1895-1937
China, in Consul Japanese The
Brooks Barbara
York New University of City
Introduction
the in China imperialism
in
prewar
Japanese subject of explores the This
essay
managing
Japanese
diplomats in of Japanese
role administrative examining the period by
China
job in consul's
Japanese prewar was The
national interests. other communities and
in the
primarily
because
might first
than authoritative appear, at extensive and far
more
expanded
considerably
wielded
office
this
China imperialism in
of port treaty
context
increased
took also ranking Western
other on of
diplomats powers While the
powers.
in consul
Japanese the
demonstrate, will
this
China,
of jurisdiction in the
essay
context as
of the Examination
authority. unprecedented
range
certain
hold the
port
to treaty came
understanding of how
thorough
contribute job will
consul's to
of the more and
a extent
of
1931. Incident
Manchurian
prior the period the China in in
to
influence
Japanese
grew
imperialism and
of
version Japan's port complexities of treaty
highlights the addition, it
In
with transformation
and
breakdown
its led that in the weaknesses to
status quo suggests
in 1937 and Manchuria
in China, in 1931 occupation of military coming Japanese of the
China
proper.
in
China and
Ministry
Foreign Japanese study of the
larger of
is
This
part
a essay
the
interest
identifies analysis
larger
group,
The full-scale leading
an period
the
to war.
decisions
Japan's
of these resistance
to the discusses diplomats" and men service "China
the
in
analysis
carries
the
this over China.
In in military action for essay,
opt
to
keep the primarily struggling
peace China to in consul Japanese characterization of the
as
central
the
for
stood
he that time
the
district parties
port, in his
at
treaty all
same
or
among
China. activities in
Japan's of
)J" •)!• •" authority all in Gaimush6 of importance areas
Position Japan's China: Imperialism in Port Trea O,
relationship
asymmetrical
imperialism is
definition,
power broadest
its
In an
politically dominant
degree
society metropolitan
the societies, to with some
between
two
world,
Western
the of
other
and
Asia peripheral East In
areas the some
one. over
of
form
the rather
control but colonial outright
of a form the
imperialism take did
not
The nation.
subordinate
great imposed the
trade" "free by of treaties
created
on
system
profits
the for
huge yielded
the that
system dominant
the for advantage
power was
governing
subduing and involved in expenditures the society without metropolitan great
whole societies.• subordinate
scholarship
Recent reexamining is
imperialism the directions, of from
nature
new
China,
Japanese 1895-1937
Consul in The
significantly
refocusing attention periphery dynamic most the itself role of the in
on
determining the asymmetrical relationship. capital Questions
role of about the and
power
political
giving control
questions
influence
about culture and from to
are way
new
reverse
Barbara Brooks periphery the the
attempted clarify Several
scholars the have of
to to
nature core.
imperialism--termed
"semi-colonialism,"
"neo-" empire," "informal
"treaty
port or
or
imperialism"--in City University New York of Asia. East The formulation, by detailed Osterhammel, Jurgen lists
most
conditions directly which address
political issues of economic ten China. domination in
or
Osterhammel and,
lesser approach imperialism still the Peter
of Duus the to extent,
a
informal empire from familiar political perspectives. and economic Introduction
study This exploring imperialism primarily legal from the returns treaty to
port
perspective
how of
unequal the deprived
of vital China of her
treaty system
explores aspects imperialism subject This
the the of Japanese in China in
essay
prewar
sovereignty.
is allied
body It
discussing scholarship of subject
the period by examining to managing diplomats Japanese
administrative the in Japanese role of
an prewar enormous
and
also William
Beasley's G.
study
which
concluded with his to the need
job communities national China other recent
and Japanese
interests. in The consul's stress
on
prewar
was
for
further research
organization, internal the
administration, dynamics
and of the
far might primarily extensive authoritative and than
first because the in on
at
appear, more
empire.
Japanese
4
John his Dower, in
field the of 1975 Japanese the of
imperialism expanded
of considerably office state in wielded China this essay
on
treaty
port context
history,
also
called for clarify,
research imperial empire, other of the
diplomats
to While
aspects ranking the of increased also took
other new among
Western
powers.
powers
on
the
Japanese work of understanding
consulates. legal justifications
Further of
the and jurisdiction
demonstrate, in China, the
Japanese will consul of in the
this
context
essay
as
administrative
of empire
Japanese the
informal gives China
in
in
rise
apparatus
the
unprecedented authority. certain Examination of the turn
hold
to treaty port
to
range came
larger
questions cultural
imperialism. about Japanese
understanding job and
thorough the of of consul's will contribute how
extent
to
a more
officially
Japan gained
most-favored-nation vis-fi-vis Treaty China with the
status
Japanese
period influence
prior in the the Incident China in of
Manchurian
1931.
to
grew
of Shimonoseki
in fact,
Ministry Foreign Japanese the
through 1895. In
its consulates in
highlights addition,
imperialism it complexities In
Japan's of the
of version and
treaty port
(and
China
prior Korea) expanding this,
advantages offered the
Japan
to was,
weaknesses in
transformation with to the that led its breakdown and even
suggests
status
to
quo
international
under
practice
its law
and expansions Asia. privileges in Japanese of East the
coming military Japanese the occupation of China,
in Manchuria of in in and 1937
1931
of begun in Korea, Japan's continued after China. in version
1895 of China
proper.
administration evolved growing Japan's with
tandem in treaty
port and stake in
larger This
study Foreign Ministry is of in the Japanese of and China presence part
essay
a
leading period the analysis larger full-scale
the identifies interest The
to
group, ,war. an
diplomats" "China service
Japan's discusses
the resistance of decisions and these
to Gallagher John men Ronald and Imperialism Robinson.
"The Trade," Free of
Economic
Histo
o,
military
for analysis action China. in this the carries the in In
opt to
Review.
(1953).
2, essay, 6
1-15. over
set.
pp.
v.
of characterization struggling primarily keep Japanese the in consul China the
to peace
as
Jurgen Osterhammel,
parties all his "Semi-Colonialism
in district time for the central Empire he stood Centu• the that Informal and
China:
Twentieth in treaty port,
among
at
or same
•'•-7•-•" importance Analysis," Framexvork To,yard Wolfgang of of
authority Gaimush6 in Japan's Osterhanunel, of activities China. in all in Jurgen J. Mommsen and eds.,
a areas
Imperialism After: and Continuities
and (London: Discontinuities Unwin, Allen 1986), and
pp.
290-314.
Treaty Imperialism Japan's China: in Port Position
"Introduction," Duus, Peter Duus, Myers, Peter in Ramon Peat-tie, eds., Japanese Mark and The
Informal Empire
China. (Princeton: 1895-1937 Princeton Press, University 1989), in xi-xxix.
pp.
imperialism definition, its relationship
asymmetrical broadest is In
power an
economic The
interest
reflected his is research in in volume,
the "Zaikab6: Japanese
essay
same
society societies, metropolitan between
degree with
politically the
dominant
two to some
Cotton China, Mills in 1895-1937,"
65-100.
pp.
peripheral the Asia world, and other In
of
East
the Western over one. some areas
imperialism
• outfight form did take Japanese colonial G. the of W. Beaslev. Imperialism. form control but (Oxford: rather the of 1894-1945 Clarendon 1987), Press, especially not
a
Explanations "Introduction: Imperialism," by imposed of
"free created treaties 13. subordinate trade" the t- of nation. The system
great pp.
on
advantage yielded for
huge profits the dominant that
for the the
system
power
was
John
Doxver. Japan "'E.H Histors.'," Norman, and the Origins Uses of of in Norman. E.H. the metropolitan society governing subduing expenditures without the involved in and
great
Japanese Modern State 1975), (New Pantheon, York: 85. p.
key
the
other of the great
society. the powers, in
and Just Chinese
case
as economy
other
consulate.
In
contrast to Japanese empire
the informal Japanese of the
was
agency
of its
with other contend
had
consulate Japanese the consulates, however, to
great
power
legal and 6 The affairs.
Chinese control in
advantage and vying agencies
for national
own
Japanese
by the mediated China,
empire in informal political Japanese
of the
structure
and
Western, Chinese, competing
with
of balances delicate rested consul,
power
on
perform the their best did offices headed the to who challengers. consuls The domestic
maintaining this balance. impossible increasingly of task
Consul of Job The
foreign enclaves,
small whereby evolved
world,
ancient the Western system In
a
in the
cultures by alien
surrounded Greeks
Romans
of communities
small such
or
as
ranks
their representative from act to
choose
as allowed Middle East,
to
a
were
mother
of the according laws country. the disputes
adjudicate
magistrate, consul,
to
to
or
his of
practice diplomatic the present, most
in evolved
to consul has role of the As
leaving him gradually shorn,
diplomatic been
functions have judicial,
political, and
even
commercial country's regulating his and issuing visas concerns. responsible mostly for
expatriates
fellow
his of taking
of primary
function
really
his lost consul the care
But
never
national
furthering
job
his easily
links
which jurisdiction, task to his
of the within a area
foreign soil. interests
on
early and
nineteenth job in late consul's foreign understanding the of full
A
of the evolution
the of reconsideration careful
entail would China twentieth century
extend
privileges the
basic to system The
the 1840s from unequal came
system treaty
on.
travel
nationals rights for
advantages, to tariff fixed included nations most-favored
the
to
creating
territories leased
rights and
concession specified
Chinese
in live and
areas,
mother of the according
laws justice
administer to
foreign "soil," the of enclaves to
power
had Japan and
China Both
and concession
in manufacture rights
more. areas,
country, to
The
through this sovereignty
system. their infringement
challenge of the faced
on
throw managed British with support
reform, to study and
intensive by of Japanese,
means
their
legal regain did Chinese autonomy while the by infringement on 1899, not this off
until soil 1943. own
the in China in
communities Japanese configuration of the pre•var of the 6 pioneering discussion
A
Japanese
The 1895-1937,"
in in China. Settlements Port Trea•' "'Japanese Peattie, period Mark is
166-209. 1895-1937, China. Informal Empire pp. in
in
nineteenth
the century in consular
American
the for briefly described
is This service
process
Service,
Foreign
United States Building the Architects: Werking, The Master Richard Hume
1-12. 1977), Kentucky, of UniversiD (Lexington: Press 1890-1913 pp.
the Japan, For thin. is extraterritoriali•' China in of
ramifications legal
scholarship the
Recent
on
Courts
Consular in of the Western The Justice Chang,
explored Richard T. in subject is
Chang's conclu- of
1984), and Press, Greemvood
CT: (Westport, Japan Nineteenth-Century some
applicable
that, in
be
contention major •vell. His
to
situation Chinese
the seems be sions as
to may 10
their offering based
Ironically,
advice Japanese
while the
own on
were even
extraterritoriality,
discussing experience conferences delegates international Chinese
at
to
of
levels they extending agencies through Gaimush6, the their like the system
to
new were,
concerning questions rights.
