Nineteenth-Century Antebellum

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Nineteenth-Century Antebellum Department of English Georgia State University Suggested Reading for the Comprehensive Examination in Nineteenth-Century American Literature (1820-1865) The American Section’s Comprehensive Examination addressing antebellum nineteenth-century literature and culture evaluates students’ expertise as future professionals in the field. The primary and secondary texts listed below represent the breadth and diversity needed for an understanding of the field with which students begin work on a dissertation. As part of their preparation for the exam students will consult with their exam directors to develop a personalized list. While the list below is meant to be broadly comprehensive, it is not meant to be exhaustive. Students and directors may also decide to refine the list by adding thematic, theoretical, or historical emphases that lead more directly to work on a doctoral dissertation. PRIMARY WORKS Washington Irving The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon (1820) James Fenimore Cooper The Last of the Mohicans (1826) Catharine Maria Sedgwick Hope Leslie (1827) David Walker Walker’s Appeal (1829) Omar ibn Said Autobiography of Omar ibn Said (1831) Edgar Allan Poe Tales (1845) Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym (1838) Eureka (1848) selected prose:“Philosophy of Composition,” “The Rationale of Verse,” reviews of Twice Told Tales and Mosses from an Old Manse Ralph Waldo Emerson Nature (1836) Essays: First Series (1841) Essays: Second Series (1844) Representative Men (1851) The Conduct of Life (1860) Henry David Thoreau A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849) Walden (1854) The Maine Woods (1864) selected prose: “Slavery in Massachusetts,” “A Plea for Captain Brown,” “Resistance to Civil Government,” “Wild Fruits,” “Autumnal Tints,” “The Succession of Forest Trees,” “Walking” Margaret Fuller Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845) James Russell Lowell A Fable for Critics (1848) Sojourner Truth Narrative of Sojourner Truth (1850) Susan Warner The Wide, Wide World (1850) Nathaniel Hawthorne The Scarlet Letter (1850) House of Seven Gables (1851) Blithedale Romance (1852) The Marble Faun (1860) selected tales: “Ethan Brand,” “The Minister’s Black Veil,” “The Birthmark,” “Young Goodman Brown,” “Rappaccini’s Daughter,” “Roger Malvin’s Burial,” “The Artist of the Beautiful,” “My Kinsman, Major Molineux” Herman Melville Moby-Dick (1851) Pierre (1852) The Confidence Man (1857) “Benito Cereno,” “Billy Budd,” “Bartleby the Scrivener” Frederick Douglass Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845) The Heroic Slave (1852) “What to the Slave is the Fourth of July” (1852) Harriet Beecher Stowe Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) Joaquin Murieta (John The Life and Adventures of Joaquin Murieta (1854) Rollin Ridge) Maria Susanna Cummins The Lamplighter (1854) Hannah Crafts The Bondswoman’s Narrative Frank Webb The Garies and Their Friends (1857) Walt Whitman Leaves of Grass, 1855 edition Leaves of Grass, 1892 edition Democratic Vistas (1871) Specimen Days (1882) Emily Dickinson selected poems Harriet Wilson Our Nig (1859) Rebecca Harding Davis Life in the Iron Mills (1861) Martin Delany Blake; or the Huts of America (1859) The Origin of Races and Color (1879) Harriet Jacobs Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (1861) Alexander Crummell selected prose SECONDARY WORKS General Works The Cambridge History of American Literature, (vols. 2-4) ed. Sacvan Bercovitch (Cambridge UP, 1999). Suggested Critics Jonathan Arac Henry Louis Gates Dana D. Nelson Nina Baym Paul Giles Henry Paget Michael Davitt Bell Michael T. Gilmore Donald Pease Sacvan Bercovitch Teresa Goddu Richard Poirier Stuart Blumin Michael Gomez Joel Porte Richard Brodhead Robert M. Greenberg Lloyd Pratt Marshall Brown John Irwin David S. Reynolds Lawrence Buell Amy Kaplan John Carlos Rowe Sharon Cameron Harold Kaplan Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick Stanley Cavell Mary Kelley Shirley Samuels William Charvat Paul Lauter Hortense Spillers Richard Chase Stephanie LeMenager Jeffrey Steele Michael Colacurcio Lawrence Levine Eric Sundquist Wai Chee Dimock R.W.B. Lewis Jane Tompkins Andrew Delbanco F. O. Matthiessen Alan Trachtenberg Ann Douglas Lori Merish Yvor Winters Betsy Erkkila Walter Benn Michaels Cynthia Griffin Wolff Judith Fetterley Perry Miller Larzer Ziff Frances Smith Foster Toni Morrison .
