAE-Davallia triclwmanoides Blume var./orrainii Hoitt. 1213 - Hymenophyl/um sp. 1196 -Lecanopteris sp. 1205 -Taenitis bleclmoides (Willd.) Sw. 1103.

HEPATICAE-Ecropotlreciumsp. 12I 4a- Frul/a11ia spp. l 2 I 4b-Radu/a sp. I 214c- Spruce­ anth11s sp. 12 I 4d.

BRYOPHYTAE - Aca11tlrorrhyci11111 papillat11111 (H arv.) Fleisch. 1215 - Hypnodendron subspi11inervi11m (C. Muell.) Jaeg. subsp. arboresce11s (Mitt.) Touw 1402- Pyrrhobryum

/atifolium (Bosch & Lac.) Mitt. 1216 -Trismegistia lancifolia (Harv. ) Broth. 1215.

APPENDIX 2.3. Tree species in plot Matthijs. Importance Value, density and basal area; use categories based on the PROSEA list.(A: timber; BI: good quality shingles; D: bark I leaves; E: edible fat; F: commercial fat; G: fruit; H: exudate; I: commercial exudate; J: medicinal).

Importance Den sity Basal area Use category Value (tree ha-1) (m2 ha-1) PROSEA

E11sideroxylo11 zwageri 17.7 24 2.7 ABl Palaq11i11111 rostratwn 15.0 24 1.96 AGH Eugenia cf. dyeriana 14.0 24 1.62 A Slwrea laevis 12.0 6 3.13 A Dacryodes rngosa 8.0 16 0.6 A Slrorea ova/is 8.9 8 1.86 A Koompassia ma/accensis 8.8 16 0.84 A Durio lanceolat11s 8.3 12 1.16 A Madhuca sericea 6.8 14 0.57 AH Shorea pa11cijlora 6.3 10 0.77 A Diospyros bomeensis 6.2 14 0.26 D1ypetes kikir 5.4 10 0.5 Cotylelobi11111 111e/a110xylo11 5.4 4 1.23 A Parinari oblongifo/ia 5.4 2 1.48 A Xanthophy/111111 stipitatum 5.3 8 0.7 G Malloflls pena11ge11sis 4.9 14 0.2 Knema fi11f11racea 4.2 10 0.12 A Dipterocarpus coml//11s 4.0 6 0.54 AH Shorea parvifolia 4.0 2 1.03 AH Licania sp/endens 4.0 6 0.52 AG Artocarpus nitida 3.7 8 0.19 Crypteronia griffithii 3.6 8 0.15 A Ca11ari11111 pilosum 3.4 6 0.33 AGJ Durio exce/sa 3.0 6 0.23 A Nothaplwebe 11111bellij1ora 3.0 4 0.48 A

Chapter 2 40 (Appe11dix 2.3 co111i1111ed)

Importance Density Basal area Use category Value (tree ha-I) (m2 ha-I) PROS EA

Pitliece/obium sp/e11de11s 3.0 4 0.46 Aidia wal/icl1ia11a 3.0 6 0.19 Aporosa sp. 3.0 6 0.18 Bliesa pa11iculaw 2.9 6 0.17 AG Giro1111iera subaequalis 2.8 6 0.16 A Monocarpia e1111e11ra 2.7 6 0.12 A Dacryodes rostrata 2.7 6 0.12 AG Ga1111a pa/Iida 2.6 8 0.23 AH Macara11ga lowii 2.6 6 0.09 Santiria /aevigata 2.5 4 0.3 A Sliorea faguetiana 2.6 4 0.23 AE Ptema11dra coeru/esce11s 2.2 6 0.08 Ala11gi11111 ridleyi 2.0 4 0.16 A Vatica 11111bo11ata 2.0 4 0.14 A Euge11ia koordersia11a 2.0 4 0.13 A Myristica maxima 1.9 2 0.37 Artoca1pus a11isopliyl/a 1.9 4 0.12 AG Scapliium 111acropod11111 1.9 2 0.36 AG Cliae1occ117Jus casw11oca1pus 1.9 4 0.11 Beilschmiedia dictyo11e11ra 1.9 4 0.24 A Phoebe sp. 1.9 2 0.35 Calopliy/111111 sp. 1.9 4 0.1 A Si11dora wallicliii 1.8 4 0.09 A Magnolia sp. 1.8 4 0.07 Draco1110111e/011 dao 1.8 2 0.33 ADGJ Horsfie/dia macrocoma 1.8 4 0.07 K11e111a k1111stleri 1.7 4 0.06 A Xerosper11111111 noronlzianum 1.7 4 0.06 G K11e111a latericia 1.7 4 0.05 A K11ema ci11erea 1.7 4 0.05 Polya/tlzia sumatrana 1.7 4 0.04 A Pnmus javensis 1.7 4 0.04 Eugenia spicata 1.7 4 0.04 A Eugenia sessiflora 1.7 4 0.04 A Rlioda11111ia cinerea 1.5 4 0.1 AG Adinandra dumosa 1.4 2 0.2 A Li1'1oca17J11s wrayi 1.4 2 0.2 Xylopia ma/accenis 1.4 2 0.2 A Aglaia 111a/acce11sis 1.3 2 0.17 Neo11a11c/ea sp. 1.3 2 0.17 A Eugenia c11111i11gia11a 1.3 2 0.16 A Canari11111 111egala111/111111 1.2 2 0.15 AG Porterandia sp. 1.2 2 0.13 Elaeocarpus jlorib1111d11s I. I 2 0.12 AG B/11111eodendro11 sp. I. I 2 0.1 A Artoca1p11s kemando I. I 2 0.1 AG

41 Chapter 2 (Appendix 2.3 co111i1111ed)

Importance Density Basal area Use category Value (tree ha-1) (m2 ha-1) PROSEA

Calophy/111111 depressa 1.0 2 0.09 A Xylopia 111ag11a 1.0 2 0.07 Mezzetia pa111ifolia 1.0 2 0.07 A K11e111a ste11ophylla 1.0 2 0.07 Eugenia sp. 1.0 2 0.07 A Litsea sp. 1.0 2 0.07 Giro1111iera 11e111osa 1.0 2 0.06 A Bei/sclrmiedia pa/embanica 1.0 2 0.06 Dysoxylt1111 sp. 1.0 2 0.06 A Cheilosa 111alaya11a 1.0 2 0.06 G Dia/i11111 /a11ri1111111 0.9 2 0.06 AG Paropsia varecifonnis 0.9 2 0.05 Drypetes poly11e11ra 0.9 2 0.05 Ocha11ostachys amentacea 0.9 2 0.05 AG Polyalthia sp. 0.9 2 0.04 Melanochyla sp. 0.9 2 0.04 A Aglaia sp. 0.9 2 0.04 Litsea sp. 0.9 2 0.04 Mastixia pe111andra 0.9 2 0.04 Bacca11rea bracteata 0.9 2 0.04 G /ex 111acrophylla 0.9 2 0.04 A Durio acutifo/ius 0.9 2 0.04 A Crypteronia sp. 0.9 2 0.04 Eugenia sp. 0.9 2 0.03 A Dysoxy/11111 al/iace11111 0.9 2 0.03 A Cleista11t/111s sumatrana 0.9 2 0.03 D Chisoche1011 pate11s 0.9 2 0.03 AG Dacryodes p11besce11s 0.9 2 0.03 Phoebe gra11dis 0.9 2 0.03 Drypetes /011gifolia 0.9 2 0.03 A Cyathocalyx sp. 0.9 2 0.03 A Koilodepas /011gifo/i111n 0.9 2 0.03 Nepe/i11111 c11spidat11111 0.8 2 0.02 G Cratoxy/11111 s11111atra1111111 0.8 2 0.02 A Aporosa 111iq11e/ia11a 0.8 2 0.02 Dyera cost11/ata 0.8 2 0.02 AI Li1/rocarp11s cyclophorus 0.8 2 0.02 A At1111a excelsa 0.8 2 0.02 AG Aporosa 11ervosa 0.8 2 0.02 A Gamta kingii 0.8 2 0.02 AH Diospyros sp. 0.8 2 0.02 Koordersiode11dron pin11a111111 0.8 2 0.02 AG Heritiera e/ata 0.8 2 0.02 A Litsea erecti11ervia 0.8 2 0.02 Sa111iria co11ferta 0.8 2 0.02

Totals 300 518 32.16

Chapter 2 42 APPENDIX 2.4. Tree species in Apo Kayan plots. Importance Value, density and basal area; use categories based on PROSEA list and local Kenyah classification. AI: good quality timber; A2: inferior quality timber; BI: good quality shingles; B2 inferior quality shingles; C: special purpose wood; D: bark I leaves; E: edible fat; F: commercial fat; G: fruit; H: exudate; I: commercial exudate; J: medicinal.

lmponance Density Basal area Use category Value (tree ha-I) (m2 ha-I) PROSEA Kenyah

Varica 11111bo11ara 12.3 38 I.I A BI Xa111lwplryl/11111 grijfirlzii 8.7 29 0.53 A Q11erc11s argelllata 6.2 15 0.53 A BI lndet. 6.2 16 0.54 Mal/0111s wrayi 5.7 20 0.23 G Dacryodes rostrata 5.1 9 0.86 AG Al Palaq11iu111 rostratu111 4.6 2 1.42 AGH AIG Hydnocarpus su111arrana 4.5 II 0.44 AJ Al Ficus sp. 2 4.4 2 1.42 litlwcarpus cooperllls 4.3 7 0.73 A BI Baccaurea sarawakensis 4.1 13 0.2 c Neoscorrec/1i11ia ki11gii 4 10 0.32 Slwrea ova/is 3.9 3 1.08 A Al Cro1011 ob/011gus 3.8 II 0.2 Palaquium sp. I 3.5 3 0.93 Al All la11raceae spp. 3.3 9 0.27 Rubiaceae spp. 3.2 10 0.18 A2 Eugenia sp. 10 3.2 5 0.52 A Al Dacrydit1111 sp. 3.1 I 1.01 A Al Alseodaplme sp. 3 8 0.17 A Al Cyarlrocalyx sp. 3 6 0.41 A2D Artocarpus lanceifoli11s 3 7 0.31 AG CG Buclzanania insignis 2.7 4 0.46 A A2 Slzorea sp. 4 2.7 3 0.71 A Al Blzesa pa11ic11/ara 2.7 7 0.21 AG Temstroemia sp. 2.7 7 0.2 Eugenia spp. 2.5 4 0.37 A AID Eugenia sp. I 2.5 6 0.22 A Al Slzorea parvifolia subsp. parvifolia 2.4 3 0.57 A Al Eugenia sp. 6 2.4 7 0.17 A Al Adinandra sp. 2 2.4 4 0.44 Slzorea jolrorensis 2.3 4 0.38 A Al Blu111eode11dron sp. I 2.3 4 0.4 A Al Palaqui11111 caloplry/111111 2.2 4 0.39 Al Al I Missing 2.1 5 0.14 Dacry•odes rostrata f. c11spidara 2.1 4 0.23 AG Al Dysoxylum arborescens 2.1 5 0.18 Masrixia pentandra 2 4 0.37 Premandra sp. 2 4 0.21 Slrorea parvifolia subsp. ve/111inara 2 3 0.38 A Al Euony11111s casraneifoli11s 1.9 3 0.42 Popowia pisocarpa 1.9 5 0.07 c Canari11111 /i11orale f. p11rp11rasce11s 1.8 4 0.31 A Polyaltlria sumatrana 1.8 4 0.15 A CD Samiria sp. 1.8 2 0.44 A A2 lirlzocarpus sp. 4 1.8 3 0.32 A B2 Podocarpus sp. 1.7 2 0.39 A BI lirsea sp. 2 1.7 2 0.39 Varica sp. 2 1.6 4 0.08 A BI Garcinia spp. 1.6 4 0.18 AG G

43 Chapter 2 (Appendix 2.4 co111i1111ed)

Importance Density Basal area Use category Value (tree ha-I) (m2 ha -I) PROSEA Kenyah

Teijs111a1111iode11dron sp. 1.6 4 0.18 A Al Canari11111 li11orale 1.6 4 0.16 A Ctenolop/1011 sp. 1.6 2 0.36 A Al Ca/oplry/111111 sp. I 1.5 4 0.14 A Al Koo111passia 111a/acce11sis 1.5 3 0.24 A c Arc/1idendro11 sp. 1.5 4 0.13 A Al BI Vatica sp. I 1.5 4 0.08 A BI Macaranga lowii 1.5 4 0,07 Payena leerii 1.5 4 0.12 AGI AIG Eugenia sp. 4 1.5 2 0.32 A Al Dacryodes incurvaw 1.4 3 0.21 A Michelia sp. 1.4 I 0.41 A AIG I/exsp. 3 1.4 5 0.05 A Al Beilsclr111iedia sp. I 1.4 4 0.09 Melicope sp. 1.4 4 0.08 Aglaia sp. I 1.3 4 0.12 A Al Polyaltlria spp. 1.3 3 0.16 CD Santiria apiculata 1.3 4 0. 11 A Artocarpus sp. I 1.3 3 0.16 AG CG litlroca1p11s sp. 9 1.3 3 0.16 A BI Gordonia sp. 1.3 3 0.2 A Al Slrorea sp. I 1.3 4 0.05 A Al Neplreli11111 cf. lappaceum 2 1.3 3 0.14 G G Sindora sp. 1.3 I 0.34 A c Garcinia parvifolia 1.2 3 0.14 G G Dyso.\)•111111 sp. I 1.2 4 0.08 Beilsc/1111iedia sp. 2 1.2 3 0. 13 A Al Eugenia sp. 9 1.2 3 0.12 A Al Blumeodendron sp. 2 1.2 I 0.32 A Al Eugenia sp. 2 I. I 4 0.06 A Al Macaranga conifera I.I 2 0.21 J A2 Dacryodes rostrata f. pubescens I. I 3 0.1 AG Al Sandoric11111 sp. I. I 3 0,07 A Al Magnolia cmrdollii var. cmulollii I 3 0,07 Scorodocarpus bomeensis 3 0,07 AG AIG Gymnacrantlrera forbesii 3 0.06 Wlriteodendron sp. 2 0.16 A Al Di)•petes sp. I I 2 0.14 A Al Slrorea sp. 2 I 2 0.14 A Al I/ex sp. 2 0.9 2 0.13 Rlroda111nia cinerea 0.9 2 0.13 AG c Oclrmwstaclrys amentacea 0.9 3 0.03 AG Al Clraetoca11ms castmwcaqms 0.9 2 0.13 AID Cryptocarya sp. 4 0.9 3 0,07 A Al Cratoxylum 0.9 2 0.12 A A2 B2 Koordersiodendron piww111111 0.9 I 0.21 A AIG Neplreli11111 cf. /appace11111 I 0.9 2 0. 11 G G litlwcarpus m111ina111s 0.9 2 0.16 A BI Xamlroplry/111111 sp. 3 0.9 3 0.06 G Artocarpus i111eger 0.8 2 0.1 AG CG Memecylon sp. 0.8 2 0.1 A Al Hydnocarpus sp. 3 0.8 2 0.09 AJ Al litlrocarpus ec/1inifer 0.8 2 0.09 A BI I/ex sp. I 0.8 2 0.08 A Al litlrocarpus sp. 8 0.8 2 0.08 A B2

Chapter 2 44 (Appe11dix 2.4 co111i1111ed)

Importance De nsity Basal area Use category Val ue (tree ha·I) (m2 ha·I) PROS EA Kenyah

Ca11ari11111 sp. 0.8 2 0.07 A E11ge11ia sp. 8 0.8 2 0.07 A Al Sca11hi11111 sp. 0.8 2 0.07 A Chio11a111/111s pachyphyl/11s 0.8 2 0.07 Celastraceae sp. 0.8 I 0.17 E11dia11dra sp. 0.8 2 0.07 Tetramerista sp. 0.7 I 0.17 A Al Sa11tiria tomentosa 0.7 2 0.06 AG Al E11ge11ia sp. 5 0.7 I 0.16 A Al S1erc11/iaceae spp. 0.7 2 0.06 Horsjieldiafragillima 0.7 2 0.05 lithocarp11s sp. I0 0.7 I 0.15 A B2 Lithocarpus sp. 14 0.7 I 0.15 A BI Sa11ra11ia sp. 0.7 2 0.05 Symplocos sp. 0.7 2 0.04 Primus arborea 0.7 2 0.04 A D Cyathocalyx cari11at11s 0.7 2 0.04 A2D Cryptocarya sp. 8 0.7 2 0.04 A Al Casta11opsis sp. 0.7 I 0.14 A Al Xamhophy/111111 obsc11ru111 0.7 I 0.14 AG Adi11a11dra sp. I 0.7 2 0.04 Glochidio11 sp. 0.7 2 0.03 Hyd11ocarp11s sp. I 0.7 2 0.03 AJ Al 7i111011i11s sp. 0.7 2 0.03 A B2 Hyd11ocarp11s sp. 2 0.7 2 0.03 AJ Al Schima wallicltii 0.7 2 0.03 A Al E11ge11ia sp. 7 0.6 2 0.03 A Al Delraasia sp. 0.6 2 0.03 A Al Diospyros sp. I 0.6 2 0.03 J J E11ge11ia sp. 11 0.6 2 0.03 A c C1vto11 sp. I 0.6 2 0.03 Garci11ia sp. I (JVV 1259) 0.6 2 0.03 G G Nothaphoebe pa11d11rifor111is 0.6 2 0.02 A Al Microcos ci1111a1110111ifolia 0.6 2 0.02 AIBICG E11ge11ia sp. 3 0.6 2 0.02 A Al Palaq11i11111 /eiocarp11111 0.6 2 0.02 Al I Se111ecarp11s b1111b111)·a1111s 0.6 2 0.08 Primus beccarii 0.6 2 0.02 D Ma/lotus e11ca11st11s 0.6 2 0.02 Xa11t/10phyl/11111 affine 0.6 2 0.02 A !xora sp. I 0.6 2 0.02 A Al K11ema percoriacea 0.6 2 0.02 Di11101phocalyx 11111ricat11s 0.6 2 0.02 Bridelia sp. 0.6 2 0.02 Dacryodes sp. 0.6 2 0.02 Pi111elode11dro11 sp. 0.6 2 0.02 A Al litsea elliptica 0.6 I 0.1 A Al lithocarpus sp. 19 0.6 I 0.1 A BI Giro1111iera sp. 0.6 I 0 A Meliosma sp. 0.6 I 0.1 A Al Garci11ia sp. 2 0.6 2 0.05 Litsea sp. I 0.6 I 0.1 A Al Fagraea sp. 0.6 I 0.09 AJ Al Aglaia sp. 4 0.6 I 0.09 A A2 Gy11otroches axillaris 0.5 I 0.08 A

45 Chapter 2 (Appe11dix 2.4 comi1111ed)

Importance Density Basal area Use category Value (tree ha-I) (m2 ha-1) PROS EA Kenyah

Alsto11ia a11g11stifolia 0.5 0.07 AJ Ma11gife ra sp. 3 0.5 I 0.07 AG Al Diospy1vs sp. 2 0.5 2 0.02 Xa11tlroplryl/11m sp. I 0.4 I 0.06 Pla11clro11ia sp. 0.4 I 0.06 A Al Clrrysoplryl/11111 roxbctrglrii 0.4 I 0.06 A Al Styrax sp. 0.4 I 0.06 H A2 Wals11ra pi1111ata 0.4 I 0.06 A Al Paye11a sp. 0.4 II 0.06 AI I Xa111Jroplryllum sp. 2 0.4 I 0.05 c litlrocarpus sp. 16 0.4 I 0.05 A 82 Neo-11varia sp. 0.4 I 0.04 Elaeocarpus stipu/aris 0.4 I 0.04 A A2 G Meliaceae sp. 0.4 I 0.04 Al T11rpi11ia sp. 0.4 0.04 A Al Aglaia sp. 2 0.4 0.04 A c Horsjieldia p1111ctatifolia 0.4 0.04 Elaeocarpus sp. 0.4 0.04 A Al Go11ys1yills sp. 0.4 0.04 A Neplrelium sp. 0.4 0.03 A B2 litltocarpus sp. 12 0.4 0.03 A B2 Stercu/ia sp. 3 0.4 0.03 Ar10carp11s sp. 2 0.4 0.03 G G Xerospemmm 11oiv11ltia1111111 0.4 0.03 G G Sltorea sp. 6 0.4 0.03 A Al Baccaurea sp. 0.4 0.03 G G Mo11ocarpia sp. 0.4 0.03 Als1011ia sc/10/aris 0.4 0.03 AIJ Al I 011cospen11a lrorridum 0.4 0.03 A Al Litlrocarpus sp. 11 0.4 0.03 A B2 Cltio11a11tl111s callopltyllus 0.4 0.03 Stercu/ia sp. 2 0.4 0.03 A Al Q11erc11s subsericea 0.4 0.03 A B2 Cleista111Jr11s sp. 0.4 0.03 Sltorea sp. 3 0.4 0.03 A Al Dep/a11chea sp. 0.4 0.03 A Ade11a11tlrera sp. 0.4 0.02 Acti11odap/111e sp. I 0.4 0.02 A AI C Aglaia sp. 6 0.4 0.02 A Al Chio11a111/111s macivcarpa var. macivcarpa 0.3 0.02 A Al Aglaia sp. 3 0.3 0.02 A Cryptocat)'a sp. 2 0.3 0.02 A Al Cryptocarya sp. 3 0.3 0.02 K11ema aslrto11ii 0.3 0.02 Pteleocarpa lamponga 0.3 0.02 A Tare111za ciliolata 0.3 0.02 E11gellzardia serrata 0.3 0.02 A D Ficus sp. I 0.3 0.02 Quercus e/meri 0.3 0.02 A B2 Lasia111/111s sp. 0.3 0.02 A Al Durio la11ceolata 0.3 0.02 A Acti11odap/111e sp. 3 0.3 0.02 Platea latifo lia 0.3 0.02 A Aglaia sp. 5 0.3 0.02 A

Chapter 2 46 (Appendix 2.4 co111i1111ed)

lmponance Density Basal area Use category Value (tree ha-I) (m2 ha-1) PROSEA Kenyah

Slrorea sp. 5 0.3 0.02 A Al Cryptocmya sp. 6 0.3 0.02 A Al Li1/roca17J11ssp. 2 0.3 0.02 A 82

Ma11gifera s p. I 0.3 0.02 AG Al Ca111lri11111 sp. 0.3 0.02 A Al Vatica sp. 3 0.3 0.02 A BI Neplreli11111 cf. lappace11111 3 0.3 0.01 G G Ardisia sp. 0.3 0.01 G Vitex sp. 0.3 0.01 lithocmpus co11ocmp11s 0.3 0.01 A 82 Caloplry/111111 sp. 2 0.3 0.01 A Al Li1lrocarp11s sp. 3 0.3 0.01 A 82 Melios111a s11111atra11a 0.3 0.01 AG Sarcotlreca sp. 0.3 0.01 Ixorasp. 2 0.3 0.01 A Al Helicia sp. 0.3 0.01 G/111asp. 0.3 0.01 A c Portera11dia a11isoplry//a 0.3 0.01 AG Aporosa s11bca11data 0.3 0.01 litlrocarp11s sp. 17 0.3 0.01 A 82 Li1/wcarp11s porca111s 0.3 0.01 A 82 Dysoxy/11111 s p. 2 0.3 0.01 Magnolia ca11dollii var. si11gap11re11sis 0.3 0.01 Cryptocarya sp. 5 0.3 0.01 Dacryodes rugosa 0.3 0.01 A Ma111111ea sp. 0.3 0.01 A Al Paye11ajo/1a11ii Vink ined. 0.3 0.01 AH Al Tare1111a sp. 0.3 0.01 Al Rotlr111a1111ia sp. 0.3 0.01 A Al Bacca11rea 111acrocarpa 0.3 0.01 G G Madlr11ca sp. 2 0.3 0.01 AH Al Neo11a11clea sp. 0.3 0.01 A Al Di//e11ia sp. 0.3 0.01 A Ca11ari11111 111a/11e11se 0.3 0.01 A Cryptoca1ya sp. I 0.3 0.01 A Al Polyaltlria cf. nmrp/rii 0.3 0.01 A A2 D Sm1tiria ob/011gifo lia 0.3 0.01 A Al Sterc11/ia sp. I 0.3 0.01 Acti11odap/111esp. 2 0.3 0.01 Horsfteldia gra11dis 0.3 0.01 Neplreli11111 cf. /appaceum 4 0.3 0.01 G G Eryt/rro;i.)•1011sp. 0.3 0.01 A Al A111ides111a sp. 0.3 0.01 c Fordia sple11didissi111a 0.3 0.01 Myri stica i11ers 0.3 0.01 A Cryptocarya sp. 7 0.3 0.01 Macara11ga lrypole11ca 0.3 0.01 Durio sp. 2 0.3 0.01 Durio sp. I 0.3 0.01 Madlmca sp. I 0.3 0.01 AH Al litsea fe rugi11ea 0.3 0.01 A Ma11gifera sp. 2 0.3 0.01 AG

Totals 299.7 719 35.47

47 Chapter 2

3. SPECIES YIELDING NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR ABUNDANCE

3.1. Introduction

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) or Minor Forest Products were actually the ma­ jor products collected from the tropical rain forests of Indonesia well into the first half of this century as can be deduced from many publications (Gonggrijp, 1935; Cohen, 1939; Peluso, l 983; Jessup & Peluso, 1986; De Beer & McDermott, 1989). In 1929 the export value of timber and wood products (incl. 'gaharu' wood and 'bakau' bark) amounted to 13 million Dutch guilders, whereas other forest products amounted to 18.7 million Dutch guilders for Indonesia (Gonggrijp, 1935). In 1938 the export value of minor forest products from the outer provinces amounted to 11.4 million guilders, twice the amount for wood and about an eight of the whole export of native production including rubber and copra (Cohen, 1939). In 1938 value and volume of minor forest products such as dammar, gutta-percha and native rubber were still considerable, but rattan was already the most important minor forestproduct both in volume and value in East Kaliman tan (Meijer Drees, 1939). An extensive account of the economic potential of minor forest products in the lower and middle Mahakam area is given by Endert ( 1927). A preliminary account of local use of many plant species in Long Sungai Barang is given by Soedjito ( 1980) and Sangat (1982). At present most NTFP have lost their economic importance in East Kalimantan, and are no longer mentioned in trade statistics, with the exception of rattan, gaharu­ wood, dammar, and illipe or tengkawang nuts. In this chapter an account of species composition and abundance of NTFP in pri­ mary and logged-over forest in three research sites in East Kalimantan is given. The importance of these NTFP is compared with the timber species present. Rattan, the major NTFP, is treated separately in Chapters 5 and 6. Because of the importance in local and regional trade, fruit trees receive special attention in Chapter 4, but have also been included in this survey. Although secondary forests are an important source of NTFP (pers. observ.), these were beyond the scope of this research. This is the major reason why bamboo is ex­ cluded, since it is most commonly encountered in secondary or disturbed vegetation. Medicinal plants are only briefly mentioned, as a recent study on these plants for the Apo Kayan region by Leaman et al. ( 199 1) revealed that most of the medicinal plants traditionally used originate from secondary vegetation in the vicinity of villages.

3.2. Methods

Results of the general vegetation survey on species composition and abundance of trees (Importance Value, basal area, number of trees) as presented in Chapter 2, are the basis of this chapter. In the three sites all species were allocated to a certain end-use

49 Chapter 3 category based on the Prosea list (Jansen et al. , 1991). If a species was not quoted in this list, it was considered as having no use, except for several well known timber genera such as Aglaia, Eugenia or in the case of a species reported to have a specific use by Kenyah informants in the Apo Kayan. If in the Apo Kayan plots a species could not be identified to species level, but a specific use was given by the Kenyah inform­ ant, this use was also adopted for the Prosea list. In the Apo Kayan plots the classificationof end-uses following theProsea list (Jansen et al. , 1991) is compared with the end-use classificationof the Kenyah informants (Pak Peluat, Pak Pelenjau Ala, Pak Pubang).

The following end-use categories are recognized in the present chapter:

- Timber: further divided in good or poor quality timber and good or poor quality shingles. - Special purpose wood: termite resistant poles, musical instruments, tool handles, spear shafts, paddles etc. - Bark/leaves: bark used as twine or for walls of (temporary) shelters, dye or mor- dant; leaves used as vegetable or food wrappers. - Edible fat: seeds known to yield edible fat or oil after extraction. - Commercial fat: Shorea species reported to be traded as illipe or tengkawang nuts. - Fruit: tree species reported to yield an edible fruit or nut, excepting those that are primarily used for the extraction of edible fat. - Exudate: tree species reported to yield resin, oil or latex (excluding Moraceae that have no commercial application). - Commercial exudate: tree species with a record of commercial trade of resin, oil or latex, either in former times or at present. - Medicinal: tree species reported to have medicinal properties; this category includes (fish) poisons. - No use, including fire wood.

For the end-use categories edible fat and exudate, a further distinction is made for commercial fat and commercial exudate respectively. Only species with a proven record of commercial trade are included in the latter two categories. A single species can figurein more than one end-use category. For uses of the vari­ ous species of Apocynaceae, Dipterocarpaceae and Sapotaceae, Soerianegara & Lem­ mens (1993) was consulted. For Sapotaceae only the use for timber or latex was con­ sidered except for Palaquium rostratum and Payena Leerii, which also rank as fruit trees, because edibility of the fruits was verified in the field. Although the bark of many species present in the plots yields tannin or dye, this was not recorded, since no trade or commercial collecting was observed or reported. An exception is made for a single Eugenia species (JVV 1 184), that was extensively used in the Apo Kayan. If the reported medicinal use of a plant species was outweighed by another use, it was not included (e. g. , Anthocephalus chinensis).

Chapter 3 50 Because no diameter information of individual trees was available for the ITCI plots the Importance Value (see Chapter 2) is used to compare the importance of the vari­ ous end-use categories for all three sites. The l.V. score of all species belonging to a certain end-use category is tallied, resulting in a cumulative l.V. score for that end-use category. In addition to the comparison based on I. V. scores, for the Apo Kay an plots and plot Matthijs the number of adult or harvestable trees belonging to fruit, commercial exu­ date and timber categories is given as an indication for the value of these respective categories. The adult size (diameter) of fr uit trees is species dependent. The minimum diameter attained before firstflowering is used as the lower dbh limit. The minimum diameter used is based on Saw et al. (1991) and personal observations in the field. For commercial exudate yielding species an arbitrary lower limit of 30 cm dbh is used, and for timber a lower limit of 60 cm dbh.

Through interviews with village elders, local officialsand buyers in Long Sungai Barang, Long Ampung and Samarinda an attempt was made to assess the economic importance of gaharu (Aquilaria beccariana) collecting for the Apo Kayan region. Although the species was not present inside the research plots, it is included as it is the only NTFP traded in large amounts in the region.

3.3. Results

3.3.1. Species composition

Table 3.1 gives the number of species belonging to the various end-use categories present in the research sites. The end-use of each/all species present in the Apo Kayan plots and plot Matthijs is given in Appendices 2.3 and 2.4. With respect to tree species yielding NTFP, the largest group is found in the cat­ egory of fruit trees, followed by the species yielding exudate (Table 3.1). The number of species yielding an edible fat or having medicinal properties is far less important. In using commercial exploitation as a criterion the picture alters considerably. The diver­ sity of commercially exploited fr uit species is much smaller (see also Chapter 4), and also the number of commercially exploited species yielding an edible fat or exudate is much smaller. The diversity in species yielding active medicinal ingredients is difficult to assess as still little is known about chemical composition of most species reported to be used in traditional medicine. The present figure may well be an over- or underesti­ mate of the number of species having medicinal properties. The percentage of species yielding edible fruits ranges from 8 to 19 percent with lowest value (8% ) in the most heavily logged ITCI plot and highest value in plot Matthijs (19%). Of the commercial fruit species, all Garcinia and Mangifera species are absent in the logged-over plots. Except for Artocmpus anisophyllus, A. lanceifolius and Dacryodes rostrata, the commercial fruit species are confined to the least affected logged-over plot (72-1) and the primary forest plots at ITCI.

51 Chapter 3 Q Table 3. 1. Number of species and percentage of total species (in parentheses) and Table 3.2. Cumulative Imponance Value of species, belonging lo lhe various end-use -§ categories, in different sites and plots in East Kalimantan. End-use classification based on the PROSEA list (Jansen et al., 1991 ). " .., '"" Table 3.1 Timber Bark I Edible Commer- Fruit Exudate Commer- Medicinal Mulliple No use Total leaves fat cial fat cial exudate plants use spp. spp.

Apo Kayan 169 (63.8) I (0.4) 30 (11.3) JO ( 3.8) 6 (2.3) 10 (3.8) 34 (12.8) 81 (30.6) 265 Mauhijs 71 (60.7) 2 ( 1.7) I (0.9) 22 (18.8) 7 ( 6.0) I (0.9) 2 (1.7) 25 (21.4) 38 (32.5) 117 ITC! primary 76-3a 53 (51.0) I (1.0) I (1.0) II (1 0.6) 10 ( 9.6) 3 (2.9) I (1.0) 17 (16.3) 41 (39.4) 104 76-3b 83 (54.6) I (0.7) I (0.7) I (0.7) 23 (15.1) 16 (10.5) 5 (3.3) 4 (2.6) 32 (21.1) 56 (36.8) 152 72-8 172 (57.5) 2 (0.7) 3 ( 1.0) I (0.3) 41 (13.7) 19 ( 6.4) 4 (1.3) 7 (2.3) 50 (16.7) I05 (35. 1) 299 76-4 97 (49.0) 3 (1.5) I (0.5) 21 (10.6) II ( 5.6) 2 (1.0) 28 (14.1) 87 (43.9) 198 ITCI logged 72-1 49 (38.9) 3 (2.4) I (0.8) 15 (11.9) 6 ( 4.7) 3 (2.4) 20 (15.9) 51 (40.5) 126 72-2 28 (37.3) 2 (2.7) 6 ( 8.0) 5 ( 6.7) 4 (5.3) 11 (14.7) 36 (48.0) 75 77-2 31 (46.3) I (1.5) 8 (11.9) 3 ( 4.5) 3 (4.5) 9 (13.4) 29 (43.3) 67

Table3.2 Vl N Apo Kayan 198.3 0.4 36.5 14.I 8.6 11.3 91.8 265 Matthijs 209.7 2.7 2.3 42.0 27.9 0.8 5.2 68.8 117 ITCIprimary 76-3a 202.2 12.0 0.9 18.0 49.5 27.0 4.8 88.2 104 76-3b 204.9 12.6 1.8 1.8 32.0 39.3 II.I 7.5 88.8 152 72-8 200.1 1.8 18.0 2.4 26.0 33.0 2.4 5.1 92.1 299 76-4 184.8 25.8 8.1 18.0 44.1 0.6 101.7 198 ITCI logged 72-1 161.4 9.0 5.4 28.0 14.I 12.0 95.4 126 72-2 144.0 12.9 16.0 13.8 13.2 125.4 75 77-2 104.4 l.5 23.0 6.3 12.3 171.9 67

Bark/ leaves: Apo Kayan, Eugenia sp. (JVV 1184); Mallhijs, Clcista111/111s s11111atra11a, Draco1110111e/011 dao; ITCI 76-3a & 76-3b, Clcista111/111s s11111atra11a; ITCI76-4, Ci11110111011111111 i11ers, C.java11ic11111. Commercial fat Shorea fa/lax. Commercial exudate: Apo Kayan, Alsto11ia scholaris, Palaq11i11111 ca/ophy/111111, P. leiocarpum, Palaq11i11111 sp. I, Paye11a leerii, Paye11a sp.; Mallhijs, Dyera cosudaw; ITCI 76-3a, Hopea 111e11germva11, Palaq11i11111 obovmum, P. sre//0111111; ITC! 76-3b, Hopea beccaria11a, H. dryobalmwides, H. 111e11gerawa11, Shorea Jamellata, Palaq11i11111 obova111m; ITCI 76-8, Hopea dryobalanoides, H. me11germvm1, Pa/aq11i11111 111ai11gayi, \la/ica rassak. Medicinal plants: A/s1011ia a11g11s1ifolia, A. sdwlaris, Cmrari11111 pi/os11111, Cro1011 argyrallls, Cle110/opho11 pa11•ifoli11s, Diospyros sp. I, Dracomome/011 dao, Fagraea racemosa, G/11/a wallichii, Go11ysty/11s kei1'1ii, Horsfieldia glabra, Hyd11ocarp11s spp., Kibara arborea, Macarcmga hypole11ca, M. 1riloba. The absence in the logged-over plots of species yielding commercial exudate and species yielding commercial fat (except for Shoreafallax in plot 72- 1) cannot be at­ tributed to the logging, as only large trees are removed by logging. The lower percent­ age of species yielding timber in the logged-over plots however is most likely caused by the logging.