Gaimush6, sovereign the 9 China's encroachment In
on
after the 1920s, carefully the extraterritoriality studied in abolition China of in
were
by
renunciation plea its
for delegation Chinese
had raised such Versailles
at angry
an
the
contrasted foreign China possible in of the The abolition to system
was
powers.
still (1913). China complete (1896) Siam extraterritoriality and abolition of Japan in was
especially view in renunciation, wanting appropriate found conditions for in great power
legal of its •0 and system.
courts
of from that differentiated job be China, then, foreign The of the consul in must
by places. described consuls in other H.B. Morse: As
of his the commercial
than countries, Commissioned other agent consul is
to
more a no
extraterritoriality, privileges he is
granted of
which has the but. in government: country
a
into judicial him charged important diplomatic
and with such
to a poxvers remove as
dignified
exercised in the main. been have, in different class. China these In a powers
and
minor, of
the
of the and of the of
by consuls greater, poxvers, most most many way
elsewhere./•
importance knoxxn such is had the consuls of nations all have
not as an
of through authority the expansion China in consular addition of the system In
to
during politics the fragmentation Chinese extraterritoriality, of and the turbulence century
individual authority of the and history local system's increased the of also the autonomy
superseded their frequently consuls-general and consuls consul in his district. Western
take
nationals watchkeepers
their
commercial nominal role
to agents on own over or as
of their justice favor in the
particularly distort general, British did consular
not courts, oxx•
ones,
public by Japanese the
unrepresentative knox•n but notorious Onlv few nationals. were
cases
a
far
the China, where
against the For sufficient national system system outrage was more
to
arouse
qf the Chinese International Relations scholarship The complex, See Morse, H.B. is
prewar.
beginnings of for the 303-17 Longman's. 1910). 1, (London:
Green and Co.. Empire extra-
pp.
v.
•'z f_Z •]• Ch•?goku •7,• [] Opium Japanese, Keishir6 Irie territoriality after the and in ni War.
•'•- {• China) Foreigners
f• • [] •/k in [] l•" of (The Position • gaikokujin • chii ¢7) •2 okeru
no
jurisdiction, 409-81.
chapter consular T6ky6d6, consuls and 1937). (Tokyo:
pp. esp. seven on
conference extraterritoriality IPR in the reading devoted the sections evident from This is
to
of qf Pac{lqc." Proceedings the ,Second Problems the Condliffe, ed., volumes, proceeding J.B.
Chicago, (Chicago: UniversiB of Pac{lqc of Honolulu. of Relations. 1927 Conference the Institute
313-68, and Bruno 1929, (1930), 84-142,
Kyoto. 237-65, Third. 65-146, 1928), pp,
esp. pp
Shanghai. (1932), Hangchow 1931 269-317. and ed., Fourth. Lasker, pp.
•j daigosh•7: Ry6ji •- shio,6 -•" •" f-Jr mondai J" Shina sank6 •0 Ajiakyoku ",•
Gaimush6
• •tJ/• • •/• • • • [•=• •- (Reference • • • • fJ[• • [•,•J :fi •J• saibanken mondai teppai
Po•vers)
Removing Court of Consular The Issue 5: Volume Materials the China Problem.
on
1923). pamphlet, (undated, secret" "'top ca•
1, 303. • InternationalRelations,
Morse, l•he H.B. p. v.
particularly
1911,
after jurisdiction, and of facto in their negotiations
de with
powers areas
politics. Chinese determining national with warlords who
were
impact their and
China in service of consular dimensions added of on these Some
described. been have late 1930s the in Department political reporting in the US State
sitting
in
of time spent of result
great concluded that
Gregory Prince has amount
a
a as
diplomatic
other and consuls nationals, US involving their adjudicating disputes
court
sight of lost and
brief' "legal
reporting the political
modelled all their officials
on
I-• Reports,
China.
in developments analysis of comprehensive attempting long-term
or
unanalyzed
and trivia with
stuffed China,
in ambassador usually submitted the
to were
directive
Department representatives, the to State concen- due Consular information.
to
analysis in of
national-level
events utterly
failed only attempt
their local
to
trate areas,
on
US ''13
club. the place reporting
took political of
at of lot
hell Worse, China. "one
a
the in
lives their
live exceptions, seemed
few representatives content China, to with in a
communities. of confines
port treaty
in consul
Japanese constant the however, American
was Unlike his counterpart,
highest
ambassador
(rather the than
Foreign Minister his with
communication or direct
regional
negotiate with authority
possessed already country), to greater and the in
envoy
likely be service
standing his in leaders.•4 to and level educational His Chinese was
own
authority
relative him and greater American higher of his counterpart that than gave
commercial of
wealth
collected
also offices consular
Japanese
nationals.
his
a among own
back
organized professional and highly reports sent intelligence a in on economic and
greatly
elsewhere and
'•j[7•
• China of Today, historians Kasumigaseki
regular basis x"
to
gigantic
in scholarly published for been purposes
which have series, these from
benefit
Diplomatic
cables 1-• •
•i• •
volumes. • in
T.s#sh6 ihen seventy collections, such
as
to-the-point and
Foreign Ministers
consuls political from concerning to are events current
of
Case
A 1935-1941:
China. Service Foreign in American "'The /,_ Prince, Grcgor? Jr.. S. See
48. University. 1973,
Yale Reporting," dissertation. PhD Political p.
• 531 lbid p.
might
be
Kasumigaseki
than
input
consul far giving the
at •4 important, is
distinction This more
they
fact,
in Foreign
Minister;
the addressed consuls were Outgoing from expected. cables to
were
Affair. Asiatic of processed the Bureau in received and usually
monthly,
categories: periodic • three • report) fall into •j• • (consular 1,•
0'6.1i hdkoku
These
commercial
world-wide organized of •-)
highly g{fl• in provisional (rinji system
and veartv,
a
•'epo•ting
of other wealth contain
Ministry also Foreign Archives operated
1881-1943. from that a
scholars
of jurisdictional
A at topics
in socio-economic group monographic
areas. reports
on
materials,
these describe and understand project better
three-year organized Universit}.
to Kvoto
a
a£d
and materials of guidelines massive
of amount collection valuable to resulting is volume the a
a
(mainly
itself
consular the
system lesser
and,
hrkoku extent,
0'rfi of
various to
aspects
a
on
essays
• •eiji
7)2,•fI •
• ,ky• []
hrkoku ken
•-•, • 0'6j• Nihon ed., Sakae Tsunoyama period):
no of
special
the 1987).
Also Drbunkan, (Tokyo: Reports) note • Consular Japanese • (Studies of
•
consular
devoted reports is (November which 1981) to History 18 journal of Business the issue
Tsunoyama. English by
in includes short and
a essay 12
analytic, reflecting
both highly
the consul's
integrated Japanese of national interests
sense
vis-b,-vis changing
the situation in China understanding
position. his of and his
own
their In magistrates, roles
firsthand witnessed consuls the results of anti-
as
some
Japanese
violence China,
in and seeking consistently ended placate
local the irate
to up
Japanese
community in order growing reduce tensions. •6 the International In Settle- to
Shanghai, in
when
frequently consuls joint ment
adjudicate
commissions
sat
to
on
cases,
they
learned
deal
about cooperation diplomats with
great other their and
a great
powers
while representing Japan's interests. 17
spoke Japanese
consuls often Chinese well and
negotiated directly
regionally with ("g .g• powerful :•. Zhang leaders They Zuolin such
as
reporting
"from
the actively club" mediating but not Japanese Chinese and were
were
interests the level. at grass-roots
To job
the
of
consul in responsibilities China entailed far than did it
up,
sum
more
elsewhere. Japanese
diplomat As
recalling being his
satisfaction wrote, great one
on
appointed
Changchun consul
in Manchuria in the of 1923 30: at at age
Consuls appointed China simply did handle affairs: commercial such they did
to not
things
rights exercise police the of enforcement judiciar?." the (consular and as
jurisdiction),
and sometimes had expel issue orders nationals, undesirable resident
to to
holding •vell
right
the Chinese mediate xvith
authorities the level the to
as as
at
same
as
Beijing Minister problems such protection
the of nationals. resident at Also. in over
as
principle
consuls the under Foreign direct Ministr?', control of receiving the directly
were
instructions • Foreign from the Minister.
time,
this already At had he Ministry served both Kasumigaseki in the and in London,
at
felt his and
moving right along.
The indicates the that career
greater was passage
responsibilities of
consular give work in did China prestige. the added post
some
following The
sections break will down looking by the consul's in role China its
at
various
dimensions by
job
The always consul's
static but
of
part one
one. was never
an
ongoing
struggle,
strengthen both political Japanese authority itself and also maintain to
to
Gaimush6 the
stake in the progressed level. time in
As 1920's, future the the at game any
•°
This example, for Shigeru for
Consul Yoshida agitators Jinan in Chinese •vhen 1918 true.
at •vas
Japanese murdered •/3k •. pa•nbrokers.
See t Masamichi Inoki Shigeru Hydden tavo Yoshida
•'• •j•
(Critical [] Biography Shigeru) ofYoshida (Tokyo:
1978), Yomiuri. 1,
163-64.
pp. v.
17
See, example, for Shanghai
the of the Court's Mixed regarding
anti-Japanese decision
case
an
appearing • • article [] in Minguo the bao in which urged Japanese- 1925 workers in
ne•vspaper
Shanghai
mills o•sned uprising in against 'Japanese capitalists." Court, The stage composed to
an
Japanese of
and representative, Chinese
found guilty the concealing of address the of its a a
paper
editor of
and intention the Chinese stir
foreigners, minds against
subject fine. and to A.M.
up
to
a
Kotenev, Shanghai: Municipali•,, Its (Shanghai: and Chinese the Daily North-China News
and
1927), Herald.
complete
197. A the of Shanghai. Mixed Court Kotenev, is in Its p. account more
(Shanghai: Court Mixed Council, and North-China Daily Herald, Nears 1925). and
• •
• • ,•,,
Nishi Haruhiko 7• •, [• gaik6 • N•hon • Kais6 (Memories Japanese
•7) of
no
Diplomacy)
(Tokyo: 1965), shinsho. I•vanami 11-13.
pp. 13
Japanese direction,
other
uncertain. jurisdiction From of became consular one
more
for the
Gaimush6
the attacks
kept Manchuria, in particularly agencies, but the
up
on army
outright control. From agitated for increasingly consuls and perceived ineffectuality the of
rights of the form in the nationalism Chinese contradictory, direction, another, recovery
if
direct threatened
and privilege
extraterritorial attacks its in
a
stronger movement
grew on
strength this of
real The foreign controls. informal
Japan's other and showdown
over
the Western and Britain potential backing lay from Great powers. however, in its threat,
the Western
1931, September 19,
of Incident Manchurian the of the On
eve
extraterri-
of renunciation full
partial
appeared moving
be towards
even to or powers
Instead backfired.
toriality.19 action this of
possible intended is that It
consequence
one
expansionists,
provoked Japanese out trend
expansion,
this working Japanese of
to
reverse
which Incident,
Manchurian
plot
the
increasing the alarm the threat of
to status quo, at to
for all control colonial beginning of mark the and empire Manchuria informal in would end
of China.
lnvestigator Chief Judge and Consul The as
might arise
which legal judge concerned responsibilities
consul's The cases
as
equivalent
responsibility of
level had to
Consular involving nationals. Japanese
courts
a
acting appeal, in
first of the simply
municipal
and
district domestic courts courts were
or
suits. From criminal
in
accused the suits civil in defendants
Japanese where
or
were
cases
Nagasaki
District
appealed the
could be
China,
of in to
consular
most
courts
cases areas
in but Court), District
California appealed
might
be (just
United States
to Court
a
cases
as
Japanese originating the in
zones) railway
(including the Manchuria of all
cases
areas
(Dairen) and
Dalian
District Court
appeal the subject first
at consular
to
to courts
were
•
•
Guandong
Lfishun) the in (Ry6jun
Arthur Supreme Port the Court
then
at or to
• •
Jiandao
originating
the in
Territory. Consular (Kwandong)
Leased
area
cases
-'°
higher in
appeal Korea. in subject ;1•: •,-j", •-•g
Korea) courts (Longjingcun close to to
were
Mongolia where
Manchuria and southern of many the Also, in eastern
areas
jurisdiction
limited had population, consular the Chinese amidst the lived courts Japanese
Cases residents. Japanese
and arising
Chinese between disputes and civil in
property
cases
consisting
mixed by local
law precedents Chinese of
along court
the decided
be a to
were
judge presiding in
Japanese
official. The
Chinese and consul Japanese of the cases was
a
official Chinese defendants,
the of Chinese the and, in defendants, Japanese with
case
unique
"-1
mixed observed. This and consulted presided court Japanese the and was a
See Pac!lqc. 290-316. qfthe 1931, Discussions," Problems Round-Table 19 "'Summary of pp. See
Hopkins Press, Johns (Baltimore: Manchurm Specml Japan Position Young, in "s Walter C. also
vols. 1931), 3
Juris-diction Japanese Young,
C Walter in Also 69-70. _,o mondaL saibanken R,v6ji
teppai
pp.