Recommended publications
  • Omar Ibn Said a Spoleto Festival USA Workbook Artwork by Jonathan Green This Workbook Is Dedicated to Omar Ibn Said
    Omar Ibn Said A Spoleto Festival USA Workbook Artwork by Jonathan Green This workbook is dedicated to Omar Ibn Said. About the Artist Jonathan Green is an African American visual artist who grew up in the Gullah Geechee community in Gardens Corner near Beaufort, South Carolina. Jonathan’s paintings reveal the richness of African American culture in the South Carolina countryside and tell the story of how Africans like Omar Ibn Said, managed to maintain their heritage despite their enslavement in the United States. About Omar Ibn Said This workbook is about Omar Ibn Said, a man of great resilience and perseverance. Born around 1770 in Futa Toro, a rich land in West Africa that is now in the country of Senegal on the border of Mauritania, Omar was a Muslim scholar who studied the religion of Islam, among other subjects, for more than 25 years. When Omar was 37, he was captured, enslaved, and transported to Charleston, where he was sold at auction. He remained enslaved until he died in 1863. In 1831, Omar wrote his autobiography in Arabic. It is considered the only autobiography written by an enslaved person—while still enslaved—in the United States. Omar’s writing contains much about Islam, his religion while he lived in Futa Toro. In fact, many Africans who were enslaved in the United States were Muslim. In his autobiography, Omar makes the point that Christians enslaved and sold him. He also writes of how his owner, Jim Owen, taught him about Jesus. Today, Omar’s autobiography is housed in the Library of Congress.
    [Show full text]
  • Texts Checklist, the Making of African American Identity
    National Humanities Center Resource Toolbox The Making of African American Identity: Vol. I, 1500-1865 A collection of primary resources—historical documents, literary texts, and works of art—thematically organized with notes and discussion questions I. FREEDOM pages ____ 1 Senegal & Guinea 12 –Narrative of Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (Job ben Solomon) of Bondu, 1734, excerpts –Narrative of Abdul Rahman Ibrahima (“the Prince”), of Futa Jalon, 1828 ____ 2 Mali 4 –Narrative of Boyrereau Brinch (Jeffrey Brace) of Bow-woo, Niger River valley, 1810, excerpts ____ 3 Ghana 6 –Narrative of Broteer Furro (Venture Smith) of Dukandarra, 1798, excerpts ____ 4 Benin 11 –Narrative of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua of Zoogoo, 1854, excerpts ____ 5 Nigeria 18 –Narrative of Olaudah Equiano of Essaka, Eboe, 1789, excerpts –Travel narrative of Robert Campbell to his “motherland,” 1859-1860, excerpts ____ 6 Capture 13 –Capture in west Africa: selections from the 18th-20th-century narratives of former slaves –Slave mutinies, early 1700s, account by slaveship captain William Snelgrave FREEDOM: Total Pages 64 II. ENSLAVEMENT pages ____ 1 An Enslaved Person’s Life 36 –Photographs of enslaved African Americans, 1847-1863 –Jacob Stroyer, narrative, 1885, excerpts –Narratives (WPA) of Jenny Proctor, W. L. Bost, and Mary Reynolds, 1936-1938 ____ 2 Sale 15 –New Orleans slave market, description in Solomon Northup narrative, 1853 –Slave auctions, descriptions in 19th-century narratives of former slaves, 1840s –On being sold: selections from the 20th-century WPA narratives of former slaves, 1936-1938 ____ 3 Plantation 29 –Green Hill plantation, Virginia: photographs, 1960s –McGee plantation, Mississippi: description, ca. 1844, in narrative of Louis Hughes, 1897 –Williams plantation, Louisiana: description, ca.
