FREE INQUIRY in CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 38, Number 2, Winter 2010

FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 38, Number 2, Winter 2010

COMBINING MERTON'S STRAIN THEORY WITH LABELING THEORY AND MORALENTREPENEURS

Ralph G. O'Sullivan Chillicothe, IL

Abstract Ritzer (1974) wrote that sociology is a multi-paradigmatic discipline where each framework can hold several theoretical explanations. Such declarations are often treated individually, but there are often unexplored confluences between them. Merton's goals-means theory of social strain, for example, is here considered as a labeling one heavily laced with implications about moral authority when applied to studies in deviant behavior. The synthesis of dialogues, illustrated with sociological ideas from modern novels, validates the thesis that social complexities deserve integrated explanations.

conformity, reporting their findings to "Being a disfigured felon carries faithful followers. Sociologists do the weight in certain circles ... " same, but in different ways and (novelist Carl Hiaasen 2010) venues. Introductory sociology textbooks all "Police had a natural suspicion of contain a chapter on deviant behavior teenagers, especially those who where social deviance is defined as already had track records of trouble." rule- or norm-breaking behavior and (novelist Tami Hoag 1991/2006) conformity is defined as rule-defined as rule- or norm-abiding activity. The "Not all sexual predators are killers or texts, conduct codes used as serial rapists. The most successful of standards for evaluations, a failure them live well within the boundaries of noted by O'Sullivan (2007). The texts the law and they're probably more confer that the rule breakers or common than we'd like to believe. See deviants will be treated as outsiders ... the problem is identifying the resulting from social stigmas, but rule bastards. They're not social followers or conformists are not anomalies; they are deviants." usually accorded haloes (O'Sullivan (novelist Randy Wayne White 1998) 2007) because quiet choices do not garner notoriety. The chapters include many of the historical and modern INTRODUCTION masters of the subjects, including Merton's 1967 theory of adaptations I have long believed that literature that is co-referenced in the social is a marvelous outlet for social strain and rational choice frames, discourse that readers can easily understand. Novelists have always been peripheral social activists (R.G. 1R. G. O'Sullivan is hereafter just called O'Sullivan 1 2007) exploring such O'Sullivan, except when needed to avoid complex topics as deviance and possible confusion with F.D. O'Sullivan. 48 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 38, Number 2, Winter 2010

telling us that people make studied scientific study of society, making one economic choices rather than wonder if there is an unscientific spontaneous ones toward cultural and approach, and what, then, are the social expectations. The chapters also roles of history, economics, political offer information from Goffman's 1963 science, social/cultural anthropology, study on stigmas and H.S. Becker's2 and social ecology if they are not discussions on moral entrepreneurs as comprised of empirical explorations? elements of the interactionist The same dilemma of absolutism approach, enhancing our exists with traditional definitions for understandings about social labeling deviance and conformity. Before and a community's moral oversight. leaving academia, I offered my Little space is available in the texts to students an alternative perspective combine these approaches on because any understandings of adaptation, labeling, and moral deviance evaluations of those codes authority so that task is accomplished and social responses to the acts and by following several steps. the actors. · First, some alternative ways to As I see them, deviance and look at definitions for deviance and conformity refer to the definitions that conformity are offered because exist for inappropriate and appropriate traditional ones are simplistic and behaviors based upon the local limiting. Second, the basic premises of moralities (O'Sullivan 1994) of groups, Merton, Goffman, Becker, and of organizations, communities, and larger O'Sullivan are highlighted, setting the social systems. Two examples exist. stage for their ultimate synthesis. All states have criminal codes that Third, those thoughts are made define illegal acts in "thou shall not" available in easy-to-read and side-by forms, including listings about side manners to envision the bonds inappropriate methods of goal between them and within them, with acquisitions. The states also have discussions foUowing. No numerical rules for the road handbooks that data are offered. Instead, existing define proper motor operation as "thou expressions are mixed with emergent shall" guidelines. ones, "new wine in an old bottle," as a Such codes and others exist at several different way to look at familiar levels of social importance in civil, subjects for those who like to explore military, and religious settings sociology by going "outside the box" of containing differential distribution of convention. social power to protect people, their properties and rights, as well as group, LOOKING AT DEVIANCE AND organizational, and societal CONFORMITY: TRADITIONALLY preservation. The mere presence of AND ALTERNATIVELY . the codes, however, guarantees neither adherence to them nor their The social sciences are dependent on effectiveness. People evaluate the their key terms as bases for norms in terms of efficacy and discussions, and sociology is no exception. Sometimes, however, such 2H.S. Becker is hereafter just called simplicity is confusing. Sociology, for Becker to avoid possible confusion with example, is often considered as the H.P. Becker. 49 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume38, Number 2, Winter 2010 opportunities, responding with a range fallacy creating a sliding scale of of options that includes Merton's. · ·devi~nce-variance-conformity. Others then respond to the selections by assigning the labels of deviant or LOOKING AT SOCIAL LABELING: conformist to the participant and MERTON, GOFFMAN, BECKER, choices, allowing social and legal AND·O'SULLIVAN definitions for deviance to expand and deviant labels to amplify through Merton, Goffman, and Becker are systemic processes (Buckley 1976; renowned sociologists, O'Sullivan is Lemert 1951; Quinney 1970). · 1ess well known. All have made Responses to conformity do not grow contributions to social labeling theory in similar manners. and studies in deviant behavior so Deviants are likely to receive their. individual sets of ideas are public and sociological attention quickly reviewed. whereas conformists fly "under the radar'' fitting personal ethics with the Merton's Thoughts community's. At times, however, such Merton's stylized adaptations to anonymity goes unrewarded and cultural materialism are standard fare special notes of good deeds are in ·most discussions about deviance made. Prominent sailors have ships and conformity enhancing our ability to named after them, and school discuss both topics simultaneously: committees honor distinguished They give dualistic capital to the other. alumni. People are canonized for He stated that we have a variety of religious deeds, and monies ·goals worthy of achievement and traditionally bear the images of access to them, but discrepant prominent politicians. Military availability to each causes social personnel are awarded with medals strain. The adaptations of conformity, and promotions for acts of bravery, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and whereas post office walls have rebellion · are ultimately based in historically been strewn with posters of perceived economic outcomes of less honorable people. gains versus losses. Merton's My preferred classroom definition adaptations also show continuity with for deviance evolved into "those labeling theories. The act of conformity violations of mores, institutional is made by the conformist and the act traditions, and laws that reinforce each of innovation is accomplished by the other," invoking social indignation innovator3. The act of ritualism is against the violators. This outlook accomplished by the ritualist, and the contains the triune of definitional, acf of retreatism is accomplished by behavioral, and responsive elements, the retreatist. The act of rebellion is but it is still oppositional to the accomplished by the rebel, so the acts reciprocal facets of conformity. That designate the actor. Any act other than weakness was partially addressed by O'Sullivan (2007) as he identified 3Not all acts of innovation are negative social variance as activities that exist deviance, but they get more attention between the dichotomies, thereby than positive deviance as Wo/fzorn, easing the problems of a dualist Heckert, and Heckert affirm (2006).