3.3.2. Importance of the various NTFP

The cumulative Importance Value (l.V.) scores of the various end-use categories as given in Table 3.2 more clearly illustrate differences between the sites and the effects of logging. The l.V. score of species yielding exudate is highest in the primary plots at ITCI and has to be attributed to the abundance of dipterocarp species and Sapotaceae (see Chapter 2). Since these species are also extracted for timber the score in the logged­ over plots is much lower. The relatively low score for the Apo Kayan (14.1) has two reasons. Hopea species are absent in the plots, and several Shorea species in the Apo Kayan were not identifiedto species level, and therefore their potential forresin or oil extraction could not be verified. The high l.V. score for commercial exudate in the ITCI plots 76-3a, 76-3b can primarily be ascribed to the abundance of Hopea men­ gerawan. The I.V. score of species with edible fruits is highest in plot Matthijs and the Apo Kayan. The score of fruit species in the primary ITCI plots varies considerably and does not differ from the logged-over plots. The l.V. score of species yielding edible fat depends on a very small number of species, that appear to have a preference forwell drained middle slopes. In the primary ITCI plots 72-8 and 76-4 the high score can largely be ascribed to Shorea parvistipulata. The score in the logged-over plots 72- 1 and 72-2 can largely be ascribed to Shorea fag uetiana and S. fa /lax. The high l.V. score for species of which bark or leaves are used, in the ITCI plots 76-3a and 76-3b can be ascribed to just one species, Cleistanthus sumatrana. The leaves are reported to be eaten as a vegetable, but economically the species is of little or no importance. The low l.V. score in plot 72-8 represents a more direct market value as both species (Cinnamomum iners, C.javanicum) are used as a substitute for Cin­ namomum verum bark as a spice. The l.V. score of timber species of the plots in primary forest in ITCI, the Apo Kayan and plot Matthijs have a similar value. The lower score of the logged-over plots is caused by the removal of timber. The highest score of species with no use is found in the most heavily logged plots, 72-2 and 77-2.

3.3.3. Comparison of Kenyah and PROSEA classification

Table 3.3 enumerates the differences in classificationbased on the classificationof the Lepo Tukung Kenyah of Long Sungai Barang and the Prosea list (Jansen et al., 1991). The Kenyah classsified 152 species as having a 'timber'-application as compared with the 169 species mentioned in the Prosea list (Jansen et al., 1991). More species

53 Chapter 3 Table 3.3. Comparison of the Kenyah classification and PROSEA classification (Jansen et al., 1991) of trees present in primary forest in the Apo Kayan (plot size 1.12 ha).* Species used forfat were not present.

Kenyah classification PROS EA classification IV score No. species IV score No. species

Good timber 111.5 99 Inferior timber 15.1 II Good shingles 34.3 14 198.3 169 Inferior shingles 8.7 16 } } Special purpose wood 20.9 17 Bark / leaves 10.3 10 0.4 I Fruit 30.1 23 36.5 30 Exudate 8.6 6 14.1 10 Commercial exudate 7.1 5 8.6 6 Medicinal 0.6 11.3 10 Multiple use species 22 34 No use 93.4 94 91.8 81

Total number of species 265 265

*) For details on each species, see Appendix 2.4. than according to the Prosea list, are considered as having no use. This can be ex­ plained by the vast area that is covered by the Prosea list. A certain tree species may have a reported timber application in, e.g., Java whereas the same species is not used for that purpose in Malaysia. Since the PROSEA list enumerates the uses forthe whole of South-East Asia, a list for only part of the region is inevitably shorter yet more refined. The 'timber' -category is divided into four end-use categories by the Kenyah and only 99 species are recognized as good quality timber. As the use of shingles is an essential element of daily life for local communities in remote areas, it was mentioned as a separate end-use category. In general wooden shingles are used as roofing material in house building instead of corrugated iron. Also the category of special purpose wood reflects applications in daily life. The larger number of species of which bark and leaves are used is the result of Cyathocalyx species of which leaves are used as food wrappers, several Annonaceae species of which the bark is used for twine and Prunus arborea, P. beccarii, and Engel­ hardia serrata of which the bark is used as walls for temporary shelters. These appli­ cations could not be extracted from the PROSEA basic list (Jansen et al., 1991 ). Differences of opinion concerning edible fruits were considerable, and are discussed in detail in Chapter 4. Less species are considered bearing edible fru it by the Kenyah than according to the PROSEA list. None of the Mangife ra species in the plots was considered edible, but Mallotus wrayi was, despite its almost fleshless, dry fruits. The difference in the end-use category commercial exudate can be ascribed to Payena leerii, which is not considered commercial by the Kenyah. Because an inventory of applications as poisonous or medicinal plants was not the aim of the present research the total number of species inside the plots with such appli­ cations may have been underestimated. Therefore inside the plots only one Diospyros

Chapter 3 54 species was mentioned as being used as fish poison. Two Ca lophyllum species (C.bi­ florum, C. teysmamzii var. inophylloides) in primary forest outside the plots were also mentioned to be used as fishpoison. Various species in - trees, shrubs and herbs - were mentioned to have medicinal properties (JVV 1245, 1247, 1276, 1301, 1302, 1303, 1304; see Appendix 2.2). Eurycoma longifo lia, a species of which the roots are sold as an aphrodisiac in Samarinda, was regularly encountered in the forest, but it was not traded.

3.3.4. Gaharu (Aquilaria spp.) collecting in the Apo Kayan

The only NTFP product, besides some birds (Pycnonotus zeylanicus), incidental bot­ tles of honey, and tekipai (Kenyah name for Pa laquium Leiocarpwn), collected and traded on a commercial scale is gaharu wood. The fragrant black resinous wood pre­ sumably resulting from a fungus infection (Hawksworth& Gibson, 1976; Jalaluddin, 1976; Rao & Dayal, 1992) is used formedicinal purposes, in perfumes, and as incense wood. After the surge in collecting in the 1970s reported by Jessup & Peluso (1986), commercial collecting temporarily stopped because accessible areas were depleted. In 1991 the rise in price level to Rp 1,000,000 (US$ 500) per kg for first quality paid in the Apo Kayan once again made collecting profitable. Large numbers of both villagers and outsiders collected gaharu in the forest surrounding Long Sungai Barang. Estimat­ ing the actual production from the area was very difficult as both volume and price paid tend to be under-reported. The reason for this is to avoid paying tax, that is both weight and quality dependent. Since all produce is transported by air to Samarinda, local airlines were contacted to get information on cargo volume leaving the area. However, no details on the nature of the cargo are kept. Royalties paid to the village treasury are an indication for the intensity of collect­ ing, although enforcement was a difficult issue, especially when payment by villagers of Long Sungai Barang or Lidung Payau was concerned (see also Jessup & Peluso, 1986). From the last months of 1991 until July 1992 the village of Long Sungai Barang received Rp. 201 ,000 in revenue from outsiders who paid Rp. 2000 for each time they entered the surrounding forests for collecting gaharu. During that period the village treasury received gifts from buyers residing in the village totalling Rp. 370,000. Vil­ lagers from Long Sungai Barang paid a total of Rp. 122,500 to the village treasury. After a successful collecting trip a village member was expected to pay Rp. 1000. Following the surge in 1991 and 1992 collecting apparently reduced in the vicinity of Long Sungai Barang. Once again nearby resources were reduced to such a level that collecting was no longer economically worthwhile. The attention of both outsiders and villagers was directed to the border area with Sarawak and the downstream Kayan river area (Kayan Hilir) north of the Apo Kayan. This shift of area is also supported by information from a long established buyer in Long Ampung, pak Amri. In 1992 he bought on average 100-150 kg gaharu per month from villagers of Long Sungai Barang and Lidung Payau, that originated from the surrounding forests. During the second half of 1993 he bought a total of 600 kg of gaharu from the same villagers but this time up to 90 % originated from the border area

55 Chapter 3 with Sarawak. The total production from the upper Kayan area in 1993 was estimated at 2000 kg forall three companies involved in the gaharu trade (pakAmri, pers. comm.). Two examples show the profitability of gaharu collecting. In 1992 a rice winnower was 'bought' by a gaharu buyer. The machine, normally costing Rp. 7,400,000, had to be reimbursed in the form of gaharu. It was 'repaid' by 20 villagers of Long Sungai Barang in less than fourmonths. Profits forgaharu trade companies are also consider­ able. Since air transport is often facing long delays, gaharu companies sometimes hire helicopters in Tabang at a cost of Rp. 7,000,000 per flight. The helicopter brings cus­ tomer goods that are in great demand in the Apo Kayan and returns with gaharu.

3.4. Discussion

The variation in species composition and abundance between regions (Chapter 2) also holds for the tree species yielding NTFP (see Table 3.1). Shorea species yielding illipe or tengkawang nuts were not fo und in the Apo Kayan. And the only gutta-percha spe­ cies presently traded (Palaquium leiocaipum; Kenyah name: tekipai) was only found in the Apo Kayan plots. A major constraint for development of most of the NTFPs is the varying quality and irregular supply (Dixon et al., 1992). This often results in low prices for the products, as already mentioned by Cohen (1939). The problem of irregular supply applies par­ ticularly to illipe nuts (Shorea spp.) and fr uits.

Table 3.4. Adult or harvestable trees of species, yielding fruit or timber at Wanariset, plot Matthijs (0.5 1 ha). Adult size is an estimate of minimum diameter attained before first flow­ ering. For timber a minimum diameter of 60 cm is used.

No. of Estimated No.of Estimated trees adult size trees adult size (cm/dbh) (cm/dbh)

Fruit species Major commercial timber Artocmpus a11isopliyllus 20 Cotylelobium 111ela11oxylo11 60 Artocarpus kema11do 20 E11sidero).y/011 zwageri 60 Bhesa pa11icula1a 20 Palaq11i11111 rostra111111 I 60 Bacca11rea bracteata JO Slwrea /aevis 2 60 Ca11ariu111 111egala111/111111 I 20 Sliorea ova/is 60 Ca11ariu111 pilosum 2 20 Slwrea parvifolia 60 Cheilosa 111a/aya11a 10 Sliorea paucijlora 60 Cliisocl1eto11 pa1e11s 10 Draco1110111elo11 dao 20 To tal 8 Ela eocarpus flo ribrmda I 20 Licua11ia s11le11de11s 2 30 Neplielium cuspida111111 10 Other commercial timber Pa /aquium rostratum 2 20 Durio /a11ceo/a1a 60 Scaplii11111 111acropod11111 I 30 Eugenia cf. dyeri 60 Xa111/10pliy/lt1111 s1ipita111111 3 20 Pari11ari oblongifolia Xerospem111111 11oro11/iia1111111 2 10 60

Total 22 To tal 3

Chapter 3 56 Table 3.5. Adult or harvestable trees of species, yielding fruit, commercial exudate or timber in the Apo Kayan plots ( 1.12ha). Adult size is an estimate of minimum diameter attained before firstflowering. For exudate yielding species a minimum diameter of 30 cm is used and fortimber a minimum diameter of 60 cm.

No. of Estimated No. of Estimated trees adult size trees adult size (cm/dbh) (cm/dbh)

Fruit species Commercial exudate Artocarpus integer 2 20 Palaq11i11111 ca/opliyl/11111 1 30 Artocarpus la11ceifoli11s 4 20 Palaq11i11111 sp. 1 3 30 Artocarpus sp. 1 2 20 Total 4 Artocarpus sp. 2 20 Baccaurea macrocarpa 10 Baccaurea sp. I 20 Major commercial timber Bhesa pa11ic11/ata 3 20 Palaq11i11111 callopliyl/11111 60 Dacryodes rostrata (3 subsp.) II 20 Palaq11i11111 rostrat11111 1 60 Garci11ia parvifo lia 2 10 Palaq11i11111 sp. I 2 60 Garci11ia sp. I 3 10 Sliorea joliore11sis 60 Garci11ia spp. 3 20 Sliorea ova/is 60 Ma11gifera sp. 3 I 20 Shorea parvifolia 2 60 Neph eli11111 lappace11111 1 2 10 Shorea sp. 4 2 60 Neph e/i11111 lappace11111 2 3 10 Si11dora sp. I 60 Neph eli11111 lappace11111 3 10 To tal 11 Nepli eli11111 /appace11111 4 10 Ocha11ostachys ame11/C/cea I 20 Pa laq11i11111 rostra/11111 2 20 Other commercial timber Paye11a leerii 20 B/11111eode11dro11 sp. 60 Ponera11dia a11isophylla 10 Cte110/opho11 sp. 60 Rhoda11111ia ci11erea 20 Dacrydium sp. 60 Samiria 10111e111osa 20 litsea sp. I 60 Xa111/iopliyl/11111 obsc11r11111 1 20 Michelia sp. I 60

Total 49 To tal 5

In none of the research plots active collecting on a commercial basis of NTFP was recorded. However, several of the fruit species occurring in the plots are presently sold in (local) markets; also tekipai (Palaquium Leiocmpum) is traded. Various species are a potential source ofNTFP. Fruit species primarily have a value as genetic resource if they are closely related to cultivated crops, as was already found in Malaysia (Saw et al., 1991). The potential of exudate and edible fat yielding species that have no reported history of trade is difficultto give. The potential of species with medicinal properties is also difficultto quantify. Fruit trees start producing at 20-30 cm dbh or even at 10 cm dbh, whereas timber is only harvested at a dbh of 60 cm or more. Therefore in using I.V.values to compare the various end-use categories the importance of timber is clearly overestimated as the trees of 10-60 cm dbh have only a potential value. Those trees cannot yet be harvested whereas fruit trees of20-30 cm dbh do represent a direct value. For plot Matthijs and the Apo Kayan plots, the end-use categories fruit, commercial exudate and timber are

57 Chapter 3 Table 3.6. Production estimates (based on fieldobservations) and market value (based on local market prices) of fr uit trees present in 1.12 ha of primary forest in the Apo Kayan.

No. of Production Price per unit Total market trees per tree value

Artocarpus i11teger 2 JOO fruits Rp. 500 I fruit Rp. 100,000 Artocarpus la11ceifoli11s 4 50 fruits Rp. 150 I fruit Rp. 30,000 Baccaurea macrocarpa 20kg Rp. 500 /kg Rp. 10,000 Dacryodes rostrata II 20kg Rp. 500I kg Rp. 110,000 Nepheli11111 lappace11111 7 20 bunches Rp. 150 I bunch Rp. 30,000

Total value Rp. 371,000

compared on the basis of maturity of the trees for a certain use (Table 3.4, 3.5). The number of trees with edible fruit is considerably higher (49) than the number of harvestable timber trees (16). If only fruit species that are presently traded in local markets are considered for the Apo Kayan plots (Artocarpus integer, A. lanceifo lius, Baccaurea macrocarpa, Dacryodes rostrata, Ne phelium lappaceum) the number of trees is reduced to 25 (per l .12 ha). When a local market price and standard production per tree is taken the fruit production represents a value of Rp. 371,000 (Table 3.6). A fruit harvest of this size is expected every three years, so yearly revenue per hectare would be approximately Rp. 1 10,000 (Rp. 37 1,000/ (3 x 1.12)). A problem of course is that there is no market at present. Harvesting the timber would require major investment in infrastructure and machinery, so net revenue from timber extraction is also difficult to estimate espe­ cially in view of the remoteness of the area. Although the importance of Shorea trees yielding commercial fat (illipe or tengka­ wang) in the research plots was very low, the potential of this commodity especially for the lowland areas and middle Mahakam region of East Kalimantan is high. The illipe nuts have a history of trade that dates to 1856 (Holmes, 1883, cited in Blicher­ Mathiesen, 1994), and well known industrial applications that have varied over time. Most important is the use as a substitute for cocoa butter. At present the use of CBEs (Cocoa Butter Equivalents) in chocolate production is prohibited in the United States and most West European countries (Heijbroek & Konijn, 1995). Exceptions are the United Kingdom, Ireland, Switzerland, Austria and the Scandinavian countries, where up to 5 % of total product weight may be replaced with substitutes. The call for har­ monisation has grown within the European Union in order to overcome these differ­ ences. If the 5 % rule is approved for the whole EU, the potential of CBEs would rise fromthe current use of 15,000 tons per year to 60,000 tons. If the EU decides in favour of alternative fats, the United States are likely to fo llow suit. This might result not only in a higher demand for illipe fat but also for better prices, as prices for application in chocolate production are higher than forother food or cosmetic products. No commercial exploitation of resin from Dipterocarpaceae (Hopea, Shorea, Va tica) or Agathis, was observed in the research sites. In Long Sungai Barang resin from

Chapter 3 58 Dipterocarpaceae and Agathis is used to caulk boats and for torches. The dammar ex­ ported from East Kalimantan most likely originates fromthe Upper Mahakam, as was also reported by Endert (1927). The research sites harbour several species of Sapotaceae (Palaquium, Payena) and Apocynaceae (Alstonia, Dye ra) reported to yield commercial exudate (latex or gutta­ percha) that at present or in former times was traded (see, e.g., Appendices 2.3 and 2.4). The only species presently traded in the Apo Kayan is Palaquium leiocarpum, used for hafting tools. Harvesting is very destructive, as the tree is felled, and the bark ringed at regular intervals to extract the latex. A 30 cm diameter tree yielded latex with a total value of Rp. 28,000 (US$ 14 ). Large-scale commercial extraction would cer­ tainly threaten the resource. Endert (1927) already mentioned a virtual extinction of gutta-percha trees in the accessible areas of the middle Mahakam as a result of destruc­ tive commercial exploitation. According to Dove ( 1994) booming prices and a change to a more sedentary life of the people accelerated this process. A more competitive method for tapping the latex without the tree still needs to be developed. The commercial collecting of gaharu is at present far from sustainable. Trade com­ panies shift their attention to other areas as soon as the resource is depleted or profits sore. This quick depletion can be explained by the low density of gaharu trees and only a small percentage of trees yielding resin. In Peninsular Malaysia a natural density of 2.5 trees over 1 cm dbh per ha or slightly Jess than l tree over 10 cm dbh per ha was found (LaFrankie, 1994). Medicinal plants are a commodity that is still poorly known both botanically and chemically. Detailed screening will be necessary to determine the active constituents of many species that are often applied in a mixture. The knowledge of traditional medi­ cine varies greatly between different ethnic groups and is disappearing fast as it is replaced by western medicine (when people can afford to buy them). Knowledge on poisonous plants used to stupefy fish, like Calophyllum and Croton, is often wide­ spread. Trade of medicinal plant was not observed in Samarinda except for Ewycoma longifolia. The origin of ingredients for traditional jamu ('medicinal' health drink) on sale could not be traced. Therefore the potential or actual value of medicinal plants cannot be given. The (potential) value of yet undiscovered drugs that are assumed to abound in tropical rain forest is discussed by Mendelsohn & Balick (l995) and ethical aspects of ownership of knowledge or plant populations is the issue of public debate involving pharmaceutical companies, governments, NGOs and indigenous groups. Although of great economic importance and potential at local and international level bamboo was not studied. Bamboo species are rare in primary forest and preferably exploited near villages or along rivers due to the weight of the product. Of the eight bamboo species recorded in Long Sungai Barang by Widjaja (1983) (six species identifiedto species level) three were considered as priority taxa in Williams & Ramantao Rao (l994). All of the six identified species were recorded in the Prosea publication on bamboo (Dransfield & Widjaja, 1995), with uses ranging from vegeta­ ble, chopsticks, basketry, furniture, fencing, thatch to construction purposes. To summarize, the fruit trees are at present the NTFP with the highest (potential) value in the research sites/plots. The species yielding latex have to face a fiercecorn-

59 Chapter 3 petition with the introduced Para rubber, He vea brasiliensis (Dove, 1994), and har­ vesting techniques are at present still too destructive. Another problem is the establish­ ment of ownership rights on wild trees as opposed to exotic, planting being evident, Hevea trees. Harvesting of resin has to compete with better quality production at lower costs in Sumatra (De Foresta & Michon, 1994 ). The harvest of gaharu wood is clearly non sustainable with present extraction levels and techniques. Last remaining NTFP are Shorea trees yielding illipe nuts, with good potential for combining both timber production and the production of edible fat. The possibilities for combining species belonging to the various end-use categories in village orchards, or even large-scale will be expanded on in Chapter 7.

Chapter 3 60 4. INDIGENOUS FRUITS AND EDIBLE NUTS

4.1. Introduction

Historically hardly anything is recorded on the economic value of indigenous fruits in East Kalimantan. Endert (1927) only gave an enumeration of fruit species encountered in the middle Mahakam area, with comments whether a species is cultivated. This lack of information on economic value is most likely due to the local restrictions of the trade. The perishable nature of fruits limited their market potential and in the absence of an urban centre fruitswere primarily for home consumption. This is still the case for most of East Kalimantan. The population of East Kalimantan has started to increase considerably only in recent times and this applies even more to the rise of urban cen­ tres. The urban centres constitute new markets to sell surplus amounts of fruits from both wild and cultivated origin. River transport is greatly facilitated following the timber boom of the 1970s (Peluso, 1983). The number of motorized riverboats of all sizes boomed, thereby making formerly remote areas accessible for collecting, and shortening transportation time. Information on fruit species grown in home gardens in the Apo Kayan was first collected by Soedjito (1980) and Sangat (1982). The Barong Tongkok area is a well known source area of fruits for sale in the Samarinda markets. The agricultural man­ agement system as developed by the local Tundjung and Benuaq Dayak incorporates the establishment of home gardens, with a great diversity of fruit species. This so­ called Lembo culture has been extensively studied by Sardjono (1990). In this chapter fruit species composition in natural forest areas will be reported and selection mechanisms will be traced from natural forest areas, through home gardens with varying access to markets, finally to the markets in Samarinda.

The following aspects are addressed: - differences in fruit species composition between the research sites; seasonality and periodicity of fruiting; selection of fru it species in home gardens; influence of ethnic background (of the producers, collectors and consumers); influence of access to the market; - presence or absence of certain species in urban markets; - market potential of fruit species.

4.2. Methods

In the research plots at the various sites all trees over 10 cm dbh were recorded and allocated to a certain end-use category, as described in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3, re­ spectively. The general botanical collecting at the research sites also yielded many tree species with edible fruits.

61 Chapter 4 Home gardens were visited to complement the information on fruit species obtain­ ed in the vegetation survey (Chapter 2) and concomitant interviews were carried out for information on edibility of the fruits (Chapter 3). Special attention was given to indigenous fruit species planted and/or traded. Home gardens were visited in the Apo Kayan (Long Sungai Barang), the Barong Tongkok area (Benung) and the vicinity of Samarinda (Tani Bakti, Putak). In Long Sungai Barang information on indigenous fruit species planted was ob­ tained through interviews and visiting the home gardens in the course of the regular fieldwork. Based on interviews, during the fruiting season, with village elders in Tani Bakti (February 1994), Putak (February-March 1994), and Benung (May 1994), cultivation status and trade of indigenous fruit species was recorded. Five categories of cultiva­ tion status are distinguished based on the balance between wild and cultivated/planted trees of a species. The percentage of cultivated/planted trees increases from wild, pri­ marily wild, wild + cultivated, primarily cultivated, to cultivated. In the Barong To ngkok area local markets were visited in Barong Tongkok, Eheng and Jengan Danum, to record species and volumes on sale in May 1994. From mid-February 1992 until the first week of August 1993, two major markets in Samarinda, Pasar Pagi and Pasar Segiri were visited twice weekly by a technician, sometimes accompanied by me. These visits were renewed from mid-February until July 1994. During each visit the number of vendors, and price and origin of indigenous fruit species were tallied per species. Vo ucher specimens of indigenous fruitsand nuts on sale were collected and deposited in the alcohol collection of the Rijksherbarium, Leiden. In order to get a better estimate of the actual volumes traded, and to verify the posi­ tive correlation between number of vendors and volume of fruits, a one-time census was made of all (seasonal) fruits and nuts sold on the 5th of May 1994 in both Pasar Pagi and Pasar Segiri. From February l 4th until March 28th 1994, the temporary fruit stalls along the Ma­ hakam river were surveyed once a week at approximately 2.00 p.m. These fruit stalls usually start business around noon. Fruit species traded and volumes were tallied for each fruit stall. Since facilities for cold storage of fruits are lacking a minimum turn­ over rate of the stock was assumed to be at least twice weekly. The importance of indigenous fruit species present in the market can be considered in terms of amounts traded or the regularity of supply. In the present study the amounts traded are considered as the major criterion. Species traded in large amounts in at least two out of three years are considered major species. Species traded in small amounts are always considered minor species, although the per unit value might be high. Aleurites moluccana, although planted and traded on a large scale, has been ex­ cluded from the analysis of the market and home garden survey. The species was on sale all year round and never mentioned as being collected from the forest, and not encountered in forest areas during theresearch. However, Garcinia mangostana, which was also only encountered in home gardens, is included in the analysis of the market survey because of the seasonality of the supply.

Chapter 4 62 4.3. Results

4.3.1. Primary and secondary forests at the research sites

A full enumeration of indigenous fruit species found in the forest surrounding Long Sungai Barang (52 spp.), the Wanariset forest (35 spp.), the research plots in the ITCI concession (59 spp.) and the forest surrounding the village Benung (35 spp.) is given in Appendix 4. 1. The number of edible fruit species in the Apo Kayan plots and plot Matthijs was smaller, 30 and 22 species respectively. These species can be found in Appendices 2.3 and 2.4. Differences in species composition and richness between sites are partly biased by the difference in plot size. The relative importance of fruit species in the forest is dis­ cussed in Chapter 3. Noteworthy is the absence of Lansium domesticum, Durio dulcis and D. kuteje nsis in the Apo Kay an forests, as these species are sold in both local and urban markets and have a good market value. Differences in species composition as found between logged-over and primary ITCI plots with respect to commercial fruit species (see Chapter 3 and Appendix 4.1) are also supported by observations in secondary forests in the Wanariset area and the Apo Kayan. Mangife ra species are confined to primary forest and not found in the logged-over forest.The reason that they are found in secondary forest in the Wanariset area and the Apo Kayan is that the trees are often spared by shifting cultivators and are towering over the young secondary vegetation. Artoca1pus anisophyllus, present in primary forest, is a common sight in secondary forest in the Wanariset area, showing a positive response to the disturbance as is also observed in logged-over forest at ITCI. The density of mature trees with edible fruits in plot Matthijs and the Apo Kayan plots is given in Tables 3.4 and 3.5. The potential value of commercial fruits for one ha of primary forest in the Apo Kayan amounts to Rp. 1 10,000 per year (US$ 55).

4.3.2. Home gardens

Long Sungai Barang (Apo Kayan) Many fruit species are present in the home gardens surrounding the village. Twenty­ eight species of indigenous fruit trees were recorded in the present research and Soedjito (1980) gives a number of 42. Most of these species are not planted or culti­ vated but merely tolerated as long as they do not hamper the preferred trees. The number of indigenous fruit species planted in the home gardens or along tracks is limited to fourteen (Table 4. 1) with a clear predominance of five species: Bacca urea macrocarpa, Dimoca1pus Longan subsp. malesianus, Durio zibethinus, Mangifera pajang and Nephe­ lium ramboutan-ake. Three of the fourteen species were not encountered in the sur­ rounding forest. The total number of Mangife ra species other than M. pajang in the home gardens was conservatively estimated at three in the absence of flowers or fruits for identification. Artocmpus integer, although present in the primary forestsurro unding Long Sungai Barang, is neither planted nor consumed as the people do not like the fruit.

63 Chapter 4 Table 4. 1. Indigenous fruit trees present inhome gardens of Long Sungai Barang, or in surround- ing forest (species can be present in home gardens although not planted/cultivated).

c c eo eo " c "' c -e .,,, .,,, .. " "5 � "' "5 eo c eo c '" :::l '" :::l " 0 ;;; "' . 0 ;;; E .f; t:"' E f; t: CJ 0 :; :::l .... 0 :; :::l .... :r: u tl) tE :r: u Cl)

Aglaia sp. * * Elaeocarp11s sphaeroblast11s * * Artocarp11s integer * Elaeocarp11s stip11/aris * * Artocarp11s la11ceifoli11s * * Garci11ia ba11ca11a * * Ar1ocarp11s odoratissi11111s * * Garci11ia pan1ifolia * * Baccaurea macrocarpa * * * Garci11ia sp. * * Baccaurea spp. * * La11si11111 do111es1ic11111 'cult.' * * Dacryodes rostrata * * Litsea garciae * * * Di111oca1p11s /o11ga11 Ma11gifera paja11g * * * 'green' * * * Ma11gifera spp. * * * 'yellow' * * Nephelium lappaceum * * Durio k111eje11sis * * Nepheli11111 ra111bo111a11-ake * * * Durio oxleya11us * Parkia sp eciosa s. l. * * * Durio zibe1hi1111s * * * Sapi11daceae sp. * * * Elaeocarpus pseudo- Xa111hophyllu111 a111oe1111111 * * * pa11icu/a111s * * Xa111hophyllu111 ecari11a111111 * *

Table 4.2. Locally traded indigenous fruits in the village Benung, Barong To ngkok area, and their shipment to downstream Samarinda markets.

Sama- Status 1 Sama- Status 1 rind a rinda

* Arcl1ide11dro11 jiri11ga cult Ma11gifera spp. (8) wild + cult Artocarpus a11isophyl/11s wild + cult Mangifera caesia wild + cult Artocarpus integer * prim cult Ma11gifera deca11dra wild + cult Artocarpus la11ceifoli11s wild Mangife ra fo etida wild + cult Baccaurea macrocarpa * prim cult Ma11gifera cf. grijfithii wild + cult Baccaurea pyriformis * wild + cult Ma11gifera la11ri11a prim cult Baccaurea spp. (3) prim wild Dacryodes rostrata wild + cult Mangifera paja11g prim cult Dimocarpus lo11ga11 Mangifera rufocostata wild + cult 'green' prim cult Mangifera similis prim wild * 'yellow' prim cult Nephe/i11111 /appa ce11111 * cult Durio dulcis prim wild Neph elium spp. (4) wild + cult Durio kuteje11sis * prim cult Neph elium cuspida111111 wild Durio oxleya1111s prim wild Nepheli11111 111ai11gayi wild + cult Durio zibe1hi1111s * prim cult Nepheli11111 ra111bo11ta11-ake prim cult La11siu111 do111estic11111 'cult.' * cult Nepheli11111 1111ci11at11111 prim wild * 'wild' * wild Parkia speciosa s. l. wild + cult

1) Status indicates the balance between wild and planted I cultivated trees of a species. The percentage of planted/cultivated trees increasing from wild, primarily wild, wild + cultivated, primarily cultivated to

cultivated. - cult = cultivated; prim = primarily.

Chapter 4 64 Benung (Barong Tongkok area) The great diversity of fruit species found in home gardens of the Barong To ngkok area has been described by Sardjono (1990). The present study concentrated on the in­ digenous fruit species traded in local markets, occurring in the home gardens of the village Benung. A total of 30 species were observed or reported on sale in local mar­ kets (Table 4.2). No distinction was made in forms or cultivars of, e.g., Nephelium lappaceum and N. ramboutan-ake. An exception was made for two forms of Dimocar­ pus Longan subsp. malesianus, as only one form is shipped to Samarinda. And also for Lansium do1nesticum a wild and a cultivated form are distinguished, both shipped to Samarinda. Ten species were shipped to the downstream Samarinda market. None of the Mangifera species was shipped as the fruits areappare ntly too delicate to be shipped in bulk, or simply not favoured by buyers in the downstream Samarinda market.

Table 4.3. Indigenous fruit trees, their cultivation and trade in two villages (Putak, Tani Bakti) in the vicinity of Samarinda.

Cultivation

Putak Tani Bakti Trade Status•

Arclride11dro11 jiringa * * P, T cultivated Artocarpus a11isoplryl/us * primarily wild Artocarpus imeger * * P, T primarily cultivated Artocarpus /a11ceifoli11s2 + wild Artocarp11s odoratissimus * primarily cultivated Baccaurea macrocarpa * p primarily cultivated Dacryodes rostrata * wild + cultivated Dimocarpus /011ga11 'green' * p primarily cultivated Dimocatpus /011ga11 'yellow' * p primarily cultivated Durio dulcis * ++ primarily wild Durio kuteje11sis * * p primarily cultivated D11rio oxleya1111s * ++ primarily wild Durio zibetlri1111s * * p primarily cultivated La11siu111 domesticum 'cult.' * * p cultivated La11si11111 domesticum 'wild' 2 p wild Litsea garciae * primarily wild Ma11gifera caesia 2 * + primarily wild Ma11gifera deca11dra * p wild + cultivated Ma11gifera /aurina * p primarily cultivated Ma11gifera pajang * primarily cultivated Mmrgifera similis2 * + wild + cultivated Neplr eli11111 cuspidatum * primarily wild Neplreli11111 lappaceum * * P, T cultivated Neplrelium rambo111a11-ake * primarily cultivated Parkia speciosa s. l. * * p wild + cultivated Sa11doricum koetjape * + primarily cultivated

1) Status indicates the balance between wild and cultivated/planted trees of a species, percentage increasing from wild, primarily wild, wild + cultivated, primarily cultivated to cultivated. 2) Species present in the forest surrounding the village Putak. P =traded in Putak; T =traded in Tani Bakti; +=sold in Samarinda market, but not traded in Putak or Tani Bakti; ++ = sold in stalls along the Balikpapan-Samarinda road.

65 Chapter 4 The vicinity of Samarinda The indigenous fruit trees present in home gardens in two villages at less than one hour by road from Samarinda were compared: Tani Bakti, a transmigration village with Javanese farmers established in 1973 and Putak, a village established in 1964 and inhabited by Tundjung Dayak originally from the Barong Tongkok area. The diversity of indigenous fruit species planted in the Dayak village by far outnumbers the indigen­ ous species planted in the transmigration village, 21 (22) species versus 9 (Table 4.3). Several species on sale in the Samarinda market are not traded in the two villages although the trees are present in the home gardens or surrounding forest, and therefore have potential commercial value only. The transmigrant farmers have up to now restricted themselves to planting fruit trees they were familiarwith in Java, with the exception of Durio kuteje nsis. This spe­ cies is probably incorporated because it starts producing at an early age and has a good market value. Production of most fruit species does not surpass home consumption levels. For several species the number of trees is low or trees have only recently been planted and are not yet bearing fruit. Therefore only 3 out of the 9 planted indigenous species are traded in the village. In contrast 12 species are traded in the Dayak vil­ lage.

4.3.3. Samarinda market

Types of fruit stalls in the market The fruits and nuts on sale in Samarinda are not sold at a sort of standard grocery or fruit stall, but in roughly three types of stalls: 1) The less perishable Pa ngium edule and dried Garcinia dulcis are sold at stalls that sell dried pulses, spices, vegetable oil and pasta. Archidendronjiringa and Parkia speciosa are sold at mixed vegetable stalls. 2) Fruit species that are available in large quantities at a certain time are sold by oppor­ tunistic salesmen that sell only a limited variety of species. The species traded can be indigenous fr uits, but also pomelo, , salak or even apples from New Zealand. 3) If the supply is high indigenous fruits also appear in the stalls selling a mixture of fruits and vegetables.