    [Show full text]
  • Image Credits, the Making of African
    THE MAKING OF AFRICAN AMERICAN IDENTITY: VOL. I, 1500-1865 PRIMARY SOURCE COLLECTION The Making of African American Identity: Vol. I, 1500-1865 IMAGE CREDITS Items listed in chronological order within each repository. ALABAMA DEPT. of ARCHIVES AND HISTORY. Montgomery, Alabama. WEBSITE Reproduced by permission. —Physical and Political Map of the Southern Division of the United States, map, Boston: William C. Woodbridge, 1843; adapted to Woodbridges Geography, 1845; map database B-315, filename: se1845q.sid. Digital image courtesy of Alabama Maps, University of Alabama. ALLPORT LIBRARY AND MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. State Library of Tasmania. Hobart, Tasmania (Australia). WEBSITE Reproduced by permission of the Tasmanian Archive & Heritage Office. —Mary Morton Allport, Comet of March 1843, Seen from Aldridge Lodge, V. D. Land [Tasmania], lithograph, ca. 1843. AUTAS001136168184. AMERICAN TEXTILE HISTORY MUSEUM. Lowell, Massachusetts. WEBSITE Reproduced by permission. —Wooden snap reel, 19th-century, unknown maker, color photograph. 1970.14.6. ARCHIVES OF ONTARIO. Toronto, Ontario, Canada. WEBSITE In the public domain; reproduced courtesy of Archives of Ontario. —Letter from S. Wickham in Oswego, NY, to D. B. Stevenson in Canada, 12 October 1850. —Park House, Colchester, South, Ontario, Canada, refuge for fugitive slaves, photograph ca. 1950. Alvin D. McCurdy fonds, F2076-16-6. —Voice of the Fugitive, front page image, masthead, 12 March 1854. F 2076-16-935. —Unidentified black family, tintype, n.d., possibly 1850s; Alvin D. McCurdy fonds, F 2076-16-4-8. ASBURY THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY. Wilmore, Kentucky. Permission requests submitted. –“Slaves being sold at public auction,” illustration in Thomas Lewis Johnson, Twenty-Eight Years a Slave, or The Story of My Life in Three Continents, 1909, p.
    [Show full text]
  • James Russell Lowell - Poems
    Classic Poetry Series James Russell Lowell - poems - Publication Date: 2012 Publisher: Poemhunter.com - The World's Poetry Archive James Russell Lowell(22 February 1819 – 12 August 1891) James Russell Lowell was an American Romantic poet, critic, editor, and diplomat. He is associated with the Fireside Poets, a group of New England writers who were among the first American poets who rivaled the popularity of British poets. These poets usually used conventional forms and meters in their poetry, making them suitable for families entertaining at their fireside. Lowell graduated from Harvard College in 1838, despite his reputation as a troublemaker, and went on to earn a law degree from Harvard Law School. He published his first collection of poetry in 1841 and married Maria White in 1844. He and his wife had several children, though only one survived past childhood. The couple soon became involved in the movement to abolish slavery, with Lowell using poetry to express his anti-slavery views and taking a job in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania as the editor of an abolitionist newspaper. After moving back to Cambridge, Lowell was one of the founders of a journal called The Pioneer, which lasted only three issues. He gained notoriety in 1848 with the publication of A Fable for Critics, a book-length poem satirizing contemporary critics and poets. The same year, he published The Biglow Papers, which increased his fame. He would publish several other poetry collections and essay collections throughout his literary career. Maria White died in 1853, and Lowell accepted a professorship of languages at Harvard in 1854.
    [Show full text]
  • African-American Passages: Black Lives in the 19Th Century
    African-American Passages: Black Lives in the 19th Century Episode 1: Prologue [00:00:00] From the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. [Singing]: Do lord, do lord, do remember me, do lord, do lord, do remember me, oh do lord, do lord, do remember, oh do lord remember me, oh when my blood runs chilly and cold, do remember me, oh... [00:00:26] Adam Rothman: Greetings from the Library of Congress and welcome to African-American Passages: Black Lives in the 19th Century. This is a podcast series that draws from the Library of Congress’s manuscript collections to explore African-American history in the era of slavery, the Civil War, and emancipation. My name is Adam Rothman. I teach history at Georgetown University, and I’m currently a Distinguished Visiting Scholar at the Kluge Center at the Library of Congress. [0:01:00] For the past several months, I’ve been scouring the manuscript collections at the Library looking for archival material connected to African- American history from the 19th century. The Library’s manuscript holdings are vast - “nearly sixty million items in eleven thousand collections,” boasts the Library’s website. Many of these collections are the papers of famous and powerful people, presidents, cabinet officers, and Supreme Court justices. Scattered across these collections are thousands upon thousands of documents that are relevant to African- American history, but only a tiny fraction were actually written by black people themselves. Their voices are harder to find, especially for the era before emancipation in the 19th century, when most African-Americans were enslaved and denied the chance to read and write.
