INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly firom the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely afikct reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing firom left to right in equal sections with smaU overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. UMI University Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information Company 3 0 0 North Z eeb Road. Ann Arbor. Ml 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 Order Number 9427725 “Work or fight” : Federal labor policy and the First World War, 1913-1920 Karolak, Eric John, Ph.D. The Ohio State University, 1994 UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 "WORK OR FIGHT": FEDERAL LABOR POLICY AND THE FIRST WORLD WAR, 1913-1920 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Eric J. Karolak, B.A., M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 1994 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Warren R. Van Tine Susan Hartmann Advisor Leila J. Rupp Department of History Copyright by Eric John Karolak 1994 For Ingeborg Karolak and to the Memory of Roman F. Karolak 1909-1987 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As with most work, this project is the result of collaboration both personal and professional. I am happy to acknowledge the special contributions of a number of friends and colleagues without whose help I could not have finished this work. Although all of these people deserve some credit for the finer points of this work, none are accountable for its shortcomings which are, of course, solely my responsibility. I have benefitted, far more than I am aware, from the advice and assistance of my friend and colleague Warren Van Tine. Professors Susan Hartmann and Leila Rupp taught me much of what I know about historical inquiry. I am still in debt to L. L. Cary who guided my first scholarly steps. John Burnham and Carla Pestana also gave me useful advice. Far more than he realizes, Richard Schneirov influenced my vision of American history and of the pasts we all share. Researching and writing this dissertation has been made more fruitful and enjoyable by my association with Joseph McCartin who provided a good shot of validation for the project when I most needed it. Clarke Wilhelm graciously permitted me to examine his work and shared his ideas early in iii the project. Lauren Krivo, James Atleson, and Taylor Hollander proded me with useful questions; Robert Zieger and David Brundage offered valuable comments on a version of Chapter Four. I am indebted to the staffs of the National Archives, the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, and the Ohio Historical Society. My efforts in Washington were more rewarding and fulfilling thanks to the assistance and friendship of Bill Creech and Bob Jackson of the National Archives. Linda Turner and Ruth Criner of the Columbus Public Schools provided welcome production assistance as did Audrey Evans. Michelle Frieze aided my work at the Columbus Public Library. And the labor of the folks at the Ohio State University Libraries, most especially the staff of the Interlibrary Loan Office and Doug Scherer of the Sanctions Office, made this work possible. A great many people in Columbus and elsewhere helped me while I worked on this project. Larry Greenfield is a most extraordinary friend, a colleague who challenged my intellectual laziness and a confidant who comforted my personal shortfalls. Felton Best and Robin Balthrope showed me what success is like and remain dear friends. At different times and in different ways a host of friends and colleagues pushed me to do better. They include; Dan Ashyk, Bob Buzzanco, Keith Griffler and Asia Brut, Heather Houlahan, Susumu Hida, Archie and Kandy Kendall, Ralph Leek, Debian Marty, Phil Payne and Penny Messinger, Jim Rohrer, Mary Alice iv Scherer, Becky Thomas, and Kate Weigand. Quentin Jung and Matt Carr spoke of "the real world" and reminded me of what might have been. With Kathy Kost I shared a journey of the heart and mind which continues to affect my thoughts and feelings. Working with the Campus Committee on Latin America and the Middle East Peace Group, and especially with John Beaver, Evan Davis, Lisa Grenier, and Susi Schmeidl, has greatly shaped my thoughts on the American state. This dissertation would have looked completely different if not for Joe Eckhart and his relentless spirit of inquiry. I owe special thanks and many apologies to my family. Often their hope fueled this project as much as did my desires. Too many times, though, I should have been with them instead of with this thing and all those xeroxes. Siegi, Diana, Mick, and Darlene, and all of their children