Fruits on sale outside the big markets Apart from the sale of fruits in the official market places, there are many fruit stalls along the streets of Samarinda. Two major types can be distinguished. Fruit stalls sell­ ing expensive imported fruits like apples from New Zealand, grapes from Australia and also prime quality papaya; and those selling seasonal fruits like cempedak (Arto­ ca1pus integer), durian (Durio zibethinus), lai (Durio kuteje nsis) and rambutan (Ne­ phelium lappaceum), sometimes complemented with Mangifera and Citrus from other provinces. A mixed type also exists. During a peak season the bulk of cempedak, durian, ihau (Dimocarpus Longan subsp. malesianus var. malesianus), lai, langsat (Lansium domesticum) and rambutan is sold at these seasonal fruit stalls. Also Mangifera similis was only found in these stalls.

Chapter 4 66 Table 4.4. Indigenous fruits on sale in two major markets in Samarinda, East Kalimantan, 1992-1994.

Importance 1992 1993 1994 Season Price (Rp.) Origin Status

Archidendron ji ringa ++ * * * all year 1500-2000 /kg 1,4,5,6, 8, 10 cult

Artocarptts integer ++++ * * * Jan.-April (July-Aug.) 500-1000/fruit l prim cult

Artocarpus /anceifolius + * * Fehr. 150/fruit I, 2, 6, 8 wild Baccaurea macrocarpa +++ * * Febr.-May 500-1000/kg 1, 2 prim cult

Baccaurea 111otleya11a ++++ * * * Febr.-April, July-Oct. 300-500/kg l, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 cult Baccartrea pyriformis +++ * * Febr.-May 500-1000/kg l prim cult

Bouea macrophylla + * * Fehr. 50-75/fruit 2, 8 cult Diali11111 i11d11111 + * June 2000/kg 9 wild

Dimocarpus /011ga11

subsp. 111a/esia1111s +++ * * Febr.-April 1350-2000/kg 1 cult * * * °' Durio k11teje11sis ++++ Jan.-April (July-Aug.) 500-1000 I fruit 1, 2, 6, 8 cult -..J Durio zibethi1111s ++++ * * * Dec.-March (June-Aug.) 500-5000/fruit I,9 cult Garcinia ?d11/cis ++ * * * April-Aug. 5000- 10,000/kg 1 wild

Garcinia 111a11gosta11a ++ * * * Jan.-March 30-100 I fruit I, 2 cult

Lansium do111estic11111 ++++ * * * (Jan.-)Febr.-April(-May) 500-1000(- 1500)/kg I, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9 prim cult Mangifera caesia + * Febr. 800/kg I, 2, 6 prim wild Nephei'i11111 /appaceum ++++ * * * Jan.-March (July) 500-650/kg I, 2, 4, 6, 9 cult

Pa11gi11111 edule ++ * * * all year 2000 /kg 12 wild Parkia speciosa s. l. ++ * * * all year 500-1500/3 pods 1,4, II cult + wild Sa11doric11111 koetjape ++++ * * * Febr.-March, June-Sept. 40-50/fruit 2,6, 9 prim cult

+ occasionally in the market in small amounts 1 upstream Mahakam 5 Tanah Merah 9 Banjarmasin cult = cultivated ++ regularly in the market in small amounts 2 Lok Bahu 6 Sanga Sanga 10 Sulawesi prim = primarily 9 +++ occasionally in the market in large amounts 3 Air Putih 7 MuaraJawa 11 Java -§ " ++++ regularly in the market in large amounts 4 Lempake 8 Palaran 12 'forest' ..., ""' I Air Putih 2 Lempake 3 Lok Bahu 4 Muara Jawa 5 Palaran 6 Putak 7 Sanga Sanga 8 Tanah Merah 9 Tani Bakti

Figure 4.1. Vi llages in the vicinity of Samarinda, mentioned as source area of fr uits on sale in the markets.

In the two major markets of Samarinda (Pasar Pagi, Pasar Segiri) a total of 19 indigen­ ous fruitspecies were found during the observation years. Information on seasonality, origin (Figure 4.1) and price of these species is given in Table 4.4.

Description of major species on sale

Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr. (Moraceae) - Figure 4.2; Plate 4a Ve rnacular name: cempedak. The cylindrical fruits measure up to 20-35 x 10-15 cm and have a yellowish to brownish to orange-green colour. The white to yellow, fleshy perianth which sur­ rounds the seeds is eaten fresh or cooked. It has a strong odour and sweet flavour. Seeds can be eaten roasted or boiled. Yo ung fruits can be cooked in coconut milk to produce a dish similar to 'nangka muda' (made of jackfruit). In Samarinda only ma­ ture fruits were on sale and in general only the fleshy perianth is consumed. In 1992 and 1994 the first fruits arrived in the market in January and supply lasted until March or even April in 1994. The peak was in February and the first weeks of March. In 1993 the season started in March and lasted only until the second week of April. Fruits in the market originate from upstream Mahakam, with occasional records of Lok Bahu, though the tree is a common sight in orchards in the vicinity of Samarinda. The price depends on supply and size of the fruits; pre-season and after-season fruits fetch better prices. In general it ranges from Rp.500 to Rp. 1 OOO for one fruit. An average size fruit of 26 x 10 cm has a weight of 1500 g. In 1993 a second season started in mid-July and lasted until the end of observations in the second week of August. Fruits were on sale at a price of Rp. 1000 for one fruit of average size.

Chapter 4 68 3.5 cm

Figure 4.2. Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr. a. Mature fruit; b. longitudinally opened fruit showing seeds completely covered in perianth.

Baccaurea macrocarpa (Miq.) Mill!. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) - Plate 6a Vernacular name: kaput. The orange-brown, woody, thick-walled capsule, up to 7 cm diameter, covers a pleasantly sweet tasting, cream-white fruit pulp. The fruit pulp is eaten fresh. A limited supply was on sale in February and March 1992, with fruits originating from upstream Mahakam. In 1994 the supply of kapul was much larger and it was on sale from mid-April until mid-May in the major markets. At roadside fruit stalls it was on sale from mid-February until mid-May. In February/March the supply originated from the vicinity of Samarinda and in April/May the fruits came from upstream Mahakam. Prices ranged from Rp. 500 to Rp. 1000/kg depending on fruit size.

Baccaurea motleya11a Mill!. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) - Figure 4.3; Plate 6b Vernacular name: rambai. The greenish to buff-coloured, thinly puberulous, round rambai fruits are 2-4 cm in diameter. The transparent white fruit pulp that adheres to the seed has a sweet-sour taste and is eaten fresh. Two types of rambai can be distinguished in the market. The

69 Chapter 4 Figure 4.3. Baccaurea motleya11a Mill!. Arg. a. Habit; b. part of infructescence. rambai originating from Banjarmasin has a thicker fruit skin and fruit pulp is tinged red-brown, as opposed to the transparent white fruit pulp and thin fruit skin of the rambai originating from the vicinity of Samarinda or upstream Mahakam. The rambai from Banjarmasin arrives on the market in woven bags of split Cyperaceae or Pan­ danaceae and the bunches consist of many short racemes, the remainder of the fruits is

Chapter 4 70 a i�

Figur e 4.4. Baccaurea pyriformis Gage . a. Habit; b. fruit. detached from the racemes. The rambai from upriver arrives in coarse rattan baskets and the bunches consist of a fewlong racemes that are curled inwards to get a compact bunch. Apparently there are two seasons, a minor season in February-March, that may extend up to May, and a major season from mid-July until the end of October.

71 Cha pter 4 Figure 4.5. Dimocarpus Longan Lour. subsp . malesianus Le enh. var. malesianus. a. Habit; b. le af tip ; c.pa rt of infructesce nce with mature fruits.

In the minor season, the fruits originate both fromupstream and downstream areas without apparent sequence. Towards the end of the season fruits from Banjarmasin arrive in the market. In the major season a gradual shift in the origin of the fruits can be seen. Until the last week of September most fr uit originates from the vicinity of Samarinda (Sanga Sanga, Palaran, Lempake, Tanah Merah), but in October the bulk comes from upstream Mahakam.

Chapter 4 72 The fruits are mostly sold per 'ikat', a bunch of racemes, and prices fluctuate from Rp. 300 to Rp. 500 a bunch. An average size bunch has a weight of I OOO g. This species is probably only known in cultivation or as a relic of cultivation (KeB!er & Sidiyasa, 1994).

Baccaurea pyriformis Gage (Euphorbiaceae) - Figure 4.4; Plate 7a Vernacular names: cantik manis, jentikan. An orange-brown, woody, small capsule (2.5 x 2 cm) covers the orange, sweet tast­ ing fruit pulp. The fruit pulp is eaten fresh. A limited supply was on sale in the Samarinda market in February and March of 1992. In 1994 there was an ample supply in the market and sugar bags filled with the fruit were a common sight in the harbour from the end of March until mid-May. The fruit originates from upstream Mahakam. The price ranges from Rp. 500 to Rp. 1000/kg depending on supply.

Dimocarpus longan Loureiro subsp. malesianus Leenh. var. malesianus (Sapindaceae) - Figure 4.5; Plate 7b Vernacular names: ihau, mata kuching. The variation found in East Kalimantan in these 1-3 cm diameter round fruits is very large, ranging from small, smooth, globular, light brown fruits found in forest near Balikpapan to small, warty, globular, persistently green fruitsand slightly bigger, warty, globular fruits that tum yellow-brown when ripe. Both warty forms are exten­ sively planted in Dayak home gardens. The latter form has a thicker aril and larger leaflets; this is the form encountered in the markets of Samarinda. Fruits (the fleshy, translucent, white aril covering the shining black seed) can be eaten fresh but also cooked. The species has been recorded on sale in 1992 and 1994, the supply came from upstream Mahakam. The fruits are sold along the streets and in the market, quantities are measured by 'kaleng' (the number of fruits that fit in a standard condensed milk tin). In 1992 the season started in February and lasted until mid-April with the highest supply in March. Prices ranged from Rp. 1000 for 3 kaleng in peak season up to Rp. 500 for 1 kaleng when supply was low. The weight of 4 kaleng equals 1000 g. In 1994 the season started mid-February and lasted until the last week of April. There was no clear peak season and prices were fixed at Rp. 500 per kaleng.

Durio kutejensis (Hassk.) Becc. (Bombacaceae) - Figures 4.6 & 4.7; Plate 2a Vernacular name: Lai. The ovoid to ellipsoid, pentangular (sometimes round) fruits up to 20 x 13 cm have a dirty-yellow colour. The capsule is covered with slightly curved, broadly pyramidal, soft spines up to 1.5 cm. The glossy brown seeds are completely covered in a yellow (sometimes white to orange), fleshy, sweet, fragrant aril. The aril is eaten fresh, and has a prominent durian smell. The firstlai fruits always appear in the market at the height of the durian season. In 1992 the season lasted fromJanuary until the first week of March, in 1993 it started in

73 Chapter 4 Figu re 4.6. Durio kutejensis (H assk.) Becc. a. Habit; b. sc ales on unde rs ide le aves; c. flower.

Chapter 4 74 3 C>\

� Figu re 4.7. Durio kutejensis (H as sk. ) Becc. Variatio n in fruit type , from ell ipsoid to ro und.

February and in 1994 it lasted until April. Fruits primarily originated from upstream Mahakam, but also from villages in the vicinity of Samarinda. Prices depend on supply and size of the fruits, ranging from Rp. 500 to Rp. 1000 per fruit. An average size fruit, 18 x 13 cm, has a weight of 1000 g. In 1993 there was a second Jai season. It started in the second week of July and there was still a large supply at the end of observations in the second week of August. Prices starting at Rp. 1000 for one fruit and decreasing to Rp. 2000 for 3 fruits. Fruits origi­ nated from upriver areas that were sometimes located nearby judging from the still fresh pedicels of the fruits on sale.

Durio zibethinus Murray (Bombacaceae) Vernacular name: durian. The fruits are green to yellow, globular, ovoid, or ellipsoid up to 25 cm long, usually 5-valved. The capsule is covered with broadly pyramidal, sharp spines up to 1 cm Jong. The light brown seeds are completely enclosed in a white to yellow, soft, sweet, fra­ grant aril. The aril is eaten fresh and has the typical strong durian smell. It is one of the most favoured fruits of the region, subject to big price fluctuations. Really good quality fruits are hard to find, since no selection has yet taken place and fruits on sale in the market are a mixture of different trees and origins. The fruits from upstream Mahakam are preferred to the fr uits from Banjarmasin which are said to be picked from the tree when still unripe.

75 Chapter 4 The first fruits appear in the market in December and a season may last until the beginning of February or March. Prices depend on the size of the fruit and supply; they range from Rp. 500 for a small fruit during high supply to Rp. 8000 for a big one in pre-season or after-season. A big fruit of good quality in high season fetches between Rp. 3000 and Rp. 5000. An average size fruit, 14 x 14 cm, has a weight of 1500 g. In 1993 there was a second season beginning in June with fruits selling at Rp. 2000. This season lasted until the beginning of August with highest supply in July.

La11sium domesticum Correa (Meliaceae) Vernacular name: langsat. The ellipsoid or globose, yellowish, pubescent berries are up to 2-4(-7) x 1.5-5 cm. The fruit wall is of varying thickness, and seeds are enveloped by a closely adher­ ing, fleshy, white, transparent aril. The white translucent aril is eaten fresh. Two types of langsat can be distinguished in the market. The 'wild' langsat has a thicker fruit skin and is smaller in size. Fruits are brought to the market in big rattan baskets and bamboo crates. In 1992 and 1994 fruits originated from both upstream and downstream areas and also from Banjarmasin. Prices fluctuated from Rp. 500 to Rp. 750/kg during peak season, rising to Rp. 1000/kg if supply is low in April and finally Rp. 1500/kg in the first week of May. In 1993 the supply almost exclusively originated from Banjarmasin and prices were (more or less) stable at Rp. 1500/kg. The wild langsat on sale in 1994 originated exclusively from upstream Mahakam.

Nephelium lappaceum L. (Sapindaceae) Vernacular name: rambutan. The ellipsoid to subglobular fruits are up to 7 x 5 cm with a yellow to purplish red colour, and usually densely set with filiform, curved, 0.5-2 cm appendages. The coria­ ceous wall encloses usually a single seed, covered by a thick juicy, white to yellow, translucent sarcotesta. The variety in colour, shape, size and taste of fruits on sale is very large. However, vendors do not adhere a specific label to the different forms. In general the fruits originating from Banjarmasin tend to be bigger and dark red. These fruits are preferred and fetch higher prices. This also applies to the formthat is locally called 'dikoyakan', meaning that the aril is easily torn off (detached) fromthe seed. In 1992 and 1994 the supply in the market was of mixed origin, coming from the vicinity of Samarinda, Banjarmasin and upstream Mahakam. During the 1993 season in January and February all supply in the market was claimed to originate from Ban­ jarmasin. But small amounts of fruits were sold along the road from Samarinda to Balikpapan. Prices in the market ranged from 3 to 4 bunches for Rp. 1 OOO. The number of fruits of the bunches differs depending on sizeand freshnessof the individual fruits. An average size bunch has a weight of 500 g. In July 1993 there has been a limited supply of rambutan with fruits originating from the vicinity of Samarinda.

Chapter 4 76 Figure 4.8. Archidendronjiringa (J ack ) Nielsen. a. Habit; b. mature pod.

77 Chapter 4 Sa11doricum koetjape(Burm. f.) Merr. (Meliaceae) Vernacular name: kecapi. The golden yellow, soft-hairy, 5-6 cm diameter fruits consist of an outer thick fleshy portion, which is tough and subacid, and an inner fleshy portion, which is soft and sour to sweet. Both rind and pulp of this fruit can be eaten. In East Kalimantan it is grown for the white sweet-sour pulp that adheres to the seed. The fruits in Samarinda are almost exclusively sold in the market. There appear to be two seasons for kecapi. In the June-September season fruits originate almost ex­ clusively from Sanga Sanga. During the February-March season fr uits can also origi­ nate from Banjarmasin (1993 season). Prices range from Rp. 300 to Rp. 500 for JO fruits, depending on supply and size. An average size fruit has a weight of 80 g.

Description of minor species on sale

Archidendro11jiringa (Jack) Nielsen (Mimosaceae) - Figure 4.8 Vernacular name: jengkol. The pods are woody, greyish to dark brown, 20-25 x 3-5 cm in size, falcate or twisted in a wide spiral (or contorted into a circle of c. 11 cm), more or less deeply lobed along the ventral suture between the seeds. The dark brown, orbicular, biconvex seeds are 1.8-3.5 cm in diameter and 1-1.5 cm thick. The seeds are cooked and used as condiment or side-dish and have a very pungent smell. Jengkol is sold in the market by number of seeds. It is sold raw or cooked and served with a coconut sauce. The seeds of this legume species are on sale throughout the year. Most records originate from small towns in the vicinity of Samarinda like Sanga Sanga, Palaran, Lempake, Tanah Merah. There were also many records from upstream Mahakam and even once from Sulawesi. The price ranges from Rp. 300 to Rp. 400 for 10 seeds, representing on average a weight of 200 g.

Artocarpus lanceifoliusRoxb. (Moraceae) - Figure 4.9; Plate 4b Vernacular name: keledang. Inside the 11 x l 0 cm olive-brown fruits an orange, fleshy perianth surrounds the seeds. The perianth is eaten fresh. This perianth is sweet tasting but stains the teeth. The fruits are sold in small quantities for only a very short period. The fruits origi­ nated from villages situated at approximately 1 hour by car or boat from Samarinda and were sold at a price of Rp. 150 per fruit. This Artocarpus species has never been recorded in cultivation. The fruits are col­ lected in the remnant patches of old growth forest in the Balikpapan-Samarinda area. At two locations on the road from Samarinda to Balikpapan small quantities of kele­ dang were sold in February 1994.

Bouea macrophylla Griffith (Anacardiaceae) Vernacular name: ramania. The fruits are subglobose, 2.5-5 cm in diameter, yellow to orange, with a fleshy, juicy consistency, like a plum, glabrous, and taste sour to sweet. The use of the young fruits, in 'samba!' and 'asinan', is more important than the consumption of ripe fruits.

Chapter 4 78 The orange mango-like mature fruits are only occasionally sold in the market. The fruits that originated from the vicinity of Samarinda were sold at a price ranging from Rp. 500 to Rp. 750 for I 0 fruits.

Figu re 4. 9. Artocarpus /a11ceifoli11s Roxb. a.Ha bit; b. longitu dinal se ction of almostmatu re frui t.

79 Chapter 4 Dialium indwn L. var. i11dum (Caesalpiniaceae) Vernacular name: asam keranji. The circular, flattened, pubescent, black-brown fruits are up to 2 cm long. The outer brittle fruit wall covers a spongy mass, embedding the seed; it can be eaten fresh and has a refreshing, sweet-sour taste. The fruit was recorded once in the market in June 1994. It was claimed to originate from Banjarmasin. The same species was on sale in April 1994 in a small market at the P.T. ITCI concession area westward of Balikpapan. Dialium indum L. var. bursa (de Wit) Rojo (Figure 4.10), with bigger ovoid fruits was encountered fruiting in February and April in forest areas north-west ofBalikpapan.

Figu re 4.10. Dialium indum L. var. bursa (de Wit) Rojo. lnfr uc tesce nce and leaf.

Chapter 4 80 Garcinia ?dulcis (Roxb.) Kurz (Guttiferae) Vernacular name: asam kandis. The dried sliced fruits are sold as a substitute for asam jawa (Tamarindus indica L.), and used as a condiment for 'sayour asam'. Apart from one odd record in February 1992 from Sanga Sanga, all records gave upstream Mahakam as the area of origin. The dried sliced fruits are sold by only a limited number of vendors. It was sold at Rp. 500 to Rp. 1000 for 100 g, depending on the quality.

Garcinia mangosta11a L. (Guttiferae) Vernacular name: manggis. The globose, smooth fruit, 4-7 cm across, turns dark purple at ripening. The purple pericarp is about 1 cm thick and covers the sweet, white fruit pulp, that is eaten fresh. The fruits in the market originated from upstream Mahakam but also in the vicinity of Samarinda many fruiting trees were observed. The prices ranged from Rp. 300-500 to Rp. 1 OOO for 10 fruits depending on size and quality. An average size fruit has a weight of I 00 g. According to literature (e.g. Verheij & Coronel, 1991) this highly esteemed species is only known as a cultivated species, although there have been occasional reports of wild female trees in Malaysia. The original distribution is not known.

Mangifera caesia Jack (Anacardiaceae)- Plate 3a Vernacular names: binjai, wanyi. The fruits are obovate to oblong, 12-15(-20) x 6-7(-12) cm, with a very thin skin. The big, round, oblong seed is covered in a whitish, soft and juicy fruit pulp. In East Kalimantan two 'forms' of Mangifera caesia are distinguished, 'binjai' and 'wanyi'. The binjai has pale brown, very sour fruits and the wanyi has green, sweet tasting fruits. The fruit pulp of the wanyi form is almost fibreless, milky white and has a pleasant, creamy, sweet taste. The binjai form has whitish, soft and juicy fruit pulp with a sour taste. Ripe fruits of the wanyi form are sold fresh in the market; fruitsof the binjai form are reported to be used in a special samba!. This local mango species was only in the market in February 1994. It was also on sale in some roadside fruit stalls, but the volume traded was limited. The fruits that originated from the vicinity of Samarinda were sold at Rp. 200 a piece, an average size fruit has a weight of 250 g.

Pangium edule Reinw. (Sterculiaceae) Vernacular name: kluwak. The dark brown seeds are irregularly shaped, (3-)4-6 x 2-3(-4) cm, as they are closely packed in the fruit. An elaborate preparation of the seeds is necessary to get rid of hydrocyanic acid. The seeds are sold as a condiment for 'bumbu rawon' (an Indo­ nesian mixture of spices and condiments). The mature seeds of this species are on sale throughout the year. Many vendors sell it at a fixed price of Rp. 500 for 250 g. The supply originated from the forest ('hutan').

81 Chapter 4 Parkiaspeciosa Hassk.(Mimosaceae)­ Figure 4.11 Vernacular name: petai. The pods are strap-shaped and usually twisted, c. 25-45 x 2-5 cm, with 12-18 seeds per pod. The seeds are elliptical or broadly elliptical in outline, up to 2-2.5 x 1.5-2 cm, lying horizontal or obliquely horizontal across the width of the pod. The seeds are eaten raw as a side dish or cooked in stews. The seeds have a very pungent smell. A clear dis­ tinction is made in the market between 'petai dari Jawa' and 'petai hutan'. Pods of the Javanese petai, originating from Surabaya, are much broader and the seeds are horizontal across the pod; seeds are sold per single pod or sold per 100 g. Petai hutan has pods that are Jess wide and the seeds are obliquely hori­ zontal across the pod; the pods are sold in bunches, the seeds are very bitter and the price is therefore less. Upstream on the Mahakam and in the Apo Kayan only the latter form is en­ countered, both cultivated and in the for­ est. According to the present taxonomic

delimitation by Fortune Hopkins ( 1994 ) , this is the same species as the form from Java.

Seasonality anc,I periodicity of supply The volume and number of indigen­ ous fruits and nuts traded in the Sama­ rinda markets shows considerable fluc­ tuations. Not only differences between months are observed but also variation between years is evident (Table 4.4; Figure 4.12). During the observation years, 1994 was· the year with both the highest number of species on sale (19) and biggest volume traded. Furthermore 2cm several species were on sale for longer Figu re 4.11. Parkia speciosaHa ssk. Matu re po ds periods than in the other years. (as th ey are so ld in th e market).

Chapter 4 82 aver age ye ar

'Upstream Mahakam'

Boroo g 7, " ,pp � To ngkok \ � r· -O- 11 spp . -...... LO* spp ./ / ' \

bu mp er ye ar

'Upstream Mahakam'

LO sp p. I /-

Figu re 4.12. Th e effectof a bumper ye ar on th e availability of indige nou s fr uit in the Samarinda marke t. * = assu me d nu mbe r ofsp ecie s. <> =fl ow ofvo lu me ofindig e nou s fruits; size ofar ro w indicate s qu antity; � =flow ofindige no us fru it sp ecies.

February and March were the months with the greatest variety of fruits on sale. In 1992 fourteen of a total of seventeen, in 1993 eleven out of a total of twelve, and in 1994 seventeen out of a total of nineteen species were recorded. The peak in supply of cempedak and lai is later than the peak in supply of durian.

83 Chapter 4 In June, July and August of 1993 a second fruiting season of cempedak, durian and lai occurred that was bigger than the fruiting season at the beginning of the year. The fruiting has possibly been triggered by unusual weather conditions. Trees of different areas of the Mahakam are not fruiting simultaneously. Therefore, the fruiting season as seen in the Samarinda market is longer than in the areas of origin.

Places of origin Tracing the origin of fruits on sale in the market appeared to be complicated. Most vendors buy their supply frommiddlemen and therefore the origin can only be given in general terms (Figure 4.1) . The origin 'upstream Mahakam' indicates that fruits have been unloaded in the docks where boats from upstream areas moor. It can relate to loading points 2 hours or up to 2 days upstream from Samarinda. Similarly the origin Sanga Sanga indicates that fruits have been unloaded in the docks where boats from downstream areas moor. The origin Air Putih refers to a loading point where trucks from Banjarmasin arrive or even boats from upstream areas unload their fruits. Fur­ thermore sometimes the origin Banjarmasin is only pretended, as it implies that a better quality I variety of fruit is on sale. The other provenances mentioned in the inter­ views, in the vicinity of Samarinda, can easily be reached by road. In general the bulk of indigenous fruits on sale in the Samarinda market originates from upstream areas. Fragile fruits like Mangifera caesia and Bouea macrophylla origi­ nate from the immediate vicinity of Samarinda (Lok Bahu, Sanga Sanga, Palaran). Widely cultivated species like Archidendron jiringa, Baccaurea motleyana, Lansium domesticum and Nephelium lappaceum originate from upstream and downstream areas, the vicinity of Samarinda, or even Banjarmasin.

Market census of volume on sale in Samarinda At the one time census of (seasonal) fruits and nuts on sale in the two major markets of Samarinda (Pasar Pagi and Pasar Segiri), a total of twenty-nine vendors were selling a selection of fivespecies, with six vendors selling more than one species (Appendix 4.2). The average stock value of the twenty-six vendors selling fresh fruits (hence excluding Archidendron jiringa, Garcinia dulcis) was Rp. 21,000, an equivalent of four times the daily rural wage in East Kalimantan. The stock value ranged from Rp. 7 ,500 to Rp. 90,000 (Appendix 4.2). Baccaurea motleyana, the species with the highest volume on sale was also sold by the highest number of vendors (Table 4.5).

Table 4.5 . Indige no us fruitspecie s on sale in two major markets in Samarinda, May 5, 1994. Ve ndors, vo lu me and pr ic es.

No. of vendors Total volume (kg) Total value (Rp.)

Bacca11rea 11101/eya11a 17 565 312,500 Bacca11rea pyriformis II 252 126,000 Bacca11rea macrocarpa 5 140 105,000 Archide11dro11 jiringa 2 210 320,000 Garci11a ?d11/cis 5 50,000

Tot al value 913,500

Chapter 4 84 For fresh fruit species a positive correlation between volume on sale and number of vendors is evident. The dried fruit of Garcinia dulcis was only sold by one vendor, who had 5 kg in stock representing a value of Rp. 50,000. Shelf life of the dried fruits is many times the 2-4 days shelf life of the fresh fruits. Therefore stock value cannot be compared easily. Similarly, the 210 kg of Archidendron jiringa, sold by two vendors and repre­ senting a value of Rp. 320,000, has a longer shelf life. Although classified as a minor species, the above mentioned volume and value points at the economic importance of the latter species. Pangium edule fruits were not included in this census, as the species is only on sale in small volumes by many vendors, with hardly any fluctuation in volume or number of traders. Furthermore the nuts constitute only a small portion of the total variety of provisions sold by these vendors.

Temporary fr uit stalls along the Mahakam river Several indigenous fruit species turned out to be primarily sold at temporary fruit stalls outside the major markets. The economic importance of these seasonal fruits cannot be fully assessed based on market records only. Therefore in 1994, in addition to the market survey, the roadside fruit stalls along the Mahakam river were surveyed. These fruit stalls represent approximately one fifth of fruit sales in Samarinda, for indigenous seasonal fruits (pers. observ.). At the time of the survey, the supply of Durio zibethinus was reported to be less than the supply in January. As some stalls were selling more than one fruit species, the total number of stalls is less than the sum of vendors of all species combined. The total value of fruits on sale gradually decreased during the survey from Rp. 32,199,000 in the first week to Rp. 6,993,000 in the last week (Table 4.6). When these sales represent a fifth of sale in Samarinda, total sales of indigenous fruits in the first week amounted to c. Rp. 160,200,000 (US$ 81,000). As Durio zibethinus, the economically most important species, is on sale for three months, the economically most important part of the indigenous fruit season can be considered to last three months. Levelling the value of fruit supply to a conservative value of US$ 50,000 per week this would add up to a total value 13 x 50,000 =US$ 650,000. Durio zibethinus is by far the most important fruit in these fruit stalls, representing 76 % of the total stock value in the first week. The economic importance can be illus­ trated with results from the first week, as stated below. Two types of vendors can be distinguished, the fruit stalls sensu stricto and 'bicycle' vendors. The latter vendors have on average 20 fruits in stock representing a value of more than Rp. 40,000. Only prime quality fruits are sold by these vendors; prices for the fruits are higher than Rp. 2000, the price for an average size and quality fruit (see Durio zibethinus descrip­ tion). The fruit stalls s. s. belong to the 'wealthy' traders as the average value of their stock amounts to Rp. 539,000 (US$ 270), with a range from Rp. 20,000 to Rp. 2,000,000 (US$ 1000).

85 Chapter 4 9 {l Table 4.6. Week ly su pply of indige nou s fruits in te mpo rary ro adside fru it stalls alo ng th e Mah akam Rive r in Samarinda (Fe bru ary 14 - March 28, 1994). " ... -I>. lst week 2nd week 3rd week 8th week § § § § c � c � c � c � 3 c 3 c 3 c 3 c "' "' "' "' "' "' "' "' .-, 3 "' 3 ;o 3 "' 3 "' "' "!' "' "!' "' "!' "' "!' =; 5. x :i. x =; r;· x 0 � 0 � r;· x �:::> �:::> :::> :::> 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 0 0. 0 0 :::> 0 :::> 8 0 :::> 0 :::> "' "' "' 8 § Price (Rp.) ii! ....., § ii! ....., .9 ii! ....., ii! �

Major species Artocarpus integer 666 I kg* 16 3.2 2133 14 2.8 1866 9 3.6 2400 2 1.2 800 Bacca11rea macmcarpa 750/kg I <0.1 I <0.1 I <0.1 Bacca11rea 11101/eya11a 5001 kg I <0.1 00 °' Di111oca1p11s /011ga11 2000 I kg 9 0.7 1400 6 0.3 600 9 0.5 1000 4 0.5 IOOO D11rio k111eje11sis 1000 I kg 13 2.0 2000 27 3.2 3200 13 2.2 2200 5 1.8 1800 Drtrio zibetlii1111s 1333 I kg* 38 18.5 24666 28 13.2 17600 16 10.3 13732 3 0.7 933 La11si11111 do111estic11111 800 I kg 19 1.2 960 26 1.7 1360 24 4.1 3280 22 2.7 2160 Neplieli11111 lappace11111 500/kg 17 1.6 800 31 3.3 1650 19 2.4 1200 2 0.4 200 Sa11doric11111 koetjape 700/kg I <0.1

Minor species Garcinia 111a11gosta11a 1000 I kg 3 <0.1 3 0.1 JOO Ma11gifera caesia 800/kg 3 0.3 240 2 <0.1 I <0.1 Ma11gifera similis I <0.1

To tals 73 32199 75 26376 55 23812 30 6993

* = Prices per fruit with an average weight of 1.5 kg have been recalculated to price per kg. 4.4. Discussion

4.4.1. Species composition

Similar to the species composition of trees in general the species composition of fruit trees also differs between the research sites (see section 4.3.1 and Appendix 4.1). But what species should be considered as fruit species? The edibility of certain indigenous fruit species is open to question and controversy. A difference of opinion, concerning some fruitspecies, between Saw etal. (1991), Jansen etal. (1991) and KeBler & Sidiyasa ( 1994) can be found. This, however, in general relates to fruit species of which the edibility can be considered marginal. For the present research the list of Jansen et al. (1991) was used as a basis (see Methods 3.2). When this list was compared with what local Kenyah informants considered as edible fruit species, the number of these spe­ cies in the Apo Kayan plots was reduced from 30 to 23 (Table 3.3; Appendix 2.4). An important difference was that Artocarpus integer was not consumed by the Kenyah and also three Mangifera species were considered not edible. These 30 and 23 species represented roughly 11 % or 9 % of a total tree flora of 265 species (trees> 10 cm dbh). These values point to a species richness comparable to the Pasoh forest in Peninsular Malaysia where indigenous fruit trees represented 9 % of tree species (Saw et al., 1991). The question concerning edibility of a fruit is no longer relevant when concentrating on indigenous fruit species traded in local markets, as edibility is inherent to these species.

4.4.2. Seasonality and periodicity

Mast years are a well known feature of dipterocarp species (Ashton, 1982; Burgess, 1972; Cockburn, 1975) that is also reflected in export statistics for illipe nuts and fat, consisting of Shorea spp. (Blicher-Mathiesen, 1994). Also many important indigenous fruit species show distinct bumper years. In areas with poor soil conditions fruit trees may skip several years between fruitingseasons. During bumper years the majority of the various fruit tree species fruit simultaneously. The years in between only a few odd trees are fruiting. In the Apo Kayan the 1991/1992 season from November until March was defi­ nitely a bumper year. In the following years only a few trees of Durio, Mangifera and Nephelium species were observed fruiting. The localcycle is reported to be three years. A similar story was told by villagers of Dilang Puti in the Kutai region towards the border with in July 1993. The length of this cycle may also differ between species (Ashton, 1982; Burgess, 1972; Cockburn, 1975). In the Ulu Gomback Forest Reserve, Selangor, Malaysia, an Artoca1pus lanceifolius tree was fruiting three years out of four (McClure, 1966) and four years out of nine, respectively (Medway, 1972). Dry weather was assumed to have a stimulatory effect. In Sarawak (Primack, 1985) observations from 1974 until 1980 revealed of single trees of Artocarpus species the following: A. integer fruited four times, A. odoratissimus three times and A. anisophyllus only once.

87 Chapter 4 The non annual fruiting is apparently partly due to a shortage in nutrients. After a heavy fruit crop trees have to recover. Additional fertilizer combined with thinning of flowers or young fruits might overcome these problems, as is suggested for some fruit species in Verheij & Coronel ( 1991). A more frequent crop with less fluctuating yield could be the result. This effect of bumper years is buffered in the markets of Sarnarinda, since fruits originate from a vast area of the Mahakam river basin, with its multitude of tributaries. Many species are even transported by truck from Banjarmasin. Still, the absence of Baccaurea macrocarpa, B. pyriformis and Dimocarpus Longan in 1993 can be ex­ plained by an absence of abundant fruiting in the upriver source areas. Furthermore, during a bumper year, home gardens in the direct vicinity of Samarinda are laden with fruits. In addition to the large-scale shipment of fruit, short-distance transport of fruit by bicycle and motorbike to roadside fruit stalls can be observed (Figure 4.12).