    [Show full text]
  • October 9 Update 2FALL 2018 SYLLABUS Engl E 182A POETRY
    Poetry in America: From the Mayflower Through Emerson Harvard Extension School: ENGL E-182a (CRN 15383) SYLLABUS | Fall 2018 COURSE TEAM Instructor Elisa New PhD, Powell M. Cabot Professor of American Literature, Harvard University Teaching Instructor Gillian Osborne, PhD ([email protected]) Teaching Fellows Field Brown, PhD candidate, Harvard University ([email protected]) Jacob Spencer, PhD, Harvard University ([email protected]) Course Manager Caitlin Ballotta Rajagopalan, Manager of Online Education, Poetry in America ([email protected]) ABOUT THIS COURSE This course, an installment of the multi-part Poetry in America series , covers American poetry in cultural context through the year 1850. The course begins with Puritan poets—some orthodox, some rebel spirits—who wrote and lived in early New England. Focusing on Anne Bradstreet, Edward Taylor, and Michael Wigglesworth, among others, we explore the interplay between mortal and immortal, Europe and wilderness, solitude and sociality in English North America. The second part of the course spans the poetry of America's early years, directly before and after the creation of the Republic. We examine the creation of a national identity through the lens of an emerging national literature, focusing on such poets as Phillis Wheatley, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Edgar Allen Poe, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, among others. Distinguished guest discussants in this part of the course include writer Michael Pollan, economist Larry Summers, Vice President Al Gore, Mayor Tom Menino, and others. Many of the course segments have been filmed in historic places—at Cape Cod; on the Freedom Trail in Boston; in marshes, meadows, churches, and parlors, and at sites of Revolutionary War battle.
    [Show full text]
  • The Long Journey of Omar Ibn Said
    African-American Passages: Black Lives in the 19th Century Episode 2: The Long Journey of Omar Ibn Said [0:00:00] From the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. [Singing]: Do lord, do lord, do remember me, do lord, do lord, do remember me, oh do lord, do lord, do remember, oh do lord remember me, oh when my blood runs chilly and cold, do remember me, oh... Adam Rothman: Greetings from the Library of Congress and welcome to African-American Passages: Black Lives in the 19th Century. This is a podcast that draws from the Library of Congress’s manuscript collections to explore African American history in the era of slavery, the Civil War, and emancipation. My name is Adam Rothman. I teach history at Georgetown University, and I’m currently a Distinguished Visiting Scholar at the Kluge Center at the Library of Congress. [0:00:59] In this episode of African-American Passages, we will be tracing the long journey of a remarkable man named Omar Ibn Said. Omar’s autobiography, written in Arabic, was recently acquired by the Library of Congress as part of a unique and important collection of documents. Omar was born in West Africa in 1770. At the age of thirty-seven, he was captured in war, sold to slave traders, and shipped across the Atlantic ocean to Charleston, South Carolina. He lived the rest of his long life enslaved in the United States and never saw freedom again. Yet despite this ordeal, Omar managed to leave his mark on history by writing an autobiography and other letters as well.