have encouraged and comforted me sometimes without even realizing they were doing so. For many years now, thankfully, Hermine Jarzabski and Zbigniew Orlowski have believed in me. And Charles and Yolanda Frieze probably have given more support than I am capable of repaying; luckily they do not keep accounts. Also, I should acknowledge Malcolm, Max, and Martin who, in no particular order, have pestered, cajoled, and comforted me. And I can only begin to thank Melissa for her support. The only member of my family to chose her association with me, she had to put up with this dissertation day in and day out for three years. For her I wishthey made hoods for two. My parents, Ingeborg and Roman Karolak, immigrated from Europe in 1950 and sacrificed inordinantly that at least one of their children might experience a "higher education." At the Jeep plant, the T.U., and on Albion Street they showed me what hard work was and, I now realize, taught me my most important lessons. I dedicate this to them because without their help I would never have had the opportunity to complete it. VI VITA 1964 Born--Toledo, Ohio 1986 .......................... B.A., University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 1986 .......................... B.A., University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 1986-87 . University Fellow, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 1988 M.A., The Ohio State University. Columbus, Ohio 1991-Present ......... Instructor, Columbus Public Schools, Columbus, Ohio FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: History Studies in American History from 1877 American History to 1877 Women's History, labor and politics V l l TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................... iii VITA .................................................. vii INTRODUCTION ............................................. 1 Progressivism and the State ........................ 3 Crisis Prevention and Wartime "Soft" Labor Policy 6 The "Great War" and the State ..................9 CHAPTER PAGE I. JUSTICE AND EXPEDIENCY: THE ORIGINS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, 1868-1913 21 "For the elevation of those who toil" . 24 States and Statistics ................. 28 A National Bureau of Labor, 1879-1884 . 32 A Community of Interest 3 5 From Bureau to Department, 1884-1902 . 44 "...not even half a loaf," 1902-1913 . 50 "Workers are Not Bugs" ................... 53 II. DRIFT AND MASTERY: WILSONIAN LABOR POLICY, 1913- 1 9 1 7 .............................................71 The Wilson Administration and the Pre-war W o r k e r ...................................... 72 A Peacetime Labor Department ............. 81 The Search for a Wartime Labor Policy, 1916- 1 9 1 7 ........................................ 96 III. EFFICIENCY AND REFORM: STABILIZING THE WARTIME LABOR MARKET .............................. Ill World War I and the Crisis in the Labor M a r k e t .................................112 Coordinating Labor Supply: The U.S. Employment S e r v i c e .............................. 115 Regulating the Workplace ............. 124 Wage and Price Stabilization ....... 130 Industrial Training, Craft Dilution and Employment Management ................. 148 Aiming at "the minds of war workers" . 160 viii Conclusion ............................... 166 IV. RACE AND WARTIME LABOR POLICY, 1916-1920 . 190 The Labor Politics of Race ............. 193 Uses of White Administrators; Creating a Black Labor Bureau .............................208 Uses of Black Bureaucrats: ONE "Functions and Scope" ................................... 215 Class Over R a c e .......................... 221 Mexican Workers and the W a r ............. 223 C onclusion................................. 227 V. THE LABOR POLITICS OF GENDER: THE WOMAN IN INDUSTRY SERVICE, 1917-1920 243 Crises and the Creation of W I S ........... 245 "Substituting" Women for Men Workers . 254 Regulating the Conditions of Women's Work 264 Conclusion ............................... 274 VI. REMAKING THE WORKING CLASS; HOUSING AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF FEDERAL LABOR POLICY . 286 Pre-war Housing Reform and the State . 288 Private-sector Precedent and the Origins of State Action .............................290 Housing and the War Effort: New Rationale and New M e c h a n i s m .............................302 Mr. Wilson Builds His Workers Homes . 313 Conclusion ............................... 334 VII. DEMOBILIZATION AND THE END OF WARTIME LABOR POLICY, 1919-1920 362 Return of the Buyer's Market for Labor . 3 62 Race and Postwar Labor P o l i c y ........... 366 Washington and Postwar Women Workers .