246-61. Hopkins 1931), Press. Johns (Baltimore: Railways Manchurian South pp. the
71. :• mondaY, Ryc•]i saibanken
teppai p. 14
complicated privileges institution imperialism, deriving unique in and from the treaty port
ownership leasing of land Japanese which in the had wrested interior Manchuria and the of
from sovereignty early Chinese decades the in twentieth of the century.
_•
• legal specialists larger municipalities Fengtian of the At
such sent some as
Japan from
work. While the consulate of attached the the handle bulk
the to to
were case
region consul in equally important roles, Manchurian is the it have had to
easy may
many
agencies
particular how there, this
of Japanese his crucial other work aspect
see to
was
particularly Railway Railway. the Manchurian South South Zone Manchurian The most
by growing had been 1920s, late Russo-Japanese the the atter In War. treaty set
up
apprehension extraterritoriality might that Japanese led the
Western
powers
renounce
jurists
extraterritoriality could seek legally justify the other in As Zone.
to to
means none
existing important found, be the the the consular role and all the
system to
was more
justification position advantageous Japan's of Manchuria. in
people, keenly them, Chinese humiliation of The Japanese like the felt the before
foreign judicial privileges early extraterritoriality. diplomat the the in of China service One
• gJJ, • • Fengtian, proposed Akamatsu Japan 1920's, Consul-General Sh6suke that
at
relinquish might asserting precedent
extraterritoriality first Manchuria, it of in would set
a
seeming by good least he also followed
be other will The at
to
gave powers.
reasons
Zuolin; Zhang Japan's included: this it 2) 1) would further association with close
cement
legal employment advisors would and Chinese of Japanese the for the
pave
way many
lawyers; special entirely 3) procedures effective
the mixed and
court not
anyway.
were
plan throughout -'-• approval the Nevertheless, His did Japan. with in 1920s not
meet
increasing rights unequal demands for China's of lost the under system treaty met recovery
Japan. from from Shidehara-like liberals the in On the
and Western support
powers,
eve
negotiations changed Incident, of Manchurian of had the make the climate
to as so
right, renunciation of be trial this under Western Western
systems, to to appear
imminent]
Nanking
fact, that of declared May The in 1931, 4,
government,
as on
-'4 subjected January 1932, aliens 1, would all be Chinese laws and To counter
to courts.
losing position major by Japanese Manchuria, threat of dimension of their the in 1931
a
]•: •" representatives [] (Nationalist) negotiating Guomindang with the government
were
railway Nanking
extraterritoriality the retain in that in the in the system
to event
areas
unequal major -'-• change abolished in
itself. China This for the in treaty pressure were
Ibid., 41-42.
p.
_,3 of Pac!/ic. Discussions," 1931, See "'Summary of Problems the Round-Table 290-316.
pp.
Sino-Japanese negotiations leadership relinquishing privileges, discussing for timetable under the
a
continuing throughout Shidehara, force 1931, considered of additional and be
must
were an
seiji gakkai, Guandong gen'in Nihon kokusai motivating the to,yards action. Taiheiv6 sens6 Army
fl_• •
fl• • f•, • ;:• • •:•, [] • 5•. • •k: •,
[] 1•, I• Taihe•v6 ed., michi: kenk•a]bu sens6
no e
• •i• • • • --• • •] ;;• • •
Histor?.' (The the gaik6 shi Road Pacific kaisen War: A CO to
•-,
(Tok?'o: Diplomacy
Hostilities) 1962-63), sha, 1, of Asahi shinbun the of the Commencement at v.
342-52. pp.
"_4
Taiheiv6 1. 342-52.
sens6, pp. v.
Railway Young, Japanese South Manchurian Areas, Jurisdiction 260.
in p. 15
Japanese
of the position
protector Gaimush6's destabilized also the as system secure
community's rights
interests. and
of the
life
the from judge
drawn
be consul concerning
the anecdote
An
may
as
he Tianjin 1918, in in Consul-General 1•[• Acting •• •s'-J" ;• ;• diplomat As
Ishii Itar6
large
the arising from
in the
taken of his time found much
cases
numerous up
was
proved
which
clear judge concerned
experience
community. His first
Japanese case a
as
("morphine").
drugs smuggling caught been had who guilt defendant
of the
the Korean
chief
time, the
the problem
smuggling
such at
such
recalled that since Ishii severe
a
was
therefore
and
give stiff
him sentence, already advised police had of consular to officer his
a
this
pronouncement this
made
he imprisonment. Just six months handed down he
as
upbraid
for
him
proceeded
he hallway, where to the into him exit officer next motioned
to
given
have
would
this,
like
in predecessor,
not
giving "Your
cases sentence: too
severe a
this feed
budget the
the have to don't Besides,
months. resources than
or
two we more
the returned
Ishii court, something."
to do You've
months. whole six for got to
guy
a
his
hurt
this
But months.
for
issued original
and two his retracted
sentence,
one
new
a
of
time short after
that remarked community. Ishii reputation Japanese with the a
comm.unity.
"-6
of the
the earned it respect and
used judge,
being he "playacting"
got to
at
a
of
the bounds exceeded the
felt judicial he which role,
his
in of continued
lack Ishii's
ease
China
diplomat.
Kasumigaseki
identity
his
reflected
diplomat, professional job of
as a
a
lattitude
propriety of the greater the about doubts serious Ishii had diplomats like service
world.
of the
other in compared similar parts
China, posts office in consular of the to
consular
of
function
impressions of the
few
also draw example,
this
From
a can we
both the concerned
this
that coincidence imperialism. is
It Japanese in case
no
courts
agencies
twin
these China, in nationals smuggling of were and Korean drug problem of as
and
China
North of
local-level
penetration the
into
Japanese of economy the
two
prongs
extraterritoriality by
protection of Japanese
the seek could
who Offenders Manchuria.
compared
punishments
light
relatively to with might identity national their of virtue
escape
from the
authorities
Chinese The Chinese in
served them would be
courts. what
through
traffic
opium
of accomplish eradication
much done had nineteenth
to
century
on
extraterritorial
expansion of the penalties. :7 Japanese harsh
and enforcement stringent law
drug
Japanese illicit
enriched
and this undermined privilege of consular success courts
traffickers.
involving
Japanese affairs criminal investigator in of role related
consul's The
against
violence
increasing Chinese
given
the
highly inflammable
nationals
one,
a
was
investi-
responsibility these for consul's progressed.
The
1920s
the nationals
Japanese
as
bureaucratic
the and
specified in
in police, treaty consular his along with gations,
was
China their post- looking
back consuls, ''-'8 empire. Often "informal legislation of the on
(Tokyo:
Diplomat)
• ]•" •, of (The
Life
•
CO- 7• 1•[•, issh6 •k• •i • Gaik6kan "_6 a Itar6 lshii
no
33-34. 1972), shuppansha. Taihei pp.
and Wakeman,
Jr. Frederic China," Ch'ing in Smoking in
"Opium Spence, Jonathan See
University of
(Bcrkeley:
Imperial China Late Control Con,/lict and m Grant. eds.. Carolyn
143-73. 1975), Press. California
pp.
"_8 saibanken, 71. Ry•/i p.
ings,
summarized their
accomplishments
settling
•j• incident "•
(jiken
) after
incident as
during
their
their
role pacifier
term: of
aroused
feelings national
as inherent
in their
was
job.
difficulty
The
satisfying of
Japanese
and Chinese sides
dispute of
also left
consuls
any
vulnerable domestic charges
to they that
did adequately
Japanese
not
nationals protect in
China.
logical It
that this peacekeeping
seems
of their work have aspect influenced
may
China
diplomats service
many
consistently caution to
facing
restraint in situations in
new China.
gives Ishii
another
example
of racial tensions
which easily
provoked by
such
were
investigations.
consular
While Consul-General
in
Jilin in 1930, he obtained information
that
Japanese
national,
long
missing, reported
a
actually had
been
by murdered "disloyal
a
(futei Korean"
Senjm
•
•_ Y[•
flk )
that and
the suspected location body
the of
known.
was
appointed Ishii
his
vice-consul
head
dig
body
to the
designated the to place,
posse a
up
at
but
the
group's
he learned
upon
they that dug return
had
the
newly- of
not
up grave
a
murdered Japanese,
but
rather
ancient Chinese
China, disruption In where
an of grave.
an
ancestor's
serious offense,
grave Ishii his and
subordinate
very was
a subjected
next
were
national reporting
of
to their culpability in this desecration of
gravesite. the
Despite his
abject
apologies
the Jilin provincial authorities,
to the media continued
castigate
both
to
him his and
vice-consul.
Eventually,
the blame
settled squarely vice-consul, the
who
on
longer
invited
Chinese provincial
was functions. no
to Ishii,
realizing
any deputy's
his
new
inability
fulfill his finally duties,
to requested his transfer Kasumigaseki his
superiors
to and
this
effected.
-•9
It further
be speculated
was that
the may body about the report
was
planted by
Japanese
plotters
seeking
render outspoken the
consul-general to
Ishii
ineffectual
job in his due public Chinese
reaction. to
This
meddling of type the
Guandong of Army
plotters part in
Manchuria on
certainly
increased
the
of
the Manchurian Incident. The on several incidents eve
which
occurred
that
time involved
the all at
of the consul's office
aspects and worked
discredit
to
the
effectiveness
of the Gaimush6 in major its task protecting of Japanese
nationals.