    [Show full text]
  • Regional Nationalism and the Ends of the Literary World
    J19 Regional Nationalism and the Ends of the Literary World Alex Zweber Leslie Rutgers University What we now call antebellum American lit er a ture emerged from a tangle of conflicting attachments to overlapping scales of cultural geography. Amer i ca was both more and less than a nation in the 1840s; imperial in regard to expansionism and provincial in rela­ tion to England, it was also a collection of regions loosely bound by disjointed networks of production.1 The Literary World (1847–53), an influential weekly trade journal edited by literary kingmaker Evert Duyckinck, illuminates how nationalist discourse within this contested cultural landscape was often not about the nation at all but rather about one or another of the regions jostling for cultural space.2 As its “Intro­ ductory” prospectus prefigures, theLiterary World’s vision of Ameri­ can lit er a ture was refracted through a distinctly New York lens: “ Here may there be . ​something of the countenance of nature; something of the thoughts and influences of a great city; something of the free breath of the republic.”3 The passage voices a seemingly familiar assertion of literary nationalism by invoking the republic and a distinctive lit er a ture to represent it. But this rhetorical thrust is hijacked by the “ great city” that mediates between nation and nature, and that the “Introductory” confidently assumes its readers will recognize not as Boston or Phila­ delphia but as New York. New York was indeed a metropolis, but the city’s codependence on networks of material, cultural, and human circulation that extended beyond it also made New York a region in competition with other re­ gions.4 This slippage allows “New York”— printed in the Literary World’s masthead and again above the “Introductory” without the delimiting 249 250 The Journal of Nineteenth­Century Americanists J19 “City”—to double as a region of the nation.
    [Show full text]
  • The Library of Congress Information Bulletin, 2002. INSTITUTION Library of Congress, Washington, DC
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 478 305 IR 058 746 AUTHOR Lamolinara, Guy, Ed.; Dalrymple, Helen, Ed. TITLE The Library of Congress Information Bulletin, 2002. INSTITUTION Library of Congress, Washington, DC. ISSN ISSN-0041-7904 PUB DATE 2002-00-00 NOTE 318p.; For Volume 60 (2001 issues), see ED 464 636. AVAILABLE FROM For full text: http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/. PUB TYPE Collected Works Serials (022) JOURNAL CIT Library of Congress Information Bulletin; v61 n1-12 Jan-Dec 2002 EDRS PRICE EDRS Price MF01/PC13 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Exhibits; Library Collection Development; *Library Collections; Library Materials; *Library Services; *National Libraries; United States History IDENTIFIERS *Library of Congress ABSTRACT These 10 issues, representing one calendar year, including two double issues (2002)- of "The Library of Congress Information Bulletin," contain information on Library of Congress new collections and program developments, lectures and readings, financial support and materials donations, budget, honors and awards, World Wide Web sites and digital collections, new publications, exhibits, and preservation. Cover stories include:(1) "American Women: Guide to Women's History Resources Published"; (2) "The Year in Review";(3) "'Suffering Under a Great Injustice': Adams' Photos Document. Japanese Internment";(4) "Presenting a Stage for a Nation: Exhibition Portrays Genius of Roger L. Stevens";(5) "Swann Gallery Exhibition Features 'American Beauties'";(6) "Veterans Hear the Call: Folklife Center Sponsors History Project"; (7) "Courting Disaster: Building a Collection to Chronicle 9/11 and Its Aftermath"; (8) "Collecting a Career: The Katherine Dunham Legacy Project"; (9) "2002 National Book Festival: Second Annual Event Celebrates the Power of Words"; and (10) "The Civil War and American Memory: Examining the Many Facets of the Conflict." (AEF) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document.
    [Show full text]
  • This Year from Kregel Academic
    KREGEL THIS YEAR FROM ACADEMIC KREGEL ACADEMIC 288 pgs • $21.99 $12.09 Conf 400 pgs • $27.99 $15.39 Conf 288 pgs • $21.99 $12.09 Conf 432 pgs • $34.99 $19.24 Conf 352 pgs • $26.99 $14.84 Conf 464 pgs • $24.99 $13.74 Conf 704 pgs • $51.99 $28.59 Conf 544 pgs • $47.99 $26.39 Conf second edition releasing Feb 2021 CONFERENCE SPECIAL: The Text of the Earliest NT Greek Manuscripts, vols 1 & 2 $79.99 separately • $36.99 Conference Set 400 pgs • $27.99 $15.39 Conf 416 pgs • $36.99 $20.34 Conf 45% Conference discount and free shipping in the US on all Kregel books. Contact (800) 733-2607 or [email protected] to order with discount code EAS20. Offer good through Dec 31, 2020. Request free exam copies and subscribe to our monthly newsletter at KregelAcademicBlog.com. 2020 VIRTUAL ANNUAL MEETINGS November 29–December 10 FUTURE ANNUAL MEETINGS 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 San Antonio, TX Denver, CO San Antonio, TX San Diego, CA Boston, MA November 20–23 November 19–22 November 18–21 November 23–26 November 22–25 Thanks to Our Sponsors Baker Academic and Brazos Press Baylor University Press Westminster John Knox Wipf & Stock Zondervan Zondervan NRSV Publishers Weekly 2 See the full Annual Meetings program online at www.sbl-site.org/meetings/Congresses_ProgramBook.aspx?MeetingId=37 and papers.aarweb.org/online-program-book TABLE OF CONTENTS Annual Meetings Information AAR Academy Information ........................... 81 2020 Virtual Annual Meetings .................... 4 AAR Program Sessions How to Use the Program Book ....................