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conformity has the potential for being COBRA insurances that outweigh the called deviant, depending on its reduced benefits of diminished work consequences, the actor, and the time. Still an innovator, the act authorities of observers. identifies the actor. Merton may not have meant for his model to become a general-use device, but it has. O'Sullivan (1995) Goffman's Contributions · first employed the device in a study on Goffman's analyses of stigmas religious revitalization illustrating that and other labels are important people adjust to a religious discussions on social deviance and congregation's traditions by conformity. They were not the first, conforming to them, or by switching however, having had many major and places of worship via innovation minor precursors. F.D. O'Sullivan's avoiding internal conflict. Congregants little known 1928 Crime Detection can go along with local habits without presents a list of environmental factors internalizing them via ritualism, contributing to a · culture for urban withdraw from any membership deviance (R.G. O'Sullivan forth affiliation via retreatism, or try to coming) and one variable is change tradition-laden gatherings via incarceration that opens revolving rebellion. doors for continued juvenile deviance. O'Sullivan used the model again in his Marked youths may adopt the label of 2002 case study in labor economics, spoiled identity as their own and act illustrating that workers can adapt to on it, contributing to the self-fulfilling hostile work environments by prophecy of deviance that conforming to a company's precepts, Tannenbaum (1938) called the or through innovation by quitting, "dramatization of evil." That idea was telling the company to "Take this job later reinforced in Lemert's (1951) and shove it!" They can be ritualists by discussions about the shift from just doing the work without using it to primary deviance to secondary define master statuses, or by the deviance, and modern novelist Hoag retreatism or withdrawal from the (1992/2006) used this train of thought active labor force. The company rebel to her literary advantage. who questions managerial policies, Transitions from tainted identities decisions, or authority runs the risk of to saintly ones can be slow and being told "You're fired!" uncertain, but movements in the O'Sullivan (2010) revisited that reverse direction can be swift and sure study, making a needed adjustment to as novelist White depicted. Witness, innovation's quitting-out-of-anger for example, how quickly public mode. As companies downsize opinions · can change toward the offering reduced hours and take-home following illustrations: Priests who pay, wage-earning employees with exploit acolytes, politicians who exploit stationary cost-of-living and cost-of interns or who transfer campaign work expenses exercise a personal contributions to private "offshore" version of asset-liability management. accounts, teachers who sexually The workers may participate in exploit students, the business mogul proffered voluntary layoffs, pursuing who uses a ponzi scheme to fleece other jobs or unemployment and megabucks from unsuspecting 51 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 38, Number 2, Winter 2010