4.4.3. Selection of fruit species in home gardens

The density of some fruit trees is higher in the vicinity of villages and along long established tracks/footpaths. Seeds of fruits eaten while travelling or on the way back home may be simply discarded or planted on purpose (pers. observ.). This might be considered the most simple form of home garden with a minimal management input. Home gardens in the village Long Sungai Barang originate from fallow vegetation with enrichment planting of preferred fruit trees. The home garden might be retained as such on a permanent basis or cleared after a certain time. Whereas the preferred species are planted the other fruit species are merely tolerated. Management of the planted seeds/seedlings is often limited to clearing at the time of planting only. More attention is given to the trees planted in the immediate vicinity of houses or along tracks. In the Barong Tongkok area, management of the home gardens is more evolved. Sardjono (1990) already pointed to the high density of preferred species. The high density of preferred trees in these home gardens may partly be explained by the agri­ cultural system. Forest is cleared by a single family, who build a more or less perma­ nent house in the swidden. In the following years forest is cleared adjacent to the previous fields. Seeds/seedlings planted in the first years can be tended during slack periods of the agricultural cycle in the following years, thereby resulting in a higher survival of planted fruit trees as compared with the Long Sungai Barang situation. In Long Sungai Barang, ladangs comprise vast stretches of land cleared by many house­ holds, and are used only one or two years. The fruit trees, if planted, have to compete with the fast growing secondary species and most likely will lose. Bompard & Kostermans (1992) mentioned the long history of semi-cultivation of Mangifera along Bomean rivers. Preferred fruits from the forest are planted in the vicinity of houses. Locally (Benung, Putak) sweet and sour formsof Mangifera decan­ dra are given distinct names whereby the sweet form is called 'konyot susu' or 'konyot gula' referring to the preferred flavour (susu: milk, gula: sugar). Whereas initially only fruits from the forest were selected, trade or exchange be­ tween villages either in the form of fruits or seedlings also occurs. The planting of

Chapter 4 88 Durio kutejensis and Lansium domesticum in the home gardens of Long Sungai Barang is a good example; as these species are not found in the surrounding forest they origi­ nate from elsewhere. This selection and propagation by seed explains the great phenotypic variation in species (possibly linked to genetic diversity) that is found in Bornean home gardens. Differences between wild and cultivated trees may evolve. For Artocarpus integer no consistent differences between wild and cultivated trees could be found in Sarawak (Primack, 1985). For A. odoratissimus, however, the culti­ vated tree is considered a tetraploid derivative of a diploid wild ancestor.

4.4.4. Influence of ethnic background

Ethnic background apparently influences the species composition of fruit trees planted (see Table 4.3; Appendix 4.1). Artocarpus integer, a widely appreciated species with good market value, is neither planted nor consumed by the Lepo Tukung Kenyah of Long Sungai Barang. Baccaurea macrocarpa, Dimocarpus Longan, Mangifera pajang and Nephelium ramboutan-ake are the fruit species equally favoured by Tundjung and Kenyah, but not planted by Javanese transmigrant farmers. Noteworthy is thatMangifera caesia and M. similis are planted in the transmigration village Tani Bakti, whereas these species are only collected from the surrounding forest in the Tundjung village Putak (Table 4.3). These two Mangifera species are reported in cultivation in Java (Verheij & Coronel, 1991) and therefore the transmigrant farmers are familiar with the species and have incorporated them. Thereby confirmingthat the Javanese transmigrants only plant trees they are familiar with from Java. Similarly species planted in home gardens of Javanese transmigrants in Sumatra were almost completely restricted to species known from Java (Hvoslef, 1994). Another example of the influence of ethnic background is Artoca1pus odoratissimus (Plate Sa), only found in cultivation in the village Putak. The species is reported widely cultivated in Sarawak and Sabah (Primack, 1985; William et al., 1992). The seeds of the cultivated trees in Putak originated from Tarakan (northeastern part of East Kali­ mantan).

4.4.5. Influence of access to the market

Access to urban markets has not seriously altered species composition of home gar­ dens in traditional Dayak villages. Indigenous fruits that are only sold in the local markets still abound in home gardens in the Barong Tongkok area (Table 4.2), al­ though transport of surplus amounts of fruits from the area to the Samarinda market has been facilitated since the transport boom of the 1970s. Also in the village Putak, with easy access to the Samarinda market, the indigenous fruits that cannot be sold in the Samarinda market are still planted in large numbers. Planting fruit trees is still aimed at home consumption. Income from sale of surplus amounts of fruit supplies only additional income, whereas the mainstay of 'income' is derived fromsubsistence farming. Several authors (Bompard & Kostermans, 1992; Jarvie & Perumal, 1994; Seibert, 1989) state that the diversity of traditionally used Mangifera species in Borneo is

89 Chapter 4 steadily declining in the advent of development and the advance of Mangifera indica. I agree with these general observations especially considering the decline in number of species on sale in Samarinda as compared with markets in the Barong Tongkok area. However, I disagree with Jarvie & Perumal (1994) when they ascribe the decline in number of Mangifera species used by lban solely to the proximity of an urban centre. The Lepo Tukung Kenyah of Long Sungai Barang live in a very remote area and still several Mangifera species are not consumed.

4.4.6. Presence or absence in urban markets

The number of forest-collected fruits on sale in urban markets is smaller than in local markets. Two major causes can be discerned in East Kaliman tan. First of all fruits have to be available in sufficiently large numbers to defray costs of transportation to urban markets. This may also explain why vendors in the urban markets buy their stock from middlemen instead of individual growers. Similarly individual growers have problems selling their produce in urban markets. The second reason is that many fruits are sim­ ply too fragile for the present bulk transport by riverboat. However, in Samarinda still eleven species of forest-collected fruits are on sale. Of these species six are solely or primarily collected from wild trees (Table 4.4). To these species might be added Durio dulcis and Durio oxleyanus (Plate 2b), both on sale along the Balikpapan-Samarinda road. Contrary to this, at Pasoh in Peninsular Malaysia (Saw et al., 1991) only Parkia speciosa is reported collected on a commercial scale from the forest. Possibly com­ mercial alternatives that are more profitable than the collection of forest fruits are available in the Pasoh area. With respect to Parkia speciosa, the constant high price as observed in both local markets in the Barong Tongkok area and in Samarinda points to its great commercial potential. This constant high price in local markets in South-East Asia was also mentioned by Wiriadinata & Bambroongrugsa (1993).

4.4. 7. Market potential of fruit species

Because the production of indigenous fruits is still primarily for home consumption, its economic importance (replacement value, importance for health by providing vita­ mins, nutritional value) largely escapes observation. But even actual trade is highly informal and government statistics on production and trade are therefore of very lim­ ited value. Nevertheless an attempt is made to indicate the economic value of indig­ enous fruits in natural forest (see Chapter 3) and especially its economic value in Samarinda (Table 4.5). How this value relates to the trade of indigenous fruits in In­ donesia as a whole is impossible to indicate in view of the above mentioned lack of reliable information. Furthermore it is unrealistic to compare the economic im­ portance of indigenous fruits traded in East Kalimantan on a national level as the trade is restricted to the province itself. However, in the future these limitations may be resolved and therefore the potential of several promising fruit species will be dis­ cussed. The potential of the fruit species encountered in the markets and home gardens should be considered both at local and (inter)national level (Van Valkenburg, in press).

Chapter 4 90 Some species are already of local economic importance which makes a further devel­ opment of its market possibilities easier. The economic potential of other species is based on the quality of the fruits as such, although they are not yet traded or only on sale in local markets. Durio kutejensis and Baccaurea macrocarpa are both traded on a large scale in East Kalimantan and have good potential for markets outside the province. Durio kutejensis starts fruiting when only 4-5 m tall. The fruits are medium-sized and have soft flex­ ible spines, which makes handling easier than the common durian. The yellow colour of the fruit and especially the dark yellow to orange colour of the aril is attractive. Baccaurea macrocarpa fruits have a thick woody rind, resistant to rough handling in transportation. The thick woody rind also extends the shelf life of this species as com­ pared with the more commonly sold rambai.The variation in size and sweetness of the fruits points to the great potential for selection. Two species with local potential are Mangifera pajang and Artocarpus rigidus. Whereas Mangifera pajang (Plate 3b) is widely cultivated and esteemed by , the fruit is not found on sale in urban markets. The thick rind of the fruit might overcome problems of rough handling during transportation that other Mangifera spe­ cies face. The greatest problem is that non indigenous people are not familiar with the fruit. The fruits of Artoc01pus rigidus (Plate 5b) have a delicious citrus-like refreshing sweet flavour and an attractive orange coloured perianth. The species is rarely planted in East Kalimantan and was never found in the market. Before any of the above mentioned potential species can really be marketed, two major problems need to be solved. Transportation time needs to be reduced and han­ dling/ packaging needs to be improved, both at regional level to increase market po­ tential of fragile fruits and especially for trade between the islands. Port facilities for export are absent at present. The above mentioned problems are related to the potential as fresh fruit. Local processing of peak supplies of fresh fruit, in food industries an­ other market possibility (e. g. canning), is virtually absent except for some reported artisanal production of 'dodo! durian' (a traditional candy).

91 Chapter 4 APPENDIX 4.1. Indigenous fru it species found in East Kalimantan; pr esenc e in for est at four sites, cultivation in home gar dens in four villages, tr ade and status (only if at least home consumption was repor ted).

Forest Cultivated Trade

c:.. c: 0 "e ·a cc E :::> (j c: ·;; "' "" g .. c: " c: ... "' u .;;; 0 " g "' :::> u u " ·;: ..Cl) .. " E :><: c: c: cc <> ::> .. :::> "" ;; is 0 c: c c: "' E Q. iJ ... 0 ... :; ·s 0 -e < � t: cc ..J cc c.. � :i: 3 ::::> Status

Aglaia o/igophylla p,I Aglaia 10111elllosa p Aglaia sp. 0 Ale11rites 1110/11cca11a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 cult. A11acolosa fr 111esce11s p Archide11dro11 jiri11ga 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 cult. Artocarp11s a11isophyl/11s 0 p,l 0 0 0 0 0 prim. wild Artocarp11s dadah p Artocarp11s elasticus 0 p,l 0 0 wild 0 Artocarpus imeger 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 prim. cult. Artocarpus ke111a11do 0 0 Artocarpus la11ceifoli11s 0 0 p,l 0 0 0 0 wild 0 Artocarpus odoratissi11111s 0 0 prim. wild Artocarpus rigidus 0 p,I 0 wild Artocarpus sp. 0 A11111a racemosa subsp. excelsa 0 p,I Baccaurea la11ceolata 0 0 wild Baccaurea 111acroca11)(1 0 0 p 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 prim. cull. Baccaurea 11101/eya11a 0 0 0 cult. Baccaurea poly11e11ra p Baccaurea pyrifor111is 0 0 0 0 0 wild + cult. Baccaurea race111osa p,I 0 0 0 0 0 Baccaurea spp. p,l wild Bhesa pa11ic11/ata 0 0 p Bfrt111eode11dro11 tokbrai p Bouea 111acrophyl/a 0 0 0 prim. cult. Bouea oppositifolia p Ca11ari11111 littorale f. rn/11111 p,l Ca11ari11111 pilos11111 0 p Ca11ari11111111egafa/l//111111 0 I Caral/ia brachiata p Castanopsis frtcida p Castanopsis 11101/eya11a 0 Cheilosa 111alaya11a 0 p Chisoche1011 pate11s 0 Dac1yodes rostrata 0 0 p,I 0 0 0 0 0 wild + cult. Diali11111 i11d11111 0 0 0 0 0 0 prim. wild Diali11111 /a11ri1111111 p,l Diali11111 111ai11gayi p,l

Chapter 4 92 (Appendix 4.1 co111i1111ed)

Forest Cultivated Trade

Cl) c e .5? d Q. '° E ·a " cd Cl) �c � gc » c � 0 d ., d � Cl)

Dialium platysepa/11111 p Dimocarpus /011ga11 'green' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 prim. cult. Dimocarpus lo11ga11 'yellow' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 prim. cult. Dimocarpus /o11ga11 'smooth' 0 Draco1110111e/011 dao 0 p,I Durio dulcis 0 0 0 0 0 0 ** prim. wild Durio kuteje11sis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 prim. cult. Durio oxleya1111s 0 0 0 0 0 0 ** prim. wild Durio zibethi1111s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 prim. cult. Dysoxylum excelsum p Elaeocarpus florib1111da 0 p Elaeocarpus pseudopa11ic11/a11ts o Ela eocmp11s sphaeroblas/lts 0 Ela eocarp11s stipularis 0 Elaeocarp11s spp. 0 0 0 wild E11ge11ia c11111i11gia11a 0 Flacourtia rukam p Garci11ia ba11ca11a 0 Garci11ia 111a11gosta11a 0 0 0 cult. Garci11ia 11igroli11eata p Garci11ia parvifolia 0 p Garci11ia cf. d11/cis 0 wild Garci11ia sp. (JVV 1259) 0 Garci11ia spp. 0 0 p 0 0 wild Gluta renghas p,l K11e111a la11ri11a p Koordersiode11dro11 pi111w111111 0 La11si11111 domesticum 'cult.' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 cult. La11siu111 domesticum 'wild' p,l 0 0 0 0 wild Lica11ia sple11de11s 0 p Litsea garciae 0 0 0 0 0 wild + cult. Ma/lotus wrayi 0 Ma11gifera caesia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 prim. wild Ma11gifera deca11dra 0 0 0 0 0 wild + cult. Ma11giferafoetida p 0 0 0 0 wild + cult. Ma11gifera cf. griffithii p 0 0 0 0 0 0 wild + cult. Ma11giferahav ila11dii p Ma11gifera /a11ri11a 0 0 0 0 0 ?o wild + cult. Ma11gifera paja11g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 prim. cult. Ma11gifera quadrijida p Ma11gifera mfocostata 0 0 0 0 wild + cult. Ma11gifera similis 0 0 0 0 0 0 wild + cult.

93 Chapter 4 (Appendix 4.1 co111i1111ed)

Forest Cultivated Trade

CJ) c c .2 � i5.. co E ·a �C) "'c CJ) ca gc "" c::> ,:..; 0 a " "' � CJ) CJ) "' <.> E <.> ·;::: c en :: co ::.:: <: :::> CJ) :::> � " c :: c c c "' E ;:; "' 8. " "' :; ·a 0 of Status < � g co.3 co c. F :i: 3 ::::>

Ma11gifera sp. 1 0 Ma11gifera sp. 2 0 Ma11gifera sp. 3 0 Ma11gifera spp. 0 0 0 0 wild + cult. Me/iosma s11111atra11a 0 Miclre/ia sp. 0 Microcos jibrocarpa p,l Microcos cf. ci111101110111ifo/ia 0 Neplre/i11111 c11spida111111 0 p,I 0 0 0 0 prim. wild Neplreli11111 /appaceum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 cult. Neplrelium cf. /appaceum I 0 Neplreli11111 cf. lappaceum 2 0 Neplrelit1111 cf. lappace11111 3 0 Neplrelium cf. lappaceum 4 0 Neplre/i11111 111ai11gayi p 0 0 0 0 wild + cult. Neplre/i11111 rambo111a11-ake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 prim. cult. Neplreli11111 1111ci11a111111 p,l 0 0 0 0 prim. wild Oc/ra11os1ac/1ys amentacea 0 0 p,I Palaq11i11111 rostra/11111 0 p Pa11gi11111 edule *** 0 0 0 prim. wild Parkia speciosa s. l. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 wild + cult. Paye11a /eerii 0 Pimeleodendro11 griffitlria1111111 p Pamelia pi1111ata p,l Portera11dia anisoplrylla 0 p Rlroda11111ia cinerea 0 0 Sa11doric11111 koetjape p 0 0 0 0 prim. cult. Samiria 10111e111osa 0 p,I Sapi11daceae sp. (JVV 1409) 0 0 0 prim. wild Sarcotlreca griffitlrii p Scaplri11111 111acropod11111 0 p,l Scolopia spi11osa p Scorodocarpus bomeensis 0 p Xa111/roplry//11111 amoe1111111 0 p 0 0 wild + cult. Xa111/roplryllr1111 ecari11a111111 0 Xa111/roplry//11111 obsc11n1111 0 Xa111/roplry//11111 stipitat11111 0 p Xa111/roplry//11111 sp. 3 0 Xerospem111111 11oro11/ria1111111 0 0 p primary forest; 1 logged-over forest. ** sold in stalls along the Balikpapan-Samarinda road. *** present in forest surrounding Long Ampung and also cultivated in home gardens. prim. primarily; cult. = cultivated.

Chapter 4 94 APPENDIX 4.2. Census of fr uit stalls selling indigenous fruits in two major markets in Sama-

rinda, May 5th, 1994. B. = Baccaurea; A. = Archidendron; G. = Garci nia.

Vendor Fruit species Price Vo lume Value To tal stock value (Rp. / kg) (kg) (Rp.) per vendor (Rp.)

Pasar Segiri I B. macrocarpa 500 10 5,000 B. motleyana l,000 60 60,000 B. pyr iformis 500 50 25,000 90,000 2 B. motleyana 500 50 25,000 25,000 3 B. motleyana 500 80 40,000 40,000 4 B. motleyana 500 15 4,500 B. pyr iformis 500 15 4,500 9,000 5 B. motleyana 500 60 30,000 30,000 6 B. motleyana 500 60 30,000 30,000 7 B. macrocarpa l,000 30 30,000 B. pyr iformis 500 30 15,000 45,000 8 B. pyr iformis 500 25 12,500 12,500 9 A. jiringa 1,500 200 300,000 300,000 10 B. motleyana 500 30 15,000 15,000 11 B. motleyana 500 20 10,000 10,000 12 B. motleyana 500 15 7,500 7,500

Total value 614,000

Pasar Pagi I B. motleyana 500 20 10,000 10,000 2 B. pyr iformis 500 20 10,000 10,000 3 B. pyr iformis 500 15 7,500 7,500 4 B. macrocmpa 1,000 15 15,000 15,000 5 B. motleyana 500 15 7,500 7,500 6 B. macrocarpa l,000 25 25,000 25,000 7 B. motleyana 500 25 12,500 B. pyriformis 500 30 15,000 27,500 8 B. motleyana 500 25 12,500 12,500 9 B. motleyana 500 25 12,500 12,500 10 B. macrocwpa 500 60 30,000 B. pyr iformis 500 50 25,000 55,000 11 B. pyriformis 500 20 10,000 10,000 12 B. motleyana 500 30 15,000 15,000 13 B. motleyana 500 20 10,000 10,000 14 B. motleyana 500 20 10,000 B. pyr iformis 500 2 1,000 l l,000 15 B. pyr iformis 500 15 7,500 7,500 16 A. jiringa 2,000 10 20,000 20,000 17 G. ?dulcis 10,000 5 50,000 50,000

Total value 262,000

95 Chapter 4

5. RATTAN: SPECIES COMPOSITION, ABUNDANCE, DISTRIBUTION, AND GROWTH

5.1. Introduction

Apart from timber, rattan is the most important forest-derived commodity in East Kali­ mantan. The multitude of species, all with their specific use in both the traditional way of life and commercial trade, make rattan stand out among non-timber forest products. Despite the longstanding exploitation of rattan, and early records of rattan gardens in East Kalimantan (Endert, 1927; Van Tuil, 1929), the resource remains poorly known. Whereas rattan floras for Sabah and Sarawak exist (Dransfield 1984, l 992a) none is available for East Kalimantan. This is a serious handicap since rattan species tend to display a rather high degree of endemism, e. g., of the l 07 (-109) species and varieties reported for Sarawak, 63 species and 4 varieties are endemic in Borneo (Dransfield, 1992a, 1992b), and 23 species and 1 variety are endemic in Sarawak (Pearce, 1989; Dransfield, l 992a). For the island of Borneo as a whole, so far 146 rattan species have been recorded (Dransfield, 1992c). For Sabah 82 species and varieties are reported, with 8 endemic species and 2 endemic varieties (Dransfield & Johnson, 1989). Species richness in is assumed to be similar to that of Sarawak, and in East Kalimantan similar to that in Sabah (Dransfield, 1992c). Rattans arein general (high-)climbing spiny palms, although stemless species exist. Rattan stems, the canes of the rattan trade, are in the young state covered by tight, usually densely spiny, leaf-sheaths. Climbing whips, bearing groups of short reflexed spines, enable the plant to hang on to trees and thus reach the sunlight above the canopy. These climbing whips are either an extension of the leaf tip or a modified inflores­ cence. Rattan plants may be solitary (i. e., single-stemmed) or clustered (i. e., with many stems in one individual), this character is in general consistent for a species. Rattans like other palms have no secondary growth (once developed, an intern ode diameter does not increase with age). If rattan is to be used as a renewable resource, knowledge of the growth of rattan plants is essential to devise sustainable exploitation practices. The growth of non­ exploited rattan in forest of various successional stages (see section 5.3.2) is compared with the growth of rattan plants subjected to harvesting (see section 5.3.3). Knowledge with respect to impact of harvesting on the rattan resource is essential for sustainable exploitation. The important role of light for establishment and growth of rattan plants was ob­ served in planting trials of four species ( Calamus caesius, C.manan, C. scpionumi and C. trachycoleus) in Malaysia and Indonesia (Aminuddin Mohamad, 1985; Manokaran, 1980, 198la, 1981b, 1982a, 1982b, 1983; Mori, 1980; Nainggolan, 1985; Wan Razali Wan Mohd. et al., 1992; Wong & Manokaran, 1985). The effectof logging resulting in an increase of light, however, appeared to have negative effects on the rattan resource (Abdillah Rosian & Phillips, 1989; IGew & Hood, 1991). Whereas harvesting inten­ sity has effects on the vitality of plants (Nandika, 1938; Kiew & Hood, unpublished).

97 Chapter 5 In this chapter attempts are made to answer the following questions:

- What is the species composition and abundance of rattan in the various sites? - Does logging affect the species composition and abundance of rattan? - Does logging have an effect on the subsequent increment of rattan both at the popu- lation and individual plant level? What is the effect of harvesting on the performance of a rattan clump?

5.2. Methods

5.2.1. Permanent plots

Permanent plots were set up in 1992 to assess species composition, abundance and growth of rattan. Plots were located in the Wanariset area, the ITCI concession, and the Apo Kayan (see Chapter 2). Within each site the plots were situated in a topo­ sequence from ridge top to valley floor. In the ITCI concession both primary and logged­ over plots were studied. In the Wanariset forest part of plot Matthijs (5100 m2) was inventoried. In the ITCI concession permanent plots established by the concessionary were used, and either the entire plot or part of the plot was inventoried as follows: 72-1 (5000 m2), 72-2 (5000 m2), 76-3a (5000 m2), 76-3b (7500 m2), 76-4 (3200 m2) and 77-2 (1600 m2). In the Apo Kayan four plots of 1600 m2 were established. At all sites rattan plants in the plots were labelled with numbered aluminium tags using either nylon fishline or iron-wire. Within a population, only plants with a mini­ mum cane length of 50 cm were included. The growth stage of all shoots was recorded. The abundance of rattan in the permanent plots was studied from three different aspects:

- number of plants/hectare; - number of plants with mature canes/hectare; - total number of mature canes/hectare.

Although from an ecological point of view the total number of plants is most impor­ tant, from the economic point of view the number of mature canes is more relevant to this study.

5.2.2. Additional plots

As the total area of the permanent plots in the Apo Kayan was considered not sufficient to obtain a good impression of rattan abundance over larger areas (i. e. the Apo Kayan in general), a line plot of 4 x 1200 m was set up in October 1992. A greater variation in topography and growth stages of the forest was included and effects of the often very local occurrence of rattan plants were compensated. Rattan plants with mature canes of all species and the total number of mature canes were recorded. Plants belonging to (potentially) commercial species were labelled and the number of shoots belonging to the different growth stages counted.

Chapter 5 98 Also in the ITCI concession some additional inventory work was carried out to compensate for effects of the often local occurrence of rattan plants and species. In 1994 two plots of 1600 m2 each were inventoried inside the permanent plot 72-8 situ­ ated in primary forest. All rattan plants with a minimum cane length of 50 cm were labelled and growth stage of all shoots was recorded.

5.2.3. General collecting

In addition to recording rattan species in the permanent plots, supplementary collec­ tions and observations were made in the three main research sites, Wanariset forest, ITCI concession and Apo Kay an in the vicinity of Long Sungai Barang. Other qualita­ tive inventories of varying intensity were also conducted in the villages of Dilang Puti (June/July 1993) and Eheng (May 1994) upstream from the lakes on the Mahakam river and in the Bahau region. In the latter region, the inventory was carried out during a visit at the basecamp of World Wildlife Fund Indonesia, in the Kayan Mentarang Nature Reserve near Long Alango (November/December 1991). The listing of rattan species in the Meratus mountains is based on herbarium specimens available at the Wanariset Herbarium. Whenever possible, specimens of all rattan species encountered were collected. The firstset was deposited at the Wanariset Herbarium in Samboja, with duplicates to Her­ barium Bogoriense, Rijksherbarium Leiden and Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. These collections not only serve as voucher specimens forthe present study, but contribute to the overall knowledge of the rattan flora of East Kalimantan, an area that had hitherto been poorly collected. Since no rattan flora or checklist for East Kalimantan exists, rattan floras for Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak (Dransfield, 1979, 1984, 1992a) were used foridentification. Several species collected, however, are restricted to East Kalimantan and therefore not recorded in these floras. The assistance from Dr. John Dransfield (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew) in identifying specimens was therefore indispensable. Solving taxonomical problems was not the aim of this research. However, three new species were described (Van Valkenburg, 1995). Plants belonging to the species com­ plex of Calamus pogonocanthus, C. eriocanthus, and C. semoi have for convenience been divided into three artificialtaxa and are referred to as Calamus pogonocanthus 1, 2 and 3. The use of all three taxa is the same: namely as strips for good quality binding.

5.2.4. Growth measurements

As a rattan seedling grows, there is a gradual increase in stem diameter before the stern starts significantly to grow upwards. This process can take many years depending on the species and the light conditions in which it grows. This initial phase is known as establishment growth, and a vigorous plant in this initial phase is referred to as rosette stage/ plant. Since rattan stems often become entangled in the canopy, the length of the canes could not be accurately recorded without pulling them down. This was not done be­ cause it would result in an altered light environment for the crown-leaves and would

99 Chapter 5 Table 5.1. G rowth stages of rattan.

Stage Length of cane Appearance of lower leaf sheath

Sucker 0-49 cm green Juvenile 50--199 cm green Immature > 200 cm green Mature > 200 cm dead or bare cane exposed

thereby influence subsequent growth of the plant. An alternative method for recording growth over a 2-year period at time intervals of 12 months was therefore developed. All shoots were classified as belonging to a specific growth stage as defined in Table 5.1. Growth was defined as the passage from one stage to the next. At the beginning of the study only plants with a minimum cane length of 50 cm were recorded. If in the following years a plant no longer had a shoot with a minimum cane length of 50 cm, but suckers were present, they were still monitored. Not all ma­ ture canes are harvestable, since a minimum length of 3 metres of sufficiently mature cane is required. The distinction of harvestable and non-harvestable canes was only made at the end of the study, when canes were harvested in the Apo Kayan. However, shoots of some species could not be classified in this way; e. g., Cala mus conirostris and Daemonorops hystrix often flowered when cane length was still less than 200 cm and the lower leaf sheaths were still green. For these plants the flowering shoots were classified as mature. The lower leaf sheaths of Calamus laevigatus are normally still green when the cane has reached the canopy and is more than 30 m long. Since the cane can be harvested in this state, it was classified as mature. The mature plants present in the Apo Kayan line plot were remeasured after 17 months.

5.2.5. Effect of disturbance on recruitment

In order to judge the significance of disturbance on the recruitment of rattan, the twelve plots were compared using a procedure fitcurve (Genstat 5, 1990). Each plot was classified as either disturbed or undisturbed depending on the presence of degrading canopy trees, a chablis, or serious effects of drought. Furthermore plot 72-2 was stud­ ied in detail, whereby all 50 subplots were tallied according to the degree of distur­ bance (3 classes distinguished: 0, 1 and 2, with disturbance increasing from 0 to 2).

5.2.6. Harvesting experiment

In a non-exploited state a rattan clump might invest in elongation of already mature canes that have reached the canopy. Or, in response to changes in the environment, an acceleration of the growth of dominant shoots might prevail. If the mature canes are harvested, growth of the remaining shoots may be released. Acceleration of the growth stage of the minor/young shoots might be induced, or new suckers could be formed.

Chapter 5 100 In addition to the harvesting of canes in the Apo Kayan permanent plots and line plot at the end of the study in 1994, rattan plants outside these plots were subjected to maximum harvesting. The experiment was not only conducted to obtain a better esti­ mate of harvestable length per plant but in particular to supply information on the effect of harvesting on the growth of remaining shoots. In the Apo Kayan rattan plants of three locally important and (potentially) commer­

cial species: Calamusjavensis (n = 31; Figure 6.4), Calamus ornatus (n = 33; Figure

6.5), and Daemonorops sabut (n = 33; Figure 6.6) were harvested in May 1993. Each plant was labelled with an aluminium tag. The total number of shoots belonging to the different growth stages was recorded and the habitat of the plant was classified in terms of silvigenetic stage {Oldeman, 1980, 1990) of the surrounding forest, geo­ morphology /topography (valley floor/ middle slope/upper slope/ ridge crest) and steep­ ness of slope. Harvestable mature canes, with a minimum length of 3 m, were cut and their total length measured. The remaining shoots were tagged according to their growth stage. After 12 months the growth response of the plants and the individual shoots was recorded, and canes that had attained harvestable size were cut.

5.2.7. Calamus caesius plantings

A total of 2000 ha CaLamus caesius was planted in 1989 in the ITCI concession, both in primary and logged-over forest. Line-planting was carried out with 5 x 7 m spacing. To assess possibilities for enrichment planting, in 1993 a one-time survey of these plants was carried out in permanent plot 71-1 (18,000 m2). The largest portion of the plot was situated in primary forest with a mixed geomorphology ranging from crest to valley floor. Part ( 6500 m2) of the plot had been logged in 1987. The presence of other rattan species and the survival of planted C. caesius plants were recorded.

5.3. Results

5.3.1. Species composition, abundance and distribution

In general neither species composition nor abundance of rattan are evenly distributed. Although in the Middle Mahakam region distribution and abundance of rattan species is strongly influenced by man, in other areas of the province it is presumed to be the result of natural phenomena. Influence of man on abundance and distribution is in­ creasing due to the extensive logging activities and accompanying agricultural devel­ opment. Species can be geographically and/or ecologically (e.g. Korthalsiaflagellaris con­ fined to peat swamp forest) limited in their distribution. Variation in climate, natural boundaries or recent speciation may be reasons for their geographical limitation. As yet no information on distribution of rattan in East Kalimantan is available, because the province has been poorly collected. Of the 59 species I collected, only 21 were al­ ready represented by herbarium specimens from East Kalimantan in the collection at

101 Chapter 5 Table 5.2. List of rattan species recorded in different areas of East Kalimantan in the period 1991-1994 (for details see text).

Wanariset ITC! Apo Kayan Meratus Bah au Mahakam

Calamus blumei * * x caesi11s x * x x co11irosrris * * co11valli11111 x fi111bria111s * * x flabellarus * * x go11osper11111s x hispid11/11s * jave11sis * * * x x /aevigatt1s * * * x 111a11a11 x margi11a111s * * x 111atta11e11sis * x 11111ricat11s * x x 11igrica11s * opri11111s x ornallts * * * x x pa11da11os11111s x * x paspa/a111h11s x pi/osellus * * x x pogo11oca11rh11s I * pogo11oca11rl111s 2 * pogo11oca111h11s 3 x * x x praerermissus x pse11do-11/11r x rhytidom11s * x sarawake11sis x scipiom1111 * x ro111e111os11s * x rracl1ycole11s x Ceraro/obus co11color * * * x x s11ba11g11/at11s x Daemonorops arra * collarifera x crinita x crisrata * didymophylla * * * x e/011ga1a x fissa x * x x hystrix * * x x kortlwlsii * * x x periacamha x sabra * * * x x pumi/us * Korrhalsia cheb x debilis x ecl1i110111etra * * x x fe rox x * * x x flagel/aris x f1 1rtadoa11a * * x hispida x rigida * * rostrata x x ? sp. x

Chapter 5 102 (Table 5.2 conti1111ed)

Wanariset ITC! Apo Kayan Meratus Bahau Mahakam

P/ectocomia 111111/eri x P/ectocomiopsis ge111i11ijlora * x * x x mira *

Total number of species 30 24 26

X = only present outside permanent plots. Wanariset: Plants present in the Wanariset research forest (incl. plot Matthijs) and vicinity including Sungai Wain area and Inhutani I concession. ITCI: Plants present in the permanent research plots and vicinity of these plots. Apo Kayan: Plants present in the Apo Kayan primarily vicinity of Long Sungai Barang, and the primary forest eastward of the Kayan River. Meratus: Some sporadic collections of the Meratus mountains in the PTITC! concession area. Bahau: Plants collected in the Kayan Mentarang Nature Reserve, during a visit at the WWF basecamp near Long Alango. Mahakam: Plants collected in the vicinity of Dilang Puti and Eheng.

Leiden or Wanariset Herbarium. The information on species distribution presented in Table 5.2 is, therefore, based on the surveys in a limited number of sites in East Kali­ mantan . Personal observations indicate that the following species are of common occur­ ren ce in East Kalimantan: Calamusjavensis, C. ornatus, C. pilosellus, C. pogonocan­ thus 3, Ceratolobus concolor, Daemonorops didymophylla, D.fissa,D. hystrix, D. kort­ halsii, D. sabut, Korthalsia echinometra, K. ferox and Plectocomiopsis geminijlora. However, there is a difference in preferences formoisture reg ime and degree of distur­ bance. Some species are restricted to one of the areas where they were locally common, whereas other species were simply very rare. Daemonorops atra, D. crinita, D. pumilus, Calamus nigricans and Ceratolobus subangulatus were common species where they occurred. While Calamus gonospermus, C. hispidulus, C. paspalanthus, C. sarawaken­ sis, Korthalsia hispida and Plectocomiopsis mira occurred at very low densities. Calamus mattanensis an d C. tomentosus appear to be confinedto the western part of East Kalimantan, whereas C. blumei, C. pandanosmus, C. rhytidomus, C.fimbriatus and Korthalsiafurtadoana were only encountered in the eastern part. Some species, e. g., Calamus laevigatus, and C. ornatus, are more or less evenly dis­ tributed. While others are always encountered in groups, e. g., Calamus convallium, C. pandanosmus, C. caesius an d Korthalsia cheb. On dry ridges Calamus conirostris can become the dominant species; while in the Wanariset area C. marginatus takes this dominant role.

Wanarisetfo rest In plot Matthijs 20 rattan species were found on 5100 m2. Of these 18 species had mature canes (Table 5.3). Three species were not encountered in the Apo Kayan or ITCI permanent plots: Calamus nigricans, C. pogonocanthus 2, and Plectocomiopsis mira.

103 Chapter 5 Table 5.3. Presence of rattan species in primary forest, Wanariset, plot Matthijs (in 1994) . Number of plants ha-I (a), plants with mature canes ha-I (b) and total number of mature canes ha-1 (c).

