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Richard Nixon and Europe RICHARD NIXON AND EUROPE: CONFRONTATION AND COOPERATION, 1969-1974 Luke A. Nichter A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2008 Committee: Douglas J. Forsyth, Advisor Theodore F. Rippey, Graduate Faculty Representative Gary R. Hess Thomas A. Schwartz Vanderbilt University © 2008 Luke A. Nichter All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Douglas J. Forsyth, Advisor This dissertation analyzes the most significant events that took place in United States- European relations during the presidency of Richard M. Nixon, from 1969 to 1974. The first major study on transatlantic relations for this time period, it is drawn from newly released multi-lingual archival documents from the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), the Richard Nixon Presidential Materials Project (NPMP), the Library of Congress Manuscript Division, the presidential libraries of John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Gerald R. Ford, the archives of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Historical Archives of the European Union (HAEU), the British National Archives (Kew), and the Nixon tapes. Through a groundbreaking presentation of diverse events such as Nixon and Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs Henry A. Kissinger’s 1969 tour of European capitals, the condition of NATO after French withdrawal and the invasion of Czechoslovakia, the Nixon knock- down of and subsequent collapse of the Bretton Woods monetary regime on August 15, 1971, the 1973 American policy “The Year of Europe”, and the 1974 renegotiation of the terms of British membership of the European Community (EC), this study shows how while Nixon began his term of office in 1969 with a great public emphasis on close ties with Europe, over time Transatlantic relations were downgraded in importance by the White House as Nixon used Europe to launch more important foreign policy initiatives for which he is better known, including détente with the Soviets, rapprochement with the PRC, and bringing American military involvement in Southeast Asia to a final end. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to thank Jennifer. Your patience made this a more manageable and more meaningful task. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION……………………………………………….………………………… 1 CHAPTER I. NIXON AND THE ALLIES……………………..…………………………. 3 CHAPTER II. NATO AND THE DEFENSE OF EUROPE….…………………………… 59 CHAPTER III. ON DEATH WATCH: THE NIXON TAPES AND THE MORTAL WOUND TO BRETTON WOODS……….………………………………………………….. 99 CHAPTER IV. THE YEAR OF EUROPE……………………….………………………... 157 CHAPTER V. THE UNITED KINGDOM AND THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY…….210 CONCLUSION………………….…………………………………..…………………….. 265 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………. 269 1 INTRODUCTION This study sets forth an examination of the most important transatlantic issues that occurred during the presidency of Richard Nixon, from 1969 to 1974. These include the beginning of Nixon’s foreign policy and his 1969 European summit tour, the recovery of NATO in the years following numerous crises from the mid-1960s to 1972, the collapse of the Bretton Woods currency regime in the fall of 1971 and its immediate aftermath, the 1973 American policy the “Year of Europe”, and the renegotiation of the British terms of membership in the European Community. While choosing any number of issues is also a matter excluding others, certainly time and space could have been devoted in this study to trade relations, the European security conference and the path to Helsinki, and out of area conflicts that had great effect on U.S.-European ties, such as the Yom Kippur War or the 1973-1974 oil shocks and subsequent energy crisis. However, due to the only recent availability of relevant government documents both in the United States and Europe, with many more pending release, a line had to be drawn somewhere. That line that was drawn for the purpose of designing this study to be an in-depth view into a wide range of challenges faced in transatlantic relations during 1969 and 1974: military, political, and economic. This study has also for the most part been constructed according to the issues in transatlantic relations that most occupied President Nixon’s time. This was by no means a scientific approach, but some measure of accuracy can be gained simply when the volume of government documents that demonstrates the direct involvement of the president on a particular foreign policy issue greatly outweighs another, or whether Nixon’s time, as recorded on the Nixon tapes, was spent in far greater quantities on some tasks rather than others. This brings us to the next point: this study has also been an attempt, with the help of the Nixon tapes where they 2 were available, to present these issues as Nixon himself experienced them, in real time. Of course, we cannot seek to replicate a president’s background, knowledge, secret