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Home , Battle of Dunkirk, Battle of the Scheldt, Victory in Europe Day

Chapter Ten

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Figure 10-1 When Canadian Forces chased German troops out of Deventer, , as the end of World War II approached, city residents turned out to celebrate their freedom. Rifleman Robert MacGregor Douglas (top), who was photographed surrounded by happy schoolgirls, was one of the Canadians involved in the action.

The Canadian Forces fought a long, brutal campaign to liberate the Netherlands. As a result, the Dutch forged a lasting relationship with , and people in the Netherlands continue to honour the soldiers who freed their country. On 8, 2005, the 60th anniversary of VE Day — Victory in — citizens of Apeldoorn, Netherlands, cheered the Canadian veterans (bottom) who had returned to help commemorate the occasion.

ZEZ UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War IP • fZYTICL-721% NZ-AM

How did Canada make its mark in World War II?

The liberation of the Netherlands by Canadian Forces in 1945 was a significant contribution to the international effort to end World War II. Key Terms But this campaign was only one of many difficult challenges faced by Canadian Forces during . Names such as Dieppe, Hong Kong, Resistance Ortona, and have also become important symbols of the collaborators war and are vividly remembered by those who fought there — and by U-boat those who honour the sacrifices made by Canadian Forces. atomic bomb Rifleman Robert MacGregor Douglas, pictured on the previous Geneva Convention'. page, survived the war. Douglas may look carefree in the photograph, Holocaust but he and his fellow Canadians had not yet finished the job. The international Netherlands was not fully liberated for another month. tribunals Examine the photographs on the previous page and respond to the following questions: • How old do you think Douglas was when the picture was taken? About how old would he be today? • What do you think Douglas had been doing in the days before the picture was taken? What might he have done the next day? • What does the photograph tell you about Douglas's frame of mind? • How do you think the experience of war could change a young person like Douglas? • If Douglas had been among the veterans who returned to the Netherlands in 2005, what mixed feelings might he have experienced?

LEARNING GOALS Looking Ahead In this chapter you will The following inquiry questions will help you analyze the key issues affecting Canada's • explore how World War II forced Canada to relationship with Britain and the United embrace international responsibilities: States during World War II explain the events that tipped the worlu • Was World War II a just war? • • What role did Canada play early in the war? into war in 1939 examine Canada's contribution to the wai • Are science and technology the key to winning • effort and its impact on Canadian identity wars? identify some major developments • How did Canada help end the war? • in science and technology that were • What ethical issues emerged from the war? significant during World War II

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War III • CHAPTER 10 283

UNIT THREE 1929-1945 Was World War II a just war? During , millions of lives were lost or changed forever. Like many people around the world, Canadians did not want another war.

Setting the Stage for Another World War The Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, had left many Germans feeling resentful. Paying reparations interfered with the country's recovery from the war, and the economic situation became even worse during the Great Depression. So when 's Nazi Party advocated an extreme form of nationalism, many Germans welcomed the message. The Nazis' nationalism was based on the belief that Germanic peoples were a "master race" who belonged together in one country. Hitler used this idea as an excuse to invade neighbouring countries where Germanic people lived, even when they formed only a minority of the population. In 1936, Hitler ordered German forces into the Rhineland, which the Treaty of Versailles had set up as a non-military zone between and . When other governments offered little protest, Hitler kept going. In 1938, he persuaded government officials in neighbouring Austria to "invite" the German army into their country. The Treaty of Versailles had specifically forbidden this Anschluss — uniting — of Germany and Austria. Hitler then turned to the Figure 10-2 German Expansion in Europe, 1935-1941 Sudetenland, a Czechoslovakian Use the dates shown in the map to create a timeline showing Hitler's expansion in Europe border region where many German- between 1935 and 1939. speaking people lived. Anxious to Legend N avoid war at all costs, the British and Allied Countries =1 Neutral Countries - French, along with Benito Mussolini MI Ms Countries s I Occupied by Germany r of Italy, signed the Munich Pact, Occupied by Italy Finland which allowed Germany to take and Colonies 1941 is - • r over this region — provided Hitler - - ? 10111r 1941 Soviet agreed to stop there. Latvi-6' AO& Denmalr 1941 Union So German forces marched Ireland Se: 194 Baltic Sea Atlantic Britain into the Sudetenland. But then, Netherlands 1940 , Germany ) in March 1939, Hitler broke his Ocean Be gium., • Sudetenland'''. Pola Luxembourg.l.''340 ,...t_ , 193,,,_..,, . L. 1939 promise and took over the rest of 1940 - j."'.4 . 1 /4 . ‘; f 4:'' ... '''' ' - France —4-- .m-- .,.. 13hinelands's4.9111trikt. - Czechoslovakia. Invaded May 10,1940 i .1-1- 736_, Austrirrs'' Surrendered June 22, 194Q 1938 .. HOitgaryt . itzerlAct- Ethical Dimension: During World V' r " \ . ,..,1 Ws; Romania • '.. 1940 War II, Sweden would remain i''ugoslavik'X. __...,--,- Black Sea Portutair 1941 Italy r,' Bulgaria neutral. Its railways were used to Spain ., - 1941{ - Albani4.:( • - -1 transport German equipment from 1939 - Turkey Spanish Mediterranean Sea to Finland but it also morocco ° Greece Syria shared intelligence with the Allies 1941 Rh ;, and accepted many Jewish refugees. French Morocco Algeria Lebanon- j pnisia Crete (Britain-France) • . Palestine . In your opinion, is the concept of (Britain) 0_200 400 600 Tramsjorgan neutrality ethical? Why or why not? Britan.) kilometres Egypt

UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War II? • MHR The Tipping Point The invasion of Czechoslovakia made it clear that appeasement would not stop Adolf Hitler's expansion plans. Hitler next turned his attention to East Prussia — a part of Germany that the Treaty of Versailles had separated from the rest of the country by granting a narrow stretch of land to (see Figure 10-2). Absorbing East Prussia into Germany would require a German takeover of Polish territory. At this point, the British and French governments realized that they must draw a line — and they promised to support Poland if Hitler attacked. Then, on August 23, 1939, Hitler and the Soviet dictator, Joseph Stalin, shocked European leaders by signing a nonaggression pact. Although both were dictators, they were unlikely allies, for their political beliefs were strongly opposed. But the pact suited their purposes, because the two secretly agreed to divide up Europe between them. The pact with Stalin enabled Hitler to carry out his plans for taking over Western Europe without worrying about a Soviet attack from the east. On August 31, German agents pretending to be Polish officers staged assaults at the German border to make it look as if Poland were Figure 10-3 The Treaty of Versailles had attacking Germany. Hitler had his excuse, and the next day he ordered set up Danzig, now Gdansk, as a free city German forces to invade. that was the responsibility of the League of On September 3, 1939, two days after the invasion started, Britain Nations. But most Danzig residents spoke and France declared war on Germany. German, and in 1939, the Nazis produced Evidence: It sometimes takes years for historians to uncover lies such as this postcard saying, "Danzig is German." Hitler's claim that Poland was the aggressor. What value, if any, would How does this postcard show the Nazis' there be to proving that this claim was a lie? Why is it dangerous not to effective use of propaganda? question historical narratives?

Canada Declares War Although Canada had entered World War I as part of the British Empire, Up for Discussion Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King believed that, this time, If the Allies had stood up to Hitler when German forces occupied the Rhineland, could Canada should make an independent decision to join the war. World War H have been avoided? King summoned Parliament, and on September 10, Canada officially declared war on Germany.

Recall ... Reflect ... Respond

1. Create a "Countdown to War" flow chart that 3. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King had describes the chain of events that led to World lived through World War I, as had most Canadians War II as described in this section. who were adults in 1939. Write a diary entry that King, or another Canadian, might have made on 2. On a scale of 1 to 10 (1 = not very significant; September 10, 1939, once he or she knew that 10 = highly significant), rank the historical Canada was at war again. significance of Canada's separate declaration of war. Be prepared to explain the criteria you used to arrive at your ranking. What did this event say about Canada's evolving relationship with Britain?

