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A History of Black Public Education in Oklahoma

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A History of Black Public Education in Oklahoma THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA A HISTORY OF BLACK PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION BY LEONARD B. CAYTON NORMAN, OKLAHOMA 1977 A HISTORY OF BLACK PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA A P P R O W B Y r 9 ' C e DISSERTATION COMMITTEE TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION..................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................... V Chapter I. A HISTORY OF BLACK PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOtW ......................... 1 Introduction ................................................................................ I Purpose of the Study ..... ............................................... 5 Limitations of the Study .......................................................... 5 Definition of Terms ..................................................................... 7 Method and Procedure o f the Study............................................. 8 I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE............................................................... 11 I I I . EARLY EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR BLACKS IN OKLAHOMA . 16 Early Exploration ........................................................................ 16 Indian Schools ............................................................................ 17 Mission Schools ............................................................................ 19 Separate Schools Before Statehood ............................................. 22 IV. BLACK PUBLIC EDUCATION AFTER STATEHOOD ...................................... 37 The Enabling A c t ........................................................................ 37 The Constitutional Convention ................................................... 39 The Provisions of the Constitution of Oklahoma .................... '11 Separate Schools After Statehood ............................................... 44 V. FINANCING SLACK SCHOOLS ................................................................... 50 State A id ....................................................................................... 62 County Support ..... .......................................................... 63 Local Support ................................................................................ 64 Philanthropic Funds ..................................................................... 64 VI. ADMINISTRATION AND INSTRUCTION IN BLACK SCHOOLS ....................... 67 Administration ............................................................................ 67 Instruction................................................................................... 72 Professional Organizations ....................................................... 77 n m Chapter V II. DESEGREGATION AND INTEGRATION ....................................................... 82 A. Review of Conditions Prior to 1954 ................................. 82 B. Effects of the 1954 Supreme Court Decision in Oklahoma ..................... 112 C. A Decade Later: 1954-1964 ................................................... 114 D. 1964 to 1975 ........................................................................ 129 V III. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................. 155 Summary .............................................................................................. 155 Conclusions....................................................................................... 159 Recommendations ............................................................................ 162 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 164 DEDICATED TO ALICE JOINER IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I want to express my deepest appreciation to Dr. Robert Bibens for stepping in and guiding me onward after Dr. Kidd's sudden illness. I am also most grateful to Dr. Glenn Snider, Dr. Richard Williams, Dr. Charles Butler, and Dr. Gerald Kidd for th e ir many valuable suggestions and the unmeasurable assistance given me by those capable gentlemen. A special thanks to Mrs. Francis Pine, and to dear, patient Delores, wy wonderful wife. L.B.C. CHAPTER I A HISTORY OF BLACK PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OKLAHOMA Introduction The stage was set for the education of black children in Oklahoma in the early days prio r to o ffic ia l statehood. Some "haphazard" attempts were made at providing some basic education long before statehood, chiefly by The Five Civilized Tribes. The fact that the education pro­ vided was basic and haphazard was not so s ta rtlin g at this point because conditions were the same for the Indian children. After the forced migration of the Indians to the Indian T erritory was completed, the missionaries again attempted to establish schools. The leaders of The Five C ivilized Tribes recognized the need fo r schools and each trib e developed one or more. Some of the schools became famous as centers of learning among the tribes. The education of the slaves was about on the same level as when the Indians lived in th e ir eastern homes. A few were permitted to attend the trib a l schools but there is no record of any large attendance .... The granting of citizen­ ship to the Negroes by the treaties of 1866 made it possible for former slaves to receive the same education as was provided for the Indian children. However, compared to modern standards, the schools were very poor.' The opening of the "Unassigned Lands" fo r settlement brought a new influence into Oklahoma. The Oklahoma Organic Act, signed by President Benjamin Harrison, May 2, 1890, provided a form.of government for the Oklahoma Territory that set aside sections 16 and 36 for the ^Gene Aldrich, Black Heritage of Oklahoma (Edmond, Oklahoma: Thompson Book and Supply Co., 1973), p. 34. 1 2 benefit o f schools. In 1891 the First Territorial Legislature gave counties the right to decide whether they should provide mixed or separate schools fo r Negro children. A majority o f the counties decided to have separate schools. From the advent of the Organic Act u n til the Supreme Court decision in 1954, segregated schools were a re a lity in Oklahoma. The Constitutional Convention, meeting during the winter and spring o f 1907, met with l i t t l e opposition in adopting legislation providing fo r separate schools. March 5, 1907, the members of the Constitutional Convention opened the business of the day by adoption o f A rticle X III, Sec. 3. Separate schools fo r white and colored children with lik e accommodations shall be provided by the legislature and impar­ t ia lly maintained. The term "colored children" used in this section shall be construed to mean children of African descent. The term "white children" shall include all other c h i l d r e n .2 There was some opposition to this legislation from the blacks in Oklahoma at that time; however, th e ir voices were p o litic a lly too weak to be heard. Thus, the pattern fo r the education of black children was established in Oklahoma. The le tte r of the law was not followed in that the separate schools were d e fin ite ly not im partially maintained as provided by the leg­ isla tu re . Possibly, in the early days of separate education, there might have been equality in the maintenance o f the separate schools; however, as time passed, there existed a paramount, visib le discrepancy between the schools. This discrepancy was so great that many an observer could see that there were in fact two systems of education in Oklahoma, one tremendously in fe rio r to the other. ^Oklahoma State Constitution, Art. X III, Sec. 3. 3 The manner in which black schools were funded doomed them at the very outset. Black schools were supported exclusively by the counties in which they were located, receiving very l i t t l e additional support until the late 1940's. Black schools were le ft to the supervision of the county superin­ tendents and were highly dependent upon the attitude of the individuals holding those offices as to the manner in which they would exist. In rare instances, black schools fared respectably and this was usually found to be in well-populated counties where there were relatively few black schools. The Supreme Court decision of 1954 was not a guarantee that the educational lo t o f the black child in Oklahoma would improve substan­ tia lly . The words, "a ll deliberate speed," were taken by Oklahoma leaders to mean as you see f i t . The desegregation process statewide was slow to develop. In those areas outside the larger c itie s , a pattern was seen to be taking place. Black teachers were being dismissed in large numbers. For a five year period, beginning with the 1955-56 school year, there was a consistent decline in the number of black teachers in Oklahoma. In 1956, State Superintendent Oliver Hodge made the following report: During the past biennium, the separate school program in Oklahoma has been abandoned because of the Supreme Court decision abolishing legal segregation. Integration of the races in our schools is not complete, but i t is proceeding in a satisfactory manner and without unpleasant community incidents. A ll schools in a d is tric t now are maintained as a single administrative u n i t . ^ Possibly, the state superintendent did not take into consideration ^Oliver Hodge, Twenty-sixth Biennial Report (State Department of Education, Oklahoma, 1956), p. 27. 4 the d iffic u ltie
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