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Assessment Notes NOTES TO CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION I. The difficulties once faced by Schumacher are apparent from the fact that the revised edition of his study (I977) contains a chapter on "Agit-prop Theatre and Workers' Stages" which had to be excluded from the original publication in I955· 2. Herbert Liithy, "Vom armen Bert Brecht", Der Monat, vol. 4, no. 44 (May I952) PP· I I5-44· 3· These literary-historical terms are defined quite differently by various commentators. Recent essays which attempt to define Brecht's position relative to other writers are A. V. Subiotto, "Neue Sachlichkeit: a Re­ assessment", in Deutung und Bedeutung, ed. B. Schludermann et al. (The Hague and Paris, I973); Thomas Koebner, "Das Drama der Neuen Sachlichkeit und die Krise des Liberalismus" and Ernst Schiirer, "Die nach-expressionistische Komi:idie", both in Die deutsche Literatur in der Weimarer Republik, ed. by W. Rothe (Stuttgart, I974); and Jost Hermand, "Einheit in der Vielheit? Zur Geschichte des Begriffs 'Neue Sachlichkeit' ", in J. Hermand, Stile, Ismen, Etiketten (Wiesbaden, 1 978). Two broader studies of the period are H. Lethen, Neue Sachlichkeit 1924-1932 (Stuttgart, 1970) and J. Willett, The New Sobriety (London, I978). Inevitably, all such attempts at categorisation fail to do justice to the individuality ofauthors, particularly when they are as complex as Brecht. 4· The opening lines of Paul Kornfeld's comedy Pal me oder der Gekriinkte (I 924) are often quoted to illustrate the abandonment of Expressionist ambitions in the years of"New Sobriety": "Let us hear no more about war and revolution and salvation of the world! Let us be modest and turn our attention to other, smaller things: let us observe a man, a fool, let us play a little, watch a little, and, if we can, laugh or smile a little." It is this kind of attitude which has led some commentators to compare this period with the "Biedermeier" period in the nineteenth century. 5· For examples ofBrecht's search for "die groBe Form des Dramas" see GW, 15, PP· 55, I84-6, I94-5, I97· 6. The term "schwarzer Expressionismus" is used by G. Ruhle, Theater in unserer Zeit (Frankfurt a.M., I976) p. 28. 7. The one dramatist of this period whose work shares a comparable degree of complexity with Brecht's is Odon von Horvath. Horvath's work did not begin to appear until I929. Like Brecht's, it cannot easily be accommodated within the usual literary-historical categories. 189 190 Notes 8. Graham Greene, for example, has claimed that the most important ex­ periences for a writer have all been by the age of fourteen. g. Brecht did not tum into a pacifist after he became disillusioned with Germany's role in the war. For an example of his continuing endorsement of violence see his bitter commentary on German passivity in the face of the atrocities committed by troops occupying the Rhineland in I920 (GW, 20, I4)· I o. The year I 926 is frequently given as that from which Brecht's Marxism is to be dated. In the summer of that year he wrote to his assistant Elisabeth Hauptmann that he was "fathoms deep" in Marx's Das Kapital-see Elisabeth Hauptmann, "Notizen iiber Brechts Arbeit Ig26", Sinn und Form: 2, Special Bertolt Brecht issue (Berlin, I957) p. 243· However, although there is evidence of some knowledge of Marxism in theoretical statements made in the next few years, I do not see any evidence of a firm commitment to Marxist theory and practice in Brecht's creative work until the latter part of I 929. NOTES TO CHAPTER TWO: "BAAL" I. The influence of Frank Wedekind's Erdgeist (Earth-Spirit) on Baal was very evident in the first version of the play, where Baal's repeated shouts of "Hoppla!" were reminiscent of the ringmaster who speaks the prologue to Wedekind's play-see Baal. Drei Fassungen (Frankfurt a.M., Ig66) pp. I6, 30, 32. In his admiration for Wedekind Brecht went so far as to describe him as one of the "greatest educators of the new Europe" (GW, 15, 4). 2. The figure of"Frau Welt'' (called "das groBe Weib Welt" in the Chorale) was a popular subject of medieval literature and illustration. She is depicted as alluring when seen from the front, but disgusting from behind, and thus serves as an allegory of the world's deceitfulness. Brecht's early diaries contain a poem which appears to have been influenced by this tradition: Sie wandte mir den Riicken Da kroch ein groBer Wurm heraus (Der wollte mich begliicken Er wollt die Hand mir driicken ... ) Doch war er mir ein Graus .... (T, 28) She turned her back toward me A great fat worm appeared (He wanted to reward me And stood up to applaud me) But I was simply scared. (Diaries, I 7) [free translation) 3· Theatre of War (London, I972). p. I26. 