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Europa Kijkt Vooruit Europa kijkt vooruit de films van het Marshall Plan Laurens Hueting Promotor: Professor Bruno De Wever Leescommissarissen: dr Hans Krabbendam en dr Antoon Vrints Universiteit Gent Faculteit Letteren en Wijsbegeerte – Geschiedenis juli 2008 - 2 - Inhoudstafel Woord vooraf 9 Inleiding 11 Probleemstelling 12 1. De non-fictie film 12 2. Bijzonderheden en beperkingen van het medium 14 3. Film en historici 16 4. Afbakening van het onderzoek 20 DEEL I: Historisch luik Hoofdstuk 1: Historiografie van de Koude Oorlog 29 1. Traditionalisme en revisionisme 30 2. Post-revisionisme 30 3. De archiefrevolutie 32 4. Op zoek naar een nieuw paradigma 33 a) De comeback van de ideologie 33 b) Stalin tussen ideologie en Realpolitik 35 c) Een eerder revisionistische kijk 37 5. De eeuwige schuldvraag 42 Hoofdstuk 2: En wat na de oorlog? 44 1. Uitgangsposities 44 a) De Verenigde Staten 44 b) Het Verenigd Koninkrijk 47 c) De Sovjet-Unie 48 2. De oorlogsconferenties 51 a) Teheran en Jalta 51 b) Potsdam 53 3. Het Department of State 55 Hoofdstuk 3: Van Monroe- tot Trumandoctrine: de Amerikaanse visie op buitenlands 57 beleid in de eerste helft van de twintigste eeuw 1. “Checks and balances”: verdeling van de bevoegdheden tussen uitvoerende 57 en wetgevende macht - 3 - 2. Isolationisme vs. Internationalisme in de periode voor de Tweede 60 Wereldoorlog 3. De kentering tijdens WO II 63 a) Steeds nauwere betrokkenheid 63 b) De gevolgen van Pearl Harbor 65 c) Het paradigma verandert 66 d) Een verschuiving in de Senaat: de “bekering” van Arthur 67 Vandenberg 4. Stijgende spanningen 69 a) De perceptie van de Sovjet-Unie aan het einde van WO II 69 b) Een ommekeer in de perceptie 71 i. The Long Telegram 71 ii. Ontevredenheid over het multilateralisme 74 iii. De onvoorziene zwakte van Groot-Brittannië 75 5. De Trumandoctrine 76 a) Trumans toespraak 76 b) De Trumandoctrine in de Senaat 78 c) De Trumandoctrine in de Kamer 81 Hoofdstuk 4: De conceptie van het European Recovery Program 83 1. De Europese crisis 83 2. Integratie als oplossing voor de Europese problemen 85 a) De Fulbright-Thomas resolutie 85 b) De republikeinse visie van John Foster Dulles 86 3. De Council of Foreign Ministers 87 4. De Policy Planning Staff 87 a) George Kennans visie op de nieuwe taak en vorm van de diplomatie 87 b) Het “X Article”: George Kennan en ‘containment’ 90 c) Het eerste memorandum van de Policy Planning Staff 94 5. Claytons analyse 95 6. Marshalls toespraak aan Harvard 96 Hoofdstuk 5: Het Europese antwoord 100 1. De Franse en Britse reactie 100 2. De reactie in Moskou 101 3. De tripartite gesprekken voor de Conferentie van Parijs 104 4. Het Committee of European Economic Co-operation 107 a) De deelnemers 107 b) Structuur 108 c) Drie belangrijke geschilpunten 109 d) De Amerikaanse interventie 111 - 4 - Hoofdstuk 6: Het Marshall Plan in het Amerikaanse Congres 116 1. Institutionele activiteit in de Verenigde Staten 116 2. Het interim hulpprogramma 117 3. Het Marshall Plan in het Congres 119 a) Senaats- en Kamercommissies voor buitenlandse zaken 119 b) Plenaire vergaderingen 121 c) Binnenlandse factoren in de besluitvorming 122 Hoofdstuk 7: De politieke en economische invloed van het Marshall Plan 127 Deel II: Let’s go to the