thoughts, worries, fears, or thought processes, but we can replicate, based on the Nixon tapes, how he learned about a particular issue, how he initially reacted, who he consulted, how he responded, what action he took or ordered to be taken, and how with benefit of hindsight he later interpreted that series of events. This has not been possible in all cases, but the richness of sources, documents, and taped conversations have all been chosen with that goal in mind. After all, the Nixon tapes allow us to know more about the intimate thoughts of Richard Nixon than perhaps any other president, past or present. The closer we can come to understanding the president’s new vision for the world on January 20, 1969, while he stared out across the West front of the United States Capitol at the masses of spectators, knowing then that his first foreign policy move in what would become a complete American foreign policy overhaul would be to Europe, the closer we can come to understanding how he handled later challenges in the transatlantic relationship, as well as how he crafted the origins for the significant foreign policy undertakings taken later with the Soviet Union, China, and Vietnam. Nixon had seen plenty of ups and downs in U.S.-European relations since the end of the war, and contributed more of each during his own time in the White House. There have been many studies dedicated to understanding both the successes and shortcomings of the Nixon presidency and Nixon foreign policy, but in 1969 he was arguably best prepared to deal with European issues, on which he had the deepest background, and functioned in his best element in the realm of foreign policy. It was his dealings with Europe, and the successes and failures involved, that brought out something very close to his true character. 3 CHAPTER I. NIXON AND THE ALLIES Little more than two weeks after his inauguration, on February 7, 1969, President Nixon announced in a statement that his first overseas trip would be to Europe. “I am pleased to inform you that after consultations with the heads of state and government concerned, I have decided to visit Western Europe late this month. I plan to visit Brussels, London, Bonn, Berlin, Rome, and Paris in that order.” 1 Of course, Nixon was no stranger to Europe. He had already made the acquaintance of nearly every leading politician and head of state from the postwar period over the span of a long career that included numerous private and official visits. In fact, it was in 1947, as a junior member of the House of Representatives that he made his first official visit to Europe. Then, with the so-named Herter Committee, he studied the requirements and resources of the countries which were to receive American economic assistance through the then-proposed Marshall Plan. 2 Nixon’s coming of age as an aspiring national politician coincided with the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European integration movement that led to the development of the European Economic Community and later the European Community, which he had supported since their inception as a member of the United States House of Representatives, Senate, and while Vice President. Nixon’s promotions through the political ranks occurred during the early Cold War and the Berlin Airlift, and his work for the House Un- American Activities Committee strengthened his anti-Communist credentials both at home and abroad. Nixon witnessed Soviet acts of repression in Central and Eastern Europe during the late 1940s and 1950s and famously stood up to Nikita Khrushchev in the “Kitchen Debate” in 1 British National Archives (PRO), Papers of the Prime Minister, PREM 13-3007, Telegram from British Embassy Washington to Foreign and Commonwealth Office, “President Nixon’s Visit to Europe”, February 7, 1969. 2 PREM 13-3007, United States Information Service: Tentative Schedule for Nixon’s European Visit, February 7, 1969. 4 Moscow in 1959, events that helped to cement his worldview during the time he spent out of office in the 1960s, while the Berlin Wall was erected and the standoff of the Cuban missile crisis came and went. Thus, it was natural then that the orbit of Richard Nixon’s foreign policy expertise coincided with Europe for much of his life. Among his contemporaries were towering figures such as Charles de Gaulle, Winston Churchill, Konrad Adenauer, and Jean Monnet. This chapter argues that Nixon’s established relations with European leaders and his 1969 summit tour of Western Europe paved the way for many of his later, better-known foreign policy achievements. On that tour, as the newly installed American president, Nixon did not waste time getting to know European leaders such as Charles de Gaulle, Harold Wilson, and Kurt Georg Kiesinger. He already knew them, and their opposition leaders, as well as many of Europe’s leading businessmen and intellectuals. They also knew him and his long-standing commitment to the old continent.
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