Species a b c Species a b c

Calamus blrcmei 4 2 2 Dae111011orops didymophylla 8 4 4 jlabellaflls 31 24 33 hystrix 8 2 2 javensis 18 16 41 korthalsii 2 2 2 laevigaflls 2 0 0 sabut 25 14 22 margi11atr1s 192 98 104 Korthalsia ecl1i110111etra 10 6 16 omaflls 2 0 0 f1 1rtadoa11a 27 14 39 pilosellus 16 10 18 rigida 80 37 61 pogo11ocantl111s 2 41 14 18 Plectocomiopsis gemi11ijlora 4 4 6 2 11igrica11s 31 10 18 mira 2 2 fimbriatus 12 6 6 Total no. of plants I canes 528 268 400 Ceratolobus co11color 12 6 8 Total no. of species 20

Calamus marginatus, usually a single-stemmed species of dry upper and middle slopes, was the dominant species accounting for 36% of all plants. More than half of these plants had mature canes representing 25 % of the total mature canes present in the plot (Table 5.3). Korthalsia rigida is second in frequency (15 % of all plants) and almost half of its plants had mature canes, rep resenting 15 % of total mature canes. Five species each represented 5-10% of all plants: Daemonorops sabut, Kortha/sia furtadoana, Calamus flabel/atus, C. nigricans, C. pogonocanthus 2. Four clustering species each represented 5-10% of the mature canes in the plot: C.javensis, C.flabel­ /atus, K.furtadoana and D. sabut.

ITC/ concession area A total of 24 rattan species (see Table 5.1) were encountered in the ITCI permanent plots (30,500 m2 ). Six of these species (Ca/amus caesius, C.pandanosmus, C. pogono­ canthus 3, C. rhytidomus, C.scipionum and Daemonoropscristata) were present nei­ ther in the Apo Kayan nor Wanariset permanent plots. The primary and logged-over plots had 14 species in common.

Primary plots A total of 18 species were encountered on 18,900 m2 (Table 5.4). Daemonorops cristata was only foundin the ITCI primary plots. Two other species were restricted to the ITCI permanent plots: Calamus pandanosmus and C. rhytidomus. On ridge crests and upper slopes the abundance of rattan plants appears to be lower than on middle slopes. The total number of plants in the plots was low, and differences between plots in similar habitats were considerable. In plot 76-3b a dense understorey of Borassodendron palms was present in 21 % of the 100 m2 subplots. 87 % of the subplots with Borassodendron was void of rattan as compared with 4 7 % of the other subplots. Both the dense leaf litter that prevents seed­ ling establishment and competition for light areplausible explanations for the absence of rattan.

Chapter 5 104 Table 5.4. Presence of rattan species in permanent plots in primary forestin the ITCI concession area (in 1994). Number of plants ha·1 (a), number of plants with mature canes ha·1 (b) and total number of mature canes ha·1 (c). Plots arranged in a topo-sequence from ridge crest to valley floor.

76-3a 76-3b 72-8a 72-8b 76-4a 76-4b � a b c a b c a p b c a b c a b c a b c

Dae111011omps lzystrix 4 4 4 3

Cala11111s 111argi11at11s 22 4 4 22 15 15

Ca /a11111s flabellat11s 12 6 6 31 16 22 6 0 0 6 0 0 6 6 6 6 0 0

Cala11111s co11irostris 2 0 0 5 3 3 38 19 25 19 6 6 6 6 6 13 6 6

Calamus rlzytido11111s 2 2 4 3 3 3 19 13 13 6 6 13 6 6 6 25 0 0

Calamus b/11111ei I I I 6 0 0

Dae111011orops cristata 3 I I

Ko rtlwlsia ec/1i110111etra I I 4 0 Vl Ca la11ws pogo11oca111/111s 3 3 3 3 6 0 0 6 0 0 13 0 0 Ceratolob11s co11color 7 I I 13 0 0 6 0 0 Dae111011orops sabw 13 6 13 6 6 6 13 0 0 6 0 0 Kortlzalsia rigida 50 13 13 6 0 0 69 0 0 31 0 0

Kortlzalsia f11rtadoa11a 19 0 0 19 0 0 19 0 0

Ko rtlzalsia ferox 6 6 6 6 0 0

Dae11101101vps didymoplzylla 6 6 6 6 0 0

Cala11111s pandanosm11s 6 6 6

Cala11111s omallls 6 0 0

Cala11111s fi111briat11s 6 0 0

9 Total no. of plants I canes 42 16 18 77 44 55 163 69 81 81 19 25 144 19 19 106 6 6 .g Total no. of species 5 10 10 9 9 8

..,� '""" Table 5.5. Presence of rattan species in permanent plots in logged-over forest in the ITCI con- cession area (in 1994). For explanation on logging intensity see text. Number of plants ha-I (a), number of plants with mature canes ha-I (b) and total number of mature canes ha·I (c).

72-1 72-2 77-2 � a b c a b c Sp a b c

Daemonorops sp. 2 2 4 Daemonorops hystrix 4 2 2 Calamus flabellatus 4 2 6 Calamus 111argi11a111s 2 2 2 Ko rrhalsia fe rox 6 2 2 Daemonorops didy moplzylla 14 8 8 Calamus /aevigatus 4 0 0 4 0 0 Ca lamus rlzytidomus 12 8 10 8 0 0 Ca lamus pa11da11os11111s 2 0 0 180 78 158 Ca lamus caesius 10 2 2 72 34 46 Ca /amus scipionum 2 0 0 8 8 8 Ca lamus b/11111ei 2 2 18 10 4 6 13 6 19 Daemonorops sablll 18 4 18 32 8 8 25 19 44 Ceratolobus concolor 8 2 2 6 6 10 6 6 13 Ko rtlzalsia rigida 22 4 4 24 8 8 44 13 13 Ko rthalsia fu rradoana 2 2 26 32 8 28 38 13 75 Ca/amus pogo11oca111/z11s 3 20 18 30 18 12 32 13 13 13 Ko rtlzalsia eclzinometra 2 0 0 6 6 169 Cala11111s javensis 2 2 4 13 0 0 Daemonorops kortlzalsii 2 0 0 Total number of plants I canes 136 160 134 398 168 308 156 75 343 Total number of species 18 13 8

Logged-over plots A total of20 species was encountered on 1 1,600 m2 (Table 5.5). Two species, Cala­ mus caesius and C. scipionum, were found only in these plots, although they are re­ ported to be common in South-East Asia/Borneo (Dransfield, 1992b). The low number of species in plot 77-2 as compared with the other plots can be ascribed to the smaller size (1600 m2 versus 5000 m2). The abundance of rattan plants in the logged-over plots was highest in the subplots with a canopy of pioneer trees or in the transitional zone with primary forest. On the other hand, some subplots with a canopy of pioneer trees were void of rattan (in plot 77-2). The Jogged-over and primary plots at ITCI have many species in common. Only four species present in the primary plots were not recorded in the logged-over plots, two of which were only seldomly encountered (Calamus fimbriatus, Daemonorops cristata); one species was present in all of the primary plots and is typical of dry upper and middle slopes (Calamus conirostris) while the fourth species (Calamus ornatus) was very rare and only represented by a single plant.

Chapter 5 106 The similarity between logged-over and primary plots has to be ascribed to the fact that a logged-over forest consists of patches of Jogged and primary forest. The balance between Jogged and primary patches depends on Jogging intensity an d previous distri­ bution of timber trees. In the Jogged-over plots, rattan species associated with primary forest can still survive. The difference is in an invasion of rattan species preferring more open growth condition s. The abundance of plants in primary forest is on average lower than in logged-over forest (102 versus 230 plants ha-1, see Table 5.7). The difference is higher when plants with mature canes are compared (29 versus 109 plants ha-I), an d highest when the total number of mature canes are compared (34 versus 262 canes ha-I). The high con­ trast in mature cane numbers is the result of the presence of profusely clustering spe­ cies (Calamus pandanosmus, Korthalsia echinometra and K.furtadoana)in the Jogged­ over plots.

Apo Kayan In total 26 rattan species were found in the Apo Kayan area. Local variation in abundance and species composition of rattan in apparently similar habitats was en­ countered in primary as well as secondary forest. Areas with reported fertile soils in

Table 5.6. Presence of rattan species in fourpermanent plots in primary forest in the Apo Kayan (in 1994). Number of plants ha-I (a), number of plants with mature canes ha-1 (b) and total number of mature canes ha-1 (c). Plots arranged in a topo-sequence from ridge crest to valley floor.

A B c D Species� a b c a b c a b c a b c

Korthalsia fe rox 6 6 13 Ca/a11111s 11111rica111s 163 163 169 Cala11111s pilosel/11s 13 6 2S 13 6 6 Dae111011orops fissa 13 0 0 Cala11111s hispid11/r1s 6 0 0 Cala11111s laevigat11s 2S 13 13 Dae111011orops p11111i/11s 1S6 ISO JS6 Ca/a11111s tome11tos11s 6 6 6 P/ectocomiopsis geminijlora 69 69 17S 88 44 ISO so so 206 Daemonorops atra 100 100 106 IS6 lSO 163 163 138 144 Ca/a11111s conirostris 469 300 369 IOS6 67S 888 67S 363 419 13 6 6 Ceratolob11s co11color 6 0 0 130 13 13 2S 13 13 63 13 19 Dae111011orops sabw 2S 2S so 6 6 6 6 6 6 Cala11111s oma111s 13 0 0 44 2S 2S so 19 19 Ca/a11111s pogo11oca111h11s 1 31 19 19 13 13 13 Cala11111s jave11sis 19 13 19 69 44 ISO Daemonorops didymopltylla 6 6 6 88 31 31 Cala11111s 111atta11e11sis 6 6 6

Total no. of plants I canes 82S 644 8S6 JS691081 1442 102S 638 862 300 131 244 Total no. of species 7 12 10 7

107 Chapter 5 the vicinity of the village of Long Sungai Barang are all used in the agricultural cycle. Primary forestis therefore no longer foundon fertile land. Young secondary vegetation is poor both in species composition and abundance of rattan, as a result of burning that follows clearing of the land for a swidden . No seed bank is present as rattan seeds quickly lose their viability (Yap, 1992) and the weeding during the rice cycle prevents regeneration by means of resprouting or establishment of new plants (pers. observ.). Typical species of older regrowth are Plectocomia mulleri, Daemonoropsfissa, Cera­ tolobus concolor and Calamus pogonocanthus 3. On riverbanks bordering the Kayan river Daemonorops hystrix was found, but the species was absent in the primary forest plots situated on upper slopes and ridges. In swampy sites locally dense stands of Korthalsia cheb are found. This species is sought for its durable cane that is particu­ larly suited as binding material for fishtraps, an d the shoot is edible. The nearest stands of the highly prized Calamus caesius are two days (by boat/ on foot) southeast of the village, alon g the Boh river. In Long Sungai Barang, Dae­ monorops sabut is used as a substitute for C. caesius in the weaving of backpacks and rice-mats. Rattan is neither planted nor protected by the people of Long Sungai Baran g.

The permanent plots The fourpermanent plots harbour 18 species on 6400 m2. Of these, 16 species have mature canes (Table 5.6). Eight species present were not encountered in the ITCI or Wanariset plots: Calamus hispidulus, C. 111attanensis, C. muricatus, C. tomentosus, C. pogonocanthus 1, Daemonorops atra, D. fissa, D. pumilus. Species composition and abundance of individual species gradually change going down from ridge crest to valley floor. The abun dance of rattan plants is lowest at the valley floor even when plants of Calamus conirostris (the dominant species of upper and middle slopes) are excluded. The abundance of plants with mature canes at the valley floor is only 16% or 36% (if C. conirostris is excluded) of the average abun­ dance on upper and middle slopes. The difference is smaller when the total number of mature canes is compared, 23 % and 47 % respectively.

Comparison of species composition and abundance

Species composition When all permanent plots are combined in fourgroups (Apo Kayan, ITCI primary, ITCI Jogged-over and Wanariset) and compared, only three species are seen to occur in all four groups: Ceratolobus concolor, Dae111011orops didymophylla and D. sabut. Both C. concolor and D. sabut respond to disturbance by more vigorous growth. If the two ITCI groups are combined, the number of species that all sites have in common is six with the addition of Ca Lamus javensis, C. laevigatus and C. ornatus(Tab le 5.2). Both C. laevigatus and C. ornatusare species that are often encountered in primary forest as robust plants in the rosette stage. Ca/amusjave11sis is actually a complex poly-morphic species that occurs from almost swampy valley floors to moist depressions on slopes. The factthat 8 out of 18 Apo Kay an, and 6 out of 24 ITCI species were not found in the other research sites further emphasizes the great regional variation in species com­ position.

Chapter 5 108 Regional variation is also illustrated by the Calamus pogonocanthus complex rep­ resented by three taxa: C. pogonocanthus 1 is restricted to primary forest in the Apo Kayan, C. pogonocanthus 2 is restricted to plot Matthijs and other parts of the Wan ariset research forest, and C. pogonocanthus 3 (the taxon that most resembles C. pogono­ canthus Becc. ex H. Winkl.) occurs in primary as well as disturbed forest in all sites (at Apo Kayan an d Wanariset outside permanent plots), with a higher abundance in dis­ turbed forest. As regards the (locally) more common species, some general comments on ecology can be given. The species that are almost exclusively encountered in logged-over/old secondary forest are: Calamus caesius, C. pandanosmus, C. scipionum and Daemon­ oropsftssa . A number of other species which are also present in primary forest show a clear positive response (in numbers of mature canes) to disturbance, namely Calamus pogonocanthus 3, Ceratolobus concolor, Daemonorops sabut, Korthalsia echinometra, K.furtadoana, K. rigida and Plectocomiopsis geminiflora.Certain species are restricted to primary forest, some preferring dry sites, like Calamus conirostris, C. marginatus, C. muricatus, Daemonorops atra, D. hystrix and D. pumilus, while others, like Calamus javensis, C. omatus and C. tomentosus, prefer moist conditions.

Table 5.7. Rattan abundance in East Kalimantan (in numbers ha-I).

Rattan all species Rattan excluding Cala11111s conirostris No. of No. of Total No. of No. of Total plants plants with no. of plants plants with no.of mature mature mature mature canes canes canes canes

Wanariset plot Matthijs 528 268 400 528 268 400

ITCI primary plot 76-3a 42 16 18 40 16 18 plot 76-3b 77 44 55 72 41 52 plot 72-8a 163 69 81 125 50 56 plot 72-8b 81 19 25 63 13 19 plot 76-4a 144 19 19 138 13 13 plot 76-4b 106 6 6 93 0 0 average primary 102 29 34 89 22 26

ITCI logged-over plot 72-1 136 60 134 136 60 134 plot 72-2 398 168 308 398 168 308 plot 77-2 156 75 343 156 75 343 average logged-over 230 IOI 262 230 IOI 262

ApoKayan plot A 825 644 856 356 344 488 plot B 1569 1081 1442 512 406 556 plotC 1025 638 862 350 275 446 plot D 300 131 244 288 125 238 average 930 633 851 377 288 432

109 Chapter 5 For species encountered on only a few occasions, it was difficult to define their preferences, i. e., Calamus hispidulus, C. mattanensis, Daemonorops korthalsii, D. cris­ tata and Plectocomiopsis mira. Calamus pilosellus, although only found in two of the Apo Kayan plots and in plot Matthijs, locally fanned dense entanglements in old canopy gaps on well drained slopes in the Apo Kayan . Mature plants of Calamus blumei, C. laevigatus, C. tomentosus an d Korthalsiaferox always occurred at very low den sities. The species richness in primary forest in the Apo Kayan plots and plot Matthijs is similar. Species richness of a primary forest plot of comparable size in the ITCI con­ cession is lower. However, logging appears to have resulted in an increase in species richness in the ITCI plots (18 species on 18,900 m2 in primary forest versus 20 species on 11,600 m2 in logged-over forest) due to an influx of species adapted to disturbed sites.

Abundance The abundance of rattan differs considerably between plots of the same site as well as between sites. This variation between plots may be attributed to the limited size of the plots. The size of the plots was not sufficient to comprise the variation in site condi­ tions and successional stages, present in the area. Differences between research sites, however, point to a common tren d. The Apo Kayan plots have the highest abun dance of rattan . This applies to the total number of plants, the total number of plants with mature canes, an d the total number of mature canes (Table 5.7). Plot Matthijs is a good second with roughly half the number of plants an d half the number of mature canes. The number of plants in the ITCI pri­ mary plots is only a tenth of the Apo Kayan value, an d the total number of mature canes is a mere 4 % of the Apo Kayan value. Calamus conirostris dominates the 'dry' Apo Kayan plots, where it accounts for over 50 % of all plants. Even when C. conirostris is excluded, the Apo Kayan plots still have the highest abundance of plants with mature canes an d total number of mature canes. Although the abundance in primary forest of the Apo Kayan and plot Matthijs is higher than the ITCI plots, the logging has (probably) resulted in an increase in abun­ dance. However, it still needs to be emphasized that local differences in abundance are substantial, even in similar forest types.

5.3.2. Growth of rattan

The followingaccoun t is based on observations on the number of plants an d the number and growth stage of shoots over a 24-month period between the first recording (1992) and the last ( 1994 ). A rattan population is dynamic taken from the standpoint of, both, changes within the population (Table 5.8) and within an individual clump. Multi-stemmed rattan s have canes in various growth stages; the same plant can therefore be represented in more than one growth-stage class, e.g., one plant can be scored as both a plant with suckers and as a plant with immature canes.

Chapter 5 110 Table 5.8. Changes in the number of rattan plants and number of mature canes between 1992 and 1994. Percentages arebased on 1992 values for number of plants and total number of mature canes per plot.

Plants Recruitment(%) Mo rtality(%) Net increase (%) Mature canes(%)

Wanariset plot Matthijs 26 6 20 -I ITCI primary plot 76-3a 57 0 57 +28 plot 76-3b 9 I 8 -.10 plot 76-4a 78 14 64 -40 plot 76-4b 5 5 0 0 ITCI logged-over plot 72-1 23 22 -1 plot 72-2 • 35 5 30 +18,. plot 77-2 8 0 8 -8 Apo Kay311 plot A II 5 6 -2 plot B 21 6 15 +2 plot C 16 7 9 -2 plotD 13 2 II -32

Wanariset forest Figure 5.1 represents the growth dynamics in plot Matthijs. The rattan population of this plot is very dynamic and showed a clear increase in number of plants. The per­ centage of plants show ing an increase in the number of shoots was highest compared with plants showing no change or a decrease, for all growth stages, except for the ma­ ture class where the percentage of stable plants was higher (Figure 5.1). Possible causes of death of the shoots can be old age, herbivory or damage by fallen branches. The number of shoots increased for all growth stages except for the mature stage (Figure 5.4). The net increase in plants amounted to 20%. The great number of plants that showed an increase in the number of shoots in the juvenile class (64 plants) was primarily the result of recruitment of 60 new plants since 1992. The increment in the number of both juvenile and immature shoots is most likely caused by or can be ascribed to plants that have appeared since the 1983 forest fire,and may also be influencedby the dry spell of 1991. The increase in light in the remaining forest, followingthe fireof 1983, may have caused a rej uvenation and stimulated growth of the rattan that had survived.

P.T. ITC/concession area

Primary plots

Since the number of plants in the plots was rather small (1994: n = 17, 21, 23, 59), changes in a single plant have a relatively high impact on the results obtained for the total population.

Il l Chapter 5 % % 100 ..------�100 ,.------, n = 269 n = 78 90 90

80 80

70 70

60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

JO 10

0 0 S J I M s J I M Wanariset plot Matthijs ITC! plot 72-1 % % 100 ..------,100 ..------, n = 199 n = 25 90 90

80 80

70 70

60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

IO JO

0 0 s J I M s J I M ITC! plot 72-2 ITCI plot 77-2

.___ __.I decrease ...___ __, stable ••• increase

Figure 5.1. Dynamics of rattan growth in plot Matthijs and logged-over forest in the ITCI conces­ sion, illustrated by changes in the number of shoots per clump for each growth stage. Values in

% of total clumps in each class. Changes between 1992 and 1994. - S = sucker class, J = juve­

nile class; I = immature class; M = mature class.

Two plots (76-3a, 76-4a) show clear changes in the rattan population, whereas the oth­ ers do not (Table 5.8). The rattan population in plot 76-3a is very dynamic and showed a clear increase in the number of plants (Table 5.8). The absolute number of shoots for all classes increased. The number of plants with an increase in number of shoots in the sucker and juvenile class was more than 60 % (Figure 5.2). For all the classes it is more than twice the number of plants showing a decrease. Increase in the juvenile class was primarily caused by recruitment. Ridge-crest forest in the area is characterized by a very open understorey. Periodic severe drought tends to kill saplings of trees during a dry spell an d the same might apply to rattan plants. This could explain the low density of rattan plants and the rela­ tively high increase in all growth stages in response to the better growth conditions since the severe dry spell of 1983 and the dry spell of 1991 (Anonymous, 1994a). So,

Chapter 5 112 % % 100 100 n = 21 n = 59 90 90

80 80

70 70

60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0 s J I M s J I M ITC! plot 76-3a ITC! plot 76-3b % % 100 100 n = 23 n = 17 90 90

80 80

70 70

60 - 60

50 50

40 - 40 - 30 - 30

20 20

10 10

Q-i...... - __[_ -- 0 s J I M s J I M ITC! plot 76-4a ITC! plot 76-4b

I decrease stable ••• increase

Figure 5.2. Dynamics of rattan growth in primary forest in the ITC! concession, illustrated by changes in the number of shoots per clump for each growth stage. Values in % of total clumps in each class. Changes between 1992 and 1994. - S =sucker class, J =juvenile class; I=imma­ ture class; M = mature class. despite the fact that the plot is situated in primary forest without major changes in the canopy, the rattan plants in fact experience a highly dynamic environment. In plot 76-4a there is a relatively high increase in the number of juvenile shoots and 60 % of the plants of the juvenile class show an increase in shoot number. This is pri­ marily caused by recruitment. The number of mature canes, however, showed a con­ siderable decline. These changes are probably caused by pigs that frequent the site, ploughing the soil and eating rattan shoots. In plot 76-3b there was a net increase in sucker and juvenile shoots but a decrease in immature and mature shoots (Figure 5.2). The percentage of plants showing no change was always high. In plot 76-4b rattan plants showed even less vigour. The in­ crease in the number of sucker shoots was balanced by a decrease in juvenile shoots. Changes within the immature and mature class were negligible (Figure 5.2).

113 Chapter 5 % % JOO �------. JOO �------. n = J32 n = 251 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 JO JO Q.L.....L---'------'--'-----'---'- 0 s J I M s J I M Apo Kayan plot A Apo Kayan plot B % % JOO �------. 100�------� n = J64 n = 48 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 JO JO 0 0 .L-.__.__ _.__._ s J I M s J I M Apo Kayan plot C Apo Kayan plot D

�--' decrease �-�'stable increase

Figure 5.3. Dynamics of rattan growth in primary forestin the Apo Kayan region, illustrated by changes in the number of shoots per clump for each growth stage. Values in % of total clumps in each class. Changes between 1992 and 1994. - S = sucker class, J =juvenile class; I = imma­ ture class; M = mature class.

Logged-over plo_ts In two plots (72-1, 72-2) the rattan population increased considerably (22 % and 30%, see Table 5.8), in the third plot (77-2) the population was rather stable. The number of plants and that of shoots increased in both plot 72-1 and 72-2. The population in the latter is the most dynamic of the two plots with the percentage of plants showing no change smaller than in plot 72-1, except for the sucker class (Figure 5 .1). The high increase in both the number of plants and the number of shoots in plot 72-2 occurred in an area where the canopy of Macaranga trees was dying. , In plot 77-2 the population of rattan plants increased by 8%, but the number of shoots in all growth stages except the sucker stage showed a net decrease (Figure 5.4). For all classes, except for the sucker class, the percentage of plants showing no change was relatively high (Figure 5.1). The decrease in the number of mature canes was the

Chapter 5 114 Numberof shoois Sucker stage Number of shoois Juvenile stage

Numberof shoois Immature stage Numberof shoois Mature stage

Man 72·1 72·2 n-2 7"'3a 71-4• 7&-30 7&4b AKA AKC AK8 AKO Matt 72·1 72·2 n-2 76--Ja 7Mal 71-ab 76-4b AkA AKC A.KB AKO

D decrease • increase

Figure 5.4. Increase and decrease in total number of shoots for four growth-stage classes of rattan populations (all species) in differentplots in East Kalimantan. Changes between 1992 and 1994. - Matt = plot Matthijs; ITCI logged-over: 72-1, 72-2, 77-2; ITCI primary: 76-3a, 76-3b, 76-4a, 76-4b; Apo Kayan: AKA = plot A, AKB = plot B, AKC = plot C, AKD = plot D.

result of one large Korthalsia echinometra plant, which was regenerating profusely, with a net increase in shoot number from 35 in 1992 to 40 in 1994.

Apo Kayan In all plots an increase in the number of plants and a net increase in the number of sucker and juvenile shoots was found (Table 5.8; Figure 5.4), although the increment in the latter was smaller. Apart from the ridge and upper slope plot, the number of immature canes decreased and three of the four plots showed a net reduction in the number of mature canes. The plots C and A showed a stable rattan population with little dynamism. The per­ centage of plants with no change for each growth-stage class is highest, except for the sucker stage class in plot C (Figure 5.3). The valley floor plot (plot D) showed little change in the total number of plants but there is a strong reduction in the number of mature canes (Table 5.8), whjle at the same time the majority of plants in the sucker and juvenile class showed an increase in the number of shoots. This was primarily the result of large clumps of Calamus javensis

115 Chapter 5 300�.� AKB

Y=0.134'X+7.76

200

AKC 0

Y=0.208'X+ 19.42

100

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Initial population

• = disturbed (Y = O.l34*X + 7.76) o = undisturbed (Y = 0.208*X + 19.42)

Figure 5.5. Correlation between recruitment, initial population size of rattan (all species) and disturbance. Comparison of twelve plots in East Kalimantan (Matt= plot Matthijs; ITCI logged­ over: 72-l, 72-2, 77-2; ITCI primary: 76-3a, 76-3b, 76-4a, 76-4b; Apo Kayan: AKA = Plot A, AKB =Plot B, AKC = Plot C, AKD = Plot D. and Ceratolobus concolor in which the number of mature shoots decreased and simul­ taneously the number of either sucker or juvenile shoots increased. Plot B, situated on the upper and middle slope, was the most dynamic plot. The number of plants which showed no change in a given growth-stage class was always less than 30% except for plants with mature canes where it was 70% (Figure 5.3). A net increase in the number of suckers an d juvenile shoots was evident (Figure 5.4) and can probably be ascribed to increased light reaching the forest floor as a result of a chablis (Oldeman, 1980) that was formed in 1991. The dynamic nature of this popula­ tion is further supported by the recruitment of 48 new plants since 1992 resulting in a net increase of 15% in the rattan population by 1994 (Table 5.8).

Comparison of the regions With respect to growth of rattan, both in terms of an increase in the population an d changes in the total number of shoots, a pattern can be discerned. In all three sites increase in the population is highest in those plots experiencing . disturbance (Table 5.8). The forest of plot Matthijs is still recovering fromthe 1983 forestfire. In the ITCI logged-over plots, both plot 72-1 and 72-2 harbour patches of de­ grading canopy trees. The primary plots 76-3a an d 76-4a were subject to disturbance. And finally, in the Apo Kayan, in plot B a chablis was recently formed.

Chapter 5 116 7

6

5

2

t. 0 Y = --0.003*X+ 0.63

Y = --0.04*X+ 0.84

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Initial population

t. = disturbance 2 0 = disturbance I 'Y = undisturbed (= 0)

Y = 0.26*X + 1.68 Y = --0.04*X + 0.84 Y = --0.003*X+ 0.63

Figure 5.6. Correlation between recruitment, initial population size of rattan (all species) and disturbance. Comparison of fifty subplots (100 m2 each) in plot 72-2, situated in logged-over forest in the ITCI concession area, East Kalimantan. Level of disturbance increasing from undisturbed = 0 to disturbance = 2.

For the an alysis of the influence of disturbance on population growth, the primary ITCI plot 76-4a was considered undisturbed since the disturbance was caused by wild pig. Besides initial population size, disturbance proved to be a significant fa ctor (p < 0.05) in the recruitment of rattan. A procedure fitcurve (Genstat 5, I 990) for the twelve plots as well as forthe 50 subplots of plot 72-2 in detail (all 50 subplots tallied accord­ ing to degree of disturbance) confirmed that disturbance results in a significan t in­ crease in recruitment (see Figures 5.5 an d 5.6). Disturbance also results in a relatively high increase in the number of juvenile and immature shoots. Logging, being a formof disturbance, appears to result in an accelerated increase in the size of the rattan population an d also to promote the growth of individual plants.

117 Chapter 5 % JOO -,--��

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

Ca/amus omallls Ca/amus jave11sis Dae111011orops sabrtl D decrease � stable • increase

Figure 5.7. Change in growth of sucker shoots after 12 months for experimentally harvested clumps with only sucker-shoots remaining. Comparison of three rattan species.

5.3.3. Harvesting of selected rattan clumps in the Apo Kayan

In general, commercial collecting of all harvestable canes has a negative effecton the vitality of a plant after one year. If harvesting leaves no suckers in a clump, no new suckers were formed with the exception of one Calamusjavensis plant. But if only shoots in sucker stage remained, the overall effect is not obviously nega­ tive but a differencebetween the species can be discerned(Figure 5.7). Calamus ornatus sucker shoots are more tolerant as compared with C.javensis and to a lesser extent Dae­ monorops sabut. On a per clump basis, the dynamics of the various classes for the three species is clearly different (Figure 5.8). For Calamus ornatus the percentage of clumps that are stable is always highest forall classes. In C.javensis clumps are very dynamic and the percentage of stable clumps is always smaller than those showing either an increase or a decrease, except for clumps belonging to the mature class. For Daemonorops sabut an overall negative effect can be discerned, with the percentage of plants showing a decrease in shoot number always being greater than those showing an increase. Looking at the number of shoots for the various growth stages, a similar pattern can be discerned (Table 5.9). In Calamus ornatus hardly any change was observed in the number of shoots compared with an increase in juvenile and mature shoots in C.javensis, which is only achieved at the expense of sucker and immature shoots, an d with Daemonorops sabut where there is a reduction in all growth stages, except for the mature stage.

Chapter 5 118 % Harvested % Non-Harvested 100 100 n = 33 n = 18 90 90

80 80

70 70

60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 JO

0 0 s M s J 1 M Ca/a11111s omat11s Calm1111s oma111s % % JOO JOO .,------. n = 31 n = 14 90 90

80 80 - 70 70

60 60

50 50 - - 40 40 - 30 30 I-- - 20 20 JO � I 10 _[_ 0 � o--- s M s M Cala11111s javensis Calamus jave11sis % % 100.,.------,---.---.100

n = 33 n = 6 90 90

80 80 -

70 70

60 60

50 50 -

40 40

30 30

20 20 ,___ 10 10 l 0 0 s M s J M Dae111011orops sabut Dae111011orops sab111

�--�I decrease stable increase

Figure 5.8. Growth perfonnance of harvested and non-harvested rattan clumps of Calamus oma­ tus, C.jave11sis, and Dae111011orops sabut, in the Apo Kayan region, illustrated by changes in the number of shoots per clump for each class. Values given as % of total clumps in each class. Changes between 1993 and 1994. - S = sucker class, J =juvenile class; I = immature class; M = mature class.

119 Chapter 5 Table 5.9. Net changes in the total number of shoots foreach growth-stage class, 1993-1994. Harvested and non-harvested clumps of three selected species.

Calamus omaws Ca/a11111s ja vensis Dae111011orops sab111 s J M s J I M s J I M

Harvested Apo Kayan -4 +I -I -I -18 +3 -18 +8 -37 -4 -I 0 Non-harvested Apo Kayan +4 0 +I -I 0 +3 +I -II -2 0 -I +I Matthijs 0 -I +I 0 0 +2 0 0 0 0 -I -I ITC! logged-over +4 -I +2 0 +7 -8 -I -I ITC! primary +3 0 0 0

S = sucker stage; J =juvenile stage; I = immature stage; M = mature stage.

It is concluded that for Calamus ornatus the harvesting does not lead to an increase in the number of shoots and an acceleration in the development of the remaining shoots, as compared with the non-harvested clumps (Figure 5.8), could not be discerned after one year. For C.javensis harvesting resulted in a net decrease in the total number of shoots (Table 5.9) but an accelerated maturation of immature and mature canes was obvious compared with non-harvested clumps. For Daemonorops sabut, harvesting resulted in a considerable decrease in the number of shoots (Table 5.9) and an accel­ eration in the development of the remaining shoots, as compared with non-harvested clumps (Figure 5.8), could not be detected. The difference in dynamics of C. ornatus and C.javensis might be an indication for a different survival strategy. Whereas C. ornatus plants invest in a small number of relatively tolerant shoots, C.javensis plants invest in a large number of shoots with a shorter life expectancy.

5.4. Discussion

The inventory of rattan species in primary forest at the various sites provided an index of species richness and abundance of rattan. Differences in geographical distribution of species are apparent, as well as the influence of disturbance (see section 5.3. l) and moisture regime (see section 5.3.3). Water seems to be the prime factor influencing both species composition and abun­ dance of rattan in the Apo Kayan and ITCI concession area. With either an excess or a shortage of water playing a role. The preferences of the various species were mentioned in the general part of section 5.3.l. In the Apo Kayan, where there is an annual rainfall of over 4000 mm (Voss, 1982), rattan abundance is lowest at the valley floor where rattan is apparently adversely affected by the stagnant water. Contrary to the situation in the Apo Kayan, rattan abundance in the ITCI concession, with an annual rainfall of 2000-2500 mm (Voss,

Chapter 5 120 1982), is lowest on ridge crests and upper slopes. This is probably due to water deficit that occurs during periodic dry spells. The three new species (Calamus fimbriatus, C. nigricans, Daemonorops pumilus; see Figures 5.9, 5.10 and 5.1 1) that were discovered (Van Yalkenburg, 1995) have a limited distribution, thereby confirming the trend of a rather high degree of endemism in rattans with, e.g., more than 20% of the Sarawak species being en demic in Sarawak (Dransfield, l 992a, l 992b ). The economically important species belong to widespread (Calamus javensis, C. ornatus, Ceratolobus·conco/01; Daemonorops fissa) as well as geographically confined species (Ceratolobus subangulatus, Daemonorops crinita). The survival of the latter species is theoretically more threatened by forest conversion or over-exploitation. The common occurrence in East Kalimantan of Calamus javensis an d C. ornatus is in accordance with Dransfield(1 992b). The presence of Calamus hispidulus in the Apo Kayan and Daemonorps cristata (Figure 5.12) in the ITCI concession is an extension eastward of their reported area of endemism (Pearce, 1989; Dran sfield, 1992a). The presence of Calamus trachycoleus in the middle Mahakarn area is probably an old introduction from South or Central Kalimantan of this commonly cultivated species, while Ca la mus man an, also cultivated, might occur naturally in the area. Another widely cultivated species, Daemonorops crinita, was reported only to occur in southernSumatra (Dransfield & Manokaran, 1993). Differen ce in tolerance to disturbance is a major factor limiting the potential of a commercial species for rattan plantations or enrichment plan ting in logged-over for­ est. In the logged-over ITCI plots, the logging has resulted in a shift in species compo­ sition an d an increased species diversity with the invasion of secondary species. The species adapted to disturbance that invaded the plots are of con siderable economic value. For a more detailed comparison of the economic value of primary versus logged­ over forest see Chapter 6. Local variation in rattan abundance was observed throughout East Kalimantan and is further illustrated by the results of the line survey in the Apo Kayan. The average abundance was 362 mature plants and 902 mature canes per hectare, but variation ran ged from 0 plants to 18 plants with 79 mature canes per 200 m2. Sixteen to twenty-three years after logging the average abundance of rattan in the logged-over ITCI plots is higher as compared with the primary forest plots at ITCI, and was highest in old canopy gaps resulting from the felling. Elsewhere, shortly after logging a drastic reduction in abundance was observed in ridge Dipterocarp forest in Sabah (Abdillah Rosian & Phillips, 1989). Felling and extraction were major causes of a reduction by 73 % of an initial population of 148 plants in one hectare. Apparently the initial adverse effects of logging are later compensated by recruitment. Although the disturbance by logging promotes the growth of rattan , five years after logging rattan canes are not sufficientlymature to be harvested (Kiew & Hood, unpub­ lished). Furthermore, in the case of an absence of large support trees rattan canes will coil on the forest floor resulting in poor quality canes. Logging can also have long lasting negative effects on rattan growth. In Malaysia Orang Asli informants (Kiew & Hood, unpublished) claimed that on bulldozered areas there is no rattan regeneration.