Among
them is
the so-called
Nakamura
Incident, pitted
which
Gaimush6, the its
lowest
at
highest
and levels,
against
the
the At brought time it
army. stubborn conflict
out same
between
the Chinese
authorities
in
Manchuria,
represented
by
the Zhang
top at now
.• Xueliang •, z3•
and Japanese the
Japanese and
public opinion.
army
Captain
c• Nakamura •f,-j
Shintar6 ;• t•l• •l•
member of General Staff
Head-
a
dressed quarters, in civilian
clothes,
set out, with
three others (one
Japanese and
two
Mongols)
dubious
exploratory but
mission the on
Mongolian a Inner
border to in
June
1931. On
June 26,
Chinese suspicious soldiers of
the group's "spying" activities detained
_,9
Ishii, Gaik6kan,
159. p.
3,:,
One
detailed
this of incident
• I• Seki is •, account Hiroharu
jihen "Manshfi zenshi, 1927-31"
"}['l •'•
•]" • 5•
(The
rehistor3.,
the
Manchurian
Incident),
Taiheiy6 in p to
1,
sens6,
352-58.
pp.
v.
Since all
ultimately • rely heavily
accounts Hayashi K.•jir6
• • 1]g,
Consul-General then
on
at
Fengtian.
since and his
perspective
appropriate is
here,
the discussion following to
purpose my
is
based
his Mansh•
jihen • • •l'l •
H6ten • sOo,dj• • ,• • ;•
on
•
to (The Manchurian
Incident
Fengtian the and
Consul-General) (Tokyo: shob6, Hara 1978). Also, English. in
Takehiko
Conspiracy 144-)47. Yoshihashi.
atMukden (New Haven: Yale Universi• Press, 1963), pp.
leave bodies
the incinerated
to and then
them killed afterwards apparently them, and
soon
importance,
national
to
of affair
into
flared
incident The
tell the
up an story. to
traces
no
propaganda
leaflets
drop
prompted the
on
it Japan
to in home
that the army
at extent
the point in
story Manchuria. 31 policy At can we in calling for cities various every stronger
situations.
no-win of best the
struggling make jobs
consuls their in
to
see
his
and he
where papers or Nakamura question of got how
the First,
was there
was
Three
Eastern
of the though
all Hayashi, part
same According
"even thereof. lack
were to
consuls
prohibited
Japanese authorities
Zhengjiadun Chinese Fengtian and
Provinces," in
this where regions
Mongolian
the Inner
into travel issuing for Japanese from
to
papers
had.
Nakamura disguise
native
in
travel Japanese causing
as headed,
to
many group
was
had
and
obtain
Harbin
trip special papers
proper
to made however, had to Nakamura,
a
then, region,
the agencies in
consular were
The detained.
he
him when them
was on
Harbin
claiming the
side, papers Chinese
dispute of the legal of the caught bind the in
3-"
innocence. Nakamura's insisting
Japanese illegitimate, and the
on
negotiate with
order Hayashi, in
evidence. to problem of the there Next,
was
murders,
actually been had
there them convince had
first authorities, provincial Chinese to
investigate;
party He
to
in
compulsion believe set up a act they little felt which
on.
to or
investigation,
representative. This
33
consular
local and
SMR
included this
a
army,
an an
doing
elements the
with dragged
army Chinese
half-hearted attempt, by succeeded on,
a
and
ranks, Guandong
the in
action
conspiracy
and
home to heat their best outrage at to
up
Hayashi's
Eventually
September.
beginning of the until indifferent,
Chinese the with
who
Chinese,
stirred the sent retaliation major a Japanese possibility of warning the about
the investigation back
higher level
to team area.
investiga-
the September 16,
dispute. On of the resolution
the Finally, there
was
imprisonment.
for guilty Chinese
party bringing the in Fengtian, also reported
back
tion
to
of the
details
the worked feverishly Fengtian
out in consuls consul-general and
The
two
and
murderer
the
of trial court-martial including the
incident, of the
settlement Chinese
diplomatically,
"solved" incident and Everything the on apologies.
profound set,
Chinese
negotiations
final
emerged from to
charge
consul in eighteenth the
of the afternoon
the
his only find
good
the Fengtian to with
authority in
news, ranking
the seek
army out
triggered
by the
day)
Incident,
the
Of 4
of the for the
unknown
course, whereabouts rest
writers
night. Most began that Fengtian,
agree of north railway
of dynamiting section of
a
the that fear the
include
that plans for its hastened Army Guandong reasons the that
University Press,
Stanford
(Stanford: 1939
Russia. Japan against Nomonhan: 31 Coox, Alvin
22. 1,
1985). p. v.
Hayashi, 109-10. •-" pp.
them
of
learned
had
who Arm.v, Guandong the
from murders the
of learned actually 33 had
Havashi
•naster
mistress froman Japanese
the with started
seemed, it
The the in station SMR
rumor,
area.
So all
employee.
SMR
local
of •vife
the the told had •vho officer. to story a guilt? Chinese of the
authority abuzz.
Japanese of •¥ere arms
Hayashi, 113-14. 3•
pp. 18
Nakamura
Incident
would solved 35 be too
soon.
The
Nakamura only Incident is innumerable of by crises such caused Chinese
one
violence Japanese towards
citizens grip imperialism Japanese tightened, the of
the at as
time that Chinese national of its
increased. and While
the
same
ways awareness means
pivot consular office legal the extralegal of
the and facilitate constructed the
system
to
was
advantage, Japanese performed it contradictory also "settling" disputes the role of to
conciliate national
humiliation international The the level. outrage appease next at or
or
section further will elaborate by introducing this dilemma of consul's official the teeth the
judgments
directives, police. the consular or
Consul The Consular and the Police
Perhaps
feature the Japanese the of China that consular in system most
significantly
differentiated it from police of that nations its other
force.
great
power was
Although police the expansion consular Japanese evolved from of the role of consuls
to
Japanese nationals imperial abroad and embodied in also ordinances that protect
was
police decreed that the
subject be consulates attached the of and control the to
to
to were
corresponding legality consuls,
x6 unequal of the forces such under the
treaty system
was
justifiably by
denied by the Chinese jurists. Japanese and 37
government
even some
first police The appointed consular officers in Pusan, in the Korea 1880. In
were
Japanese number of topped
desperately bring residents consul tried the and law 1000
to
as
hardship order in brought time of beggars overwhelming which Korean and thieves in
a
into the numbers finally
concession His proposal for force of eleven with
met
area. a men
Tokyo)
approval from
this, After opened Japanese other in Korea trade and ports
to
as
settlement,
police each keep had station
consulate offÉcers of law and order and
to to
a
anti-Japanese by combat Sino-Japanese actions activists. local War, the Korean After in
just Korean placed residents Japan of but of all the treaty ports most great not
powers
themselves protection under police. the Japanese Japanese of the adminis- consular As
changed, tration
in positions police about 1905 transferred consular in 300 Korea
to
were
police •!•-;q4g •, in
force the of (rijich6 the Except administration ). for protectorate
new
• Coox,
Nomonhan. 1,
29.
p. v.
36
imperial For the complete ordinance, police
handbook, guide the consular the which is
to
see a
force, including itopens details such police
their force words, "The task of with the the
song; as
officer va•ing is extremely uork constantly people, conditions under time, of such factors
to
as
•'}, •: •, • •J• •" •j• }• place." Gaimush6 and keisatsu kv6zaikai ed., Gaimush6 keisatsukan
•'•- •-• •) • •,
I• •" • • •" }•; •¢kurnu (Reference sank6sho Work the Duties of the Consular
on
(Tokyo: Police) Eibund6, 1933), 64-65.
pp.
37 Pac!lqc of Problems the 1929, 194. p.
•,
• •" • s• 5t• •
;• • hyakunen N" • Gaimush6 1• hensan iinkai shi Gaimush6
ed.
no
•'•, })} • •" •vaknnen N" (Centenar?.' Minist•), Foreign of the (Tokyo: shob6, ¢O vols. Hara 2
1969). 1. 433.
p. v. ]9
police police consular Siam, consular officer remained other Japanese in who still all one
stationed China. in 3•
were now
by and
Shanghai
1884, police in Consular stationed the Consulate first at
were
Zhifu, Suzhou, Tianjin,
consulate in China such offices other cities 1896
at proper,
as
acquired Chongqing, Hangzhou, forces.
Xiamen, A
their Shantou, and
commer- new own
specific of mention Qing made in between Japanese cial 1896 the and governments treaty
Chinese of local stating police, they operated only with the consular that
consent
police
right consular Japanese authorities, which the and this became the basis
to upon
*:' established.
was
occupation of of police Japanese
month Manchuria, within in consular
In
a came
cabled consul after the Niuzhuang during 1904, of the Russo-Japanese in
the
summer
war
arriving nationals considering of Japanese influx Tokyo police, the with for the
request
help policemen
him
received 41 day businesses. small He settle and to two
to start
every
stationed the police rapidly be community. burgeoning Consular administer the at to
came
throughout the like gradually
and the rail major cities Manchuria, in and outposts
to
more
Chinese entirely without occurred Meiji beginning this of Taish6. of and the But end not
Zhengjiadun
being in
1916. resistance, the notorious
at
most
case
from easily determined police is discipline propriety officers of these The and not
of beginning, them
Certainly, the in least available. the materials
at were some
sparse
small police
became
consular however, the locally. time recruited As
went a
on,
promotion, there and deportment and by of itself, governed bureaucracy strict rules in
was
police
the in of police and the other
fluidity force degree this of between
arms some
police prominent in of role pointed empire. 4-" the has Lewis Gann Japanese out
43 This colonial opposed empire
other administrating Western Japanese the to as
empire. held for the informal also
true
officers policemen and recruit examinations promote held Gaimush6 also The
to to
Ching- by
described •
ff• training institute, much captains (buch6
There ).
to as was a
constitutional learned recruits months police colonies, for three where for the in chih Chen
"•Ibid..
2. 1373-78.
pp. v.
*:'Ibid.
2. 1391-96.
pp. v.
women)
and (206 7 population reached 214 4• Japanese had
2, Ibid, The 1381-82.
as a
men pp.
v.
businesses Among the immigration of China. other from traffic result of militar-, and ports
new
foodstuffs,
specializing goods, and general in five eight o'okan,
in nine businesses two sweets
were
meal and shipping
soybeans, soybean shipping firms photographers, barbers, agents, t•vo two txvo
construction bank, and coal, doctor
contractor. one one one
Empire, Myers and in the Control Systems in 4: Ching-chih and Community Chen, "Police See
University Press, Princeton (Princeton: Empire. Japanese Colonial 1895-1945 eds.. The Peattie.
description police. Chen's of unfortunately consular does mention 213-40, which 1984), not
pp.
police. consular general picture of the police does the match and in Tai•van Korea Japanese
Comparisons," ibid, Preliminar?' in Colonialism: Some Japanese 43 and Gann. "'Western Lexvis H.
515. p. 20
treaties
of the
the China,
in
affairs regulations, nature
police
law, criminal and current
police police officer Siam, who still remained consular
Japanese all other consular in
one
-•
and regulations, It
Gaimush6
martial Chinese,
more.