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War II? • CHAPTER 10 UNIT THREE 1929-1945

Figure 10-4 In December 1939, Canadian What role did Canada play early in troops started boarding the ships that would take them in convoys to Europe. As the war? in World War I, these troops were all men. Although women had made strides in the As soon as war was declared, Canadians started lining up at recruiting previous decades, they were still barred offices, ready to do their part. Some were happy to have a steady job. from combat roles. Are there any legitimate Others were seeking adventure. Many simply believed it was the right reasons to limit women's full participation thing to do. in the military? Although Britain, France, Canada, and other countries had declared war on Germany, none of the Allies was prepared for battle. Both Hitler and Stalin saw plainly that the Allies could do little — and both took advantage of this. The first Canadian troops started arriving in Britain toward the end of December 1939. But most of these soldiers were green recruits, and when they arrived, their barracks were not finished and they were short of equipment. So the Canadians spent the next months training, sometimes with wooden bullets. The period between the declaration of war in September 1939 and is often called the "phony war." Although Hitler continued to take Europe by storm, the Allies did little fighting during this time. They simply were not ready.

Germany and the Divide Up Europe While the Allies scrambled to put themselves on a war footing, German forces continued to advance across continental Europe. While German troops were storming into Poland from the west, Soviet forces invaded .CONNSCTIONS, from the east, and by late September 1939, Poland had fallen. In September 1940, Germany, Italy, and In November 1939, Stalin also invaded Finland. Finnish forces held signed an agreement to support one another — and became known as off the Soviets till the following March, but the country was finally forced the Axis Powers, or the Axis. In 2002, to agree to Stalin's terms. Soon afterward, the Baltic states of Estonia, George W. Bush, who was president of , and also fell to the Soviets. the at the time, recalled the World War II term when he labelled The German forces used a strategy called blitzkrieg, which means Iran, Iraq, and North Korea the "axis "lightning war," to overwhelm opposition. With strong air support, of evil." German troops, , and artillery would launch a focused attack and blast through a short section of the battlefront, then advance deep into enemy territory. This enabled them to disrupt enemy communications, supply lines, and defences. Traditional defensive tactics were ineffective against blitzkrieg. In 1940, fell in a day and Norway in a month. The most seasoned of the Canadian troops in Britain, along with British forces, had been sent to help in Norway, but they were recalled when it became clear that the battle was already lost. In quick succession, the Netherlands, , and Luxembourg also fell to Germany. Hitler then turned his attention to France.

0 UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War II? • MHR Youth Making History

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When the Germans invaded the Netherlands on Figure 10-5 Henk Hoogeveen, who May 10,1940, Henk Hoogeveen was 14 years old. later immigrated to Canada, was Rotterdam was bombed to force the Dutch to serving in the Dutch army when this surrender, but the rest of the country came through photograph was taken in 1948, four relatively unscathed. Life went on. Henk went to years after the bad winter. school, hung with his friends, and avoided German soldiers. Henk tells how life gradually got harder: At the start of the war, Henk and his family listened Over the years everything was rationed: meat, vegetables, to English BBC radio broadcasts. "Because my sister and I had learned English in high school, we could potatoes, wheat, bread, pastry, sweaters, clothes. We didn't understand the BBC news. The Germans didn't distort see bananas, coffee or tea for five years. Eventually there was the BBC because they figured the Dutch couldn't hardly anything to buy. And the quality went down the drain. understand English. But my family could. Lots of my Later in the war, if you were short of something and wanted it, friends could too." you had to buy it on the black market. When the electricity was cut off, Henk made a crystal radio, with an experimental aerial, that could As the winter of 1944-1945 approached, electricity operate without power. His radio was a rare source and gas supplies were cut off. "We had no heating, no of news, so people came over to listen. Eventually, coal to speak of, no burning materials," Henk recalled. Henk started building one-tube radios that he sold to "So we had a little wood fire. And we got into a winter neighbours and friends. that was one of the worst in ages." In that final winter of the war, the Germans started The Dutch call that winter the Hongerwinter for taking away Dutch men and boys for forced labour in good reason — it was a famine. Henk's mother had Germany. Henk tells what happened: sometimes bicycled to the coastal fishing villages, where she traded valuables for food. When that They went from house to house to search for men between became too risky, Henk's father made the dangerous 18 and 40. They had to be let in, but we had dug a hole journey across the country on a bicycle, to obtain food underground in the living room, so my father and I hid there from farmers. He talked his way past German patrols for a few hours. There were all kinds of rumours that they by showing false papers, which he had obtained from were going to shoot us through the floor, but nothing like that the — people who actively resisted the German occupation. But at a checkpoint on the happened. Later, if I went out, I dressed like my sister, with a way back, collaborators looked in the truck. Henk said, scarf over my head! "They took away all my father's bacon, and they took away his eggs. They said 'Here, you can go away with The day the Allied soldiers (most of whom were these potatoes.' So we ended up with unground wheat Canadian) arrived, was a day Henk would never forget: and potatoes." the Liberation.

Explorations 1. In what ways did Henk and his family cope with 2. During the interview for this feature, Henk stressed one the challenge of living in wartime? What does their of the worst aspects of the whole experience for the experience teach you about how to persevere in a Dutch: "You weren't the boss in your own house." What difficult situation? do you think he meant? What does this have to do with democracy? Or the efforts of the Canadian forces?

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War II? • CHAPTER 10 UNIT THREE 1929-1945

The Maginot Line Voices The French army, with the support of British troops, had prepared for a As we rounded the point to the beach long, drawn-out war like World War I. They had built concrete defences at , you became aware of the along the Maginot Line, between Germany and France. But in early May shelling —the Germans were only 12 1940, German troops went north around this line, bursting through miles [19 kilometres] inland.... But Belgium and into France. you came to the beach and the Caught off guard, the Allied defences collapsed. The combined force uniforms of 400 000 waiting [Allied] of more than 338 000 British, French, Polish, Belgian, and Dutch troops soldiers stood out on the white sand. retreated to the beach at the port of Dunkirk on the . These were disciplined troops; even with shelling and bombing, there was no panic. They were impressive. The — Robert Walter Timbre'', Canadian-born With Allied forces pinned down by German forces at Dunkirk, Hitler British naval officer, recalling his part in hesitated while he decided whether the German army or air force should the rescue at Dunkirk finish the attack. But the Allies used this brief pause to achieve what few expected: a dramatic rescue. The British quickly assembled an armada of 800 fishing, pleasure, and commercial boats, many of them operated by civilians. These boats, along with 222 naval vessels, were sent across the English Channel. Four Royal Canadian Navy destroyers also joined the fleet. The smaller craft picked up the Allied troops from the beach and ferried them to larger vessels that carried them across the Channel. About 200 of these small boats were attacked and sunk. Historical Significance: At the time, British Prime Minister called the "a miracle of deliverance," and the operation provided an important morale boost when the outlook for the Allies was bleak. How could this outcome, which marked a crushing defeat for the Allies, be considered a miracle?

France Surrenders Less than a month after Dunkirk, on June 25, 1940, France officially surrendered. German forces occupied Northern and Western France, including Paris. In the South, a French government was set up in the town of Vichy. Called Vichy France, this puppet government was controlled by Germany and did not help the Allied war effort. The fall of France meant that Hitler controlled nearly all of Western Europe — and could focus on his next target: Britain.

Figure 10-6 Under heavy fire from German artillery and aircraft, soldiers wade toward a waiting ship at Dunkirk (left). In the photograph at right, a tug and a small powerboat carry soldiers to safety. What might you be feeling about being rescued under such conditions?

288) UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War II? • MHR The Voices In the aftermath of Dunkirk, about 140 000 German troops massed along the English Channel, a short boat ride away from England. But About one o'clock, I heard the sound Hitler knew that Royal Air Force fighters and bombers would inflict of an approaching bomber, for the first time, an appalling shriek, like severe damage if the Germans tried to cross the Channel, so he ordered a train whistle growing nearer and the — the German air force — to gain control of the air by nearer, and then a sickening crash destroying aircraft factories, airfields, and radar stations in Britain. reverberating through the earth. At Called the Battle of Britain, Hitler's operation was launched on intervals through the night, we heard July 10, 1940. the same dreaded sound, and each time, as we held our breaths in relief Canada Joins the Battle at our own escape, we knew that When the Battle of Britain started, the Luftwaffe, with about 2500 somewhere else agony and horror planes, was vastly superior to the RAF, which had only 1200 aircraft. had struck. The RAF was also short of trained pilots and experienced air and — Phyllis Warner, journalist, reporting ground crews. from during , 1940 But the British had several advantages. One was superior radar, which helped RAF fighter planes track and shoot down Luftwaffe bombers before they could reach their targets. Figure 10-7 Canadian RAF squadron Another advantage was that Canada and other Allied countries were leader (fifth from left) poses sending pilots, radar personnel, replacement aircraft, and other supplies with 242 Squadron beside a Hurricane as quickly as possible. More than 100 Canadian pilots flew in fighter fighter. In 1930, both Bader's legs had operations during the Battle of Britain, and 200 more flew bombing raids. been amputated after a plane crash, but Even more served as ground crew. he learned to fly with artificial legs and Still, Britain was losing the battle — until Hitler made a strategic became one of the RAF's most successful mistake. A German bomber had accidentally bombed London, and in pilots during the Battle of Britain. Shot response, the RAF bombed . down over France in August 1941, Bader Angered by the attack on the German capital, Hitler ordered the was a until the war ended. Luftwaffe to redirect its attacks from British In what ways did Bader exemplify heroism? airfields to London and other cities. What followed became known as "the Blitz." For 57 consecutive nights, German planes dropped bombs on London, reducing parts of the city to rubble and killing as many as 43 000 people. Despite the damage, the Blitz gave the struggling RAF a breathing space — a chance to regroup, gather reinforcements, and rebuild. By May 1941, it had become obvious that the Luftwaffe was losing ground and the Battle of Britain petered out. During the course of the battle, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill paid tribute to the RAF's efforts when he said, "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few." Cause and Consequence: Consider the strategic situation in late , just before the Battle of Britain began. How significant a role did geography and the weather play in deciding the course of the war?

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War II? • CHAPTER 1 0 10 UNIT THREE 1929-1945

Canada and the War in the Pacific Just as the United States stayed out of World War I at first, the country IN Check Back also remained neutral during the early years of World War II. But Japan

You read in Chapter 9 about was intent on expanding its empire in the Pacific and winning control of Japanese aggression in Southeast Asia's valuable natural resources — and viewed the Americans' Manchuria and China. growing naval strength as a possible obstacle. So on December 7, 1941, without warning, Japan launched an air attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The attack killed 2403 Americans and sank or severely damaged 14 warships and 347 aircraft. In response, the United States joined the Allies. Historical Perspective: The Allies quickly Figure 10-8 Japanese-Held Territory, December 1941 decided on a "Europe first" strategy: defeat Just a few years earlier, Japan's foreign-held territory was far less. What could Germany and Italy first, then tackle Japan. an interactive time-lapse map show you that a static map like this cannot? Explain how this strategy would have affected

Legend ""•.. the war effort. Territory •-•• • held by Hong Kong Japan t. • • December 5- Beijingi, Just eight hours after attacking Pearl Harbor, 1941 Ko ea ToTokyo • Japanese forces began attacking other Allied * Capital City bases in Southeast Asia, including the China Japan W E British territory of Hong Kong. Only a few ; s weeks earlier, 1975 young and inexperienced Hong_Kong Formosa Canadian soldiers and two nurses had arrived • Pacific in Hong Kong to join the British and other Commonwealth troops stationed there. Thailandj French Ocean Indochina The Allied troops were no match for the K 50 000 battle-hardened Japanese soldiers. 0 500 1000 Japanese forces quickly captured the airport, kilometres / eliminating the Allies' hope of air support. And no reinforcements were available. Despite their hopeless position, the Allied troops resisted, rejecting two demands for surrender. They fought to the bitter end, but on "Black Christmas" 1941, they finally laid down their weapons. Figure 10-9 Members of the Royal Rifles The 1685 Canadians who survived the battle were marched to of Canada pose with their mascot en route Japanese prisoner-of-war camps. Don Nelson, one of the captive to Hong Kong. They were green troops, Canadians, later described this ordeal: "[The Japanese soldiers] were 17 to 25 years old, still being trained during pretty rough on us. They tied our hands together with barbed wire. A lot the voyage. For security reasons, they were of boys that fell and couldn't walk because they were wounded so badly, not told where they were headed. they were cut loose and bayoneted right there." More than 260 Canadians died as a result of the brutal conditions in the camps, or later, when many were forced to work as slave labour in Japanese shipyards and mines. Since the war, many of these veterans have demanded that Japan apologize and compensate them for the harsh treatment. In the late 1990s, the Canadian government compensated the veterans, but Japan has refused to consider claims from any former POWs. Ethical Dimension: Do these veterans — or any others — have a right to expect compensation for harsh treatment while they were prisoners of war?

UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War II? • MHR Hitler Turns on the Soviet Union Despite the nonaggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Union, Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin remained suspicious of each other. On June 22, 1941, Stalin's suspicions were confirmed when Hitler, encouraged by his successes in Western Europe, attacked the Soviet Union with 3 million troops and 3000 tanks. Hitler's decision to pour troops into a second front in the east would prove to be decisive for the Allies because it drew German forces away Figure 10-10 The top photograph shows from Western Europe and ensured that the Soviet Union joined the Allies. members of the Queen's Own Cameron But the campaign also took a heavy toll on the Soviet Union. More Highlanders of Canada in a on than 20 million Soviet people lost their lives. During the 900-day siege the way to Dieppe. The bottom photograph of Leningrad alone, about 700 000 civilians died as a result of heavy was taken the day after the raid. What bombing and starvation. story do these two pictures tell?

Disaster at Dieppe

During the summer of 1942, the Soviets were urging the . . • Allies to attack German-controlled Europe from the west. Although the Allies were not ready to launch an all-out assault, they did want to test new equipment and gather intelligence. They were also looking for a success that could boost morale. So Allied leaders decided that the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division should spearhead a raid on Dieppe, a French seaport on the English Channel. The operation was a failure from the outset. The Allies lost the element of surprise when their ships encountered a German during the night. The landing sites were poorly planned, and the Germans were able to fire shells at Allied landing craft when they were still 10 minutes from shore. And the beaches were barricaded, so Allied tanks could make no headway. After six hours of slaughter, the raid was called off. Of the 6033 Allied troops at Dieppe, 4963 were Canadian. Of these, 907 were killed, 587 were wounded, and 1946 were captured. There were also casualties among the other Allied soldiers, but in the end, Dieppe was the greatest sacrifice of Canadian lives during the war. Historical Perspective: To put a positive spin on the , Allied leaders tried to focus public attention on what they had learned from this "practice run." If you had been a journalist writing about lessons learned at Dieppe, what would your report have said?

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War .1.1? • CHAPTER 10

UNIT THREE 1929-1945

The With much of Europe in German hands, Britain relied on supplies and reinforcements from Canada. But the German navy was determined to cut this lifeline, and its U-boats hunted Allied ships crossing the North Atlantic Ocean. This contest became known as the Battle of the Atlantic — and was the longest battle of the war. The Allies tried to protect cargo ships by organizing convoys guarded by naval vessels. For the first half of the voyage from Canada, the convoys •CONNECTIONS were protected by Canadian ships and planes. In mid-Atlantic, British The Battle of the Gulf of St. Lawrence forces took over escort duties. was part of the larger Battle of the Atlantic. In 1942, German U-boats In the beginning, the U-boats, which travelled in groups called "wolf started lurking in the Gulf of St. packs," had the upper hand. In July 1942, for example, U-boats sank 143 Lawrence, and that year, they sank 21 Allied cargo ships. ships. The losses included the Caribou, a civilian ferry carrying passengers In mid-1943, the tide began to turn in favour of the Allies. Crews between Sydney, Nova Scotia, and were better trained and more experienced, and submarine-tracking tactics Port aux Basques, Newfoundland. But and technology had improved. The navy and air force had also grown and Canadian defences grew stronger, and were able to protect more convoys more effectively. In 1939, the Canadian after 1944, the threat eased. navy had consisted of 13 ships and 13 000 members. By war's end, Canada boasted the fourth-largest navy in the world, with 375 ships and 110 000 members. More U-boats were sunk, and more merchant ships made it past the wolf packs. But the price was high. The Canadian navy lost 2000 members, and more than 1600 Canadian and Newfoundland merchant mariners — civilian sailors — were killed. Among them were eight women. In a memoir written after the war, Britain's wartime prime minister, Winston Churchill, summed up the importance of this sea battle. "The Battle of the Atlantic was the dominating factor all through the war," Churchill wrote. "Never for one moment could we forget that everything happening elsewhere, on land, at sea, or in the air, depended ultimately on its outcome, and amid all other cares we viewed its changing fortunes day by day with hope or apprehension."