121 Chapter 5 a d

Figure 5.9. Ca lamus fimbriatus Valkenburg. a. Part of sheathed stem; b. mid-portion of leaf; c. part of infructescence; d. bract subtending partial infructescence; e. leaf tip.

Chapter 5 122 \· .. \,

d

b

Figure 5.10. Ca lamus nigricans Valkenburg. a. Part of sheathed stem; b. leaf tip; c. part of in­ florescence; d. part of flagellum.

123 Chapter 5 Figure 5.1 1. Dae111011orops pumilus Valkenburg. a. Part of sheathed stem; b. mid-portion of leaf; c. part of ; d. leaf tip.

Chapter 5 124 Figure 5.12. Daemonorops cristata Becc. a. Part of sheathed stem with old male inflorescence; b. mid-portion of leaf; c. leaf tip.

125 Chapter 5 This was also found in part of ITCI plot 71-1 that was logged in 1987. On the old skidroads only some pioneer trees and large numbers of Cyperaceae and Rubus plants were encountered but no rattan seedlings. Natural as well as man-induced disturbance significantly (p < 0.05) increased the recruitment of rattan plants in the research plots. Disturbance also resulted in a rela­ tively high increase in the number of juvenile and immature shoots when compared with non-disturbed plots. The prime factor for promoting the growth of remaining plants and the recruitment of new plants is presumed to be light. Whereas in forest with a closed canopy a relative light intensity (RU) of 0.1-5 % is measured, the estab­ lishment of Calamus manan required a 50% RU in a controlled light environment (Mori, 1980). By open ing up the canopy logging results in higher RU values. The survival of Calamus caesius plants in plot 71-1 was very poor but the survival in the logged-over part (9 %) was higher than in the primary plot (4 % ). A higher survival and growth of rattan plants in forestwith a partially opened canopy was also observed in various planting trials (Aminuddin Mohamad, 1985; Manokaran 1980, 198 la, 198 lb, 1982a, 1982b, 1983; Mori, 1980; Nainggolan, 1985; Wan Razali Wan Mohd. et al., 1992; Wong & Manokaran , 1985). Logged-over forest does not necessarily show an accelerated growth at any point in time. The development stage of a patch of forest or eco-unit (Oldeman, 1980, 1990) is essential. During succession an eco-unit will go through several cycles of innovation, aggradation, biostatic an d degradation phases. During innovation an d aggradation, the total rapidly increases including rattan plants. As the pioneer trees become fully developed and are dominating the eco-unit a biostatic phase is reached and growth of rattan is not different from that in primary forest. This can be observed sixteen years after logging activities in plot 77-2. When pioneer trees become senescent, the eco­ unit reaches the degradation phase. More light reaching the rattan plants combined with possibly additional nutrients from the dying trees, results in new opportunities for the ratt an. The acceleration in growth observed in plots 72-1 and 72-2 was most pro­ nounced under a canopy of sen escent Macaranga trees. Exchangeable nutrients of forest floor litter in logged-over forest, ten years after logging, were found to be higher than in primary forest in Sabah, although leaf-litter fallwas similar (Burghouts et al., 1992). Whereas logging results in disturbance at the population level, harvesting causes disturbance at plant level. A process similar to the dynamics observed following log­ ging may occur at individual plant level following harvesting. The maximum harvesting experiment had an overall negative effect on the rattan clumps after one year. The traditional management system in the Bahau area may overcome this effect by, after large-scale commercial harvesting of rattan, closing a tributary for 10 years so as to allow the rattan population to recover. Whereas maximum harvesting apparently has a negative effect, especially on clus­ tering species that form large clumps with numerous mature canes, a limited harvest­ ing may promote the growth of remaining shoots or stimulate the fo rmation of new shoots. Removal by harvesting of a limited number of mature canes is similar to the natural process of the mature canes dying. In a large Korthalsia echinometra clump,

Chapter 5 126 the death of five mature canes coincided with an increase in sucker, juvenile and im­ mature shoots that was considerably higher than in clumps without dying mature canes. A method of limited harvesting may well be ecologically sustainable in the long run. A management system of limited but continuous harvesting is practised by Orang Hulu people in Johore, Malaysia (Kiew, 1989; Kiew & Hood, unpublished). There Calamus caesius in primary forest is harvested on a 4-5 month rotation. Each time only a small number of canes is cut and the clump retains its vitality. This management system is difficult to implement when density of rattan plants is high as in the case of rattan plantations. High frequency of harvesting of the often intertwined canes will cause too much damage to the remaining canes. Intervals between harvests therefore have to be several years. The importance of maintaining vitality of a clump was already mentioned by Nandika ( 1938). With respect to management of rattan gardens he recommended harvesting the canes in stages and not to cut the canes closer than 1-1.5 m from the clump. The re­ maining leaf surface area after harvesting might be an important factor influencing the vitality of a cluster (where vitality is capacity to recover from the harvesting). This vitality and resilience after harvesting differs between species, but a minimum re­ maining surface area or number of shoots is essential fora clump to be able to recover.

Regional variation in species composition and abundance of rattan in East Kaliman­ tan is considerable. Response to disturbance and reactions to harvesting differs be­ tween species. Therefore detailed information on the rattan resource is a prerequisite for ecologically sustainable exploitation. Both primary forest as well as logged-over forest harbour (potentially) commercial rattan species that can be sustainably exploited.

127 Chapter 5

6. TRADE IN RATTAN

6.1. Introduction

Rattan has been used at village level since time immemorial. The regional and interna­ tional trade in canes and finished products, however, is a more recent phenomenon. International trade in rattan dates to the mid-l 9th century. At the turn of the 20th century Singapore was the clearing-house for practically the entire rattan output of South-East Asia and the western Pacific (Dransfield & Manokaran, 1993). During the years 1925-1927 rattan accounted for 40-50% of total forestry earnings in South­ East Borneo (Van Tuil, 1929). The export of 12,000 tons from South-East Borneo ac­ counted for 25 % of total export of rattan from The Dutch East Indies. A large propor­ tion of the 18,000 tons exported from Makassar also originated from South-East Bor­ neo. Both prices and volume traded have fluctuated over the years. In recent times the export price of East Kalimantan rattan doubled from 1976 to 1977 while the total value of export increased by 340%. From 1977 to 1978, the rattan price tripled and exports increased another 280% (Jessup & Peluso, 1986). Since then prices rose stead­ ily (1983: US$ 680 per ton, 1984: US$ 840 per ton, Pemerintah Daerah Propinsi Kali­ mantan Timur et al.,1985) until 1988, when a ban on export of semi-processed rattan was imposed. Prices for raw and semi-processed rattan dwindled, and production dropped from an all time high of 13,500 tons in 1988 to 3,203 tons in 1989 and 1,549 tons in 1991 (Kantor Statistik Propinsi KALTIM, 1992). However, for the Indonesian economy as a whole, the shift from raw or semi-proc­ essed rattan to value-added and finished rattan products has had a positive effect, both in export earnings and in employment created by the rattan-based industries that have developed on Java. From being supplier of about 90% of the world's raw rattan re­ quirements in the 1970s, with only US$ 15 million in export earnings in 1977, Indone­ sia has within a short time become an exporter of finished products.At the end of the eighties total value of export earnings already increased to US$ 200 million (US$ 400 million for Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand collectively). For the near future Indonesia, with 75-80% of world production, has targeted export earnings of about US$ 600 million (Dransfield & Manokaran, 1993). In this chapter data are presented on various aspects of local, regional, national and international trade and monetary value of different rattan species growing in the re­ search areas in East Kalimantan. This information is used to roughly estimate the po­ tential value of harvestable rattan in the research plots and to discuss its relevance for sustainable utilisation as well as for forest conservation.

6.2. Methods

In 1992, 1993 and 1994 several visits were paid to two major rattan traders in Samarinda: Naga Mas and Wulandari. Managers and foremen were interviewed and methods of processing observed. Interviews were conducted to obtain information on species pres-

129 Chapter 6 ently (or in former times) traded and their prices. Inquiries were made with respect to origin and destination of the rattan. Information on volumes traded was obtained from government agencies. Trade in various rattan species along the Kedang Pahu and was recorded during boat trips. Visits were paid to two villages renowned for both trading and cul­ tivating rattan. In June/July 1993 the village of Dilang Puti, in kecamatan Bentian Besar, which is predominantly inhabited by Bentian Dayak was visited. Research on socio-economic aspects of rattan trade in this village was carried out by Fried and Sar­ dj ono (Fried, 1992; Fried & Sardjono, 1992). In May 1994 a visit was paid to the vil­ lage Eheng, in kecamatan Barong Tongkok, predominantly inhabited by Benuaq Dayak. Recent prices and the local use of species were recorded. After discussions and inter­ views, trips were made to the secondary and logged-over forests in the vicinity. These trips were aimed to verify a consistent use of trade and vernacular names. Herbarium material of commercial species was collected and matched with authenticated speci­ mens. After identification of the herbarium specimens, information obtained from the traders and in the two villages could be combined to link the trade names to scientific names. Apart fromthe species actually traded in Samarinda, other species are classifiedas potentially commercial. A species was considered potentially commercial if it was locally used for high qualityI durable cordage or weaving. Canes of these species were presented to the traders for quality assessment. At the end of the research period, rattan canes of (potentially) commercial species were harvested in the Apo Kayan plots in 1994. This yielded information on mature canes that were harvestable and total 'volume' (in m) of standing stock. In addition average length of harvestable canes could be deduced. These results were later used to estimate the volume (in m) of rattan in the other research sites where harvesting of canes was not permitted. Large-diameter (> 18 mm) rattan species are traded per cane length. So data of the inventory for these species could be directly used to estimate the economic value. Small-diameter (< 18 mm) species, however, are traded by weight. Therefore cane length had to be correlated with weight. At the traders' storehouse sun-dried canes of two trade species (botet, pulut merah) were weighed and measured. In addition, canes of (potentially) commercial species were harvested in the Apo Kayan and Wanariset forest; whereby fresh weight and length were recorded. After drying for several days with hot air, the dry weight was measured. The results of these weight measurements were used to assess the economic value of the small-diameter rattan in the research plots. Information on export-trade in the period prior to independence is in Dutch guilders and after independence in US dollars. To make these values comparable, including a correction for inflation, all values were converted to US dollars at the I 994 exchange rate (for Dutch guilders). For this conversion the price index for the Netherlands from the Central Bure.au of Statistics (1995) was used. Whenever US dollars had to be con­ verted to Dutch guilders the average exchange rate for the given year was used.

Chapter 6 130 6.3. Results

6.3. l. Rattan, a single name for a versatile

The generally used commodity name 'rattan', as it occurs in trade-statistics, actually consists of a multitude of species, either traded as raw (semi-processed) canes or as manufactured products. The diameter of the canes ranges from 2 mm to more than 50 mm. The often quoted price for 'rattan' is therefore misleading and ignores the fact that each species has its own price. All steps in processing of rattan canes from drying and grading to the production of mats and fu rniture sets adds value to the initially green canes. A tenfold increase in price frompartially processed rattan to rattan furni­ ture for the export market is not unusual (Kiew, 1989).

Species-depending/intrinsic quality First of all it should be stressed that each species (or group of species) has its own specific qualities, based on parameters such as diameter, flexibility and strength. Col­ our, glossiness and smoothness of the cane surface after drying are important param­ eters. All these characteristics that are inherent to the species determine whether a species is suitable for a given application. Commercial applications are manyfold, ranging from the formerly renowned Malacca canes (walking sticks made of Calamus scipionum), basketry, and mats to framework and weaving for furniture sets (e.g., Calamus manan and C. caesius). Table 6.1 lists all (potentially) commercial rattan species fo und in the research sites with their vernacular as well as trade name. Trade names often refer to a mixture of botanical species that have similar proper­ ties and therefore can be traded as a single product. Rotan merah is a good example as it is the trade name formedium-sized canes of the genus Kortha/sia. Ve rnacular names forthese medium-sized Korthalsia species are more precise since the traditional appli­ cations are different and also leaves, leaf-sheaths and habitat of the species concerned differ. However, since the canes are similar and the commercial use is primarily for coarse strong baskets, no distinction is necessary for their marketability.

Po st-harvest handling and treatment Although each species has its unique qualities, the quality of canes of a given spe­ cies varies. The quality of green canes varies with diameter, length of the intemodes, age of the cane and defects. But also processing of the canes greatly influences the quality of the end product. Processing of rattan is basically similar in all regions but slight differences between countries are noticeable (Abdul Latif Mohmod, 1992). The following is an account of the preliminary processing as observed at two major traders in Samarinda. The drying process of all rattan irrespectively of diameter can cause problems, es­ pecially during the rainy season. If drying takes too long, canes are prone to attack by blue stain fungus, thereby depreciating quality and value. In order to enhance the col­ our and avoid (further) attack by cane borers, at some stage in the processing of the dry canes, all the rattan is fumigated with sulphur dioxide. In Samarinda further process­ ing of most rattan (for the export market via Java) is limited to cleaning, grading and sorting. For a limited number of species core and peel are produced.

131 Chapter 6 Ta ble 6.1. Scientific, vernacular and trade names of commercial (C) and potentially commer- cial (P) rattan species.

Scientificname Bentian Benuaq Kenyah Dayak Samarinda Dayak Dayak (Lepo Tukung) trade

Calamus caesius sokag sokag seka sega c fTabellatus pelus lintung pulut putih c javensis pelus pelus susu/ timai pulut putih c pelus mingay ma11a11 ngenau ngenau manau c marginatus si'it batu si'it sega batu c optimus boyukng selutup c omallls kesoleg tebungan jelayan c pa11da11os11111s kehes kehes kehes c rhytidomus kehes kehes kehes c scipio1111111 tuwu tuwu semambu c trac/1ycole11s jehab jehab jehab c Ceratolobus concolor pelus tulukn timai pulut merah c s11ba11g11/at11s inai pelus djengan/ pulut merah c pelus belang Daemonorops crinita jepung jepung jepung/ c pulut merah fissa kotok kotok bala mata kotok c Kortha/sia echinometra me'a me'a be'ang rotan merah c fe rox danan danan ain rotan merah c jTagellaris rotan merah c f11rtadoa11a lalun lalun botet c rigida rotan merah c rostrata lalun djengan botet c ? sp. pelus pegakn pulut putih c Calamus b/11111ei rotan air p co11valli11111 batu p go11osper11111s demenai p hispid11/11s lembulu p laeviga111s saput p pilosellus pakoe pakoe ilem kehes murah p pogo11oca11tl111s 1 semoleh membatong rotan murah p pogo11oca111h11s 2 p pogo11oca111/111s 3 semoleh timaitong rotan murah p pse11do-11lr1r p tomentosus jaoei rotan air p fimbriatus lulu p Dae111011orops sabut bioengan seringan rotan murah p Kortha/sia c/1eb sanam rotan merah p

In general, large-diameter canes (jelayan, manau, semambu) have to be cured with a hot oil mixture within 1 to 2 days of harvesting to prevent deterioration. One of the ma- jor problems in Samarinda at present is curing before deterioration sets in. This greatly depreciates the value of manau canes from the area. After curing the canes are cleaned to remove excess oil and dirt. This cleaning step is often disregarded in Samarinda. The canes are then placed upright against wooden frames in the open, or bundled and

Chapter 6 132 loosely tied at one end before being placed wigwam-fashionto dry in the open (Plate la). The drying process takes 2-3 weeks depending on the species and weather con­ ditions. After drying bends are straightened mechanically and the canes are sorted in size classes according to diameter. Part of the manau harvest is further processed lo­ cally. The canes are debarked and polished by machine to produce large-diameter core. Jehab, sega and selutup, small-diameter canes (at the premises of the two traders surveyed) are bought dry and are meticulously cleaned. After treatment with sulphur dioxide the canes are rubbed, nodes are scraped and they are sorted according to diam­ eter. Some of the canes are further processed. Sorted canes are split mechanically into peel of required specifications, and rough cores. Botet, kehes, pulut merah and pulut putih are small-diameter canes bought fresh or semi-dried. The canes are washed and sun-dried in small bundles on racks (Plate lb). After drying the canes are sorted according to quality (diameter, length, colour, stains) and new bundles are produced that, prior to shipment, are assembled in a big bundle.

6.3.2. Trade in Samarinda and beyond In the beginning of the 20th century only raw and semi-processed rattan and semambu canes were exported directly to overseas buyers. Semambu canes are mentioned sepa­ rately as these canes fetched the highest price, and were traded as a distinct commod­ ity. In 1926 a total 3,441 tons of raw and semi-processed canes worth an equivalent of US$ 3.6 million (index value for 1994) and 337 tons of semambu canes worth US$ 82,178 were shipped overseas (Nandika, 1938). Various big export companies were housed on the banks of the Mahakam river. In the 1980s 13 export-oriented companies were still active, but by the beginning of 1991 only two major companies remained (Fried & Sardjono, 1992). This reduction in number of major traders was the result of the export ban on semi-processed rattan effective in July 1988 (Keputusan Menteri Perdagangan No. 190/KP/VI/88). The present study focuses on these two remaining traders, who ship the bulk oftheir produce to Java (Surabaya). Only small amounts of decorticated manau and both core and peel of sega and jehab are occasionally sold to local furniture factories. Apart from these major traders, numerous small traders act as mediators/suppliers for the small-scale rattan industry producing for the local market. The species sold by these traders are primarily semambu (as a substitute for the more expensive manau), sega, jehab and kotok. The volumes traded by these small merchants do not appear in trade statistics, neither does the trade in rattan exported fromEast Kalimantan by truck to Banjarmasin. Only the rattan shipped to Java from the harbour of Samarinda ap­ pears in official statistics.

Different kinds of rattan traded Table 6.2 gives the trade names, vernacular names and scientificnames of the rattan species traded, at present or in former times. The large to medium-sized (diameter > 18 mm) species, jelayan, kotok, manau, and semambu, are sold by the cane. The cane length ranges from 300-375 cm and prices depend on length, diameter and defects. The two major traders prefer to buy the canes green/wet in order to control the curing of the canes.

133 Chapter 6 Table 6.2. Trade names (used in Samarinda), vernacular names (Bentian and Benuaq Dayak) and scientific names of the rattan species encountered in the middle Mahakam region.

Trade name Bentian I Benuaq name Scientific name

botet lalun Kortlralsia f11 rtadoa11a botet lalun dj engan Kortlralsia 1vstrata jehab jehab Ca/a11111s tracl1ycole11s jelayan kesoleg Cala11111s omat11s kehes kehes Cala11111s pandanos11111s kehes kehes Ca/a11111s rlrytidomus kotok kotok Daemonomps fissa man au ngenau Ca /a11111s manan pulut merah jepung Daemon01vps crinita pukut merah pelus djengan I inai Ceratolobus s11bang11/at11s pulut merah pelus tulukn Ceratolobrts concolor pulut putih pelus I pelus susu I pelus mingay Ca /a11111s javensis pulut putih pelus lintung Ca la11111s flabellatus rotan merah danan Kortlwlsia fe1vx rotan merah me'a Kortlralsia eclrinometra sega sokag Ca/amus caesi11s sega batu si'it I si'it batu Cala11111s 111argi11at11s selutup boyukng Ca/a11111s opti11111s semambu tuwu Cala11111s scipio1111m

The small-diameter (< 18 mm) rattans are sold by weight. They are bought either green/ wet or (semi-)dried. Sega, jehab and selutup are traded in lengths of 5-6 m. The other small-diameter species are in general traded in lengths of 3.5 m, although canes are often less than 3 m long.

Prices in 199311994 Table 6.3 lists the prices of the various rattan species which were paid by a major trader (Naga Mas) in Samarinda in 1993 and 1994. The prices refer to first quality dried small-diameter canes and green/wet large-diameter canes. The variation in price per species depends on defects, diameter and length of the canes. Prices for species that were not shipped to Surabaya (and therefore not bought) at the time of the study are not indicated. Rotan merah, omnipresent in small shops selling coarse basketry, was not bought by the major traders and therefore no price indication is given.

Table 6.3. Prices of rattan as paid in Samarinda, 1993-1994. In 1994 approximate exchange rate Rp. 2000 = US$ I. For scientific names, see Table 6. 1.

Large-diameter rattan (> I 8 mm), sold per cane Small-diameter rattan (< 18 mm), sold per kg Trade name Price in Rupiah Trade name Price in Rupiah jelayan 250-400 bot et 600-800 kotok 150-200 jehab 300-400 man au 200-900 kehes 400-500 semambu 250-500 pulut merah 3000 pulut putih 1500-1800 sega 600-800

Chapter 6 134 Besides the high value pulut putih and pulut merah, which still fetch high prices and were in great demand in 1993 and 1994, botet, a new small-diameter species has ac­ quired a considerable market share. This species is a good substitute for pulut merah in the production of (less refined) basketry forexport and only costs 20-25% of the price of pulut merah.

6.3.3. Origin of rattan traded in Samarinda

The villages along the Kedang Pahu and Lawa rivers upstream from the lakes on the Mahakam river were generally mentioned in Samarinda as major source areas of the rattan traded. At the time of the visit to Dilang Puti (1993) no rattan had been sold for more than a year, since prices were considered too low, and people were stockpiling their harvest of dried jehab and sega. The prices as given in Table 6.4 refer to former transactions.

Table 6.4. Vernacular names (Bentian Dayak), prices and traditional use for rattan species encountered in the vicinity of the village of Dilang Puti. For scientific names, see Table 6.1.

Bentian name Price in Traditional use Rupiah

Rattan sold per 3 m length ngenau* 500w young shoots edible, furniture tuwu* 500W furniture

Rattan sold per kg inai* 750w cordage jehab* soow keba, blanjet, tikar, lampit, cordage jepung* 1500 blanjet, cordage kehes 150 cordage lalun 300 keba, cordage pelus* 75ow cordage pelus lintung* 750w cordage sokag* keba, blanjet, tikar, lampit, cordage

Others (local use only) danan keba, lantai, cordage djuwag poor quality binding, young shoots edible kesoleg young shoots edible kotok lantai, lampit, frame of baskets, young shoots edible lulu cordage me'a keba, berangka, frame of baskets pakoe cordage si'it batu lantai, frame of baskets

* = species in cultivation; w = wet. blanjet, keba, berangka: various types of backpacks and carrying baskets. lantai: floor of a traditional longhouse consisting of rattan canes tied with rattan strips and with gaps between the canes. lampit: rattan mat consisting of lengths of split rattan invisibly strung together and edged with a woven binding of rattan peel. tikar: sleeping mat consisting of woven (dyed) split rattan.

135 Chapter 6 Various kinds of backpacks and carrying baskets were locally produced and occasion­ ally sold, in addition to finequality sleeping mats (tikar) made of woven strips of Cala­ mus caesius. Apart from the commercial aspects, the traditional use of species was also recorded. Not all of the 16 commercial rattan species encountered had a trade history in the village. A total of 8 species were planted. Calamus trachycoleus is planted on stream banks along the Lawa river that periodically flood. Calamus caesius is always planted on well-drained sites, mostly abandoned swiddens. Calamus manan and C. scipionum, both large-diameter species, are planted in secondary forestas support trees are essen­ tial for a good performance. Daemonorops crinita (Figure 6.1) is planted on swampy sites and along streams. Ceratolobus subangulatus (Figure 6.2), Calamus flabellatus (Figure 6.3), and C. javensis (Figure 6.4) are planted in logged-over forest, with the first mentioned on ridges in accordance with its ecological requirements (according to local people). In Eheng Calamus optimus, Ceratolobus concolor, Korthalsia rostrata and a new species of Korthalsia were added to the list of commercial species. However, Calamus ornatus(Figure 6.5) and C.flabellatus,species common in the vicinity of Dilang Puti, were not encountered. Benuaq Dayak make a distinction between (habitat related) morphotypes of Calamus javensis, a polymorphic species. The distinction is not only based on differencesin the leaflets but specificallyon differencesin diameter and flexi­ bility of the cane. In Eheng only Daemonorops crinita, Calamus caesius, C. optimus and C. trachycoleus are planted but in nearby villages C. manan was also planted.

6.3.4. Volume and monetary value of harvestable rattan in the research plots

Harvests in the Apo Kayan of rattan canes of (potential!y) commercial species yielded information on standing stock in the permanent plots. Also an average length of harvestable canes of various species could be calculated (Appendix 6.1). Average length of harvestable canes was used to estimate the total length of harvestable canes in the plots where harvesting was not permitted. The total length and number of harvestable canes in the research sites is given in Appendix 6.2. For small-diameter species that are traded by weight, the length data were converted to dry weight. Conversion factors for the various species are given in Appendix 6.3. The total volume of rattan in the research sites after weight conversion is given in Table 6.5. The economic value of rattan in the plots was calculated as a per hectare value (Table 6.6) by using Samarinda prices (Table 6.3). For the large-diameter Korthalsia species a conservative bottom price was used. In addition, a value of Rp. 300/kg was attributed to the potentially commercial species, e. g., Daemonorops sabut (Figure 6.6). Value of commercial species, as well as attributed value of potentially commercial species, is highest in the Apo Kayan, with a value of US$ 5-15 ha-I of commercial rattan and up to US$ 10 ha-1 of potentially commercial rattan. The ITCI logged-over plots and plot Matthijs have a comparable value of commercial species and attributed value of potentially commercial species at approximately 50% of the Apo Kayan value. Both value of commercial species and an attributed value of potentially commercial species in the primary ITCI plots are negligible.

Chapter 6 136 Figure 6.1. Daemonorops crinita Blume. a. Pa rtof sheathed stem with infructescence; b. mid­ portionof leaf; c. young inflorescence enclosed in bracts; d. leaf tip.

137 Chapter 6 Figure 6.2. Ceratolobtts subangulatus (Miq.) Becc. a. Partof sheathed stem with infructescence ; b. mid-portion of leaf; c. leaf ti p.

Chapter 6 138 b

Figure 6.3. Ca/amus jlabel/atus Becc. a. Part of sheathed stem; b. leaf tip; c. part of infructes­ cen ce.

139 Chapter 6 Figure 6.4. Cala11111s jave11sis Blume. a. Part of sheathed stem; b. leaf tip; c. part of infructes­ cence; d. old male inflorescence.

Ch apter 6 140 Figure 6.5. Calamus ornatus Blume. a. Par t of sheathed stem; b. mid-portion of leaf; c. part of inflorescence; d. leaf tip.

141 Chapter 6 Figure 6.6. Daemo11orops sabut Becc. a. Part of sheathed stem; b. mid-portion of leaf; c. part of infructescence ; d. part of inflorescence ; e. young inflorescence enclosed in bracts; f. leaf tip.

Chapter 6 142 Table 6.5. Total length and weight of harvestable rattan canes per hectare in the research sites, data of small-diameter canes converted to dry we ight using conversion fa ctors as given in Appendix 6.3.

Apo Kayan Apo Kayan ITCI ITCI Plot perm. plots line survey primary logged-over Mauhijs

Commercial species

Species traded per cane Ca/a11111s omatus 61 m 241 m scipio1111111 39m Kortlwlsia ec/1i110111etra ferox 94 m 16 m 21 m 181 m 279m ri gida

Species traded per kg Calamus caesirts 2.86 kg flabellattts 0.79kg 0.19kg 2.18 kg javensis 2.63 kg 2.87 kg 0.14kg 2.72 kg pa11da11os11111s* 0.06 kg 5.17 kg rltytido11111s* 0.42 kg 0.50 kg Ceratolobus co11color 0.09kg 0.10 kg Kortltalsia f11rtadoa11a 0.11 kg 0.08 kg Potentially commercial species

Species traded per kg Ca/a11111s b/11111ei ** 0.26 kg 6.46 kg 0.98 kg laevigatus 0.53 kg pilosel/11s 0.64 kg 31.25 kg 2.15 kg pogo11oca111/ws 1+2+3 0.82 kg 1.75 kg 0.12 kg 5.75 kg 3.15 kg 10111e111os11s 0.70 kg 9. 79kg Dae111011orops sab111 6.07 kg 27.22 kg 0.71 kg 6.68 kg 8.92 kg

Total weight 8.76 kg 70.01 kg 1.09kg 18.89kg 15.20 kg (potentially comm. species)

* =dry weight of Cala11111s pa11da11os11111s assumed to be 80 m/kg, C. rl tytidomus also traded as rotan kehes and therefore the same value as for C. pa11da11os11111s has been used.

** = Ca/a11111s b/11111ei dry weight assumed to be 30 m/kg because of similarity with C. 10111e111os11s.

In the Apo Kayan only two species are of high economic value; the large-diameter Ca­ lamus ornatus, and the small-diameter C.javensis. In the ITC! logged-over plots, de­ spite the large number and volume of small-diameter canes (Appendix 6.2), the large­ diameter Cala mus scipionum (only 3 canes/ha) accounts for 30-37 % of the economic value. Together with rotan merah (Korthalsia echinometra, K. ferox, K. rigida), the large-diameter canes account for 55-56% of the economic value. In general large-diameter species are of high economic value, despite the small numbers of harv.estable canes per hectare. In the Apo Kayan (plots and line-survey combined) they form 76-78% of the total value, in the ITCI logged-over plots the form 55-56% and even in plot Matthijs (with only the cheap rotan merah) it still is 30-34%.

143 Chapter 6 Table 6.6. Total economic value of rattan in the research sites expressed in Rp./ha. Information on volume based on Table 6.5; information on per unit value based on Table 6.3.

1994 approximate exchange rate Rp. 2000 = US$ 1.

Apo Kayan Apo Kayan ITCI ITC! Plot perm. plots line survey logged-over primary Matthijs

Commercial species

Species traded per cane Calamus ornallls 5078-6875 19792-25833 scipiommr 3233-5172 Kortlralsia echinometra* ferox* 1328 208 2586 265 3922 ri gida*

Species traded per kg Calamus caesius 1717-2290 flabella111s 284-341 1119-1343 3265-3918 javensis 3978-4725 4313-5175 207-248 4088-4906 parrda11osm11s 2069-2586 21-26 rlrytidomus 200-250 169-212 Ceratolobus conco/or 259 294 Korthalsia fimadoana 67-90 47-63

Total value 10384-12928 24313-31216 10622-13822 1575-1846 11616-13103

Potentially commercial species

Species traded per kg all species combined** 2700 21000 5700 300 4500

* = a value of Rp. 50 per cane has been used. ** = a value of Rp. 300/kg has been attributed to all potentially commercial species.

6.4. Discussion

The multitude of trade names in use for rattan in Samarinda (Table 6.2) initially caused great confusion. Some information on possible scientific names of the rattan species traded in Samarinda in the beginning of this century is given by Van Tuil (1929) and Nandika (1938) and proved to be fairly accurate though incomplete. The scientific names for the pulut species as given in Priasukmana ( 1989) turned out to be incorrect. Linking trade names to scientific names is essential before a comparison of the eco­ nomic potential of the rattan resource in the various research areas could be made. Information on production and trade of rattan is often contradictory if not highly unreliable. Export figures are sometimes higher than production figures; e.g., the rat­ tan production in East Kalimantan was reported to be 2655 tons in 1990 and 1549 tons in 1991, whereas the total export of rattan to other islands amounted to 5382 tons in 1991 according to the provincial statistical bureau (Kantor Statistik Propinsi Kaltim, 1992). Local trade is not included in governmentstatistics and official export figures are a gross underestimate. Therefore the actual value of the rattan trade is much higher than the officialfigures.

Chapter 6 144 6.4.1. Species in the export market

The number of rattan species entering the international market has varied over time but has never been restricted to just sega, jehab, manau and semambu, an impression one sometimes gets from recent (socio-)economic literature (Peluso, 1992; Weinstock, 1983). Already in the 1920s export ofjehab, kehes, sega, selutup, semambu, pulut merah and pulut putih is reported (N andika, 1938; Van Tuil, 1929) and many more species are important in the local market. Interesting to note is the absence of manau (Ca lamus manan) in these early publications. It was considered inferior to semambu. A number of species of local importance in the 1920s (e. g., Calamus marginatus, C. pilosellus) have at one time or another entered the world market, but are no longer traded since the export ban of 1988. The present research added nine more species to the list of species entering interna­ tional trade compared with those given in the PROSEA volume on Rattan (Dransfield& Manokaran, 1993) and is an example of the continued existing lack of information on such an important trade commodity. These species are of great economic importance in East Kalimantan and include both species that were not mentioned or species cited as being of local importance only: Cala mus flabellatus, C.javensis, C. pandanosmus, C. rhytidomus, Ceratolobus concolo1; C. subangulatus, Daemonoivps crinita, D. fissa and Korthalsiafurtadoana (Figure 6.7). The importance of rattan as a trade commodity has to be viewed both on local, regional as well as on international level. Rattan not only provides cash income to the collectors but also provides jobs to people both in remote areas and urban centres. People are involved in transportation and trade and also in the production of handicrafts and furniture for the export market.

6.4.2. Importance for the local economy

The local use of rattan especially in remote areas is of great importance and definitely has a high replacement value which, however, was not studied in detail. The many uses in various societies has extensively been described by Ave (1988), Dransfield (1976, 1992c) and Sirait (1992). Furthermore, for many people in remote areas rattan collecting is the sole option for obtaining cash income (Conelly, 1985; Siebert & Belsky, 1985). But in less remote areas it has to compete with alternative ways of making a living that sometimes are regarded as 'less primitive' or simply (temporarily) more profitable (Kiew & Hood, 1991). Density of the commercial rattan stand is not the key factor for profitability but the return on effort expended is. As long as the daily income from rattan collecting is higher than the agricultural wage in a region (or other alternative ways of making a living) people will collect rattan (Conelly, 1985; Siebert 1991). An example of com­ peting labour allocation in East Kalimantan was the shift from rattan collecting to the collection of 'kulit kayu gembon' (tree bark of an as yet unidentified tree that grows in periodically flooded forest) in 1993 and 1994 due to the high prices paid for this commodity (pers. observ.).

145 Chapter 6 Figure 6.7. Kortha/sia f11Hadoa11a J. Dransfield. a. Part of sheathed stem with leaf; b. part of sheathed stem with infructescence.

Chapter 6 146 6.4.3. Importance forthe national economy

At the level of the national economy rattan is still gaining importance. The value of rattan export has been increasing steadily. In 1936 it already amounted to 42.7 thou­ sand tons with a value equivalent to US$ 19.9 million (Nandika, 1938). In 1971 the 32.15 thousand tons represented a value equivalent to US$ 11.7 million and consisted entirely of raw rattan. By 1987 finished products were exported and raw rattan, al­ though accounting for 91 % of export volume (total: 143.4 thousand tons), only ac­ counted for 72% of export value (total: US$ 251.6 million) (Biro Pusat Statistik, cited in De Beer & McDermott, 1989).

6.4.4. Importance for employment in Indonesia

Although rattan is a minor forest product when viewing export earnings, it rivals the forest industry when it comes to employment. At the end of the seventies, when the lo­ cal rattan furniture industry just started to develop, already 70 to 100 thousand people were employed in rattan industries, not including collectors (Yudodibroto, 1980, cited in De Beer & McDermott, 1989) and the government was aiming at a workforce of more than 160 thousand for the nineties (NAED, 1988, cited in De Beer & McDermott, 1989). If organisation of the rattan trade in Indonesia is assumed to be similar to that in Malaysia, the number of collectors will be many times this number. In Malaysia by the end of the eighties 15,000 collectors were involved in a rattan industry which employed 3,000 people (Kiew & Hood, 1991). This would imply that in Indonesia up to 800 thousand people are involved in rattan collecting. Thus, the employment of almost 1 million Indonesians depends on the rattan resource. For comparison, the In­ donesian forest industry (which accounted in 1993 for US$ 6 billion in export earn­ ings), employs 2.5 million people and 1.2 million people work in forestry-related in­ dustries (Djamaludin, 1995).