4· Baal was not Brecht's only play to be modelled on the medieval "Dance of death". The production notes for the Songspiel Mahagonny ( I927) contain the following statement: "If the work is performed in some hall other than a theatre or concert-hall this has the advantage of making evident a certain Notes affinity with the travelling theatres of the medieval period. MAHAGONNY IS A DANCE OF DEATH", Songspiel Mahagonny, ed. David Drew (Vienna, I963) p. 7· 5· Brecht once noted "Life as a passion! That is how I conduct it. It is self-evident that it will destroy me" ( T, I g8). Brecht always lived intensely. In particular he had an extraordinary- and very bourgeois!-appetite for work. Had he not also been so unswervingly devoted to large, strong cigars, he might possibly have been spared a heart-attack at the age of 57. However, like Baal he chose quality rather than quantity of life. 6. In the first version of the play Baal says to a prison chaplain: "I withdraw into enemy territory. lnt9 blossoming country ... I flee from death into life", Baal: Drei Fassungerl (Frankfurt a.M., Ig66) p. 54· This territory is both blossoming and hostile because it is the domain of both life and death. 7· When Death visits the fool Claudio in Hofmannsthal's Der Tor und der Tod (Death and the Fool) he says to him "Ein groBer Gott der Seele steht vordir" ("A great god of the soul stands before you"), Gedichte und kleine Dramen (Frankfurt a.M., Ig66) p. 83. Although one tends to think of the coarse-grained Brecht and the finely-veneered Hofmannsthal as belonging to quite different worlds, Hofmannsthal was sufficiently interested by Baal to write a prologue for a performance of the play in Vienna in Ig26. 8. One of Brecht's early sonnets takes as its theme the renewed stimulus to love and desire created by a sudden awareness of the first signs of grey in a woman's hair (GW, 8, I6o-I). g. Kenneth Tynan aptly remarked in his review of a London production of Baal: "The ideal audience for Baal would be entirely composed of people who remember, more than once or twice a day, that they are going to die. Firstnighters, as a group, do not like their noses rubbed in the fact of mortality; they prefer it to keep its distance and speak blank verse", Observer Weekend Review, 10 February I963. IO. In his more cynical or despairing moments, which were not infrequent, the young Brecht would take the (Nietzschean) view that morality is an illusion created by men for their own comfort: "The purpose of morality is to make you believe you have something in common! But in reality there is no-one keeping an eye on you" (D, I36); "Almost all bourgeois institutions, almost the whole of morality, virtually the whole Christian legend are founded on man's fear of being alone, they distract his attention from his unutterable desolation on this planet, from his minute significance and his hardly perceptible roots" (GW, 15, 59--60). It must be remembered, however, that Brecht did not hold this view consistently. The liveliness of his early plays stems largely from the clash of competing perspectives in them. I I. In I922 Brecht expressed the hope that he had succeeded in Baal and in In the Jungle in avoiding a great mistake of much art, namely the "attempt to whip up the spectator's emotions" ("ihre Bemiihung mitzureiBen"-GW, 15, 62). He then added, "It is usual for writers of tragedies to take the part of the hero towards the end, or in fact throughout. This is an abomination. They should take sides with nature" (GW, 15, 62). By the time he made these observations Brecht's writing had begun to incorporate an element of critical distance, but he neither had this intention, nor did he create this effect in the composition of Baal. I2. Hermann Hesse's "Novelle" Klingsors let;:;ter Sommer (Klingsor's Last Summer) 192 Notes (Zurich, n.d.) which was written in 1919, when Brecht was working on the second draft of Baal, is remarkably similar to Baal in a number of respects. The story responds to the mood of anger and loss produced by the war with a sympathetic portrayal of an artist who throws his whole reserve of vitality into the struggle with his melancholy sense of transience. With symbolic deliber­ ation Klingsor chooses to paint in water colours which will rapidly fade; a much coarser version of the same attitude is to be seen in Baal's decision to hang up his latest poems for use in the lavatory (B, 40).
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