Figure 10-11 HMCS Wetaskiwin, a corvette, enters the harbour of St. John's, Newfoundland, after a patrol during the winter of 1942-1943. On the North Atlantic in winter, waves washing over the deck could cause so much ice to build up that ships sometimes became top-heavy and capsized.

0 UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War II? • MHR

Youth Making History

Shirley Ann (Sherry) Constable was orphaned at the age of 11, but by the age of 16 she wanted to be on Figure 10-12 Shirley Ann Constable — known to her friends her own. She tried to be a waitress but broke too as Sherry — eventually became the driver for Colonel . On many dishes. So she lied about her age and joined the the job, she drove a jeep. But in her off hours, she had the use of Canadian Forces in 1942. Her dream? To be an army a motorcycle. When she went to visit Nana, her grandmother, she driver. She got into the driver course in Kitchener, had to park it around the corner because Nana said that nice girls Ontario, but within a few months, she was caught out did not ride motorcycles, never mind drive them. by the very intimidating Colonel Dover. Here is the story of her dressing down in her own words.

"What did you think you would accomplish by lying about your age and driving experience?" ... My mouth was dry and my brain had ceased working when I crossed the office threshold. "Come, come. You must have something to say for yourself." "Yes, Ma'am," I finally managed. Once my mouth opened, it went on of its own accord. "I really wanted to join thearmy and I really wanted to be a driver— an army driver. I knew I could be a good driver and I knew I would love the army. I just needed a chance to prove it, but how could I get a chance if I waited until I was 18? The war might be over before then. So I lied. I'm sorry I lied, Ma'am, but I'm not sorry to be in the army or to be a driver." She looked at me silently for a few moments, while my heart pounded. "I have been in touch with your grandmother, and she was upset to know that you had taken such a step without be posted overseas. You were to go as soon as your course consulting her, but she thinks the army may be the making was finished. This, of course, will not be possible now, due of you. I happen to think so too. I have been hearing good to your age. Consider yourself lucky to have gotten off so reports about you from Sgt. Menzies. You have shown lightly. Dismissed." initiative and courage. You will report back to the garage I left her office in a daze with my thoughts turning tomorrow and finish your course. By the way, you may be cartwheels in my brain... I could stay in the army! interested to know that you were on the first CWAC draft to - •-- •

Explorations I 1. What did the army offer that Sherry wanted? What did 2. Although Sherry's incentives were personal, her Sherry offer that the army wanted? actions were part of a major change in Canadian society. How did Sherry break barriers? Would she make a good role model for young women today? Why or why not?

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War II? • CHAPTER 10 293 UNIT THREE 1929-1945 Are science and technology the key to winning wars? During World War II, the Allied and Axis powers raced to achieve technological supremacy. But this raises a question: can scientific and technological developments win a war by themselves? Sometimes an invention is so important that it seems to be a game changer, tilting the advantage to one side. However, other factors may be involved. As you read this section, think about the question posed in the heading. Figure 10-13 This photo shows the radar display on a ship. Before the war, radar systems usually lacked good display Radar screens. How would Canada's development At the start of the war, the technology of radar — the use of radio waves of the Plan Position Indicator, now the to detect objects — was being developed secretly by a number of the most common type of radar display, have Allied powers, as well as the Soviet Union and the United States (both of helped the Allies? whom joined the Allies in 1941), Germany, and Japan. The British were the first to refine the radar system so that it could detect the position of enemy planes and quickly instruct fighter pilots what to do with the information. In the past, getting the information about the enemy plane's location to the pilot before it was outdated had always been a challenge. During the Battle of Britain, the British and the Canadians — unbeknownst to the Germans — were able to get radar information to their pilots so quickly that successful "interception rates" (shooting a plane down) increased to 75 per cent or even higher. This development was key to the success of the RAF over Hitler's Luftwaffe because even though the German fleet outnumbered the Allied force, the Germans had no good direction system to guide their pilots. Radar "countermeasures" also helped the Allies throughout the war. According to the National World War II Museum, during bombing raids, Allied bombers dropped thousands of tiny strips of tinfoil, code-named "window" and "chaff" to jam enemy radar. Britain passed along its radar developments to Canada, where Canadian scientists continued to make refinements and created the Plan Position Indicator, the most common type of radar display even today.

CONNECTIONS Sonar LORAN, which was an acronym Sonar was another technological advance during this period. Sonar uses for LOng-RAnge Navigation radar sound waves to detect objects. During World War II, sonar was useful in systems, was the forerunner of today's satellite-based GPS technology. It was detecting the position of German submarines. The Germans had started developed by the United States during to focus on submarine warfare after the Battle of Britain in order to cut the war and improved radar tracking to off Britain from its ships loaded with weapons and food. However, sonar 2400 kilometres. sometimes helped the British navy detect the precise location of German subs and destroy them before they became a threat.

UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War • MHR The Enigma Machine The Enigma Machine was similar to an electric typewriter, only it scrambled keystrokes by replacing them with other letters. As long as the recipient of the message knew how the letters were being scrambled, the message could be decoded. The Germans invented the Enigma Machine for top-secret communication during the war, unaware that the British had figured out how to decipher their messages. The Enigma Machine went on to inspire a number of spin-offs, including the popular encryption software of the 21st century used to scramble messages sent via Figure 10-14 This visual appeared in an the Internet. August 1944 Life magazine. How does this poster, advertising the benefits of penicillin Better Food and Medicine on the battlefield, get its message across with few words? What emotions does it During World War II, researchers identified which nutrients were most generate in the reader? What war effort essential to human health — information that was critical for preserving was it intended to support? the health of soldiers. American researchers invented the "D-ration" chocolate bar, which contained a very high number of calories — 1800 — as well as Thanks to PENICILLIN many essential vitamins and minerals. The bars were He Will Come Home developed with the assistance of the famed Hershey Company. Between 1940 and 1945, it was estimated that about 3 billion bars were distributed to Allied soldiers. During this time, Canada's National Research Council also developed high-protein powdered foods such as eggs and milk that could be shipped to soldiers overseas. Penicillin was another health breakthrough at this time. Although penicillin, an antibiotic, had been discovered back in 1928, it had never been mass produced. During World War II, the drug was manufactured on a massive scale in the United States and provided to millions of soldiers and civilians. One immediate impact was the reduction in the number of amputations and deaths on the battlefield. On average, it took about 14 hours before a wounded soldier could see a doctor, but when treated with penicillin, the wait time became much less risky since the soldier was less likely to die from infection.

Recall ... Reflect ... Respond

1. Create a poster to illustrate the scientific and 3. Do you think developments in science technology technological developments that changed the way gave the Allies victories during the war or do you World War II was fought. think there were other human factors, such as teamwork or courage, at work? Or do you think 2. Would technology have progressed so rapidly if war victory is achieved through a combination of had not occurred? Overall, were these technologies technology, science, and the human factor? Explain harmful or beneficial to people? State reasons for your answer using examples from pages 294-295. your viewpoint.

MEM • How did Canada make its mark in World War II? • CHAPTER 10

UNIT THREE 1929-1945 How did Canada help end the war? In 1939, William Lyon Mackenzie King's government had committed CONNECTIONS the country to . Nearly all industries were retooled to produce Women in the Armed Forces the arms and materials needed to equip the Canadian Armed Forces by the Numbers and supply the Allied forces. Far from the reach of German bombers, Canadian Women's Army Corps Canadian factories could operate nonstop. (CWACs): 21 600 Canadians were encouraged to enlist, but as in World War I, members Women's Division, Royal Canadian of some groups were not welcomed wholeheartedly. But this changed as Air Force (WDs): 17 400 the war dragged on and more troops were needed. Women, for example, Women's Royal Canadian Naval were at first restricted to roles in the medical corps, but by 1942, a Service (Wrens): 7100 personnel shortage had motivated the army, navy, and air force to form women's divisions.