6.4.5. Maintaining forests for the rattan supply

In view of this importance for both export earnings and employment, it is of paramount importance to safeguard the future supply of rattan forthe Indonesian economy. The plans of the Indonesian government to further develop the rattan industry will even result in a rise of future demand. This supply can only be guaranteed by increasing the area of permanent forest estate and boosting the planting of rattan. Present development in East Kalimantan only leads to a reduction in future supply. The area of permanent forest land decreases and the present low prices for rattan dis­ courage planting of rattan at village level. Although planting rattan has proved to be a good alternative to growing rice or other cash crops, either as permanent rattan gardens (Dransfield, 1988; Godoy, 1990) or integrated in the swidden cycle (Priasukmana & Amblani, 1988; Weinstock, 1983), only 10% of the rattan production in East Kalimantan originates from planted rattan (Priasukmana, 1989). This means that rattan collection from wild resources is still of great importance in East Kalimantan. As a result of large-scale development of indus-

147 Chapter 6 trial plantations for both agricultural produce and pulpwood, the area of permanent forest land in East Kalimantan will be reduced considerably, thereby threatening the future supply of rattan.

6.4.6. Possibilities fordevelopment

Development of rattan production as part of an integrated forest management plan and land use programme that pays more attention to ecological sustainability might safe­ guard or even boost production on the remaining forest land. Planting of rattan should be promoted both in the vast areas of logged-over forest that are managed by the log­ ging companies, as well as at the village level. Planting of (clustering) large-diameter rattan in canopy gaps in logged-over forest, in combination with an improved (less damaging) extraction of timber, may be feasi­ ble. The present study revealed that the economic value of a small number of large­ diameter canes (e. g., jelayan, semambu) equals large volumes of small-diameter canes (e.g., sega). The light requirement for manau (Calamus manan) are reported to be 50% RLI (Relative Light Intensity) (Mori, 1980) a situation similar to canopy gaps. A higher survival and growth of large diameter species as manau and semambu in forest with a partially opened canopy was observed in various planting trials (Ami­ nuddin Mohamad, 1985; Manokaran, 1980, 1983, 1985; Mori, 1980; Nainggolan, 1985). Projections for manau and jelayan yield in plantations are based on a firstharvest after 15 years with a preferred minimum length of30 m (Aminuddin Mohamad et al. , 1992). In a 35-year rotation cycle, the present Indonesian silvicultural management system, large-diameter rattan should be able to reach a harvestable size of good quality. Logis­ tics for timber and rattan harvesting, replanting and maintenance could be combined, thereby reducing costs. The tall trees that remain after selective logging form the sup­ port preventing the large heavy canes from curling on the forest floor thereby decreas­ ing in quality and value. A limited number of large-diameter rattan plants will be less impeding maintenance activities (both for timber and rattan production) than a larger number of profusely clustering small-diameter species. Although some information on light requirement and performance of seedlings of manau and semambu is available so as to judge the possible success of plantings, no information is yet available on actual yield of plantations. More information on the performance after harvesting of the clustering species semambu and jelayan (see Chap­ ter 5) is required. The great advantage of these species is that in contrast to manau no replanting after harvesting is required. Planting of rattan under some shade along for­ est roads should also be considered. Especially in view of the reduced costs of estab­ lishment, maintenance and harvesting (Nur Supardi Md. Noor &Aminuddin Mohamad, 1992). The use of small-diameter rattan in agro-forestry systems,a technique that to some extent already is practised in East Kalimantan, has proven to be ecologically sound (Weinstock, 1983) and economically competitive (Priasukmana, 1989). Planting has mostly been restricted to sega and jehab. The planting of pulut merah and pulut putih should be stimulated in view of the consistently high demand and prices. Canes can

Chapter 6 148 already be harvested 10 years after planting and subsequently at 2-year intervals (Pria­ sukmana, 1989). The shorter period beforethe firstharvest, as compared with the large­ diameter species, is an advantage as long-term investments are in general disliked by individual farmers. Whether the rattan should be managed as a 'monoculture' permanent garden, inter­ cropped in a rotation scheme, or in mixed plantations with fruit trees (Weidelt, 1988) needs further study, and will also depend on the local (socio-)economic situation.

6.4.7. Effects of the 1988 export ban

At first glance the export ban of 1988 appears to have positive effects on the Indone­ sian economy, export value has risen and employment has increased. However, the effectson the local economy in remote areas are clearly negative (Van Valkenburg & Ketner, 1994) and also at national level the lost income and subsidies paid to the rattan industry alter the picture.

East Kalimantan Price fluctuations are inherent in the rattan trade. By the time world demand for rat­ tan recovered after the recession in the 1930s, the price had dropped from an equiva­ lent of US$ 1,053 per ton (index for 1994) to US$ 416 per ton (N andika, 1938). How­ ever, pre-ban and post-ban profitability of rattan harvesting/trade are clearly different. In the second half of the 1980s, when an all time high in rattan prices (and demand) was reached, rattan was harvested upstream from the rapids on the Mahakam river and even helicopters were used for transportation in otherwise inaccessible areas. After the ban production dropped, prices dwindled and the number of species traded was reduced (managers of Naga Mas and Wulandari, pers. comm.). In Central Kaliman­ tan a pre-ban farmgate price for green jehab canes of Rp. 600 kg-1 dropped to Rp. 150 kg-1 in 1990 (Godoy & Tan, 1991). A similar effectwas observed in Penin­ sular Malaysia after the 1989 export ban (Kiew & Hood, 1991).

National economy Since the ban of 1988 all rattan export from Indonesia has to be in the form of fin­ ished products. The processing of finished products certainly results in value-added products that increase the export value per metric ton (1987 price raw rattan: US$ 1,055/ton; finished products: US$ 2,480-5,420/ton). The ban further resulted in in­ creased employment in the furniture factories that were developed on Java. But there are also adverse effects as Godoy (1990) states that downstream processing is finan­ cially costly to the nation. Although total export value increases, income from royal­ ties is lost and subsidies paid to local industries might accrue to a net negative result, a situation similar to the promotion of production versus log exports (Gillis, 1992). In order to increase their world market share in rattan furniture, Indonesia has been below production costs (Wakker, 1991). The present overall financial effect of the export ban may therefore be negative. However, it should be considered a long-term investment in an industry that has poten­ tial to become ecologically sustainable.

149 Chapter 6 6.4.8. Rattan harvesting in natural forest

The importance of the permanent forest reserve as a source of rattan is clear from the preceding paragraphs. Possibilities of rattan harvesting in natural forest will now be discussed. The figures as presented in Table 6.6 give a conservative estimate of the value of standing stock. Aspects of transportation and harvesting costs have not been taken into account and therefore this should not be considered as a feasibility study. Furthermore value of standing stock differs from yearly income of sustainable harvest, and growth rate of the various species will differ considerably. The volume and value of standing stock as found in the present study at US$ 5-15 (-25) ha-1 and also the higher volume and value for both Calam us wllingeri i in Sulawesi and C. exilis in Sumatra (US$ 15 ha-1) indicate that vast areas of forest land will be required for each rattan collector to earn his living. With respect to the difference between value of standing stock and annual income at sustainable harvest level, Siebert (1993) assumes an annual income of US$ 5 ha-I based on a harvesting cycle of three years for the clustering small-diameter Ca lam us exilis. Unfortunately he gives no value for standing stock nor annual income for the large-diameter C. wllingeri. If a conser­ vative estimate of low quality C. ornatus at Rp. 250/cane is used, the 2660 m ha-1 represent a value for standing stock of Rp. 190,000 ha-1 or US$ 95. However, the length of the harvesting cycle required for this clustering large-diameter species is not known, but a 15-20-year cycle (assuming similarity with other clustering large­ diameter species, Aminuddin Mohamad et al., 1992) would yield an annual income of US$ 5-7 ha-1• So to earn a living (minimum yearly income of US$ 720) solely based on rattan collecting an area of 144 ha will be required. However, rattan collecting is normally a part-time occupation so this area could well be reduced. It needs to be emphasized that, although rattan harvesting is marginal as an exclu­ sive land use option, the importance of rattan both foremployment and for the national economy should be taken into account.

Chapter 6 150 APPENDIX 6.1. Yield of commercial and po tentially commercial rattan in the Apo Kayan.

Species Number of Number of Total Average length Average length plants canes length (m) per plant (m) per cane (m)

Harvested clumps

Cala11111s javensis 31 114 901 29.I 7.9 C. orna111s 33 37 522 15.8 14.1 Daemonorops sab11t 32 92 921 28.8 10

Line survey

Calam us javensis 4 10 138 34.5 13.8 C. omat11s 4 4 115.5 28.9 28.9 C. pilosel/11s 31 98 930 30 9.5 C. pogo11oca111/111s I 2 3 34.5 17.3 11.5 C. to111e111os11s 3 5 94 31.3 18.8 Dae111011orops sab111 9 25 295.5 32.8 11.8 Kortha/sia echi110111etra 7.5 7.5 7.5

Apo Kayan permanent plots

Ca/a11111s javensis 8 23 168 21 7.3 C. laeviga/l/s 15 15 15 C. 111atta11e11sis I I 3 3 3 C. 11111rica111s 8 9 46 5.8 5. 1 C. oma/l/s 4 4 39 9.8 9.8 C. pilosel/11s 4 25.5 25.5 6.4 C. pogo11oca111/111s I 3 3 21 7 7 C. 10111e11tos11s I I 9 9 9 Daemonorops sab111 5 9 78 15.6 8.7 Kortha/sia feivx 2 60 60 30

151 Chapter 6 APPENDIX 6.2. Total number (a) and length in m (b) of harvestable canes per hectare of (po- tentially) commercial species in different areas in East Kalimantan.

Apo Kayan Apo Kayan ITCI ITCI Plot Perm. plots Line survey primary logged-over Ma tthijs � a b a b a b a b a b

Calamus b/umei 8 12 194 2 29 C. caesius II 103 C. flabella111s 7 68 2 16 22 198 C.jave11sis 36 263 21 287 2 14 33 273 C. laevigallls 2 23 C. omatus* 6 61 8 241 C. pa11da11os11111s 5 59 468 C. pilosel/11s 6 40 204 1937 14 129 C. pogo11oca11tl111s I 5 33 6 72 C. pogo11oca11t/111s 2 14 126 C. pogo11oca111/111s 3 5 25 230 C. rl1ytido11111s 4 36 4 36 C. scipio1111111* 3 39 C. 10111e11tos11s 2 14 10 196 Ceratolobus co11color 2 7 2 8 Dae11101101vps sabut 14 122 52 616 2 17 15 151 20 202 Korthalsia echi110111etra* 2 16 2 13 22 162 14 103 K.ferox* 3 94 I 6 K.f11rtadoa11a 3 10 2 8 K. rigida* 8 2 13 24 176

*: Large-diameter species. For Cala11111s scipio1111111 the value of C. oma111s is used (both large-diameter clustering species); for large-diameter Korthalsia species a conservative length of 7.5 m is used; for small-diameter species not present or harvestable in the Apo Kayan plots the weighed average of 9.2 m/cane is used; for Korthalsiaf11rtadoa11a and Ceratolobus co11color an average lenght of 4 m/cane is used.

Chapter 6 152 APPENDIX 6.3. Cane length (m) per 1 kilogram of rattan. Only species present in the re- search plots are given. For details see Methods 6.2.

Trade name Fresh Dry

bot et • 88.7 Korthalsia f11rtadoa11a 67 kehes Cala11111s pa11danos11111s 36 kehes murah Calamus pilosellus 23 62 pulut merah • 175 Ceratolobus concolor 54 87.5 pulut puti h Cala11111s flabellat11s 40 91 Calamus javensis 57 100 rotan air Calamus blumei 16 Calamus tomentosus 11 20 rotan murah Cala11111s pogo11oca11th11s 3* 16 40 (only strips) Cala11111s pogonocamhus I* 16 40 Daemonorops sab11t* 13.6 22.6 sega# Calamus caesius 36 sega (core!) Calamus laevigatlls 22 44

• : Dry canes of which the botanical identity could not be verified,since the canes are traded as a mixture of species * : Delivered as strips and core discarded. # : Based on data cited in Tan & Woon ( 1992).

153 Chapter 6 \ I \ 7. POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF NTFP EXTRACTION

7.1. Introduction

At present many consider the extraction of NTFP as economically competitive with timber extraction if all costs and benefits are taken into account. Furthermore it is assumed to be an ecologically sound land use system that preserves biodiversity. And finally it would benefit local populations in remote areas (see, e.g. , De Beer & Mc­ Dermott, 1989). In this chapter the validity of these assumptions will be discussed. An overview of traditional and present use of tropical rain forest by both indigenous people and recent settlers is given in Denslow & Padoch (1988), and various symposia have been devoted to the possibilities and constraints of NTFP development (e.g., Counsell & Rice, 1992; Plotkin & Famolare, 1992; Wegge, 1993). Various methods of valuation for the differentuses of tropical rain forest have been employed. A summary with comments on these methods is given by Godoy & Bawa (1993) and Godoy et al. (1993). The most commonly used are Gross Revenue (the value of the harvest irrespective of costs involved and rotation time), Net Annual Rev­ enue (gross revenue minus costs and considering rotation cycle) and Net Present Value that includes the value of expected future harvests. The article by Peters et al. (1989) on the valuation of an Amazonian rain forest, revealing the higher economic return of NTFPs as compared with timber extraction, has put the issue of NTFP extraction in the focus of policy makers and researchers worldwide. The economic, ecological, and social benefits, that were assumed to be inherent to NTFP extraction, have gradually been moderated (e. g. , Peters, l 990b). The economic value is highly site related and usually considerably lower than the value found by Peters et al. in 1989 (Godoy et al. , 1993; Gunatilleke et al., 1993); the eco­ logical impact can endanger sustainability (e.g., Endert, 1927; Hall & Bawa, 1993; Nepstad et al., 1992; Peluso, 1983); and the benefits to rural populations are not un­ equivocally positive (e.g., Browder, 1992; Padoch & De Jong, 1990; Peluso, 1992; Weinstock, 1983). Based on the results as given in Chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6, in the present chapter the (potential of) NTFP extraction in East Kalimantan is put in a broader perspective. Tentative land use options for ecologically sustainable NTFP extraction/production within a social context will also be discussed.

7 .2. Ecological, economic and social aspects of NTFP extraction

The importance of NTFP extraction in East Kalimantan as reported in Chapters 3, 4, and 6 can be summarized as follows: Most of the NTFPs have local subsistence value, either for food, construction pur­ poses, or household utensils. This applies especially to remote areas but also to some extent to more accessible areas.

155 Chapter 7 Rattan is ecomomically by far the most important NTFP for the province and is traded on the internationalmarket. Fruits, although of great economic value, are mainly sold in local markets. The non sustainable extraction of gaharu wood (Aquilaria spp.) is of major economic importance in some areas (see Chapter 3). Limited damar extrac­ tion (resin from Dipterocarpaceae and Agathis) is reported for upstream Mahakam areas (Limbang, pers. comm.) and can be traced in export statistics for the province (Kantor Statistik Propinsi KALTIM, 1992). This also applies to the production of illipe nuts (Shorea spp.) originating fromthe middle Mahakam area, although its importance has decreased in recent times (Sinnema, pers. comm.; Kantor Statistik Propinsi KALTIM, 1992). The production of gutta-percha (exudate from Sapotaceae) is at present of very local importance only (see Chapter 3). Trade in medicinal plants that might have a considerable potential (Dixon et al., 1992; Leaman et al., 1991) was hardly observed and is apparently of marginal importance in East Kalimantan (see Chapter 3).

7 .2.1. Ecological aspects

The forests of East Kalimantan harbour a great diversity of plant species and are very heterogeneous with respect to species composition and abundance of tree species in general, rattan species and other NTFPs (see Chapters 2, 3, and 5). This heterogeneity is the cause that possibilities for development differ between regions. Consulting tra­ ditional inhabitants familiar with the possibilities of their surroundings is essential to avoid unnecessary mistakes in land use planning (see e.g. Pierce-Colfer et al. , 1992; Vayda et al. , 1980). The immense species richness of the tropical rain forest may contain a wealth of (potentially) economically important plants, yet at the same time this species richness limits the potential of extraction due to the generally low density of individual species (e. g., Daly, 1992; Gentry, 1992; LaFrankie, 1994). The economic potential for oligar­ chic forests, with less species, may therefore be in general higher (Peters, 1992; Peters & Hammond, 1990).

7.2.2. Economic aspects

Despite ecological constraints NTFP extraction can be economically the most com­ petitive land use as was demonstrated for Peru by Peters et al. ( 1989). Also in Ecuador the Net Present Value (NPV) of NTFP extraction was much higher (US$ 1257-2539) than the NPV for timber extraction (US$ 180) or agriculture (US$ 500), with a Net Annual Value of US$ 63-136/ha (Grimes et al., 1994). However, in general, present­ day economic considerations cannot validate preserving forests according to Fearnside (1989), Lawrence et al. (1995) and Siebert (1991). Manipulation of the forest results in considerably higher yields. This management can be limited to selectively promoting favoureduseful plants within the primary for­ est (Anderson, L 990; Peters, l 990a) or planting rattan in logged-over forest (pers. ob­ serv.). A more intensive management is enrichment planting in the fallow vegetation, resulting in rattan, rubber, or fruit gardens. All these management systems have in common that they preserve the biotic and physical aspects of the forest environment,

Chapter 7 156 with a high species diversity and with trees as a major structural component (Alcorn, 1984; De Foresta & Michon, 1994; De Jong, 1993; Lawrence et al., 1995; Padoch & Peters, 1993; Sardjono, 1990; Torquebiau, 1984; Weidelt, 1988). The integration of cash crops in the swidden cycle, or as a simultaneous activity of shifting cultivators, whereby the enriched fallow is maintained as such, has been reported for Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Sumatra as early as the beginning of the 19th century (Donner, 1987; Dove, 1993; Godoy, 1990; Weinstock, 1983). NTFP extraction from natural forest is an economically feasible land use option if the real environmental costs of development, e. g., soil erosion and Joss of watershed protection, would be included (Gillis, 1992). Economic valuation is often obscured by (indirect) subsidies and import taxes, such as in Indonesia for the timber industry (Gillis, 1988, 1992), and in Brazil for rubber prices (Fearnside, 1989). The same political in­ struments of subsidies and import/export taxes may well be used to strategically pre­ serve natural forests.

7.2.3. Social aspects

Social aspects were not within the scope of research, yet some observations are worth mentioning. Use and management of an NTFP may vary considerably between differ­ ent ethnic groups. Whereas planting rattan in old swidden fields is common practice among Bentian and Benuaq Dayak in the middle Mahakam area, nothing is planted by the Kenyah in the Apo Kayan (see Chapter 6). This, however, may be influenced by possibilities to market surplus amounts. With respect to selection of fruit species and management of home gardens also clear differencesbetween ethnic groups can be ob­ served (see Chapter 4; Van Valkenburg, in press). Fluctuating prices influence the management of the NTFP resources and this has social implications. Rising prices of rattan resulted in an influx of 'outsiders' demand­ ing access to the rattan gardens in the middle Mahakam area (Weinstock, 1983). The high prices of gaharu resulted in an influx of 'outsiders' in the Apo Kayan, thereby threatening sustainability of the resource and depriving local inhabitants of future har­ vests (Anonymous, 1994b; see Chapter 4). The extraction ofNTFP is rarely a full-time occupation. It is only part of a multiple economic strategy of people in rural areas. It accounts for both subsistence needs and cash income (e. g. , Browder, 1992; Padoch, 1987; Pierce-Colfer et al., 1992). People respond to changing needs and possibilities and base their choices on past experiences and choose what they consider the most profitable option (Kartawinata & Vayda, 1984; Pierce-Colfer & Soedjito, 1988; Vayda et al., 1980). When prices for rubber decrease, the cultivated land area of a Brazilian rubber tapper family will increase (Browder, 1992). By contrast a boom in rubber prices in West Kalimantan does not necessarily result in a change of labour allocation from rice cultivation to rubber tap­ ping, as rice cultivation remains the main priority (Dove, 1993). A harvest failure or increased consumption needs, however, will result in an increase in . In Pasir, East Kalimantan, the time devoted to rice cultivation, rattan gardens and coffee was influenced by the remaining stock of rice and prices for rattan and coffee (Mayer, 1989).

157 Chapter 7 Furthermore, as the economic welfare of people rises, the importance of NTFP extraction in providing a cash income in general decreases (Godoy & Bawa, 1993; Siebert & Belsky, 1985). Using NTFP extraction as an instrument to improve the eco­ nomic welfare of rural people may even be counterproductive for NTFP extraction as such in the long term.

The above mentioned aspects illustrate that any development ofNTFP extraction needs to be evaluated on environmental as well as social and economic aspects. The choice for a given land use will depend on the local situation.

7.3. Present land use in Kalimantan: some examples

The economic value of NTFP extraction has to be compared with other land use sys­ tems in order to judge its economic potential. Land use systems requiring a high exter­ nal input, e.g. , large corporate cocoa, coconut, oil palm and rubber plantations, and intensive agricultural systems (pepper plantations), are excluded from this analysis. In many cases only the Gross Revenue could be calculated because costs of labour, planting materials, and fertilizer were not known. Various methods are used to calculate the Net Present Va lue (NPV) of a given land use and all have their limitations. Especially calculation of the NPV of NTFP extrac­ tion with multiple harvests at irregular intervals poses problems. A formula based on a summation of annual returns and costs has to be used.1 In this formula R is the gross revenue, C stands for the total costs, t is the time in years, and r is the real discount rate, a factor influenced by the interest rate (see e. g., Filius, 1992). Another formula used in some of the often cited articles on valuation of tropical rain forest is NPV = Net Value/(1-e-rt), whereby Net Value stands for gross revenue minus total costs, r is the real discount rate, a factor influenced by interest rate, and t is the rota­ tion length in years (e. g. , Grimes et al. , 1994; Peters et al., 1989). This method can be used for land use systems with a single harvest at the end of the rotation and the for­ mula equals NPV = NAV I r for land use systems with constant annual returns. How­ ever, the rotation cycle of the various land use systems differs. To compare these sys­ tems the NPV is multiplied by a Capital Recovery Factor, that is related to the length of the rotation cycle (Gittinger, 1973). This results in a Net Annual Income value. The direct costs and benefits related to the harvesting can be quantified. However, environmental costs resulting from a certain land use are more difficult to quantify. What are the cost of a loss in water retention capacity, soil erosion, decline in down­ stream fish populations and a loss in subsistence products formerly collected from natural forests? These long-term environmental costs are probably much higher than the present-day financial gain. The logging practices in East Kalimantan changed the forest structure in large areas and made these forests more susceptible to fire (Schindele, 1989). The devastating fires in 1982/ 1983 seriously affected the livelihood of the

end 1 I) NPV = L (R - C)1 ( --1 ) (R: revenue; C: costs; r: real discount rate; t: year of rotation). t=o I +r

Chapter 7 158 people, its impact on the environment was immense, and the total costs to the national economy amounted to US$ 9,075 billion (Schindele, 1989). In 1991 (and 1994) again serious fires raged in extensive areas of East Kalimantan that had been affected by the 1982/ 1983 fires. The economic aspects of present land use systems are summarized in Table 7.1.

Rattan (Calamus trachycoleus) Periodically flooded riverbanks in the middle Mahakam area are often planted with Calamus trachyco/eus (see Chapter 6). This is also the case in some areas of . These rattan plantations generated an average Net Annual Income of US$ 224/ha in 1987, at a real discount rate of 10% (Godoy, 1990; Godoy & Tan, 1991). This is still the most competitive land use option per unit of area and unit of labour, despite a drop in farm gate price of 30-75 % after the export ban in 19881 1989. The plantations are apparently ecologically sustainable, forest cover is maintained and the species is indigenous in the area.

Rattan plantation (various small-diameter species) Under the assumption of a 30-year rotation and a firstharvest after JO years, small­ diameter rattan plantations in East Kaliman tan generated a Net Annual Income of US$ 7-1 5/ha, at a real discount rate of 10% (adapted from Priasukmana, 1989). Appar­ ently the land use is economically competitive and the ecological impact comparable with dryland rice farming. If the gardens are managed as permanent rattan gardens the ecological aspects are more favourable because a permanent forest cover is maintained.

Rattan collecting from natural forest The value of standing stock in primary forest as found in the Apo Kayan (see Chap­ ter 6) would result at most in a Gross Revenue of US$ 5/ha/year. However, profit­ ability of rattan collection is not based on income per hectare but on the basis of return on effort spent. Therefore a comparison with the other land uses is flawed as not land but labour is the limiting factor. Ecologically this land use has a very limited impact as only a small part of biomass and species diversity is selectively removed and a perma­ nent forest cover is maintained.

Traditional forest/ home garden ('Lembo') dominated by fruit species Forest/home gardens show great variations in species composition. However, in general they consist of a great number of species, and trees are not even-aged. In the Barong Tongkok area one hectare of home garden gives a Net Annual Income of US$ 50-150 in saleable produce, at a real discount rate of 10% (adapted from Sardjo­ no, 1990). This value is based on a harvest during a major fruiting season when prices are low due to an 'overproduction' of fruit. Transportation and storage are limiting factors. The potential to improve the per hectare production value is considerable. Sardjono (1990) gives a production value, during a high production year with low prices, for a single durian (Durio zibethinus) and cempedak (Artocarpus integer) tree of US$ 11and US$ 9, respectively. Thus the per hectare production value is equalled by the production value of just 5 to 15 trees. This land use system with its relatively

159 Chapter 7 Q Table 7.1. Co mparison of the economic aspects of various land use systems wi th tr ees as a major structural component (values in US$; Env. costs = � environmental costs, i. e., loss of wa tershed protection, erosion; increasing fro m + to +++). � .... 'I Rotation NPV* @NPV @NPV Net annual Net annual Env. References and comments (years) (r = 5%) (r = 10%) income/ha income/ha costs r=5%# r= 10%#

Kalimantan Timber lst harvest 4250 819 160 (50) (17) +++ Lammens (in prep.) ITC! mixed dipterocarp forest, excluding overhead. Timber 2nd harvest 35 2116 408 80 (25) (8) +++ De Kock (unpublished). Multiple extraction forestry 460 44 42 (46) (46) + See Chapter 7.5, Primary forest Apo Kayan (extraction costs 30% ). Rattan plantation periodically flooded 500 224 ++ Godoy & Tan (1991 ). Rattan plantation Barong Tongkok 30 290-460 65-140 (19-30) (7-15) + Priasukmana ( 1989). Traditional home garden 500-1500 48143 45-35 (50-150) (50-149) + Sardjono ( 1990). Excluding establishment costs. Traditional mixed rubber garden 75-150** ++ Dove ( 1993). 0\ lllipe plantation 60 2373 480 (125) (48) + See Chapter 7.4, Establishment costs as in 0 Priasukmana ( 1989), harvesting costs 30%. Improved home garden 60 + See Chapter 7.5, Establishment costs twice as After 20 years 667-2077 241-1081 (54-167) (28-127) in Priasukmana (1989), harvesting costs 30%. Aft er 60 years 3159-3857 778-1473 (167-204) (78-148)

South America Ecuador timber 40 188 +++ Grimes er al. (1994). Ecuador NTFP 1257-2939 63-147 + Grimes er al. ( 1994). Peru timber 490 +++ Peters et al. ( 1989). Peru NTFP 6330 380 422 + Peters et al. ( 1989).

* For annual yielding systems: Net Present Value = Net Annual Value /r (r = real discount rate; for East Kalimantan r = 10%, for South America r = 5%). * For non-annual yielding systems: Net Present Value = Net Value I (t-e·rl) (for East Kalimantan r = 10%, for South America r = 5%; t = rotation time in years). @ NPV: for timber, revenue and costs forced to last year. # In parentheses: Net Annual Income = @NPV * CRF (Capital Recovery Factor). ** Gross annual income/hectare. end @ NPV = L (R - C)1 ( --1 )' (R: revenue: C: costs: r: real discount rate: t: year of rotation). t =O I+r high species diversity, as compared with other agricultural land use systems, and with trees of various ages as major structural component ecologically mimics a forest envi­ ronment and can be considered ecologically sound.

Timber in a 35-year rotation The Gross Revenue of a first felling (average 70 m3) in mixed dipterocarp forest in East Kalimantan, amounted to US$ 7667 per hectare (based on 100 ha; Lammens, in prep.). After discounting for exploration and extraction, the Net Value up to the grad­ ing yard amounts to US$ 4517 per hectare. General overhead and transport to the plymill is not yet deducted. This high value is rather misleading, as it results in a Net Annual Income of just US$ 17/h a, at a real discount rate of 10%. Damage to the residual stand is in general considerable due to both direct felling damage and extraction that often results in soil compaction on skidder tracks. The forest environment as such is maintained. The value of the second harvest could not be predicted because the value of the residual stand was not accessed, but according to De Kock (unpublished) it will be approximately 50% less if no further silvicultural treatment is carried out. This results in a Net Annual Income of US$ 8/ha (r = 10%). If one assumes an optimistic real discount rate of 5 % the Net Annual Income will be just US$ 25/ha.

Traditional mixed rubber plantation (Hevea brasiliensis) The density of rubber trees as well as the age of the trees greatly influence the pro­ ductivity of these plantations. Furthermore these gardens are in general only tapped several months of the year and only when prices are considered competitive. A com­ plicating factor for Borneo is the high incidence of rain, which makes tapping impos­ sible. Dove (1993) gives an average annual production of 150-350 kg/ha (dried sheet rubber) representing a Gross Annual Income of US$ 75-175/ha/year (based on 1987 I 1988 upstream Mahakam price, see Sardjono, 1990). Rubber tapping requires a high labour input and Hevea brasiliensis is an exotic species. The new rubber plantations that are established at present are subsidized by the government (see Sardjono, 1990) and are strict monocultures, requiring fertilizer for a good production of latex. There­ fore, although economically sound, the ecological impact is highly disruptive and the (permanent) labour requirement makes it less compatible with traditional Dayak life. At present the species is gaining importance as a timber, and selection is aimed at com­ bining latex and timber production or even specificallytimber production (Lim, 1995).

Apart from ecological constraints, possibilities and costs of transportation are key fac­ tors forthe economic feasibility of a certain land use system, similar to the situation in Sarawak and South America (Burgers, 1991; Padoch, 1992; Padoch et al., 1987). Due to the perishable nature of the product, mixed fruit gardens will be confined to areas at close proximity to the market. Whereas rattan gardens, though less profitableper unit of land, will be a viable option for more remote areas. Subsidies or favourable loans, however, are a decisive economic factor in the establishment of rubber gardens and pulp wood plantations (e. g., Paraserianthes fa lcataria).

161 Chapter 7 7.4. Illipe and other NTFPs with potential for development in East Kalimantan

The land use systems as found in East Kalimantan, in combination with the economic, ecological and social constraints resulted in an appraisal of the potential of various NTFPs. From an ecological point of view the use of indigenous species is to be pre­ ferred (see, e. g., Evans, 1982); therefore all exotic species are excluded from this dis­ cussion. Land use systems that mimic the natural forest with respect to structure and species diversity are judged most favourably (see, e.g., Lamprecht, 1989). Access to markets will be a decisive factor for the economic success of a certain NTFP for a given area. Rattan and illipe nuts are well known products which are already traded on the world market. The potential of indigenous fruits is at present limited to the province and the potential of exudates is only marginal. The advantages and limitations of these products are summarized in Table 7 .2. When market prices for fresh fruits and illipe nuts are too low, they can be used as food for pigs or other livestock, resulting in an indirect return in animal protein. Although no detailed research on illipe was done in the present study the prospects of illipe fat production appear promising (see Chapter 3). At present Indonesia or, more precisely, the provinces of Kalimantan account for 50% of the world produc­ tion. lllipe nuts are collected fr om both wild stands and planted trees (Blicher-Mathiesen, 1994; Chin, 1985; Seibert, 1990; Tantra, 1977). The economic importance of the illipe harvest for rural communities can be considerable as was shown by Chin ( 1985) for Sarawak and by Momberg ( 1992) for West Kalimantan. In Sarawak the amount earned from the illipe crop in 1980 ranged from US$ 600 to 2700 per household in a remote Kenyah village (Chin, 1985). The forest departments of both Malaysia and Indonesia have established plantations (Tan et al. , 1987; Tantra, 1977) to evaluate the potential of large-scale or village-level plantations combining timber production and illipe fat.

Table 7 .2. Pote ntial for development of various Non-Timber Forest Pr oducts in Ea st Kaliman­

tan (++ = ve ry good; + = good; - = poor).

Ranan Fresh fruits lllipe Exudates (excl. Hevea)

World market ++ ++ Local market + ++ +/- Storage ++ + + Regular (annual) supply ++ +/- ++ Large plantations ++ ++ Small holder management ++ ++ ++ +/- Labour allocation ++ + + ++ Incorporation in swidden cycle ++ + Human/livestock consumption ++ ++

Chapter 7 162 The Indonesian illipe nut production is concentrated in the province of West Kalimantan, where its capital Pontianak also serves as export gateway for the East Kalimantan produce. As with many NTFPs (official) production figures and prices vary (see, e. g., Blicher-Mathiesen, 1994; De Beer & McDermot, 1989; Sardjono, 1990). An extrapolation of commercial prospects for species exploited in East Kalimantan, based on the results of already established plantations, appears promising, as is illus­ trated by the following example: Shorea pinanga and S. stenoptera start fl owering after six years (Lee, 1980; Suzuki & Gadrinab, 1988, 1989,all cited in Blicher-Mathie­ sen, 1994) and S. macrophylla after fifteen years (Manuntung, 1987, cited in Blicher­ Mathiesen, 1994). Despite irregular fruiting, a common feature in Shorea, a major crop can be expected every 3-4 years (Anderson, 1975). Production figures range from 19.2 kg/tree and 2280 kg/ha for 33-year-old Shorea pinanga, to 22.8 kg/tree and 1762 kg/ha for 37-year-old Shorea macrophylla (Anderson, 1975; Seibert, 1990). Both species occur in the middle Mahakam region and the ITCI concession area. A conservative estimate of diameter increment would be 1 cm/year. Growth per­ formance in plantations in Sarawak ranged from 1.22 cm/year for S. macrophylla to 0.80 cm/year for S. pinanga (Tan et al., 1987). If illipe species are considered to start fruiting at an age of 20 years, with a major crop every three years, yielding an average 20 kg/tree/crop, this would result in ad­ ditional income of 260 kg of illipe nuts per tree over a sixty-year felling cycle. Or if considering a stocking of approximately 100 trees/ha a total yield of 26,000 kg, which equals the weighted average of the per hectare values of the plantations (Anderson, 1975; Seibert, 1990). Future price levels and extraction costs cannot be predicted but in using a price of US$ 0.75/kg (Sardjono, 1990) the total value of illipe nut produc­ tion would amount to US$ 18,000. This represents a Net Annual Income of US$ 38/ ha, at a real discount rate of 10%. This is several times higher than the Net Annual Income from timber extraction (Table 7 .1). Predictions for timber in these plantations in Sarawak were also promising with a basal area stocking of 12-26 m2/ha after 40-50 years, which is several times higher than the amount taken out of primary forest during a commercial logging operation.

7 .5. Management options in East Kalimantan

The potential of the various NTFPs as mentioned in the previous paragraph can be translated in various land use options. These now will be presented with a gradually increasing level of management input and a reduction of species diversity. The envi­ ronmental costs are most favourable for (managed) nature reserves. All land use types have in common that trees are the major component of the system.