investors, the marquee athlete who judges, have such responsibility after wagers against the home team or is hearing arguments from opposing held accountable for the death of a counsel. O'Sullivan (1995) named the family member, the good cop who decision makers rule interpreters, and goes "rogue," or father and son the advocates of differing juridical presidents who are vilified as being outcomes are rule users (O'Sullivan slow when responding · to natural 2007). Police or other rule enforcers disasters (Bush 2010). So, who does who side-step permitted investigatory the labeling and why? Becker offered methods are called · rule abusers answers to these questions. (O'Sullivan 2006), and he identified legitimately-labeled deviants as rule Becker's Ideas . breakers (O'Sullivan 2007) whose His moral entrepreneurs are a individual moralities violate those of a community's guardians of morality. collective. They want the unit preserved, and The extended list of moral such stability is dependent on .the stewards is still incomplete. Rule presence of community-wide ethics, influences try to shape the directions visions for the future, and behavioral that laws or regulations should take, norms. Notable aberrations from them and there are others that further reflect are · threatening. His rule Merton's categories. Rule pretenders, creators/makers define the behavioral like ritualists, feign allegiance to a guidelines, and his rule enforcers are maxim as a means to an end, not an agents of social control whose duty is end in itself. Rule avoiders, like ensuring social conformity. Both retreatists, believe that socially categories entail legitimate authority approved goals and avenues of which is the main reasons that achievement are restrictive or folkways were excluded from my unnatural so they drop out, becoming definition for deviance: These codes of seekers of alternative meanings etiquette are unofficial, casual, and (Lofland 1966). Rule changers, like regional, whereas many mores and rebels, see inherent discrepancies in institutional traditions have greater goals-means properties and want to social value accounting for inclusions modify them by creating alternative in my perspective. Since rule expectations and opportunities. creators/makers and rule enforcers Finally, rule abiders, like conformists, are differentially empowered and internalize and follow the rules as their enabled to formally label/stigmatize, is own. Becker's list complete? O'Sullivan does not think so. COMBINING MERTON WITH LABELING THEORISTS O'Sullivan's Thoughts He expanded Becker's list several Merton's theory of action identified times enhancing scholars' perceptions five forms of behavior and their of moral entrepreneur status-role sets. attendant actors. Merton, then, is a The social legitimacy and proper labeling theorist by virtue of applications of laws are determined on connecting personal activities with case-by-case bases when legal panels identifiers, but social labeling is more such as juries, or arbiters ~uch as than simple tagging. Labels are 52 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 38, Number 2, Winter 20,10

· consequential for the labeled as they of the interplay between them. (See open some door ·of opportunity and Figure 1 and 2). close others. The moral entrepreneurs Once the guiding principles behind identified by Becker and by O'Sullivan cultural materialism, social labeling, · play the roles of official observers, and moral standards are set and becoming enablers or gatekeepers. vocabularies are refined, the Anyone can make casual and informal paradigmatic and theoretical coalitions judgments about others, but similar between them are evident, and for opinions from people vested with good reason. No single explanation for social power are accordant. Several deviance or for conformity has domain sets of related ideas have been over all others. Multi-dimensional presented in these pages, and they topics are worthy of dedicated are better seen with visual reminders explanations.

Figure 1. Old and New Sets of Moral Entrepreneurs*

From Becker From R.G. O'Sullivan The New Ones Rule Creators/Makers Rule Interpreters Rule Abiders Rule Enforcers Rule Users Rule Influencers Rule Abusers Rule Pretenders Rule Breakers Rule Avoiders Rule Changers *Figure 1 identifies the parallel sets of moral entrepreneurs.

Figure 2. Integration of More Entrepreneurs and Merton's Adaptation**

Moral Entrepreneurs Means Adaptation Goals Means Rule Abiders Conformity/Conformists + + Rule Breakers Innovation/Innovators + Rule Pretenders Ritualism/Ritualists + Rule Avoiders Retreatism/Retreatists Rule Changers Rebellion/Rebels + + Rule Creators/Makers Rule Influencers Rule Abusers Rule Enforcers . Rule Interpreters Rule Users