Planning to Take Back Europe German forces were strongly entrenched in much of Europe, and Allied leaders knew that a massive — and carefully planned — assault would be needed to reclaim the occupied territory. In 1942, British prime minister Winston Churchill and American president Franklin D. Roosevelt announced that the Allies would help ease the pressure on the Soviets by opening a second front in Europe as soon as possible. But the Allies were not ready to launch an all-out attack, so they started in North Africa, which was controlled by German and Vichy French forces. This operation eventually succeeded, with the Allies managing to take 275 000 Axis soldiers out of the war. Figure 10-15 The Canadian television Canadians had helped the Allies win the Battle of Britain in the air drama series The Bomb Girls followed four women working in a munitions factory and the Battle of the Atlantic at sea. But with the exception of the Dieppe during World War II. Do you think there raid, Canadian ground troops had seen little action. This changed in should be more stories about women in 1943. wartime? With North Africa secured, the Allies were in a position to open the promised second European front — and they did this with an assault on the Italian island of Sicily. The goal of this attack was not to recapture Europe; rather, it was to weaken the German defences in France by drawing troops south. On the night of July 9-10, 1943, 2590 Allied vessels, with air support, landed 500 000 Allied troops, including Canadians, on the island. At first, the Canadians faced little resistance, but as they moved north, the fighting became fiercer. In scorching heat, the Canadians advanced 240 kilometres over mountainous terrain, engaging the enemy along the way — and losing 562 soldiers. After 38 days of fighting, the German and Italian forces withdrew to the Italian mainland.

UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War III • MHR

The Battle up the Boot Figure 10-16 Canadians in Italy, As a result of the fall of Sicily, Benito Mussolini, the Italian dictator, was 1943-1944 overthrown, and the new Italian government surrendered to the Allies. Why would it make sense to attack from But Hitler had expected this, and he ordered the German army to take the most southerly point? over. So despite the Italian surrender, Allied forces faced stiff fighting as Legend they worked their way up the "boot" of Italy. Carochan ANafice The Canadians' mission was to capture the city of Ortona on the *Capital 04 .--- Adriatic Sea, but to do this, they had to fight their way northward (... Italy .-. .). through the mountains for nearly four months. Once they reached --''' -tIcrerce • INOrn \ 4 . ii Ortona, the Canadians waged a street-by-street battle to drive out the ' Orturka , Germans. They were successful, and on December 28, 1943, the city was Rolliee ii. -4 Adriatic 1-•-• Cassino.° lt '•,Sea i in Canadian hands. Napheel %I. After this, the Canadians continued to push northward, though • i f--Th') they were eventually withdrawn from Italy to join the campaign that IlIediterrarteare Sea had started in Northern Europe. The Italian campaign claimed 5399 Canadian lives. hill° .1 D 1:200 400 , • The Devil's Brigade k•f.Krtr. The 1st Special Service Force, a joint Canadian—American group of elite paratroopers, arrived in Italy in November 1943. Taking on the most difficult and dangerous assignments, this force developed such a fearsome Figure 10-17 Canadian soldiers cautiously reputation that German soldiers started calling them the "Devil's advance against German snipers on a street in the Italian village of Campochiaro, Brigade." northeast of Naples. Sergeant Tommy Prince was one of the Canadians who made up about 25 per cent of the membership of the Devil's Brigade. On one assignment, Prince was in an abandoned farmhouse just 200 metres from the German line. He was watching German movements and telephoning the information to his unit. When shelling cut the communication line, Prince dressed as a farmer, picked up a hoe, and walked into the field in full view of the Germans. Finding the broken wire, he bent down, and pretending to tie his shoe, reconnected the wire. He then calmly returned to the farmhouse and continued his work. For this action, Prince was awarded the Military Medal for bravery in the field. Among the many other medals he won was the Silver Star, an American award for gallantry, for his work with the Devil's Brigade in France.

Figure 10-18 Sergeant Tommy Prince (right) of the Brokenhead Ojibway Nation in Manitoba stands with his brother, Private Morris Prince, at , where King George VI presented Tommy Prince with the Military Medal (right) at a special ceremony in 1945.

MHR • How di114ana-da .ike'itr Thinking Historically: Continuity and Change

tj."d71- 16

Change is always happening. Sometimes change is fast like when Canada declared war. Sometimes change is slow like the long preparations before Canada and its allies were ready to fight. Even when change happens, though, some things stay the same. Looking at what stays the same can be very revealing. World War II was Canada's first all-out war. And while the military had very strong connections with British military tradition, the pressures of war began to change it. Look at the following chart to spot ways that the military changed as a result of World War II and ways that it stayed the same.

FIRST NATIONS MET'S AND INUIT First Nations people volunteered in Army recruiters did not recognize record numbers, fighting in every "Metis" or "Inuit" as a cultural major battle that Canada was identity, so we don't know how involved in. However, they did not many volunteered, but many did. receive the same benefits that other Inuit soldiers were code talkers, returning veterans received after used to pass top-secret messages the war. because they spoke a rare language.

UKRAINIAN CANADIANS BLACK CANADIANS In World War I, Ukrainian Canadians At the beginning of the war, had been regarded as enemy recruiters routinely rejected aliens. In contrast, more than 50 000 Black Canadian volunteers. Over Ukrainians were welcomed by the the course of the war, this policy military during World War II. changed. Black Canadians were integrated as a part of regular units. Nonetheless, they found it difficult to gain promotions. Figure 10-19 Canada's Clement Chartier, CHINESE CANADIANS WOMEN President of the Metis National Council, delivers In 1939, Canada did not even regard For the first time, Canadian women his speech during World War II ceremonies to Chinese Canadians as citizens, were allowed to enlist. Their roles honour Metis veterans, on November 11, 2009, even when they were born here. were limited to non-combat roles at Centre, near Caen, Normandy. Not until 1944, when the military such as flying transport planes desperately needed more soldiers, and managing supplies. By 1942, were Chinese Canadians permitted the army was forming women's to enlist. divisions. In total, 50 580 women served on the front lines. N 7- Explorations 1. Explore what changed and what stayed the same in 2. Give an example of a change or continuity that World War II by creating an "On the one hand... /On reflected attitudes in Canadian society. the other hand... " script. Begin with a change, and 3. Give an example of a change that stemmed from counter with a continuity. Counter that with another the pressures of war. How might this change affect change, and so on. Canadian society?

UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War II? • MI-IR Preparing for D-Day Figure 10-20 The D-Day Invasion, June 6, 1944 While Allied troops were fighting in Italy, Allied Given the number of communities involved, what measures might you have leaders started planning to take back what had to take in order to keep such a massive attack a secret? come to be called "Fortress Europe." With Britain as a staging area, the Allies planned to ,r Britain on send a massive force across the English Channel Dover --tr Southampton to gain a foothold in Northern France. From Portsmouth Shoreham- - there, Allied armies would work their way across by-Sea o‘ Portia]. Europe, recapturing territory the Germans had artmouth cep held for years. The Dieppe disaster had taught the Allies fah that the element of surprise was essential. The Chann el English Germans were expecting an invasion, but they eppe Cherbowg • did not know where it would happen. Allied • leaders wanted to keep them guessing so that Legend • Saint-Lo 60' they would not send reinforcements to the American Caen n ab British beaches of Normandy, the chosen landing site. mime- Canadian Norm a0 50 100 Par So the Allies came up with a plan to fool the -A- Capital City France kilometres Germans into thinking that the invasion would take place at Calais. Across from Calais, the Allies successfully created fake installations, air bases, landing craft, and tanks to make it look as if troops were massing there. In the meantime, Allied forces were gathering farther west. Evidence: Examine the map in Figure 10-20. Why would Calais seem like a logical choice as a landing site for the Allied invasion?