7.5.1. Nature reserves

The establishment and preservation of nature reserves in a strict sense (IUCN et al., 1991), excluding any human interference, will be of very limited geographical extent. For historical, social and practical reasons peoples' participation in park management

163 Chapter 7 is to be preferred. Traditional collecting of forest produce often has a long history and has in general not severely threatened the forest. Acknowledgement of (controlled) traditional harvesting rights of local people will strengthen or maintain their commit­ ment to preserve the resource for future use. And, finally,if local people no longer feel responsible for the forest, protected areas will have little future. As nature reserves cannot be considered as separate from the (subsistence) agricul­ tural practices of local people these should be included in an overall conservation and development plan. Leases or stewardship arrangements between rural communities and the government could serve as a tool. Clearly there must be a direct or indirect financial compensation to local communi­ ties for preserving forest areas that might otherwise be converted in a short-term, finan­ cially more profitable landuse. Intensification of the present land use may well be a solution to reduce the pressure on the remaining forest land (Browder, 1992; Lawrence et al., 1995). Involvement of the local community and strict enforcement of steward­ ship regulations is essential as otherwise it might simply increase the encroachment on the remaining forest (Aumeeruddy, 1994; Hafner& Ya owalak Apichatvullop, 1990). Besides traditional harvesting rights and tenurial security, reciprocal benefits for indi­ genous people should be considered (Alcorn, 1995; Boom, 1990; Elizabetsky, 1990; Joyce, 1994; King, 1992; Martin, 1995; May, 1991; Moran, 1992; Plotkin & Famolare, 1992). The economic and ecological aspects of extraction of various NTFPs from nature reserves will be discussed to conclude with a proposed combined extraction model.

Rattan The economic feasibility of rattan collecting depends on transportation costs. Har­ vesting rattan is ecologically sustainable as long as the vitality of clumps is not dam­ aged and the resource is given sufficient time to recover (see Chapters 5 and 6). This can be achieved by either collecting just a limited number of canes per clump (Kiew & Hood, 1991; Chapter 5) or by allowing the rattan population to recover after harvest­ ing for approximately ten years as practised in the Bahau area (see Chapter 6). The latter system, whereby a tributary is closed for ten years following a rattan harvest, is to be preferred. Control of the harvest is confinedto a clearly delimited area and distur­ bance of the forest is limited to once every ten years.

Fresh fruits Fresh fruit harvesting is only economically realistic for areas with markets at close proximity. Most forest-collected fr uits were only encountered in local markets or along roads with remnant tall forest nearby (see Chapter 4). Fruit species particularly suited from an economic and ecological perspective (less damaging harvest techniques) are those that take many years prior to firstfruiting (which in general discourages planting in home gardens or orchards), and which can be collected from the forestfloor. Exam­ ples are Durio oxleyanus, Mangife ra caesia, M. pajang and, in addition to these forest floor collected fruits, Parkia speciosa. Although collecting is not destructive, regular visits to the forest are more disruptive than the above mentioned rattan collecting.

Chap(er 7 164 Exudates Harvesting of exudates is rather disruptive as it involves frequent visits by collec­ tors to the forest. Harvesting of resin in East Kalimantan has to compete with better quality production at lower costs in Sumatra (De Foresta & Michon, 1994). New, less damaging techniques for extracting resin need to be developed, similar to techniques developed forDipteroc arpus kerrii in Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Ibrahim Bin Jan­ tan et al., 1987). The latter technique inflicts less damage to the tree than traditional techniques that are also used in Sumatra. The new technique could combine timber and resin production.

A combined sustainable extraction of the various NTFPs that at present have a market value in primary forest in the Apo Kayan would yield a Gross Annual Income of: rattan US$ 5 (Chapter 6) + fruits US$ 55 (Chapter4) + gutta-percha US$ 6 (Chapter 3) totalling US$ 66 I ha I year. If extraction costs are estimated at 30 %, then the Net Annual Income amounts to US$ 46 I ha (Table 7. I). This combined extraction can be considered equivalent of High Diversity Forestry as proposed by LaFrankie (1994). This multiple-product extraction scheme very much resembles the traditional hunter gatherer system with minimal manipulation of the forest. By combining harvests the search time for each product can be reduced, thereby avoiding the economic drawback of high diversity and low density of individual species. Whereas LaFrankie assumes a simultaneous extraction, in order to reduce the high costs of searching per tree, it is most unlikely that fruit and rattan collection are combined. The projected return de­ pends on species composition of the forest and distance fromnearby markets and will therefore vary considerably between areas (see also Chapters 2 and 3).

7.5.2. Integration of NTFP production in commercial forest estates

As producing timber is the primary goal of a commercial timber estate, NTFP produc­ tion should not interfere with timber production. Legal aspects of access to the estate is an important issue; control of people trespassing is essential. NTFP production might be achieved by using multi-purpose tree species or by combining timber species and NTFP yielding species. Using multi-purpose tree species for enrichment planting in the present TPI rotation of 35 years is probably most profitable if Shorea species yielding illipe fat are used (see section 7.4). The trees produce a good quality timber, and there is a well estab­ lished market for illipe fat. The harvesting of the nuts could either be done by the con­ cessionary or a subcontractor. A complicating factor is that officially a concessionary is not allowed to fell Shorea trees yielding illipe nuts, so he will be disinclined to plant these species if he cannot obtain a permit to fell the trees. Fruit harvests are expected once every 3-4 years, and fruits are collected from the forest floor, so disturbance of the forestis limited, and control of trespassing relatively easy. Combining the production of timber and resin or latex is complicated for two rea­ sons. Tapping of resin and latex competes with increment of the trees as it competes fornutrients and the trunk might be disfigured (Torqeubiau, 1984). Secondly, extrac-

165 Chapter 7 tion would necessitate permanent access by the tapper, thereby causing permanent disturbance and problems with enforcing trespassing regulations. Combining timber production with fruit production would limit the choice of fruit species as it precludes small and medium-sized species, and faces problems with both harvesting and marketing of fruits that are in general perishable. Control of trespassing is difficult. Enrichment planting with trees specifically for fruit production gives a wide variety of species to be used. However, problems with harvesting, marketing and control of trespassing remain. Mixing timber and large-diameter rattan in a 35-year rotation has several manage­ ment advantages (see section 6.4). Extraction of rattan should take place prior to tim­ ber harvesting, and the same infrastructure could be used. Harvesting is conducted in strictly defined periods, facilitating control. The quality of the canes should be good considering the rotation length and the abundance of support trees. Each cane can be expected to yield eight lengths of three metres, representing a value of Rp. 4000 (or US$ 2). The large-diameter canes are used for the framework of furniture and hence constitute the basis of the Indonesian rattan industry.

7.5.3. Integration of NTFP production in village or community forestry

At present logged-over forest areas with no commercial prospects for the concession holder are designated for conversion forest, either as plantation for pulp wood or for transmigration projects. These areas could be leased or handed over to local communi­ ties on the condition that forest cover is maintained. This would open prospects for enrichment planting with rattan, fruit trees, illipe species or other useful trees. This may well be designated as secondary high diversity forestry and the environmental advantages are obvious. Boosting rattan production (see section 6.4) is good for the national economy, espe­ cially for employment. The production of small-diameter rattan is to be preferred in view of the shorter timespan before the first harvest, after 7 to I 0 years (see Chapters 5 and 6). Enforcement of the regulations as well as creating markets for the produce is es­ sential for success. Management and sale of produce of these communal forests could be organized through the already widely established cooperation system in Indonesia. Land use systems incorporating NTFP are already well established in Kalimantan. As stated in previous paragraphs mixed fruit and illipe/tengkawang gardens have a long history in East and West Kalimantan (e. g., Momberg, 1992; Padoch & Peters, 1993; Sardjono, 1990; Seibert, 1990). Rattan gardens are well developed in areas of South and East Kalimantan (e. g. , Priasukmana, 1989; Van Tuil, 1929; Weidelt, 1988; Weinstock, 1983). However, there are possibilities for improvement of these existing systems as will be discussed below.

Op timizing NTFP production in a new agroforest1y system An agroforestry system could be created with a canopy of large (fruit) trees (100 ha-1) and a second layer of medium-sized, shade-tolerant fruit trees (100 ha-1). The core of 200 trees per hectare leaves ample space for additional plants.

Chapter 7 166 For the canopy a selection can be made of: illipe species (e. g., Shorea macrophylla, S. pinanga),Artocarpus integer, Durio zibethinus, various Mang ifera species and Parkia speciosa. Suitable shade-tolerant fruit trees are: Baccaurea spp., Dimoca1pus longan, Durio kutejensis, lansium domesticum and Nephelium lappaceum. The balance of species will vary according to market possibilities and ecological and social constraints. The shade-tolerant fruit trees start producing after five years. After ten years the 'canopy' trees will have overtopped the small fruit trees, and cempedak and durian trees start producing. Finally, after twenty years, a first illipe harvest can be expected. The Net Annual Income from just 200 core trees could range from US$ 28-127 after twenty years and US$ 78-148 after sixty years at present price level and a real discount rate of 10% (Table 7.1 ). After sixty years it can be decided to gradually fell the canopy trees for timber or maintain the trees for fruit production. The problem with this proposed man-made forest is of course whether people are willing to invest in such a long rotation system. The system reaches its highest pro­ duction at a time when the person who has planted the trees will probably have died.

7.5.4. Pitfalls

Promoting the extraction of a NTFP may result in overharvesting and a drop in prices. This poses a threat to the ecological and economic sustainability and has negative effects for the collectors as well. Diversificationto reduce the dependency on a limited number of NTFPs is the solution (e.g., Clay, 1992). This applies to the dependency on rubber and brazil nut in South America (e.g., Daly, 1990; Kainer & Duryea, 1992) and rattan in South-East Asia (e. g., Godoy & Tan, 1991). The proposed improved mixed fruit home garden (see previous paragraph) is an example of such a product diversifi­ cation strategy. A further emphasis on species with, at present, a good commercial value may pose a threat to other indigenous fruit species or varieties that will no longer be planted or replaced. The wealth of genetic diversity of indigenous fruit trees that up to now has been preserved in traditional Dayak home gardens (Bompard & Kostermans, 1992; Padoch & Peters, 1993; Seibert, 1989) is at stake. This will limit the future potential for crop resistance breeding, a problem acknowledged for cultivated plants and live­ stock worldwide (e.g., Fokkinga & Felius, 1995; Harlan, 1975; Hawkes, 1983; Zeven & Van Harten, 1979).

All possibilities and constraints for the development of NTFPs as mentioned in previ­ ous paragraphs depend on one simple issue of paramount importance: who owns the land or its produce? Without vested tenurial rights nothing can be developed. This is a vital issue in the development of sustainable NTFP extraction worldwide and will be briefly described for the situation in East Kalimantan.

Traditionally in Dayak societies ownership of plants does not have to coincide with ownership of the land (Chin, 1985; Weinstock & Vergara, 1987). This contrasts clearly with the western concept of land tenure, whereby ownership of plants cannot be alien-

167 Chapter 7 ated from land tenure rights. The present Indonesian law system therefore gives rise to conflicts in Borneo.Furthermore the forest management systems as practised by Dayak people are often deemed as being non existent since no agricultural crop has been planted. Formerly harvesting of NTFPs such as rattan, gaharu and damar was regulated by the village community (Chin, l 985;Jessup & Peluso, 1986; Weinstock & Vergara, 1987). At present, however, granting harvesting rights has more or less become a state affair, which complicates matters even more. Coordination between the various departments granting permits is often lacking and enforcement of the regulations is difficult due to understaffing (Peluso, 1992; Pierce-Colfer et al., 1992). Problems regarding harvesting regulations play an important role in the proposed combined timber and NTFP production in timber estates.

7 .6. Conclusions

If short-term economic gain at local level is a guideline for land use planning then the extraction of NTFPs from primary forestareas in East Kalimantan is not the economi­ cally most competitive land use (see Table 7 .1 ). This is one of the reasons that the ecologically highly disruptive pepper plantations are an economically tempting land use in areas with good market access (Kartawinata & Vayda, 1984; Vayda, 1988). If, however, watershed protection, erosion control, biodiversity conservation and other environmental services are given a financialvalue it is an economically viable option from a national and regional perspective but not for individual landowners or users.

The direct financialreturn of multiple extraction forestry at a Net Annual Income of up to US$ 46 /ha points to the economic feasibility of this land use and if environmental costs are taken into account it is simply the best long-term economic land use for Indonesia. As logging concessions have already been granted and vast areas consist of Jogged-over forest, the best possible land use for these areas should be contemplated. That is definitely not a conversion to plantation forests of fast growing tree species such as Pa raserianthes fa lcataria. An enormous loss of biodiversity will be the result and these plantations are virtually void of rattan, an NTFP of great importance for employment in Indonesia (see Chapter 6). Furthermore the sustainability of this land use is doubtful in view of the removal of large amounts of nutrients after each rotation and the susceptibility of monocultures to pests (see Lamprecht, 1989). Present-day mechanical logging is too destructive but can ecologically be improved without negative economic effects(e. g., Hendrison, 1990). These logged-over forests, preserved as permanent forest estate, could be used to boost the production of (large­ diameter) rattan and illipe (section 7.4; see also Chapter 6). The high labour imput required for harvesting and processing is especially important for employment in rural areas. Apart from these commercial forest estates, the potential for enrichment plant­ ing in disturbed habitats involving local populations appears promising. The tradi­ tional agroforestry systems could well be improved (see section 7.5) or even expanded by including impoverished logged-over areas.

Chapter 7 168 Finally a mosaic of NTFP producing land use systems should preferably evolve with fruit gardens in the vicinity of villages and in areas with good access to urban markets; rattan gardens further away and lastly the remnant (primary) forestthat, apart from commercial NTFPs, also provides many subsistence products. But also in the vicinity of urban centres the preservation of primary forest areas is essential as these forests serve as water catchment areas that guarantee a constant supply of clean drink­ ing water.

169 Chapter 7

References

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References 186 Acknowledgements

Without the help of many people and institutions this study would not have been pos­ sible, but unfortunatelyI cannot mention all here. However, the help of those not men­ tioned is equally greatly appreciated as that of those who are. First of all I want to express my gratitude to all who helped with my research in Indonesia, and especially to the consecutive heads of the Forestry Research Station in Samarinda, Dr. I. G. M. Tantra and Dr. Kosasi Kadir, for their hospitality and assist­ ance in many ways. The staffof the Wa nariset Research Station, especially the Herbarium, the former head of biodiversity and forest ecology Ir. Kade Sidiyasa, artist Priyono, assistants Ambriansyah and Arifin Zainal. Those who joined me in the field, Ir. Mamming Iriansyah, Mudjoko and Johannis. For sharing their knowledge and assistance: Edu Boer, Clara van Eijk-Bos, Anne de Fraiture, Peter Oldeman, Willie Smits, and Henk de Vos. For hospitality and friendship Chris Auricht, John and Dawn Chambers, Paul Galzin, Tim Jessup, Piet Sinnema. But most of all I should express here my gratitude to the people of the villages I visited, fortheir hospitality and for sharing their knowl­ edge. This gratitude extends especially to the people of the Apo Kayan, to Pak Pebaya Aing Apui of Long Ampung and in Long Sungai Barang, Pak Pelenjau Ala, Pak Pu­ bang and Pak Peluat who so often joined me in the field.It would have been impossible to endure the hardships of fieldwork without the caring and excellent meals of Ibu Muntamah, who always awaited me after my often delayed returns from fieldwork. I am much obliged to the staff and PhD students of the Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus for assistance in identification and stimulating discussions, especially Dr. M. M. J. van Balgooy. In Wageningen the department ofPlant is acknow 1- edged for hospitality and a tranquil place to work, and the staff of the PROSEA publi­ cation office forsharing knowledge and expertise, especially J.W. Hildebrand. The Tropenbos Foundation provided funds for the fieldwork in Indonesia, and I am much obliged to Mrs. Wanda Tammens for her assistance in many ways (since 1988). I am much obliged to Iris Kappers, Ingrid de Kort, David Postma and Jan Wieringa for assistance in processing the data (and statistical analysis). Librarians Kees de Groot, Kees Lut and Mrs. Elizabeth Waller-Wohlleben procured obscure or supposedly irretrievable literature. Joop Wessendorp made the technical drawings and Emma van Nieuwkoop took care of the lay-out of this book. Paul KeBler is acknowledged for a patient and understanding ear, assistance in fixing things that were not supposed to be fixable, in short, for backstopping in the Nether­ lands. Finally I want to thank my parents who once again had to endure my prolonged absence, but have always supported me throughout my life.And last but not least, my wife and companion Saskia, who had to cope not only with my physical but more often mental absence.

187

Samenvatting

Tropische regenbosgebieden mogen zich verheugen in een steeds grotere belangstelling van het publiek. Naarmate het areaal van deze bossen steeds verder slinkt, groeit ook de bezorgdheid om een dee! daarvan te bewaren voor toekomstige generaties. De ex­ ploitatie van zogeheten 'Non-Timber Forest Products' wordt we! gezien als de oplossing om natuurbehoud en economische belangen van met name de Iokale bevolking te verenigen. Deze studie heeft zich gericht op het economisch en ecologisch potentieel van een duurzame exploitatie van NTFPs in Oost Kalimantan, Indonesie. Het onder­ zoek was geconcentreerd in drie gebieden: het Wanariset onderzoeksstation en directe omgeving, gelegen in de kuststrook tussen Balikpapan en Samarinda; de P.T. ITCI concessie ten noordwesten van Balikpapan; en de omgeving van het dorp Long Sungai Barang in de Apo Kayan dichtbij de grens met Sarawak.

In Hoofdstuk 1 wordt een kort historisch overzicht gegeven van het economisch be­ lang van NTFPs in Zuidoost Azie. De aandacht voor deze producten is niet iets nieuws van deze tijd, want eeuwenlang was de handel in deze producten vele malen belangrijker dan de handel in hout. Er wordt een definitie gegeven wat nu precies onder NTFP verstaan wordt in de huidige studie en de doelstellingen van het onderzoek worden uiteengezet. In deze studie vallen onder de term NTFP producten anders dan hout af­ komstig van inheemse planten, die voornamelijk groeien in primair bos.

Doelstellingen van het onderzoek waren: - een inventarisatie maken van de economisch belangrijke NTFPs; een vergelijking maken van verspreiding en abundantie van NTFPs in de diverse gebieden; - het bestuderen van het effect van houtkap op soortsamenstelling en abundantie van NTFPs; het aanleveren van basisgegevens voor het opstellen van beheersrichtlijnen voor duurzame NTFP exploitatie.

Er wordt tenslotte een motivatie gegeven voor de keuze van de diverse onderzoeks­ gebieden. Een belangrijk criterium daarbij was dat zowel gebieden met ongestoord bos en een traditioneel landgebruik alsook gebieden met verschillende niveaus van verstoring en invloeden van commerciele exploitatie onderdeel moesten uitmaken van de studie. Dit vanuit de doelstelling om de effecten van exploitatie te bestuderen.

Hoofdstuk 2 geeft informatie over de onderzoeksgebieden en een detailbeschrijving van de onderzoeksplots. De floristische samenstelling van het bos in deze plots is vergeleken op soortensamenstelling va11 de bomen en abundantie van de individuele soorten, geslachten en families. Voor een kwantitatieve vergelijking is gebruik gemaakt van een zogeheten 'Importance Va lue Index' (I.V.-waarde), die afhankelijk is van het totaal aantal individuen van een taxon, het cumulatieve grondvlak van een taxon en de fr equentie waarmee het taxon voorkomt in het totaal aan subplots. De soortenrijkdom

189 aan bomen die aangetroffen is in de Apo Kayan plots is groter dan in enig ander eerder gepubliceerd onderzoek over Indonesie. Het bos wordt gedomineerd door de Dip­ temc01paceae familie, waartoe ook het geslacht Shorea, leverancier van het bekende meranti-hout, behoort. In het algemeen kan (gebaseerd op de l.V.-waarde) gesteld worden dat bomen behorende tot het geslacht Shorea karakteristiek zijn voor het bos, hoewel dit in mindere mate geldt in de Apo Kayan. Het primaire bos is echter zeer heterogeen van samenstelling in alle onderzoeksgebieden. De soortensamenstelling en met name de dominantie van de individuele soorten verschillen heel sterk tussen de onderzoeksgebieden.

Hoofdstuk 3 behandelt de soortensamenstelling en abundantie van de diverse eind­ gebruikscategorieen van NTFP, zoals deze voorkomen in de onderzoeksplots. Diverse soorten hebben een meervoudig gebruik, zoals in de geslachten Alstonia, Artocarpus, Mangifera, Pa laquium en Shorea. Acht tot negentien procent van de boomsoorten in de onderzoeksplots draagt eetbare vruchten. Het percentage vruchtbomen is het laagst (8 %) in de ITCI plot waar de invloed van houtkap het hoogst is geweest. Commercieel belangrijke fruitbomen van de geslachten Garcinia en Mangifera zijn afwezig in de plots in uitgekapt bos. In afgelegen gebieden is de destructieve oogst van gaharu hout (Aquilaria spp.) van groot economisch belang voor de lokale bevolking. De oogst van dit product in de Apo Kayan wordt in dit hoofdstuk nader toegelicht. Tevens warden de mogelijkheden van de Shorea soorten die de zogeheten illipe of tengkawang vruch­ ten leveren nader bekeken. Deze vruchten hebben een vetsamenstelling die vrijwel identiek is aan cacaovet, en ze worden dan ook wet toegepast ter vervanging van cacao­ boter in diverse industriele producten.

Aangezien vruchtbomen van groot economisch belang zijn op Iokaal en regionaal niveau, wordt hier extra aandacht aan besteed in Hoofdstuk 4. In aanvulling op het on­ derzoek aan vruchtbomen in natuurlijk bos werden ook zogeheten 'home-gardens', lokale markten en de markten van Samarinda bezocht. Gedurende drie jaar werden twee maal per week de twee grootste markten van Samarinda bezocht, om zodoende een indruk te krijgen van de soortendiversiteit en de variatie in aanbod. Behalve een duidelijke seizoensvariatie waren ook de verschillen tussen de jaren aanzienlijk. Zo was in 1993 het aanbod in het algemeen Iaag en waren Baccaurea macrocarpa, Bac­ caurea pyriformis en D.imoca1pus Longan volledig afwezig. Tijdens bezoeken aan 'home gardens' in dorpen van de diverse bevolkingsgroepen bleek de soortensamenstelling van inheemse fruitbomen aanmerkelijk te verschillen. Artocarpus integer, een soort die algemeen aangeplant wordt en van grote economische waarde is, wordt door de Lepo Tukung Kenyah in Long Sungai Barang niet aangeplant en ook niet gegeten. Favoriete fruitsoorten van Tundjung en Kenyah Dayaks, zoals Baccaurea macrocarpa, Mangifera pajang en Nephelium ramboutan-ake worden niet aangeplant door trans­ migranten uit Java. Verder worden in dit hoofdstuk beschrijvingen gegeven van de soorten die aangetroffen zij n op de markten in Samarinda en wordt nader ingegaan op het marktpotentieel van enkele soorten.

190 De economische en ecologische aspecten van rotan worden behandeld in de Hoofd­ stukken 5 en 6. Rotan is de handelsnaam voor de stengels van tientallen soorten klim­ mende palmen. De geografischeverspr eiding van de soorten bleek sterk te verschillen evenals de tolerantie voor verstoring en de voorkeur voor droge of natte standplaatsen. Drie nieuwe soorten zijn beschreven (Van Valkenburg, 1995) die alle een beperkte verspreiding hebben. Dit bevestigt de algemene tendens van een hoge graad van endemisme in rotans. De dichtheid van rotanplanten vertoonde grote lokale variatie en de verschillen in dichtheid tussen de gebieden waren zeer groot. Natuurlijke verstoring en verstoring door de mens hebben een significante (p < 0.05) toename in jonge planten tot gevolg. Deze toename is echter van beperkte duur. Bovendien brengt de houtkap grote schade toe aan de rotanpopulatie, en verhindert de bodemverdichting die veelal optreedt de vestiging van jonge plan ten. Een experiment, waarbij alle volgroeide stengels werden verwijderd bij planten van drie (potentieel) economisch belangrijke rotansoorten (Cala mus javensis, Ca lamus ornatusen Daemonomps sabut) bracht duidelijke verschil­ len in groeirespons aan het Iicht. Deze verschillen zijn mogelijk een indicatie voor een verschil in overlevingsstrategie. Tai van zaken gerelateerd aan de handel in rotan, va­ rierend van handelssoorten, prijzen en verwerking van de stengels, zowel in het verleden als heden ten dage, worden behandeld. De handelsnamen zoals gangbaar in Oost Kali­ mantan konden gerelateerd worden aan de botanische soorten. Het economisch belang van veel van deze botanische soorten was tot nu toe niet bekend. Zowel het volume als de waarde van de rotanvoorraad in natuurlijk bos, zoals gevonden in dit onderzoek, geven aan dat het essentieel is om een groot areaal aan natuurlijk bos te handhaven. Dit is een voorwaarde om in de toekomst een voldoende aanvoer van rotan te garanderen voor de Indonesische rotan industrie. Momenteel zijn bijna l miljoen lndonesiers voor hun werkgelegenheid afhankelijk van rotan. Dit betreft zowel de verzamelaars in het bos als de werknemers in de meubelfabrieken op Java.

Ten slotte worden in Hoofdstuk 7 de ecologische, economische en sociale aspecten van het verzamelen van NTFP behandeld. Diverse belangrijke hedendaagse land­ gebruiksvormen worden met elkaar vergeleken op grond van economische en eco­ Jogische criteria. Het potentieel voor de verdere ontwikkeling van diverse soorten NTFP wordt op een rijtje gezet voor de situatie in Oost Kalimantan. In navolging van deze analyse worden enkele managementmogelijkheden voorgesteld voor Jandgebruiks­ systemen, waarin het verzamelen van NTFP een rol speelt. lndien financieelgewin op korte termijn bepalend is voor de keuze van een landgebruikssysteem, dan is het duurzaam oogsten van NTFP niet de economisch meest voordelige optie voor kleine Iandeigenaren. De directe financiele inkomsten die het duurzaam oogsten van NTFP in primair bos op jaarbasis kunnen opleveren (US$ 46 ha-1) zijn reeds een indicatie voor de economische haalbaarheid. Als bovendien de milieukosten die het gevolg zouden zijn van een andere landgebruiksvorm meegerekend worden, is het duurzaam oogsten van NTFP de economisch beste lange-termijn optie voor Indonesie. Aange­ zien voor grote gebieden de kapconcessies al uitgegeven zijn en reeds grote oppervlakten van Oost Kalimantan bestaan uit uitgekapt secundair bos, dient gezocht te worden naar ecologisch en economisch verantwoorde landgebruiksvormen voor deze gebieden.

191 Deze gebieden kunnen het beste als natuurlijk gemengd bos gehandhaafd blijven waarbij gerichte aanplant met rotan en illipe soorten de productie van deze NTFP kan verhogen. Het arbeidsintensieve karakter van de oogst en verwerking van deze NTFP is van groot belang voor de werkgelegenheid in rurale gebieden. In aanvulling op deze mogelijkheden in grote kapconcessies zijn er ook goede mogelijkheden voor een meer directe betrokkenheid van de lokale bevolking. De traditionele landgebruikssystemen, waarin bomen een belangrijk element vormen, kunnen gelntensiveerd warden. Eco­ nomisch marginale stukken uitgekapt bos zouden onder een vorm van dorpsbeheer geplaatst kunnen worden onder voorwaarde dat de bosstructuur gehandhaafd blijft maar met toestemming om bijvoorbeeld rotan en fruitbomen aan te planten.

192 Curriculum vitae

Johannes Leonardus Comelis Hendrikus van Valkenburg werd op 24 augustus 1964 geboren in Breda. In 1982 haalde hij zijn diploma Gymnasium-� aan het Newman College te Breda. In datzelfde jaar begon hij aan zijn studie Biologie vrije orientatie aan de Landbouwuniversiteit te Wageningen. Tij dens zijn studie verbleefhij van oktober 1985 totjuli 1986 voor veldwerk in Wau, Papua New Guinea voor een gecombineerd afstudeervak en stage. lnjanuari 1988 behaalde hij zijn doctoraalexamen (cum laude) met als afstudeervakken Natuurbeheer, Plantentaxonomie, Tropische bosbouw en Vegetatiekunde.

Van februari 1988 tot augustus 1989 was hij werkzaam als toegevoegd onderzoeker aan de vakgroep Plantentaxonomie van de Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen, binnen het kader van het Tropenbos programma Gabon. Van oktober 1989 tot januari 1990 was hij in dienst van Africa Forest in Gabon. In eerste instantie was hij belast met het management van een commerciele bosinventarisatie voor Leroy-Gabon in de Offoue­ Ibounbji regio. Vervolgens was hij betrokken bij de voorbereiding van een floristische inventarisatie in de Minkebe regio, Noordoost Gabon, in opdracht van het World Wide Fund forNature. Later in Nederland droeg hij de verantwoording voor de determinatie van de verzamelde herbariumcollecties en het schrijven van het inventarisatierapport. In 1990 en 1991 was hij verder werkzaam voor diverse werkgevers, waaronder de stichting PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia).

Van april 1991 tot ljuli 1995 was hij als Assistent-In-Opleiding in dienst van het Rijks­ herbarium/Hortus Botanicus te Leiden. Tijdens deze aanstelling woonde en werkte hij gedurende twee-en-een-half jaar in Oost Kalimantan, Indonesie. Binnen het kader van het samenwerkingverband tussen de stichting Tropenbos en het Indonesische Ministerie van Bosbouw, werd onderzoek verricht naar het ecologisch en economisch potentieel van zogeheten 'Non-Timber Forest Products' in Oost Kalimantan.

Sinds juli 1995 is hij werkzaam als gastmedewerker aan het Rijksherbarium I Hortus Botanicus te Leiden, en geniet hij de gastvrijheid van de vakgroep Plantentaxonomie te Wageningen.

Publicaties:

Van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. (1987). Floristic changes following human disturbance of mid-montane forest. Internal report Agricultural University Wageningen. Van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. (1989). Mid-montane forestin Papua New Guinea and the impact of man. In: First Flora Malesiana Symposium, Leiden (20-25 august 1989), programme & abstracts of papers and posters. Van Va lkenburg, J.L.C.H. (1990). Final report floristic inventory and vegetation sur­ vey of the Minkebe area.

193 Fundter, J.M., De Graaf, N.R., Hildebrand, J.W. & Van Va lkenburg, J.L.C.H. (1991). Te rminalia bellirica (Gaertner) Roxb. Pp. 118-120 in: Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Wulijami-Soetjipto, N.W. (eds.), Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 3. Dye and tannin-producing plants. Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Van Ya lkenburg, J.L.C.H. & Waluyo, E.B. (1991). Te rminalia catappa L. Pp. 120- 122 in: Lemmens, R. H. M. J. &Wulijarni-Soet jipto, N.W. (eds.), Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 3. Dye and tannin-producing plants. Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Jansen, P. C.M., Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Oyen, L.P.J., Siemonsma, J.S., Stavast, F.M. & Yan Ya lkenburg, J. L. C. H. (eds.) ( 1991 ). Plant Resources of South-East Asia. Basic list of species and commodity grouping. Final version. Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Van Va lkenburg, J.L.C.H. (1992). Non-Timber Forest Products of East Kalimantan. In: Second Flora Malesiana Symposium, Yo gyakarta (7-12 September 1992), pro­ gramme & abstracts of papers and posters. Yan Val ken burg, J. L. C. H. & Ketner, P. ( 1994 ). Ve getation changes following human disturbance of mid-montane forest in the Wau area, Papua New Guinea. Journal of Tropical Ecology 10: 41-54. Van Va lkenburg, J.L.C.H. & Ketner, P. (1994). Non-Timber Forest Products of East Kalimantan. Tropenbos Newsletter no 8: 2-4. Van Valkenburg, J. L. C. H. ( 1995). Fruits from the tropical rain forest of East Kalimantan and their market potential. In: Third Flora Malesiana Symposium, Kew (8-14 July 1995), paper & poster abstracts. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, UK. Van Ya lkenburg, J.L.C.H. (1995). New species of rattan (Palmae: Lepidocaryoideae) from East Kalimantan. Blumea 40 (2): 461-467. Yan Ya lkenburg, J.L.C.H. (in press). Fruits from the tropical rain forest of East Kali­ mantan and their market potential. In: Proceedings of the Third International Flora Malesiana Symposium, Kew, 8-17 July 1995. Yan Val ken burg, J. L. C. H. (in press). A1ytera Blume. In: Hong, L.T., Prawirohatmodjo, S. & Sosef, M.S.M. (eds.), Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5 (3). Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands. Yan Yalkenburg, J. L. C. H. (in press). Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth. In: Faridah Hanum­ lbrahim & Yan der Maesen, L.J.G. (eds.), Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 11. Auxiliary plants. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands.

194 Legends of tlze colour plzotograplzs011pages 196-202

(the size of the coin shown in many of the photographs is in cross section 27 mm)

Plate 1 a. Large-diameter rattan canes placed in wigwam-fashion to dry in the open. b. Small-diameter rattan canes bundled and placed on racks to dry in the open.

Plate 2 a. Durio kutejensis (Hassk.) Becc. Open fruit showing the exposed yellow arils covering the seeds. b. Durio oxleyanus Griff. Open fruit showing the exposed creamy white arils covering the seeds.

Plate 3 a. Mangifera caesia Jack, wanyi form. Mature fruit and cross section of the fruit showing the white fruit pulp and the big seed. b. Mangifera pajang Kosterm. Mature fruits illustrating the thick rind that covers the yellow fruit pulp.

Plate 4 a. Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr. Mature fruit illustrating the sweet tasting yellow perianth · that covers the seeds. b. Artocmpus lanceifolius Roxb. Mature fruit illustrating the sweet tasting orange perianth that covers the seeds.

Plate S a. Artocmpus odoratissimus Blanco. Mature fruit illustrating the sweet tasting white perianth that covers the seeds. b. Artocmpus rigidus Blume. Mature fruits illustrating the citrus-like, sweet tasting, orange coloured perianth that covers the seeds.

Plate 6 a. Baccaurea macrocmpa (Miq.) Miill. Arg. Bunch of mature fruits, as they are sold in the market. b. Baccaurea motleyana Miill. Arg. A bunch of racemes with mature fruits, as they are sold in the market.

Plate 7 a. Baccaurea pyriformis Gage. Short racemes with mature fruits and opened fruits showing the orange fruitpulp. b. Dimocmpus Longan Lour. subsp. malesianus Leenhouts var. malesianus. Mature fruits and opened fruitshowing the transparant white aril and the shining black seed.

195 Plate 1

a. Large-diameter rattan. - For legend, see page 195.

b. Small-diameter rattan. - For legend, see page 195.

196 Plate 2

a. Durio kutejensis (Hassk.) Becc. - For legend, see page 195.

b. Durio oxleyanus Griff. - For legend, see page 195.

197 Plate 3

a. Mangifera caesia Jack. - For legend, see page 195.

b. Mangifera pajang Kosterm. - For legend, see page 195.

198 Plate 4

a. Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr. - For legend, see page 195.

b. Artocarpus lanceifolius Roxb. - For legend, see page 195.

199 Plate 5

a. Artocarpus odoratissimus Blanco. - For legend, see page 195.

b. Artoca1pus rigidus Blume. - For legend, see page 195.

200 Plate 6

a. Baccaurea macrocarpa (Miq.) Miill. Arg. - For legend, see page 195.

b. Baccaurea motleyana Miill. Arg. - For legend, see page 195.

201 Plate 7

a. Baccaurea pyriformis Gage. - For legend, see page 195.

b. Dimocarpus Longan Lour. subsp. malesianus var. malesianus. - For legend, see page 195.

202