movies! Hoofdstuk 8: Films van het Marshall Plan: inleiding 141 1. De Information Division van de E.C.A. en haar Motion Picture Section 141 2. Productie en verspreiding 143 3. “The Marshall Plan Filmography” 146 4. Marshall Plan films in het Koninklijk Belgisch Filmarchief 147 a) Zoektocht 147 b) Vondsten 150 c) Categorieën 151 d) Opmerking 153 Hoofdstuk 9: Categorie A: Projectverslagen – Filmbeschrijvingen 154 1. Boer Pietersen schoot in de roos 154 2. De 4-H Club 158 3. De wonderlijke avonturen van een litertje melk 162 4. ERP in action 163 5. ERP in action nr. 1 163 6. ERP in action nr. 2 166 7. ERP in action nr. 3 170 8. ERP en action n° 5 172 9. ERP en action n° 6 175 10. Europe looks ahead 177 11. Herlevende landbouw 183 12. Het dorp dat niet sterven wilde 186 13. Houen zo! 189 14. Nieuw licht over Berlijn 192 15. Ons geliefde thuis 194 16. Terug naar huis 196 - 5 - Hoofdstuk 10: Categorie A: Projectverslagen – Thema’s en boodschap 199 1. Thema’s 199 a) Vermeldingen van het Marshall Plan 199 b) Noodhulp en wederopbouw 201 c) Economie 201 i. Landbouw 202 ii. Landwinning 205 iii. Industrie 205 iv. Transport en distributie 206 v. Energie 208 vi. Andere 208 d) Informatie en educatie 209 2. Boodschap 210 a) De Verenigde Staten, uw vriend 210 b) Modernisering is productiviteit is welvaart 211 c) Samenwerking en integratie 212 Hoofdstuk 11: Categorie B: Films die zich tot alle deelnemende landen richten – 214 Filmbeschrijvingen 1. De klant is koning 214 2. De vlucht van Mahmoud 219 3. The changing face of Europe 224 4. The changing face of Europe: Force et lumière 225 5. The changing face of Europe: Grenzen die ons scheiden 228 6. The changing face of Europe: Mensen en machines 232 Hoofdstuk 12: Categorie B: Films die zich tot alle deelnemende landen richten – 237 Thema’s en boodschap 1. Thema’s 237 a) Verwijzingen naar het Marshall Plan en Amerikaanse hulp 237 b) Economie 238 i. Modernisering van machines en methodes 238 ii. Maximale benutting van aanwezige grondstoffen 239 iii. Standaardisatie 239 iv. Een marktgerichte economie 240 v. Transport en distributie 240 vi. Werk 241 c) Internationale relaties 242 2. Boodschap 243 - 6 - Hoofdstuk 13: Europese eenheid, vrije handel en internationale samenwerking – 244 Filmbeschrijvingen 1. (1..2..3/Een) maandelijks verslag uit Europa 244 2. (1..2..3/Een) maandelijks verslag uit Europa 1 244 3. (1..2..3/Een) maandelijks verslag uit Europa 2 249 4. (1..2..3/Een) maandelijks verslag uit Europa 3 253 5. (1..2..3/Een) maandelijks verslag uit Europa 8 258 6. (1..2..3/Een) maandelijks verslag uit Europa 9 262 7. (1..2..3/Een) maandelijks verslag uit Europa 10 266 8. (1..2..3/Een) maandelijks verslag uit Europa 11 269 9. (1..2..3/Een) maandelijks verslag uit Europa 12 271 10. De knagende wind 273 11. De schoenmaker en de hoedemaker 278 12. Dogger bank, jetons les filets 282 13. Zoals de jongen piepen 284 Hoofdstuk 14: Europese eenheid, vrije handel en internationale samenwerking – 288 Thema’s en boodschap 1. Thema’s 288 a) Internationale samenwerking 288 b) Internationale solidariteit en vriendschap 290 c) Moderniteit 291 d) Wetenschap 292 e) Educatie 293 f) Handel 293 g) Vrijheid en communisten 294 h) De Verenigde Staten en het Marshall Plan 295 2. Boodschap 295 a) Coöperatie, een noodzaak 295 b) Moderniteit, een