D-Day Many of the Canadian troops in Britain had spent more than four years preparing to invade France. Finally, Allied leaders chose June 5, 1944, Voices as D-Day — the day the invasion called "" would There was tremendous relief on the be launched. But bad weather created rough conditions on the English part of everybody— "We've waited Channel, and Operation Overlord was delayed for 24 hours. this long, now it's here, let's see what Finally, early in the morning of June 6, 1944, under cover of a massive we can do." After all that time. And air and naval bombardment, ships started ferrying 150 000 American, we were pretty finely trained — but British, and Canadian troops across the channel to Normandy. The we were green troops going into Americans landed at the western end of an 81-kilometre stretch of the action in a strange country. Almost no beach, while British forces, which included the Canadians, landed to one had been under enemy fire at all. the east. — Don Learment, North Nova Scotia Since Dieppe, the Allies had improved their landing craft and Highland Regiment, in 2004, communication links. They also provided more effective air and naval recalling the time before D-Day support for troops, and the British had developed specialized tanks that could crush German bunkers and clear paths through minefields. In addition, the German defenders were taken almost completely by surprise, a tribute to the success of the Allied deception. In fact, until Allied commanders opened their orders that morning, most of them did not know where the landing was to take place either.

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War II? • CHAPTER 10 01 UNIT THREE 1929-1945

Juno Beach The 14 000 Canadians who took part in Operation Overlord were assigned an eight-kilometre stretch of Normandy beach code-named "Juno." There, they faced strong German defences — concrete bunkers, barbed-wire barriers, landmines, and massive antitank defences. But, in the face of heavy shelling and deadly fire, the Canadians fought their way past the German defences. D-Day was a success, and Canadians took pride in the fact that, by the end of the day, they had penetrated farther inland than any other Allied forces. Losses had also been minimal: 340 Canadians were killed, 574 were wounded,

Figure 10-21 Captain Orville Norman and 47 were captured. Fisher was a war artist who painted this picture of Canadian soldiers struggling Canada and the Liberation of Europe through German defences to reach Juno Along with British and American forces, the Canadians continued Beach on D-Day. Fisher took part in the Normandy invasion as a member of the pushing inland. But the Germans fought fiercely, and over the next six Royal Canadian Engineers. How might days, the Canadians suffered 2831 casualties. his personal experience have affected his Still, they managed to extend their beachhead to a point several portrayal of the scene? kilometres inland, and over the next months, they continued advancing northwestward. They liberated a number of French channel ports, including Dieppe, where so many Canadians had died two years earlier.

The Battle of the , in Belgium, had been liberated in early September, but this key supply point on the Scheldt River was inland from the coast — and the Germans still controlled the mouth of the river, near the border between Belgium and the Netherlands. The was given the difficult task of clearing them out. The involved bitter fighting that finally ended in a Canadian victory in late . Though the price was high — the Canadians suffered nearly 6400 casualties — the supply route to Antwerp had been secured. This victory cleared the way for the final Allied advance into Germany. The importance of the victory was confirmed by Dwight D. Eisenhower, the American general who was the Allies' supreme commander. Eisenhower later declared that victory over Germany became certain "when the first ship moved unmolested up the Scheldt."

UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War II? • MFIR

Thinking Historically: Evidence

Sourcing is the first step you take when you want to analyze a primary source. It involves asking and answering questions about the source and its creation. Sourcing can begin even before you examine the source. For example, you can seek out information about the writing of the letter on this page by asking questions such as the following:

Prereading Questions 4. When was the letter written? 1. Who wrote the letter? 5. Where was it written? 2. What was his position or role? 6. What was the context? That is, what was 3. To whom was the letter written? happening in the world?

,t____Amm=ME=MPIMR 100.111momt Unlike many younger volunteers, Lieutenant David

Lac-wiz o,rzwrzcly, cliuly 2, 1944 Kilbourn Hazzard of the Toronto-based Queen's Own Rifles of Canada was married when he signed up. He ,beat cSweetfieatt, ' left behind his wife, Audrey, and two young daughters. .g forged _-.Sotty gat g fiauen' t written lot Zout tfitee During the four years he spent overseas, he wrote Neek it ic. c4nyaray -01TE mfiicfi. Lin fact if fotget even what clay of tfie home faithfully, describing life in the army. gging a Slit ttenefi.ONE Hazzard was among the reinforcements who landed E£11 10 C109 LIEGE gat j( was falling alleep di o to cuppott Btitilfi unit in Normandy after D-Day. The following is an excerpt Ld fiuttied up to tfie font a few day, ag from his final letter, written just three days before he expecting a countetattack and tfien puffEd out infien it didn' GAO LATEtE. died in northern France. neatly fotty-efgfit COME Off a 2E1uft, w£ fiad no s.&Ep g in, in. tine fiatclect clay gve 4..Z14CMCfiECIu afoutfifteen milec and fiad du After you read the letter, you can ask more thoughtful few minute, tfiat could fiane ever encounteted.gfiErL mfieng clid get a questions. For example, cad atout lout dozen fettetc to censor, wfilcfi uced up aff tfie urtitten, Li [' Postreading Questions XE managed to catch -up on tny cl'eep, &me claytcyfit avaitaffe.goday.G', • Why did the writer write this letter? ilfi ctteam, and fiad meal of fte,fi meat and a fiatfi in a tad:et clugg • What did he choose to write about? mfiicfi lc a pfEalant cfiange ftom canned Compotationc. VE.3EtatrE1, • What information might he be leaving out? 1Inaified 02 VdragE tfiat fcaln &een ccSo fat UTE fialTEn' t leen in a, town • How does he feel about his experience on the front? 1OLL filazec tfiete fial geen no oppottunity of Lying a, little • How does he feel about his responsibility as a cend you. ,-.-_--Speaking of l uyingil need cox. cill(ine. mete all ctolen when to lieutenant? one, miff fie ra dicappeated. <4c,.4.t'fout paitc of tfie fieany 9 29 came • Why is it important to him to find souvenirs?

plenty . • Why has this letter survived for more than 70 years?

Wig all my Cove to you, c4nne, Xaten l'one you! ciVour and almay, ( The answers to these questions are not always

and Vanny, Li am (Youti. explicitly stated in the letter. Sometimes you have to infer an answer— make a reasoned conclusion based on the evidence.

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Explorations

1. Answer the pre- and postreading questions about the 2. Which questions helped you really think about the letter letter. and what you could learn from it?

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War II? • CHAPTER 10 UNIT THREE 1929-1945

Figure 10-22 The Campaign to Liberate Europe, 1944-1945 Freeing the Netherlands

Trace the Canadian advance from Normandy and locate the Rhine River. Why would it make sense After the Battle of the Scheldt, for the Canadian Forces to liberate the Netherlands while British and American forces advance into winter arrived, and many of Germany? the Canadian troops took a well-earned rest. But on Legend N February 8, 1945, the break —J.- Canadian Forces A 0 100 200 WE 1111.011111.11 1.11 ended. That day, as many British Forces kilometres V American Forces as 175 000 Canadians, the *.ce May 4 * Capital City North largest Canadian assault force ". -Apr.1 8 • •Qlliie Sea 11 in history, joined the Rhine /146-th Offensive. Britain In this campaign, Amste Apr}78 . Canadian Forces successfully NUme drove the Germans out of the Lv C:7 Netherlands and chased them Dunkirk Germany •-• Sept. 127 into Northern Germany. As alais they liberated the Dutch towns, Oct. Boulogne the Canadians discovered Sept. 22 haone people on the verge of English C Dieppe ." Frari4irt starvation. On April 22, a truce Sept-1 11'. .-- .11 was negotiated to enable the ; • Sept 12,4_ .1no . Allies to provide disaster relief • Caen - •'—'••:,.• • • Falaise 0 -7 to the Netherlands. Y Norma n \goo.' 0,

Germany Surrenders As Canadian Forces freed the Netherlands and marched into Northern Germany, the other Allies converged on Berlin. Hitler committed suicide on April 30 as Soviet forces entered the city. Things moved quickly over the next few days. On May 5, a ceasefire was declared. On May 7, the German forces surrendered unconditionally, and Allied leaders declared VE Day — Victory in Europe Day. The war in Europe was over.