    [Show full text]
  • Omar Ibn Said a Spoleto Festival USA Workbook Artwork by Jonathan Green This Workbook Is Dedicated to Omar Ibn Said
    Omar Ibn Said A Spoleto Festival USA Workbook Artwork by Jonathan Green This workbook is dedicated to Omar Ibn Said. About the Artist Jonathan Green is an African American visual artist who grew up in the Gullah Geechee community in Gardens Corner near Beaufort, South Carolina. Jonathan’s paintings reveal the richness of African American culture in the South Carolina countryside and tell the story of how Africans like Omar Ibn Said, managed to maintain their heritage despite their enslavement in the United States. About Omar Ibn Said This workbook is about Omar Ibn Said, a man of great resilience and perseverance. Born around 1770 in Futa Toro, a rich land in West Africa that is now in the country of Senegal on the border of Mauritania, Omar was a Muslim scholar who studied the religion of Islam, among other subjects, for more than 25 years. When Omar was 37, he was captured, enslaved, and transported to Charleston, where he was sold at auction. He remained enslaved until he died in 1863. In 1831, Omar wrote his autobiography in Arabic. It is considered the only autobiography written by an enslaved person—while still enslaved—in the United States. Omar’s writing contains much about Islam, his religion while he lived in Futa Toro. In fact, many Africans who were enslaved in the United States were Muslim. In his autobiography, Omar makes the point that Christians enslaved and sold him. He also writes of how his owner, Jim Owen, taught him about Jesus. Today, Omar’s autobiography is housed in the Library of Congress.
    [Show full text]
  • Who Was ‛Umar Ibn Sayyid? a Critical Reevaluation of the Translations and Interpretations of the Life*
    Who Was ‛Umar ibn Sayyid? A Critical Reevaluation of the Translations and Interpretations of the Life* WILLIAM COSTEL TAMPLIN (Harvard University) Abstract Recent criticism of the Life (1831) of ‛Umar ibn Sayyid has sought to overturn prior assumptions that ‛Umar was a Christian convert and a content slave to prove that ‛Umar was a crypto-Muslim and an aboli- tionist. This criticism posits the existence of esoteric “concealed utterances” available to the initiated reader throughout ‛Umar’s autobiography as evidence of his abiding Islam and opposition to slavery in general and his enslavement in particular. This paper reexamines the translations and interpretations of ‛Umar ibn Sayyid’s Life to demonstrate how little about him we can know given his poor command of classical Ara- bic, the second language in which he wrote his autobiography. Through a reexamination of ‛Umar’s auto- biography in light of 1) the political history of West Africa, 2) his relationship to classical Arabic and to language in general, and 3) a survey of the scholarship that verifiable mistranslations of his Life have gen- erated, I will demonstrate that ‛Umar’s poor command of Arabic makes drawing conclusions about his ideas about enslavement and Islam nearly impossible. Keywords: Slave narrative, Arabic, translation, Islam, second language attrition, United States Of the more than six thousand American slave narratives, ‛Umar ibn Sayyid’s1 departs sig- nificantly from the tradition. First of all, ‛Umar wrote his Life in classical Arabic, an in- strumental language he learned in school in Futa Toro, a Fulfulde-speaking Fula kingdom in modern-day Senegal.
    [Show full text]