Japan,
and
China
arts,
between
China.
stationed
in 39
were
now
qualifications
of
better
and other
levels
educational
high
relatively
likely the that
police
by Shanghai
Consular first stationed and Consulate 1884, the in
seems at
were
of police. 45
One
consular
the
for
held
by also Chert described
police
true forces
colonial
Zhifu, Suzhou, Tianjin,
other cities in
consulate offices China such
18c•6
at
proper,
as
of police
forces
the findings
for
Chen's police
consular
of
telling the links to the Hangzhou, Chongqing, Shantou,
acquired Xiamen, their and forces. A
more
commer-
new
own
(particu-
leadership
places,
these
both
in that is Manchukuo, for and also
colonial specific Korea Qing
cial between mention of
Japanese the and in made 1896
treaty
governments
police
the
in
the
officers) for
indigenous
new
than
rather
Japanese of
larly police, stating in Chinese operated only
they consular of local that
with the terms
consent
in
disbanded,
in 1904
it
when
police force
consular initially the from
drawn
regimes authorities, police
right this and consular Japanese became the basis which the to was upon
Manchuria.
in in and 1937 4°
established.
Korea
was
police who
consular
the
it Incident,
Manchurian
the before
least was
However, occupation Manchuria, of
police of Japanese month In at
consular in within
came a
directly likely
is
This
condemnation.
most
the for
by
singled greatest the Chinese
Niuzhuang during consul cabled
Russo-Japanese after the 1904, of the the in out
were
summer
war
along the
cities
and
significant
only
towns Manchuria, their at
related, in not Tokyo arriving police, considering nationals Japanese the of with presence influx to
for the
request
Japanese
of
machinations
beyond the
thought
be
locations
interior
to railways, but
policemen day help
him and received at settle 41 small businesses.
He
to
to
start two
every
Korea, contiguous
Jiandao to
the around
centered initially
imperialists.
area, The
protests
police
burgeoning community. rapidly the administer the be stationed
Consular
at
to
came
population
growing
unfairly
claimed, protect
interfered, it
police
a consular
to major throughout where
gradually Manchuria, cities like the rail and in the and was
outposts
to
more
police
follow
consular
Japanese
Koreans wherever
charge is that
"The
go,
beginning Meiji entirely of without Chinese Koreans. and end of Taishr. this occurred the of But
not
of
Zhengjiadun
Incident
so-called
subject the is
the for
classicus locus
the ''• Zhengjiadun
being resistance, But the them. notorious in 1916.
most
at
case
discipline easily propriety from police determined
and of officers The is 1916.
these
not
Japanese
by the
privilege
of
extortion
mark
itself did
incident Certainly, beginning,
the
of The available. materials in them not least the
new a
at
sparse
some
were
brought
the
it
but
matter
"interior" police
in
consular
right station
areas, police regarding locally. their
however, recruited became small
time the consular As
to
went
a
on,
Japanese
1916,
13,
August
On attention.
&bilateral spotlight a
police bureaucracy promotion,
by deportment itself, governed
there units
in and
strict rules of and &these
to
a
was
by
beaten crowd,
pitch
public up sales
his
having was finished police to
fluidity police peddler, degree in a
of the of between force the other
this and medicine
some arms
SMR
the
from
railway far
Chinese
the away Zhengjiadun,
police prominent 4-• of in in pointed soldiers empire. role Japanese
Lewis has the Chinese town Gann
on
a
out
local
sought the
police, in
who
out
consular
turn local
appealed the empires.
43 empire administrating This opposed colonial railway Japanese He the other
Western
to
to
zone. as
angrily
reacted
Chinese
The action.
Chinese
the commanding officer
protest empire. also held for informal
the Chinese to
true
dead.
Chinese
and
Japanese leaving five conflict,
armed one into policemen escalated officers Gaimush6 affair The examinations recruit and also held and the
promote
to
to
Guandong
replaced
by
only be
withdrew,
batallion a • Ching- to •, by Chinese captains described
(buch6 the training
incident, institute, ). There much
the
After
to
as
was a
•7 residents.
Japanese "protect" the
constitutional moved in police learned colonies, chih Chen for recruits that
unit
the where for three months in Army
to
clear
made
government Japanese the incident,
this of diplomatic aftermath
the In
southern of
interior
police the in consular regarding
expectations
and intentions
its
Hayashi
Minister by
delivered
communication
Mongolia, in
Inner and Manchuria a
eastern
•k•(•l• Beijing: in Gonsuke
police
Japanese
station
it considers
to Japan
of
Imperial necessary 41 Government women)
Ibid., Japanese population (206 2, The The reached and 7
1381-82. had 214
pp. a as
men v.
subjects.
protecting
their
and controlling of
own
the
regions for
immigration businesses Among
from China. result of traffic of the these and other militarx, in purpose officers
ports
new
the
stationed
in
already been
have police officers
Japanese of
O,'okan, number
foodstuffs, general eight goods, specializing
that fact nine businesses five and
in in is
It
t•vo
sweets
a were
a
the
of
officials
local
by
recognized the
been have they
and photographers, Manchuria shipping shipping South barbers, meal and soybeans, firms sovbean of interior agents, t•vo two two
bank, coal, doctor and construction
contractor. one one one
4_•
Ching-chih Communit3. Chen, Empire," See "Police Control and and Systems the in Myers in sankOsho, 103. keisatsukan.lhkumu 44
Gaimush6 p.
Japanese Empire, University, (Princeton: Peattie, eds., Press, Princeton The Colonial 1895-1945
220-27. Control," unfortunately description police. Community
1984), 213-40, which does consular Chen's of mention and "Police pp. Ching-chih chen, 4• not
pp.
police general picture police. Japanese of the Taiwan does the consular in match and Korea
195. Pac!/ic of
1929, • the
Problems p.
4_• Comparisons," ibid., Colonialism: Preliminary in Japanese Gann. Lewis and Some H. "'Western
1917,2.
and 1916.2
vols. gaik6 bunsho,
Nihon Also 1383-84. 515. •
1I.
GNH. p. p. v.
21 20
railway carriage, blowing Zhang plot his by succeeded in its murder Zuolin to
up
repeatedly, asking Guandong if telephoned consular the authorities Consulate-General the
outlaying localities police
various protection since forces citizens concerned as in
intercourse sufficient maintain for been has conducted between them.
to
areas were
fl• ,• •'N •k calmly replied his staff KsaSjir6 Hayashi of and Manchuria. Consul-General
also
It
"stationing asserted police that of officers containment of the right greatly
in the corollary is but time aided hand, of the situation each that the of in and this
was
a
was
extraterritoriality." right
This by denied Guandong Army moved
Incident, the incident. Chinese the official Manchurian this 1931, time of the the and In
government
at was
position
remained
unaltered. 49
risking phone without s• calls consulates,
to
any
The
weakness of Japanese the sustaining imperialistic insistence police for Japanese aggressive
Looking beyond consular forces
Manchuria, in- and the
on case
was
creasingly
evident with passing
the rights
of time. for police increasing demand forces, Japanese Conference Chinese At 1929, consular IPR in conflict
with the
in
recovery,
an
even
R6yama scholars • kid 3• • Masamichi 5•: incident 1"-• •!• 3:[2: This
Chengdu Junpei of and publicly Shinobu Incident
1936. incident, be illustrated with conceded another the
yet
can
that
the
Chinese
Chengdu
in the had delegates which
claiming further, pressed Chinese in office consular
Japanese centered around the initiative
correct matter. were
to reopen a
that the police
consular popular "enabled Japanese defy jurisdiction," nationals and Chinese and laws Chinese The of the Manchurian Incident. in government closed the wake
to
Japanese that and
nationals
protection used the office. the
refuse Ministry's efforts of vehemently Foreign flaunt and sentiment
resisted the payment
to
taxes to
to open
municipal
regulations,
:•-
freely
and also opium position) • Eiichi
diplomatic Iwai Beyond trade in • • that: Eventually, minor
shokisei "non-career" (a to
some
or arms. or
police
and --Jz]: officers • of consular Chengdu the travelled in some
to
company
Individual
Chinese
members offered killed particular who evidence through. cite mobs journalists
job of Chinese Chinese
The force the A Japanese two to up to rose
cases.
spoke member
with of...an emotion
incident •-' Japanese which it
in said
that
mission. injured his woman badly Iwai
before others and
was
two up gave
men
police
suspicion
without and
went Chinese
Chinese expansionist
of the citizen in aggressive upon
played aspect
incident, to arrest the warrent this Iwai
a In
a out
or
failing territory and.
him,
find
arrested father, and tortured his
shortly played who died after to
be resolution would police force, but its
with aid of the consular consular role the
s°
release,
bring about of mediator role Yateki the in by Horiuchi Consul-General peace
to
out
negotiated the riot end
parties. described the Horiuchi Japanese
Chinese and to between
Only
the
police consular
enpowered
apprehend
criminals
soil, Chinese
to
were
injury.
involving and on murder N
incident • anti-Japanese
"ordinary" (•a.s# of
and
that
as
the but police four forces Manchuria--namely, in
police,
guards, railway consular the
the
will further
section s•
The quickly acquiesced settlement,
in
Both next
governments
a
municipal
the police along railway,
the
garrison and Guandong the
Army
the
in
troops
community
dealings
Japanese with the peacekeeping in his of the consul
role
illuminate the
Guandong
Territory--were Leased indistinguishable. often Only police
consular the
were
in China.
truly
organization. railway Both
guards, separate large stationed numbers in in
a
towns
along railway,
the municipal police and
nothing ordinary than
soldiers drawn
were
more
from Guandong the Army.
numbers,
of police In the consular counted in the terms Communi
Japanese
the Resident
Consul and The O,
hundreds, with
force small
consulate, each
Guandong while Army the
at a to
up
was
13,000 in
force.
often police chief, consul
investigator,
the
and
judge,
chief
his roles In
was
as
The
conflict
in
Manchuria
in late the between
consuls and 1920s
also
army
his role
in
resolution. calling
for restraint
In merely situations reactive contrast,
as
to
or
from stemmed
refusal the
of various consuls subordinate police their
units consular
to
to
the desires Guandong the of
Army.
Unless
Guandong
crisis
forces
Army
to arose, a
were • •
•
• Murders,
2ig
• (Plots, • • • )\.
gunt6
• Inb6 Morishima Morito
ansatsu
their
in
Territory.. in stay the
and
Leased
1928, the In
time when the
zone
at
army also Young C. reprinted Walter 1960), shinsho, 24. 1950: notes Iwanami Tokyo: Weaponr?.')
p.
places railway
proceeded outside the guards, have railxvav "'Japanese called how to areas
troops,
officers." See
4• consular opposition Japanese
of against
Translated the right in
Young, C. of Walter railway
Japanese the
and Jurisdiction South Railway Manchurian Areas, in
xvav even
p.
Complete 296.
Jurisdiction, of 294. important the Japanese documents concerning rights Japanese texts
most consular
p.
to
police
Chinese and denial
• of
jiken them • f•: • • • • "Yeikaton
6fuku • • bunsho"
are
in the consular also
details
Relevant
Taiheo,6 3, 190-201.
-•-•
is (Correspondence
sens6,
The best Zhengjiadun
the pp. account Incident), Gaimush6, in
v. ed.,
gaik6 Nihon
nenpy6
narabi
on
ni
6r)]-'-•Ji
,•,,
[N •
(Memories • of •"
Shanhai
Kais6 Eiichi
lwai •i • • •1• memoirs: 5•E officials shuy6
Et -• • • •- 2Y•7. bunsho (Chronolo•"
• no
•, Important
and
Japanese Documents of
•
:•1•, -• Ch•goku •
Tateki
Horiuchi and
405-35: 1983), (Tokyo: Shanghai) Izumi insatsu.