,,,,, , ,, 7TRA, VICTOR Figure 10-23 A smiling George Baker displays a copy k of the May 7,1945, extra edition of Regina's The Leader- IS osi(oiskaolipi Post. Like The Leader-Post, many newspapers across StilRENDfi , , Canada printed extra editions as Canadians celebrated. What emotions might people have felt as they heard the news?

UNIT 3 • Did Cana fimrP daft pfd? 0 The War Continues in the Pacific Although Germany had surrendered, Japan fought on in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, where it had occupied a number of countries, including Burma — now Myanmar — much of China, and the Philippines. Allied leaders were focusing on Europe, and forces from the occupied countries, as well as Britain, India, the Netherlands, Australia, and New Zealand, had had little success in stopping Japanese expansion until the CONNECTIONS United States entered the war in 1941. The was the code Once the U.S. joined the Allies, American forces dominated the war name for the top-secret American— in the Pacific. Little by little, against fierce opposition, the Allies began British—Canadian project that developed the atomic bomb. Uranium to win back the Pacific islands occupied by Japanese forces. from Great Bear Lake in the Northwest With the war in Europe over, the Allies could focus completely on Territories was refined in Port Hope, Japan. By July 1945, nearly 80 000 Canadians had volunteered to fight Ontario, and used to help develop the bomb. And in Montreal, Canadian and in the Pacific and were preparing to reinforce the Allies. Canada also British scientists had worked together planned to send 60 naval vessels to join the Allies' Pacific fleet. to help find the most effective way of But events overtook them, and these forces were not needed. using uranium to make the bomb work. The Atomic Bomb The American Air Force had been able to use bases on the recently recaptured Pacific islands to reach Japan. From March to August 1945, American planes firebombed 58 Japanese cities, including the capital, Tokyo. In Tokyo alone, about 84 000 people, mostly civilians, were killed. Still, Japan would not give up — and Harry Truman, who had become president of the United States when Franklin Roosevelt died in Voices April 1945, believed that the Japanese forces would continue fighting It is a distinct pleasure for me to to the bitter end. So Truman decided to use a newly developed nuclear announce that Canadian scientists weapon: the atomic bomb. have played an intimate part, and The Enola Gay, an American B-29 bomber, dropped the first have been associated in an effective atomic bomb on Hiroshima at 8:16 a.m. on August 6. It killed 70 000 way, with this great scientific people instantly. Three days later, when it looked as if Japan planned development. to continue fighting, the Americans dropped a second atomic bomb on — C D. Howe, Canadian minister of the port of Nagasaki, where another 70 000 people died. By 1950, an munitions and supply, on hearing that estimated 400 000 people had died from the effects of the bombs. an atomic bomb had been dropped on The day after the Nagasaki bombing, the Japanese government sued Hiroshima, 1945 for peace, and on August 14, 1945, Japan accepted the Allies' call for an unconditional surrender. World War II came to an end.

Recall ... Reflect ... Respond

1. Develop three or four criteria you could use to judge 2. Think about someone who might have been involved Canada's most significant contribution to ending in making the contribution you chose. Write the World War II. Use your criteria to make a choice and journal entry this person might have made on August be prepared to defend this choice. 15, 1945, the day after learning that World War II was over.

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War II? • CHAPTER 10 C)

Thinking Historically: Historical Perspective Cute, —1 Making Sense of the Past

Sometimes historians face apparent contradictions in the historical record. One source gives one perspective, while another source gives an entirely different perspective. Take, for example, two communications from December 7, 1941: • A radio message: "Surprise attack successful!" • A newspaper headline: "IT'S WAR!" All on their own, these communications don't make Consider another attack during the war, the one that a lot of sense. But if you know that the Japanese Air ended the war in the Pacific arena. On August 6 and Force attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on that date, August 9, 1945, the Americans dropped two atomic it all becomes clear. You can understand the two bombs on Japan, killing about 140 000 people. Was it perspectives because of the context. necessary? Read the first column before you look at the context of each perspective.

Figure 10-24 Perspectives on the Atomic Bomb

Perspective Context

"In ... June 1945, a note was posted in our camp. It ... said, The Japanese held 140 000 Allied prisoners during the "The moment the first American soldier sets foot on the war. Of these, 30 000 died from starvation, overwork, Japanese mainland, all prisoners of war will be shot." And they and inhumane treatment. American soldier Grayford meant it. That is why all of us who were prisoners in Japan, C. Payne, who wrote these words, survived more than or were headed for it to probably die in the invasion, revere the three years in a Japanese prisoner-of-war camp. Enola Gay."

"The Japanese were nearly ready to capitulate.... My proposal Lewis Strauss was special assistant to the American was that the weapon should be demonstrated over some secretary of the navy during the war. He took a special area accessible to Japanese observers and where its effects interest in the development of atomic energy, and knew would be dramatic.... It seemed to me that a demonstration beforehand what devastation the bombs would cause. of this sort would prove to the Japanese that we could destroy any of their cities at will."

"When the blow came, I closed my eyes but I could still feel The atomic bomb obliterated the centre of Hiroshima, the extreme heat. To say the least, it was like being roasted but burned everything in the surrounding area. Takehiko alive many times over. It was terribly hot, much worse than the Sakai was only 21 when he was transferred to a military pain which one must endure when an incision is made during regiment in Hiroshima two days before the bomb hit. surgery.... Then, on the evening of August 15, we heard that the war was over. I was happy, I was really happy that the war had ended."

Explorations

1. How did the additional context help you better 3. Develop your own opinion on whether or not the atomic understand the three comments about the atomic bomb should have been dropped. How does your bomb? What other information would you like to know? perspective reflect the context of your worldview, your upbringing, or Canadian society in the 21st century? 2. Create and complete a T-chart with arguments for and against dropping the atomic bomb. Fill it with ideas from the quotations on this page and add your own thoughts.

--M11111111m. , V

UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War II? • MHR What ethical issues emerged from the war?

The German Luftwaffe was the first to bomb civilian targets during the war, but the Allies soon started using the same strategy. Both sides bombed cities, towns, and villages with the intention of breaking down resistance. Hundreds of thousands of innocent people died in these Figure 10-25 The top photograph shows attacks. Homes, infrastructure, businesses, and industries were destroyed, London during the Blitz, while the picture and historic buildings and national treasures were lost forever. below shows Dresden after the city was firebombed in 1945. What arguments could Bomber Command you use to justify these bombings? What arguments could you use against these The branch of the Allied forces responsible for planning and carrying out bombings? Which arguments do you think bombing campaigns was the British air force's Bomber Command. From are strongest? Why? 1942 to 1945, Arthur Harris, also known as "Bomber Harris," was in charge of Bomber Command. During the early years of the war, Bomber Command experienced heavy losses. But as the Allied war machine gained strength, Allied bombers became more active and carried out many successful missions. But both during and after the war, some of Harris's tactics were controversial. One tactic involved area bombing, a strategy of dropping many bombs on a large area so that the entire area is destroyed. Another tactic was the use of incendiary bombs — bombs designed to start fires. On the night of February 14, 1945, for example, British, Canadian, and American bombers dropped 2600 tonnes of explosives and incendiary bombs on the historic German city of Dresden. The city had few military installations but was considered a key location from which Germany could defend itself against the Soviet Union. In the resulting firestorm, the city was incinerated and about 100 000 people died.

Protecting Civilians At the time, few people questioned the ethics of bombing civilians because they believed that these strategies shortened the war — and saved lives. But many people now take a different view. Today, many question the ethics of military strategies that target civilian populations. Through the Geneva Conventions, for example, the sets out rules governing warfare. In 1977, the UN added specific provisions calling for the protection of civilians. Ethical Dimension: Do rules against harming civilians in wartime mean that a bombing campaign like that of the Allies during World War II will never happen again? Explain your response.