noodzaak 296 c) Vrije handel 296 d) De Verenigde Staten vs de Sovjet-Unie 296 Hoofdstuk 15: Categorie D: Productiviteit en technische steun – Filmbeschrijvingen 297 1. Bedrijfsindeling en transport in fabrieken 297 2. Productivité 299 3. Trois hommes au travail 301 Hoofdstuk 16: Categorie D: Productiviteit en technische steun – Thema’s en 303 boodschap - 7 - Hoofdstuk 17: Categorie E: Gemeenschappelijke veiligheid - Filmbeschrijving 305 1. Een verbond voor de vrede 305 Hoofdstuk 18: Categorie E: Gemeenschappelijke veiligheid – Thema’s en boodschap 311 Conclusie 313 1. “Economic maladjustment” 313 2. “Spiritual vigor” 314 3. En de communisten? 314 Bibliografie 317 - 8 - Woord vooraf Deze verhandeling is om uiteenlopende redenen – gedeeltelijk aan mijzelf te wijten, gedeeltelijk ook niet – een werk van zeer lange adem geworden. Het lijkt mij dan ook gepast om eerst en vooral alle betrokkenen te bedanken voor het vele geduld dat zij aan de dag legden. In de eerste plaats gaat het om mijn promotor, professor Bruno De Wever, en leescommissarissen, dr Hans Krabbendam en dr Antoon Vrints; hiernaast natuurlijk ook mijn ouders, Min Vantilborgh en Reinier Hueting. Professor De Wever wil ik verder ook danken voor het aanvaarden van het promotorschap en voor de manier waarop hij dit aanpakte. Ik heb in mijn privéleven een aantal zeer moeilijke jaren achter de rug, maar de wetenschap dat ik bij hem op begrip kon rekenen voor mijn soms moeizame gedrag, zorgde ervoor dat de zaken ten minste niet verder werden gecompliceerd. Gabrielle Claes, de conservator van het Koninklijk Belgisch Filmarchief, wens ik te bedanken voor het voorstellen van een regeling waardoor ik onbeperkt in het archief kon werken. Het personeel van het Filmarchief – in de eerste plaats Bruno Mestdagh – verdient hier eveneens een plaats. Hun hulpvaardigheid en interesse maakten het een plezier om er onderzoek te verrichten. Voor het proeflezen komt vooral mijn moeder een speciale vermelding toe. Verder ben ik hiervoor ook Bert Collage en Danny Knecht erkentelijkheid verschuldigd. Mijn ouders en broer, Simon, wil ik ook bedanken voor hun niet aflatende praktische en morele steun. Tot slot draag ik deze thesis op aan mijn grootvader, Dik Hueting. Hij wekte bij mij als kind de interesse voor geschiedenis en heeft deze steeds aangewakkerd. Ik ben hem hiervoor intens dankbaar. Gent, 30 juli 2008 - 9 - - 10 - Inleiding Het European Recovery Program, zoals de officiële naam van het Marshall Plan luidt, is al zestig jaar lang voer voor opiniemakers, economen, politicologen en historici. De gigantische schaal van het project en de rol die het speelde in de woelige fase van de geschiedenis aan de vooravond van de Koude Oorlog maken van het Plan een intrigerend onderwerp voor iedereen die in naoorlogse geschiedenis is geïnteresseerd. Het vele onderzoek dat reeds naar het Marshall Plan gebeurde, heeft zich echter voor het overgrote deel op de economische en politieke aspecten toegelegd, waardoor een ander belangrijk element onderbelicht blijft: het psychologische. De Policy Planning Staff, een beleidscel die werd opgericht binnen de Trumanadministratie, onderscheidde immers twee oorzaken voor de crisis waarin Europa zich bevond na de Tweede Wereldoorlog.
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