Diplomacy)
(Tokyo:
shob6, Hara 1965-66),
pp. 1,
427-31.
pp.
v.
1950), Gannensha, (Tokyo: • •
• Tempest) 1•
Chinese
(Amid
•2"
the
r) de naka
6 c7) arashi
no no
•'•
5•, •
•-•
(Materials •j• in Contem-
49
shio•6
reproduced Apparently Gendaishi in
police consular
places Documents
in 101-03.
civilian
Clothes being and did
many
pp. not wore
carry
arms,
180-94,
310-12. shob6, 8, #1,
1964), (Tokyo: considered of Histol3.') the Misuzu
Young, staff; consular
Japanese part Jurisdiction, pp. 299. In concessions v. porar?
see
p.
perhaps and
Manchuria,
in
they
have
the
uniforms depicted
and the in to
seem
worn weapons
de,
102-03. naka •
Ch•goku arashi
fukumu Horiuchi. Gaimush6
keisatsu sank6sho, ft. pp. 168 no no pp.
Pac!lqc. of
Problems the 1929, 192-193.
pp.
23 22
railway carriage, blowing Zhang by plot succeeded his its in Zuolin murder
to
up
Guandong repeatedly, asking telephoned the consular if authorities Consulate-General the
outlaying police protection various
forces for citizens in sufficient maintain
to
areas were
g4k//72 •/• fl[• calmly replied of staff Hayashi KyOjir6 and his Manchuria. Consul-General
of greatly time each in containment the aided the hand, situation this that the and in
was
Guandong moved incident. Army Incident, 1931, the time of Manchurian the In the at
risking -• phone without calls consulates.
to any
imperialistic Looking insistence beyond Japanese aggressive Manchuria, and the
on
rights police forces, increasing demand for consular Chinese conflict with in the recovery,
incident This Chengdu of Incident incident, 1936. be illustrated with another the yet
can
Chengdu which had in office centered Japanese consular the initiative around
to reopen a
popular and Chinese closed the wake of Incident. in The Manchurian the government
office. Ministry's the vehemently Foreign efforts
sentiment resisted the
to open
;•
• position) diplomatic Iwai Eiichi • • Eventually, minor shokisei (a "non-career"
or
police
--• •- officers and
Chengdu of consular travelled the in to some
company
killed mobs who journalists job
through. Chinese The Japanese force the
two
up to rose
C-" injured badly his mission. before lwai
and others
two
up gave men
expansionist of the aggressive
played incident, this Iwai the aspect In out
or
played resolution would be police force, but its with of consular consular role the aid the
bring about of mediator by Tateki in the role Consul-General Horiuchi to peace
out
negotiated riot the end parties. described the Horiuchi Japanese Chinese between and to
injury. involving N murder and
anti-Japanese • "ordinary" @a.s# incident of and that
as
further section •-• will
quickly acquiesced The settlement. in Both next
governments
a
community dealings Japanese with peacekeeping the of his in illuminate role the consul the
in China.
Communi Japanese Resident Consul and the The O'
often police chief, investigator, consul
the
judge, and chief his roles In
was
as
in his role calling resolution.
for restraint
merely situations In reactive contrast, to as or
• • • • • • •. 7J • (Plots, )\. Murders. s• gunt6 lnb6 Morishima Morito ansatsu
Young also reprinted 1960), C. Walter 24. shinsho. Weaponr?.') 1950: Tokyo: lwanami notes
p.
proceeded places the rail•vav
outside guards, have "'Japanese railway hmv called to troops,
areas
See
officers." opposition consular Japanese of against right the of the railway and
even •¥av
Japanese Jurisdiction. 294. p.
the consular
in details also •-" Relevant 190-201. 3,
Taghetv6
is
sens6, The best
pp. account
v.
•: _]2 •
• NI •" • (Memories of Shanhai r) Ka•s6 6 Eiichi officials memoirs: lwai
no
p• -• t)•, Cht•goku • Tateki and Horiuchi 1983), 405-35: Shanghai) (Tokyo: insatsu, Izumi
pp.
•
Gannensha, (Tokyo: c• • 1950), •
Tempest) (Amid Chinese
"•' the
6r) arashi naka de •
no no
.•n • '[• • • (Materials
in Contem- sh•o•6 reproduced Gendaishi in 101-03. Documents
pp.
180-94, 310-12. 1964). #1, shob6. Histor?.) (Tokyo: 8, Misuzu
pp. pora• v.
de, •3
Chz•goku naka 102-03. arash• Horiuchi.
pp. no no 23
head of Japanese the community resident leaving creative, he behind could be
him
on
departure
lasting
collective community, just
his of of office the in
term a memory as an
might elected
opposition in this further role also encountered In he mayor town. to any
interference and in community, his agencies from Japanese other the work in such the
as
military banks, representatives, the associations, often called for and who trade
more
against aggressive action advantage. Japanese authorities local achieve to
Following Nanjing British informal Treaty the rise the of of which 1842
gave
empire China,
original five in consuls Of opened. British the treaty sent ports to
were
aggressively
Xiamen, reside these in them, Harry of in 1852 Parkes ports,
at one
parcelled negotiated section be first waterfront the of concession small the
to terms area, a
subjects Chinese local British the for from residential business and among purposes,
subjects only British Here, intendant. in rule and concession British the law
to area, was
extraterritoriality permitted
became innovation
Parkes's
property.
to
soon were own on
foreign
by foreign practice, Initiated s4
This concession of
the customary start
a
areas. was
Japanese foreign offices. the governed they consul, consular For would also remain from
which often residential of China, concession the heart communities the
in
areas
areas were
spilled beyond far formal borders.
out
dispersement of explained evolution and the Peattie Mark summarized and has best
clarified in 1896 Japan's • formal concession
of these Most
agreement
an were areas.
specific legal documents following Sino-Japanese and in local and later the
more
war
question • city ]• specified of in clearly sections the •) (torikime which g) ). These latter
and
details of the Japanese concession
management become the
to area,
new were
specified in the infrastructure, also roads, buildings, and construction of and other
manner
proposed community build the from the funds which would consul collect the to
amenities.
settlement. responsibility of Japanese affairs the for all the consul had ultimate The
major
the directly office. from his In might affairs communities, he these smaller
In
run
7g ]k
• (Nihonjm kai Association" "Japanese authorized concession the consul
areas, a
• group), "•', which • expatriate .• [] citizens' kyoryt•
mindan referred
also
to
or as a
supervising schools, controlling and collecting funds managed settlement, and bv the
rules facilities. The communal meeting cemeteries, and other shrines, halls, crematories,
consul, of the spelled absolute always the these associations of Japanese out power
within decade. •4 Chinese cities in other
extracting concession six other Parkes continued, a areas
Press, 1988), 115. Oxford University York: (Ne• Consuls Coates. D. The China P. p.
eds., Myers, Duus, Peattie, and st China." Settlements in in "Japanese Treaty Port Mark Peattie.
major details of Includes and China, Informal Empire 172-86. Japanese The in maps pp.
concession areas.
sank6sho, keisatsukanfi•kumu 48-56,
Tianjin • Gaimushd in Agreements and Hankou for pp.
are
thorough also
gaik6 181-85. More nenpy6 narabi Hangzhou, Nlhon for
m, and
coverage, see
pp.
:•
•(•[ •- • v•j£ lJ" • (Studies kenk3,•7 the • •
•,2 CO
okeru soka• Toshio, Shina Ueda ni on
no
316-23.343-48.374-91. Gansh6d(3, (Tok.vo: China) 1941).
in Concession Areas pp. 24
vetoJ reflected in his of review supplied and Often the consul slate of the powers
for candidates elected offices,
he and Japanese language also had control of in
press any
thc concession.
Many of Japanese the residential communities in China have left histories other and
of their
settlements that form Japanese valuable record of the
accounts
presence prewar a
in China. all of them In the highlighted headquarters role of central the consul is the of
as
communityJ
the Fengtian's early example, In settlement, actually for the consul
suspended first Japanese the prior association which had formed formed his arrival and
to
auspicesJ
entirely
his under
9 Andong, Manchurian the in the In 1910s
one
town at
a
border,
the Korean Shigeru struggled consul Yoshida business Japanese
young promote to
through arbitrary his of unelected active work
and
support
management
group an on
large joint
behalf&
lumbering Tianjin 6° Also Consul- in 1910s, the venture
a company.
Yfikichi/J\•[l• • General Obata
develop by worked land the concession hard in
to area
working financing developers creative for for from the Yokohama out arrangements
Specie
Bank
and by fees until also
recovered He amnesty entrepreneurs. costs
on were
forced
the of Japanese time, into 6• Also this the
two
merger at newspapers young one.
• 3:• •'_• I• Harbin
consul Sat6 Naotake frontier hard worked the settlement of clean to
up
the concession prostitution where large houses of numbers of Chinese and attracted
area,
foreigners. ordering By dilapidated buildings the all rebuild their in the "restaurants"
to
Japanese style, complete genkan
with tatami, congratulated changing and Sat6 himself
on
the clientele the of establishments Japanese into from who this "relaxation" needed
men,
vigors pioneering of the in eventually, Manchuria. 62 These last consuls would three
young
front-ranking become leaders experiences Japan, in and their semi-colonial administrative
running
communities in
pro-,amglo-American China
contributed have their
to may
or
liberal diplomacy. Japan's outlooks international on
these 57 See. example, • :•v }-----g if: for Tianjin • [] rules for kvorvfi Tenshin in mindan ed..
1•_ 10,or3,•7 5• @ • •: TenslTin N • • • [] N • lanen mindan sh•Tnen sanj• shi •
(Commemorative History Tianjin (Tianjin: of Thirty Association). Years of the Residents
privately printed
by appendix. the 1941). Association. Ueda, okeru, in 723-29. Also Shina
ni pp.
-•s :,•, 7!• •1 ff• • See, }g 5• )v fie. for example, • Fukuda Nihonjm [] Minoru Mans&• sh• H6ten
(History.' of Japanese Fengtian, the Manchuria) (Tokyo: Kenk6sha, in 1975), and Shanhai kvorxa3
• • J• [], J• mindan]z •i• • ]• J•: [] k ed., Shanhai ]2 3'or3,•7 Ionen rmndan san.lt•gonen sh•
-•
k•_ -[- ,•,=e: •,, •g _• Thirty-five (A Commemorative Japanese Shanghai Account of of the Years
(Shanghai: privately Association) Residents published Association, by the 1942).
.•9
Fukuda. N*honjin Mansht• H6ten shi. 66-67.
pp.
6•,
Masamichi, Hy6den Shigeru. lnoki 1, Yoshida Yoshidas
120-26. vision that if
he
pp. v. was
Japanese
empire gain succeeded
"'the would then direct indirect of control the in all greater part
or
of production
the lumber Hokkaid6, of East--in the Taiwan, Far Manchuria," and 126.
areas p.
6•
Yt•lachi, Obata 64-68.
pp.