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War II? • CHAPTER 10

UNIT THREE 1929-1945

The Holocaust — or Shoah, in Hebrew — is the name given to the Nazis' Voices deliberate murder of millions of European Jews during World War II. When they filled in the bunker [of the Before the end of the war, Allied countries had known about the gas chamber] with all the women, concentration camps, and some people had tried to make the world they put the men in. And sometimes aware of the horrors that were taking place. But it was only when Allied they had 20 or 30 extra people that troops began liberating the camps that the extent of the mass murder they couldn't get in, so they always was exposed. Troops found gas chambers where people had been killed, held back children. And when the crematoriums filled with human remains, mass graves, and heaps of bunker was already so filled they unburied, emaciated bodies. Thousands of those still alive were near couldn't put no more people, no more death. ... they made the kids crawl on the top of the heads, all the way in there, The "Final Solution" just kept on pushing them in, to fill them all in ... And that took about Hitler and the Nazis had also tried to eliminate millions of other people five to ten minutes. In the door they they considered undesirable: Roma, communists, gay men, Africans, had a little peephole with four or people with disabilities, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and political five layers of glass in between, and it prisoners from various countries. The Jews, however, were the prime was with bars so nobody could break target of what Hitler called the "Final Solution." the glass through. And when they Historians estimate that about nine million Jews lived in Europe turned on the light ... you could see before World War II. By the end of the war, about six million were dead. whether the people were already This number included a million children. dead or not. The mass killing of Jews began in the fall of 1941 with Operation — Sam ltzkowitz, a Polish Reinhard, a plan to murder the Jews of occupied Poland. The first three Holocaust survivor, in 1991, describing killing centres were methods used in the camps built at Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka. In other camps, such as Auschwitz, prisoners were worked to death under brutal conditions. Those too young, too old, or too weak to work were killed in gas chambers, shot, or left to die of starvation or disease.

Figure 10-26 When Allied forces liberated the Mauthausen-Gusen Concentration Camp in Austria, these were some of the survivors they found. Mauthausen, which had a particularly brutal reputation, was used mainly for political prisoners, who were subjected to a program of "extermination through work." When there are no more survivors of the Holocaust, do you think photos like this will continue to tell the real story of what occurred? Explain your answer.

UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War II? • MHR

Justice After the liberation of the death camps, and once the extent of the Check Forward $ murders and atrocities became known, people called for those responsible You will read more about to be brought to justice. The Allies took German citizens to the camps to international issues that emerged see what had occurred there. after World War II in Chapter 11. Many said they had not realized the extent of the horrors. Others said they knew but had been afraid to resist. And many of the bureaucrats who had documented what had happened claimed that they were simply following orders and that they, too, feared the military authorities. The Prosecution of War Crimes Voices

Like Hitler, some key Nazi leaders committed suicide. Others fled and [When we are liberated, German assumed a new identity in other countries. Still others were arrested and citizens are brought to the camps charged with various war crimes, including crimes against humanity. so that they would know what had In 1946, at the first of more than a dozen trials of Nazi war criminals, been done by their own government.] 21 prominent German leaders were tried for war crimes. The tribunal A middle-aged German woman heard 240 witnesses, examined 300 000 sworn statements, watched Nazi approaches me. propaganda films, and saw films of the camps being liberated. Nine "We didn't know anything. We had months later, the verdicts were handed down: three defendants were no idea. You must believe me. Did you acquitted, seven received prison sentences, and twelve were sentenced to have to work hard also?" death. A separate tribunal would deal with war crimes committed by the "Yes," I whisper. Japanese. These international tribunals became a model for the trials that "At your age, it must've been took place more than 50 years later at the International Criminal Tribunal difficult." for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for At my age. What does she mean? ... Rwanda. "How old do you think I am?"

She looks at me uncertainly. "Sixty? Sixty-two?"

"Sixty? I am fourteen. Fourteen years old." Figure 10-27 Leading Nazi figures sit in the She gives a little shriek and makes prisoners' box during the the sign of the cross. In horror and first international tribunal disbelief she walks away, and joins at Nuremberg in 1946. the crowd of German civilians. What would a trial like — Livia Bitton-Jackson, in her this achieve? memoir about growing up in the Holocaust, I Have Lived a Thousand Years, 1997

Recall ... Reflect ... Respond

1. The trials that took place at the end of 2. Writers, filmmakers, and historians have tried to World War II were organized and carried out by the keep alive the story of the Holocaust and other victors. Should the wartime actions of the victors crimes committed during World War II. Develop also have been examined and assessed in a court of three criteria that you could use to assess the law? Explain your response. success of their efforts.

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War II? • CHAPTER 10 UNIT THREE 1929-1945

Chapter 10 Review

2. In Chapter 9, you examined how Canada's response Knowledge, Understanding, and to prewar tensions, including the role it played on the Thinking international stage, had an impact on its identity. a) Revisit this question in light of the role Canada 1. The issue question for this chapter asks about how played during World War II by compiling Canada made its mark during World War II. • a list of the country's greatest contributions to Prepare a response to this question in the form of an the war effort opinion paragraph, a cause-and-consequence chart, a • a list of heroic actions taken by individuals or map, or another format of your choice. Include several groups of people examples to support your position. No matter what format you choose, be sure to show the links between b) What do your lists say about how Canada saw itself the examples and the impact Canada and Canadians and the values it stood for? Were those values worth had on the outcome of World War II. defending? Have these values remained Canadian values?

Figure 10-28 The Hitler Line by Charles Comfort, 1944

0 UNIT 3 • Did Canada grow up during World War II? • MHR 3. Continuity and Change: In the years leading up to Communicating and Applying World War II, many governments, including Canada's, followed policies of isolationism and appeasement. 6. Historical Perspective: After World War II, Simon They did little to try to stop Adolf Hitler's expansion Wiesenthal, who survived the Nazi death camps, spent in Europe, the Nazi persecution of Jews and others, the rest of his life tracking down 1100 Nazi war criminals Japan's expansion in Southeast Asia, and other acts who had escaped justice. of aggression, such as Benito Mussolini's invasion of In 1958, a youth told Wiesenthal that he did not believe Ethiopia. the story of Anne Frank, the Jewish teenager whose a) How much responsibility, if any, should these diary of her years in hiding from the Nazis has become governments bear for the death and destruction famous. But the young man said he would change his during World War II? Explain your response. mind if Wiesenthal could find the Gestapo officer who b) What lessons do you think these governments had arrested her. So Wiesenthal launched a five-year learned as a result of World War II? search that resulted in his finding Karl Silberbauer in 1963. Silberbauer was working in Austria as a police 4. Evidence: Some war paintings show battle scenes inspector. Silberbauer admitted responsibility for the that the painter never witnessed. Charles Comfort, for arrest, but a subsequent investigation found that he example, was a Canadian war artist who painted The had simply been following orders. Silberbauer's police Hitler Line, shown in Figure 10-28, in 1944. Comfort saw career continued. the and the upturned gun shown, but he did not see the Canadian soldiers approaching the tank, as the Compare Wiesenthal's quest and the job of a historian. painting shows. How might the two approaches reinforce each other? Some people have called paintings like this fakes. But 7. Continuity and Change: Consider Canada's Laura Brandon of the Canadian War Museum defended approach to international affairs today. Describe one them. "[These paintings] may, in fact, represent an Canadian action that shows Canada's willingness to take artistic truth and, in this sense, provide a more valuable on international responsibilities — or its refusal to take record of the historical experience of the war than the on international responsibilities. Decide whether the field sketches." action continues past policies or represents a change in a) List several ways in which artistic truth and historical policy. Explain your judgment. truth may be different. 8. Ethical Dimension: The trial of the Nazi leaders at b) Develop three or four criteria you would use to decide Nuremberg resulted in the creation of the International whether a painting is a useful historical record. Criminal Court (ICC), based in The Hague, Netherlands. It prosecutes 5. Historical Significance: From the list below, select a scientific or technological innovation from the World • genocide War II era. Briefly describe its uses during the war and • crimes against humanity (serious humiliation and state why it was significant: degradation of people) • walkie-talkies • war crimes (e.g., killing civilians or hostages) • the "buzz bomb" • crimes of aggression (use of force against a • plastics sovereign state) • the Panther tank a) Do you agree with the objectives of the ICC? b) What other goals would you add or eliminate? Explain Share the invention you selected with a partner and your response. explain why you chose it. c) It was only by studying the history of the Holocaust that people learned that the ICC was a necessary response. Research other ways that people fulfilled their responsibility to respond to the Holocaust.

MHR • How did Canada make its mark in World War II? • CHAPTER 10