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Radicalisation As a Moral Career: a Qualitative Study of How People Become Terrorists in the United Kingdom

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Radicalisation As a Moral Career: a Qualitative Study of How People Become Terrorists in the United Kingdom Radicalisation as a Moral Career: A qualitative study of how people become terrorists in the United Kingdom Suraj Lakhani This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Universities’ Police Science Institute, School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University 2013 Declarations This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed …………………………………. Date ………………………… STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD. Signed …………………………………. Date ………………………… STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. Signed …………………………………. Date ………………………… STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed …………………………………. Date ………………………… i Abstract This thesis is a study of radicalisation within the context of the UK. The research focuses on how people become radicalised, why some are rendered susceptible to radicalisation, and why some go on to commit acts of violence and terrorism. This thesis also critically assesses how radicalisation affects relevant counter-terrorism policy and how this policy affects radicalisation. The research has been informed through the analysis of empirical data in the form of 61 qualitative semi-structured interviews. A number of these interviews were completed with respondents across government and academia. However, there was a specific focus on conducting interviews with the data set termed as the ‘informed informants’. This group consisted of grassroots workers conducting organic de-radicalisation strategies, religious leaders and imams, and former non-violent and violent extremists. The interviews were supported by fieldwork based observations. This account of radicalisation is presented within a framework borrowed from sociologist Erving Goffman’s (1961) theory of ‘moral career’, in order to bring together the factors of radicalisation and understand them in a more complex and fluid setting. This research found that although some of the more commonly stated components – at the micro and macro levels – hold much importance when studying the phenomenon, radicalisation is essentially about a change in people’s perceptions of ‘self’ and ‘social identity’. Within this thesis there is a particular focus on the role of social, cultural and subcultural factors; many of which are largely neglected in other accounts. ii Acknowledgements A special thank you goes to my supervisors, Martin Innes and Amanda Robinson. Before I chose Cardiff University to conduct my doctorate, I flirted with a number of universities. However, the decision of which university to choose became very easy after first meeting Martin. Rather than trying to push his own research agenda forward, he always asserted, even in our first meeting, that this was my own research and I had full autonomy to take it in the direction I saw fit. He never wavered from this viewpoint and I greatly respect him for this. Amanda also took a similar stance. Her extensive knowledge in criminology and sociology added a great deal of value to my thesis, and took it in directions I had not previously considered. Both of my supervisors showed patience and resolve throughout the entire time I spent with them, and they always motivated me to push for more. They have given me much confidence to succeed in academic life, and I can only hope that I have, through the completion of this thesis, repaid their trust shown in me. There were various other people at Cardiff University that contributed to this thesis in many ways. This includes the fantastic staff at UPSI and the Graduate Office. This also includes my co-members at the Cardiff Centre for Crime, Law & Justice who provided the platform to present my research at various stages, giving me constructive feedback which helped to shape the thesis, and also the confidence in my work as an academic. I would also like to thank my sisters, brother in laws, and of course parents. Although this thesis has taken longer to complete than at first anticipated, they always showed support and love. My parents have always asserted the value of education to me and this formed the foundation for my academic career – even though it took me time to realise this. This support has also been shown by certain friends and wider family members. They have experienced this doctorate with me throughout the entire journey, and never complained about my increasing state of hibernation. They have always genuinely believed in me. I cannot thank them enough. Much gratitude also needs to be extended to all of those participants within the research. I met some wonderful people along the way, and they made the experience truly great. I am under no illusions that without their time and support, conducting this thesis would have had major difficulties. They are the unsung champions of their local communities. A lot of the fantastic work they do at the grassroots level goes unnoticed, though they are not deterred and continue, sometimes on very limited resources, to keep us all safe. The final thank you is for my long suffering wife, Fagoon. Without her unconditional love, support, encouragement and words of wisdom, this thesis would never have begun, and it certainly wouldn’t have reached the same conclusion. She has been a wonderful friend and has been very much part of this thesis from beginning to end. In the long time it has taken to complete this doctorate much has happened in our lives. We have been married for over four years though have not properly started our married life together due to the financial restrictions and time constraints most doctoral students can identify with. In all of this time she has never complained and has stood by me. The very least I can do is to dedicate this thesis to her. iii Table of Contents Declarations ..................................................................................................................... i Abstract ........................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... iv List of Diagrams and Tables .......................................................................................... vii List of Common Abbreviations ....................................................................................... viii Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 The Evolving Nature of the Threat ......................................................................... 3 1.2 Research Aims and Methodology .......................................................................... 7 1.3 Radicalisation as a Broader Social Phenomenon .................................................. 8 1.4 Theoretical Framework for Studying Radicalisation ............................................. 11 1.5 Radicalisation as a Moral Career ......................................................................... 13 1.6 Thesis Overview .................................................................................................. 20 1.7 Personal Reflections ............................................................................................ 23 Chapter Two: Literature Review ................................................................................. 25 2.1 Definitions............................................................................................................ 27 2.1.1 Terrorism ...................................................................................................... 27 2.1.2 Radicalisation ............................................................................................... 29 2.1.3 Extremism ..................................................................................................... 31 2.2 Assessing the ‘Why’: A Root Cause Approach .................................................... 33 2.3 Who and What Enables the Process of Radicalisation......................................... 37 2.3.1 Re-Socialising Identity .................................................................................. 41 2.4 How Do People Become Radicalised?: A Critical Assessment of Literature ........ 43 2.4.1 General Stage Process Models .................................................................... 44 2.4.2 Non-Stage Process Models .......................................................................... 46 2.4.3 Radicalisation: A Rational Choice? ............................................................... 50 2.4.4 Ensuring Flexibility: A Progressive SMT Approach ....................................... 54 Chapter Three: Methodology ...................................................................................... 58 3.1 Research Questions ............................................................................................ 60 3.2 Selection of Methods ..........................................................................................
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