6-• -1- • • N Hach(Binen 71, Sat6 Naotake, Eighty' Kaiko (Reminiscences of Years) (Tokyo: Jiji
tsfishin 1963), sha. 142-48. pp.
mediating
in role consul's
the of examination strengthened by
is This argument
Japanese and
of
Western powers concession
between
often
areas which disputes arose
the
riots
after
and during
role conciliatory on
highly played
Obata 1913,
In settlements.
a
neighboring
of the gendarmes
of the intrusion
protesting the
residents
Japanese
of
part
Consul-General
the incident
this During concession.
Japanese the concession
into
French
prevent
Japanese additional to
troops
police and
consular
his
call
forced
to
on
was
again
in occurred
this
such
Rampages 63
Frenchmen. attacking
as
citizens from
Japanese
conflict mediated
also
Ishii Consul-General
a Shanghai 1936, in
elsewhere. Tianjin In and
Japanese
this
''6•
In
Pacific "mock case,
termed later
war. he
into what escalated which
a
Shanghai
representation the
unfair
their
considered
on they
what residents
at
angry
were
felt
Japanese
governed settlement. the which body international Council, the Mixed
compromise and
of policy
of
results
the from
settlement
the saved a have alone they
whittled
steadily
surrender
been have would safeguards
rights and foreign
which under
of
the control
of question
the
surrender
prevented weak
have on xYho they
is It
a
axvav.
principle of the
prevented
£nlv the
outside
has xYhich opposition
their it is recently
roads.
Chinese admi•istrativ£ whereby
agreement
bv breached
being an
settlements
autonomy
inspectors factor3.
Chinese
and
establishments foreign
applied
be to
laws factory
to were
6•
to
boundaries.
settlement the within
allowed
operate be to were
the in
another
gain
attempted seat association
to Japanese advice, the
Ishii's
Against
previous
their
in
decrease find
only
council,
mixed
to
a the for
elections
international
plagued
also
time
the
Ishii, solidarity.
at overall
Western representatives
due
of
to number
sympathy
little
had
constituents, of his
militancy
the stemming from
problems other with
6•, them.
for
the
communities in resident
representatives
and
diplomatic
between tension
The
Pelcovits's
Nathan experience.
Japanese
the
unique
of to is
not ports,
treaty course
devoted
explicitly
although
to Office,
t•2)reigTt
the
and Hands China OM study,
eloquent
and nationalistic,
conservative, the
illuminates admirably
still differences,
London-China
job ports, the
day-to-day in
treaty
the 67 On
communities. of port character treaty militant
235-38.
mmdan, k3,or3.•
Tenshm
pp. and 69-70: e'., YzTtachi. Obata pp.
197-202.
is'sh&
Gaikdkan • Ishii. pp. no
Community."
Japanese
entitled
Resident" Shanghai
'A
by article Quoted 6•
in
an
449-57.
1936). (December
Japan V.3 pp. Contempora O,
Nis-
"'Saikin
in
Shanghai settlement
no
of the
management in conflict this
summed
6• Itar6
lshii
up
relations),
Sino-Japanese
(On
{• •
recent =• • •2 •t •_
•,• •9 •
• tsuite"
ni
kankei
Shi
• (Transcripts
•-•
•
• •gh •], • •,
7•
•
t6sha
•,6kai
k6en gaik6
speech. N•hon
September 1936
also Peattie
Mark
series). (unpublished
Association)
Diplomats
Japanese the
of
of Lectures
"the resembled
he which particular,
asserts
community in
Shanghai
of the
militantcv
the
discusses
206-08. iZrench 1950s,"
late the Algiers in pp. in colons population of resident
King's
Cro•aa
York: (New
Ofl•ce
Foreign the
and Hands"
China Old Pelcovits. •7 A. Nathan
1948). Press. 26
concession most-favored-nation
arising other with conflicts often handled consuls
very
privilege in vis-/•-vis
nationalism residents' of the by-products
often communities that
were
the and host
residents
Japanese tensions between restrain They acted also China.
to
have
put job
than
often consul's to
the not
population. either Chinese seems In more
case,
surprising,
hardly
aggressive
It constituents. restraining
his role of him the in
seems
more
of
restraint policy of developed this large by and diplomats service the
China then, that
restraint
Japan that
advice consistent at their into administrative micro-level their use posts
well. interaction nation-to-nation of macro-level the as
Koreans Resident the Consul and The
massive
with the barely dealt has
China, and
Korea
scholarship Japan,
date, To
on
colonial
Japanese of
advent peninsula with the
of
their of Koreans
out
own movement
particularly
the
Japan,
who
about Koreans
Probably to as is known control. came
more
Japanese
in minority deprived
oppressed
and today, group subject of Japanese Koreans
an
little
6s
However, attention. academic journalistic and receiving wider gradually society, is
who
million Koreans approximately to
the came done
has been two work
concrete on
colonial
during
the Korean China North Manchuria and industry in agriculture and
in work
all of Koreans
fully 11.6 "by
percent pointed 1944 were that: period. has been
It out
populations
and
unequalled Eastern by other Far proportion residing outside Korea,
a
''':'•
world. of the in rarely matched other
parts
colonial
during
the Manchuria
and China
who
of these Koreans
The
to
came story
important
in changes
important induced
certainly
they First, several for period
is
reasons.
today's North Second,
China. North of all
of if Manchuria
of local
not the
economy
formative
and
beginnings its had II-Song,
particularly
Kim leadership, but
Korean
most
lying
Manchuria
provinces of three the in active guerrilla resistance
experience in the
their Third, Andong). 7•'
Tonghua, and presence (Jiandao, was
contiguous Korea proper to
'[a•
f•
•7. i•
Nihon CO
sh• • kindai
Ch6sen
•. Takashi Hatada to
include •'•
books
Some
no
recent
•]i
Higuchi
Yfiichi
1987):
shob6,
(Tokyo:
Yamato History)
7g
512.
Modem [3 Korean and (Japan •
"soshik•
N
f• i• )\ • N-• T •
•J•
• •'•
ken•
Ch6senjin
senjika •. tOsei Kv6wakai. V1 no
•'(The
Wartime) during
Koreans Control
of the Era of
Studies •] •fl: Societw: Concordia
over
¢O
Which •j•
7]•
•j
(Yi
Yuhan
Japan: Ri domestic with
only deals 1986). insatsu. (Tokyo: Mitsuwa
•0 7•
Yu-h'wan), •
CO CO relashi genjitsu
chos6ren
san./•dosen: rnindan,
to
naka Nihon
no
no no
of League
Korean of the Histor?. Japan: • A • in • (Thirty i• Degrees {• J• • -J9 • • --• CO
1980). Y6v6sha. (Tokyo: Association) Residents the
1981),
University Press,
(Princeton: Princeton War of Korean the Origins
69 Cumings, The
Bruce
Change in
and Distribution "Population
Zelinksky, Wilbur and
Trewartha quoting Glenn
54,
p.
1955). (January Geographical 45.1 Review 1925-1949," The Korea,
North Korean
subsequent
gestation
of the Manchurian
the of understanding
v0
is "'There
no
Manchuria:
Countermsurgeno• Chong-sik in Lee,
See also Origins, 38.
Cumings, leadership":
p.
gives
which 1967), Corporation,
Rand
CA: Monica, (Santa ]931-1940 Experience.
Japanese
The
documents. Japanese of relevent
through translations mostly army evidence fascinating _27
"neo-colonial"
of expansion
continuing
the for justification
and
another
yet
means
of
form
the
in China,
North and Manchuria in
administrative apparatus
Japanese
Japanese
Koreans, the Thus, "citizens."
as
Japanese of these
take
consulates to
care
Japanese.
native-born
consuls
Japanese of
the
under
as just much
subjects,
care
as were
indeed
and
residents,
were
outnumbered Japanese
far Manchuria in Koreans
who settlers
Japanese desired
the
for
substitute Manchuria
encouraged
to
to
to
move
population in
Korean of the
estimates
minimum
1928 By large
numbers.
in
came never
1930, 7•
In
million.
high
ranged
but 400,000,
a as
least
Manchuria it
as many
put at at
office
branch consular
in
work assigned
,i•
Muneyoshi
fir_ to
'-• a Oka
shokisei when was
,-•
region), the
border
town proximity of the
the in Fengtian and
far from (not Hailong
not
at
in
homes
other
usually at
who
shopkeepers, away Japanese contained were nominally
two
who
16,000 Koreans
of
the Oka,
according job, care real office's Fengtian. to The was
district]-"
the lived in
from recommendations
and legal bodies
international from Despite
pressures
period,
Koreans
were the
Affairs, in Asiatic prewar of
the Bureau in diplomats liberal
of
The 73 subjects. many
presence so Japanese
their
give permitted
status
as to up
never
expansionists
opportunity Japanese
much to
offered
Manchuria
in residents too
Japanese
by
control
colonial
formal
of it
administration,
expand Japanese some seeking
pretexts to
government. colonial
authority of the Korean
of the extension
Manchurian
of the
time Consul-General the
Fengtian
at
K•ynSjir6• who Ha-,/ashi
was
economic
that opinion
£tated
"the
that our time of the
was memoirs
his in
Incident,
of the
Much ''Ta
basis.
the
proceed
with
Koreans
Manchuria
as in development to
was
Japanese) therefore
(and
centered Korean
settlements
against Korean on
Chinese protest
dispute long-standing
had been which Manchuria,
southern a territory in
lease rights
to
outlined
first
had
post-1911
treaty
since
governments
Japanese
and Chinese a the
between
though
in
what permissable and not,
was reigned what
Confusion rights.
to was such as
government. Chinese recognized
by the
right
leases principle the
to was
the point
between
region
became border very sore jurisdiction the
in a
Japanese
first during the
tightened
Korea
grip
Japanese
over
governments
Japanese and Chinese
as
population,
area's
of
the
comprised 70%
to Koreans up twentieth
of the century. decade
1909
August
in
governments
the
signed
between
two
basis.,
that and
treaty
was
a
on
consular
special of opening
authorizing Japanese
and
the in
role Japan's recognizing
area
subjects in
Chinese
given the
offices]
status as Koreans same branch consular were and
background
of the
of
the
Commission
part
the Lytton
from
as
attention major
received topic w
The
7,
9. 6, Documents"
"'Supplementars no. Report. Commission
L•ton Incident. Manchurian
v_" intervie•. Oka,
allowing
that
1913 argued
in
Moritar6
Abe
194-196.
Pac!lqc
1929. of the
v• Problems
pp.
and
Japanese
between disputes the
of
end would
Chinese
naturalized
many be Koreans as to
Manchuria. in Chinese
Hayashi, 82. p.
324-25.
318-20.
1,
narabi
nenp3'6 gaik6 m. pp. Nihon
in v. both documents of Text 2•
supervision. joint region, legal Japanese Chinese the but and handled with be
to cases were
following national widespread Later, the in and in disturbances wake of 1920 1919 a
uprising
in in withdrawal 1922, in After their Japanese entered Korea, the
troops
area.
"police position, originally
thirteen addition in offices the and branch consular to
new
police the place. in
7• stations" Japanese locations in The dense left in
presence
new were
Manchurian
Japan down the remained China and friction of between
to area a
source
Incident.
organized also China
and North communities Manchuria The in
Korean
were
• i• ,,• flk ultimately ) (Chosenjin kai Associations under the administration of Korean
communities these by watched Japanese who consuls controlled the 77 consuls. The
over
Korea) S6tokufu in functionary
region of the (and the Jiandao in the consul also
was a
settlers.