**Figure 2 presents them against Merton's adaptations and each other.

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DISCUSSION damning, and may even have the reverse effect as sociologists and A question was raised earlier asking storytellers have noticed. Chemo's whether or not there is an unscientific, prosthetic arm, a battery-driven weed casual, or informal sociology? The whacker, is abhorred and admired. As question is likely answered in the the housing · market of Florida negative within the discipline, but that improved, he took a job in an response · may not be so self occupation that he had studied while aggrandizing outside it The novels of doing time - real estate finance. Skink Hiaasen (2010), for example, usually remains at-large. address the serious issues of exile Sometimes ·sociologists are slow and eco-politics in Florida couched in or reluctant to address possible humor to eritice appreciative bridges existing between their ideas; audiences, and each standalone tale they may be reticent to admit that commonly has two characters · others outside academia notice those attracting such interest. Please bear in connections; and simple definitions as mind, however, that his storylines are ideal types cannot be absolute. The less important for this study than his quotes from Hiaasen (2010), from understanding of social deviance and Hoag (1992/2006) and from White deviants. (1998), for example, highlight many One person is the returning sociological truths. Moral "Skink" as a decorated army captain entrepreneurism addresses several and sniper turned governor of the responses to cultural expectations. state turned survivalist recluse swamp Social labeling is not always official. rat-the one-eyed innovator/retreatist/ Stigmas and haloes are sometimes rebel and rule breaker/avoider/ justified, sometimes not. Stigmas can changer who exacts creative justice on have the latent function of enhancing those who defile his state. The other social reputations rather than varies from story to story, but in Star demeaning them. The assigned labels Island he is "Chemo." Stigmatized from Merton, Goffman, and from other because of his criminal record and labelers can overlap. Sometimes disfiguration, his convoluted sense of deviance is seen as less bad, right and wrong emerges in his role as conformity is less good, resulting in a bodyguard for tragic others. the anti-hero and social variant After making hedged choices against statuses of Skink and Chemo, for the law and imprisonment, Chemo example. was arrested by rule enforcers, and I agree with the combined beliefs trial lawyers, as rule users, argued for of Ogburn (1930) and O'Sullivan his guilt or acquittal. Jurors and a (2006, 2007) that it is appropriate to judge, as rule interpreters, determined look beyond sociology at alternative or that the .charges against him were non-traditional sources of information justified, so he was sentenced to to ground research. Ritzer (197 4) is Raiford ·Prison as a rule breaker, but correct when he states that sociology the handle remained with him as an is a multiple paradigm endeavor of ex-convict. Casual stigmas were also integrated theories to be pursued attached to him because of his marred vigorously, but we must go beyond body, but stigmas are not always formulaic traditions because outsiders, 54 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 38, Number 2~ Winter 2010

including the three novelists borrowed ____. 2010. "No Cubes: An for this study, already know to do so Updated Look at An Industrial far beyond their quoted snippets. They Workplace and the Fate of its "get" Ritzer. Alienated Wage-earning Employ ees." Free Inquiry in Creative References Sociology 38:60-72. ____. 2007. "Social Variance as it Becker, H.S. 1963. Outsiders. NY: Exists Between Conformity and Free Press. Deviance: Following Some Advice Buckley, W. 1967. Sociology and from Ogburn." Free Inquiry in Creative Modern Systems Theory. Sociology 35: 103-111. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ___. 2006. "Fictional Reality and Bush, G.W. 2010. Decision Points. the Portrayal of Justice in Modern New York: Crown Publishers. Sociology and Contemporary Goffman, E. 1963. Stigma. Englewood Novels." Free Inquiry in Creative Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Sociology 34: 133-149. Hiaasen, C. 2010. Star Island. New 2002. "An Ideological York: Knopf/Random House. Journey into Dual-class Labor Hoag, T. 1992/2006. The Last White Conflicts and Possible Workers' Knight. New York: Bantam Books. Solutions." Free Inquiry in Creative Lemert, E. 1951. Social Pathology. Sociology 30: 119-133. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1995. "Congregation Lofland, J. 1966. Doomsday Cult. Switching and Religious Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Revitalization." Free Inquiry in Merton, R.K. 1967. Social Theory and Creative Sociology 23 39-41. Social Structure. New York: Free ____. 1994. "Moral Entrepre Press. neurs, Local Morality, and Labeling Ogburn, W.F. 1930. "The Folkways of Processes." Free Inquiry in a Scientific Sociology. Publications Creative Sociology 22:73-77. of the American Sociological Quinney, R. 1970. The Social Reality Association 16:1-11. (http://spartan. of Crime. Boston: Little, Brown. ac.brock.calward/sup/Ogburn_1929 Ritzer, GA 1974. Sociology: A .html). Multiple Paradigm Science. Boston: O'Sullivan, F.D. 1928. Crime Allyn & Bacon. Detection. Chicago: O'Sullivan Tannenbaum, F. 1939. Crime and Publishing House. Criminality. New York: Columbia O'Sullivan, R.G. forthcoming. "F. University Press. Dalton O'Sullivan's Legacy White, R.W. 1998. The Mangrove Revisited: Looking at a Culture for Coast. New York: G.P. Putnam's Urban Deviance in His Time and Sons. Now." International Journal of Wolfzorn M., A. Heckert, and D.M. Crime, Law, and Juvenile Heckert. 2006. "Positive Deviance and Delinquency. Social Bond Theory." Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology 34: 107-121.