To regard deeply problems the supervisory with Korean involved in
to were
Senjin futei
also
significant resident of the Koreans make number
matters
were worse, a
activists, Chong-sik phrase, "recalcitrant Koreans." Korean translation of the in Lee's
or,
seriously Hailong dormitory 1932, in police example, for attacked the consular at
plagued far
been general
have wounding consuls four in 7•
But to
more
seem
men.
of activities economic agricultural and relating settlement seriously problems with the to
the Koreans.
bringing
rice originally for celebrated Manchuria in The Koreans wet
were
hitherto-unused, low-lying, and Through diligent work into the Northeast. cultivation
on
agriculture wet-rice
of their
opened 30% they 1923, land. In moist
was up areas, new
communal increased problems which brought farming. however, Their
success, new
developed
began lands
take back they landlords settled. Chinese tensions the in
to
areas
contiguous disputed irrigation between increasingly became settlers, by and Korean waters
settlements.79 Chinese and Korean
opium
quantity the in cultivated cash The other Koreans great poppy.
was crop
Jilin in starting centered 1917, in opium cultivation,
of Korean An amount enormous
•, PTff • •
• •
hashu•st•/o
(keisatsukan 7.• Hayashi, stations" j•lTen, ManshzT "'Police 85.
are
p.
than elaborate
English be they had "'police but called boxes the in often to texts,
more
•. • Japanese k6ban domestic contemporar?
• ,•
shakaika naimukvoku s6tokufi• 77 Ch6sen in conmaunities
is infomaation Korean The best
on
• j•+[ 77A [• Chdsenjin r• •" j!i6 •)• •i• ;•± •'•. •1•, ,'• okeru Sh•beria chil•6 Mansh•7 ovobi ni
comp..
!IF t• Siberian • J5 !• ,,• ./k Manchurian and in of •" I] (The Conditions Koreans • • • .,-<
associations,
of these charters Keij6 of the (Seoul: 1923). the Locales) insatsusho. For pp. text see
191-244.
Manchuria, patriot's experience both v• in fascinating of Korean Oka. intervie•v. A oral account
a
Japanese scholars. fighter, recorded by has been
resistance
bum and dog, n-and-out
two
as
a as a
,•:•'•, 0mura N_•{]•, J• •,-j'_• ;• Hy6n-p'yo k6- eds., Aru Kim
Yomoki
and Nanri Masuo
•z•lfi)• •]•jj• •,
H
lib
7• k•se/•7../hte• sh6gen •7) Sen.lln und6ka Nichi
no
no
(Tokyo: R•a•kei Korean)
Recalcitrant of Activist: Anti-Japanese Testament
(The Miracle of a
an
1978). shosha.
Ch6senjin. 7.° 122-140. oyobi okeru chih6 Shiberia Mansh17 m pp.
both trafficking
into
opium
of business operated illicit the province
Manchuria. in Koreans
secondary
of
rise the and
standards living
many new causing Russia, in
rise and China
a
business
illicit
in
drifters Japanese
other and of Koreans •° establishment The businesses.
With the
1930s. in the traffic official
become later
would beginning of what marked
the
•
hands. colonial
into legalized and
put traffic opium
Manchukuo, of establishment
was
mid-
the China.
In smuggled
into
drugs, addition
commodities, in
Many other were to
which
China of
smuggling silver
out in
business illicit
there also
1930s,
great
a was
increasing
policy of
US of the
Chinese
the for effects harmful
economy exacerbated the
communal
of problems
rising
then,
the
consuls,
Japanese s-" exchange of silver, For the
rate
small
stemmed in
jurisdictions
their traffic in no contraband increasing
of
volume
and strife
off did
which bombs
ticking time go problems
These the from Korean were part presence.
Incident. Manchurian
of the
the
eve on
attempted
1936,
Tianjin in
in Consul-General •
• -T-
:1• when Tateki Horiuchi
).•
• Jk
]•
7f•
Senjm
@•ry6
Koreans"
"bad of large numbers against the action take to
recognized that He
"'bad
these
openly
that
proclaimed
who
those there circles,
military certain
•¥ere
among
•rotected
of expansion
of the foremrmers
the
they because be had Koreans"
were to
of by-products
be considering them
privileges, necessar). to rights and
Japanese
*a expansion of increasing Japanese power.
reclaimed
be land
these Koreans to relocate
scheme on devised nevertheless
to he But
a
households
•,-•,
1000 scheme,
his
). (tokui In
special talent farming, their paddy rice
for
enough
long Tianjin
in remained
Horiuchi guidance. Gaimush6 under resettled
would
be
in
interest little
had office
in
his relocated,
but
families such hundred successor
to one see
project. continuing the
responsibilities
in
his might take
consul
far how
example illustrates
This
a
fighting the
experiment,
this Horiuchi, in
community.
was managing resident
Korean
a
throughout the
do continue
would he
him, around
to sentiment
Japanese mainstream
as
Horiuchi and
like
Diplomats
China.
Tokyo in
position in
assigned
whether
or 1930s,
to a
long
China activities in
Japanese
opinions about
minority holding used Ishii became
to
began. expansion Japanese violent before
165-172. •'•' Ibid.. pp.
•
•
J• • •,
• '•
•7) •
.iissela
•.
teppai
Jigal h6ken i• • ,• ed.,
)•
gy6seiken Sangy6 • no
211-21.
1937),
(Manchukuo,
Extraterritorialit).') pp. Abrogation of of the Attainment (The
East
Effects
and Its
Policy America's Silver Policy:
on Open Door of the
•-• "A Test
Xi. Wang
Japanese
193421937." and
Chinese eds., American. Cohen,
Warren and
Irive Akira in
Asia.
"1931-1939 1990), Scholarly
Resources,
(Wilmington, Delaware:
Asm. Wartime Perspectives on
especially 36-39. pp.
105-08.
de,
naka
arashi
ChtTgoku 8• Horiuchi, pp.
no no
• ]b•d, 106. p.
light
bring
the only and the involving
incident The famous Koreans,
to to
most one
• of Incident 1931. Wanbaoshan
the problem Incident, of the Manchurian in accounts
was
dragged with incident
negotiations
this Incident, Like the Nakamura the no on
over
lay classic in the The intervened. September
18th resolution before of the
events cause
land and
rights
lease disputes of agriculture: the Koreans problems of Korean to over
over
community rights •6 their
to water.
brokers Changchun, Chinese jurisdiction
of consular Wanbaoshan, the in In
an area
landlords Chinese low-lying ground from of several thousand hectares of "leased"
an area
development
for
hundred relying methods, Koreans it and, illicit sublet
next to
over a on
by reclamation began the spring paddy 1931, rice fields. the of the Koreans of In process
nearly This work
site. the irrigation nearby river building channels from the to
was
regulations, about the looking other cooperative the completed, officials with
county way
provincial
authorities.
petition the
landlords three four local when protest to sent
a
or
negotiations with
kickbacks financial
prompted by breakdown in actions Their
over
a were
provincial
and local however, the motion, in brokers involved. Once Chinese the
set
work ordered the project and irrigation recognition of the reversed their tacit authorities
halted.
Tashiro Changchun Consul halting work, the Despite provincial for
requests
completed,
the and nearly irrigation facilities insisting responded by since the that
were
just he Koreans, the population
than
benefit wider of reclamation of the land to
a
was
Chinese
local aroused the position. landlords The the Chinese would next
oppose
river, of flooding the in irrigation result would work populace their that the with claims
plain
police
clothes. in consular several
in Tashiro that tensions and great
sent
grew so
the and
policemen into the sending by authorities countered Provincial seventy
area,
over
progressed
under slowly
work stand-off while Korean
forces bristled nations' at two a
vigilant their
eyes.
Tashiro
Consul
of level from the shifted Negotiations incident the settle
next
to
took
Ishii Itar6 Consul-General capital, provincial where authorities the and local
over to
problem Ishii which approach
the
hardline representation. taken Tashiro had Japanese
to
a
had personally felt the though Koreans substantially altered,
he
could be felt
not
now
of shii's dragged negotiations
because I Hayashi rights. felt the •7 Chinese violated on water
Incident,
the Nakamura in the assignment. • Just
enthusiasm for his of two lack
as new
point of view.
In find
investigations could which
deadlocked sides not common a
over
Japanese,
and Chinese
the local between conflict broke July, communal early violent out
a
immediately incident this However, lightly victims. resulting only wounded although in
Mukden, 143-44. Conspiracy • example, Yoshihashi. For at pp.
Ha.vashi,
97-107; Ishii
352-56; Hiroharu, Seki from • dra•s• &the is version My pp. pp. events
Itar6, 160-61. pp.
occupied his and
Manchuria
Army Guandong it the •7 aid would later Tashiro Ishii, 160. as p.
diplomats the 1930s. in
reform with associated would be name
s*
Havashi. 101. p. 31
reprisals "Chinatowns" fanned Chinese in attacked in itself, resident Korea where Koreans
Incident thus killing and several hundred. Wanbaoshan other in cities, The several
areas
helped Manchurian of the popular for for the action domestic the Korean stage support set
in the
China anti-Japanese around Incident. flared all in incidents also
In turn, up areas
of 1931.
summer
obstinate Tokyo and Hayashi slowly responding
desperately, tried between
a
also it diplomatically, by
August authorities, Chinese but resolve the incident too to
was
Guandong
the planting failure, and late for rice in all levels ended that Talks
at
year. any
of it aimed indignation, reaped Army benefits the Japanese of and aroused Korean at
some
Gaimush6, September. the when it moved in
administrator Japanese sole consul China the Manchuria, Japanese and the In
was
proved be This responsible communities. for welfare the and behavior of the Korean to an
problems. few A impossible the task, only their close consuls and could
to
most eyes
Japan's informal population solutions, that sought increasing also the but Korean meant
unmanageable empire becoming time
and
went on. as more more was
Conclusions
role in picture consul's presented Japanese of This
the has treaty port
essay a
encompassed
empire China imperialism Japan's in informal China. in man),
prewar
extraterritorial of legal agencies arbiter the interest Japanese and but
center
groups, or
brought their job with them posted
diplomats this privilege the consul. Gaimush6
to
was
coping with the greatly pride training in aided them institutional which and many
irregularities &this office in China.
be could protested history, consulates throughout that Gaimush6, The not prewar
consulate the China, distinction between the into colonial offices. port turned In treaty
confusing, points but might be outright administrative office
colonial and
some on
an
resisting
demands the steadfastly insisted
officials Gaimush6 consular nonetheless
one, on
further agencies
interest
and national of of their and actions host
to groups
own a
of the consular erosion
reality, the sovereignty. of encroach Chinese In
course, on
formal greatly agencies aided the authority competing time
from these to
move
over
increasing is, erosion--that however, this empire 1930s, Prior the the in 1930s.
to
Chinese rights--had greatly alarmed both sovereign Japanese encroachment China's
on
altogether, seeking end the nationalists
and who the Western system at
to
powers, were
effect, spiral
and of vicious partly
of it. subversion Japanese In due the least
cause to
a
expansionists
imperialism hastened Japanese of this the threat to port treaty to status
quo
occupation outright of of China in 1931. undertake the part 32