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The Later Roman Naval Forces of the Northern Frontier (3 Rd – 5Th

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The Later Roman Naval Forces of the Northern Frontier (3 Rd – 5Th The Later Roman Naval Forces of the Northern Frontier (3rd – 5th Centuries CE) This thesis is presented by Alex Elliott (754083) to the School of Historical and Philosophical Studies in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the field of Classics in the School of Historical and Philosophical Studies Faculty of Arts University of Melbourne Principal Supervisor: Associate Professor Frederik J. Vervaet Secondary Supervisor: Professor Tim Parkin Submission Date: 27/02/2019 Word Count: 34,659 Table of Contents Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………….i Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………1 Chapter 1: Literature Review………………………………………………………………….3 1.1 State of the Question………………………………………………………………3 1.2 The Early Roman Imperial ‘Navy’………………………………………………...4 1.3 The Diocletianic Reorganisation: The Army and Frontier……………………….13 1.4 The Notitia Dignitatum…………………………………………………………..21 Chapter 2: Britain…………………………………………………………………………….27 2.1 State of the Question……………………………………………………………..27 2.2 Literary History…………………………………………………………………..28 2.3 The Notitia Dignitatum…………………………………………………………..37 2.4 Archaeological Overview………………………………………………………..41 2.5 Summary of Findings……………………………………………………………57 Chapter 3: The Rhine………………………………………………………………………...59 3.1 State of the Question……………………………………………………………..59 3.2 Literary History…………………………………………………………………..60 3.3 The Notitia Dignitatum…………………………………………………………..73 3.4 Archaeological Overview………………………………………………………..77 3.5 Summary of Findings…………………………………………………………….90 Chapter 4: The Danube……………………………………………………………………….92 4.1 State of the Question……………………………………………………………..92 4.2 Literary History…………………………………………………………………..93 4.3 The Notitia Dignitatum…………………………………………………………103 4.4 Archaeological Overview……………………………………………………….112 4.5 Summary of Findings…………………………………………………………...127 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..129 Acknowledgements I would like to offer my sincerest thanks to Dr Frederik Vervaet. It was from his suggestion that I first undertook the study of Roman naval history, and it was his guidance and support which made the completion of this thesis possible. I would also like to thank Dr Tim Parkin for proofreading my work and providing me numerous times with advice and recommendations. In addition, I am also grateful to Dr Gijs Tol, Dr Hyun Jin Kim, and Dr Sean Raymond Scalmer for setting aside the time to chair my research committee. Finally, I would like to thank my family, friends, and all the members of the University of Melbourne Classics and Archaeology Postgraduate Committee for supporting me through my candidature. i Introduction “After many centuries of naval warfare, the battle of Actium established the economic unity of the Mediterranean basin and thereafter, for over three centuries, the peace of Rome prevailed over those waters, during which period the Roman navy shrank to a mere coast guard for the protection of the public against pirates.”1 Although written over 80 years ago, Rodgers’ simplified and dismissive view of Roman Imperial naval forces remains representative of scholarship. Despite the substantial corpus of Roman military studies, the role of fleets and naval units has remained an afterthought, typically glossed over or even wholly ignored. Nowhere is this oversight more apparent than in the scarce research available on the naval forces of the later Roman Empire (3rd – 5th centuries). Remarkably few scholars have studied Roman naval history, and the few who have focus largely on the early imperial period, before all but dismissing the topic from the 3rd century onwards. As a result, there is a widely held view that Roman naval power collapsed during the ‘crisis’ of the 3rd century and remained largely non-existent during the later 4th and 5th centuries. This thesis aims to reassess the view of a 3rd century naval ‘collapse’ by focusing on the evidence for naval forces along the Northern Frontier from the 3rd – 5th centuries. The existence, distribution, and purpose of these forces will be discussed as well as their relationship with the fleets of the Principate. The analysis has been divided into four interrelated chapters. Chapter 1 will take the form of a literature review by providing an overview of current scholarly research and its limitations. Additionally, the military reforms of the late 3rd/early 4th century will be carefully examined in conjunction with the Notitia Dignitatum, the key source which details these reforms. Chapters 2, 3, and 4 will each be a case study of the fleets of the Northern Frontier based on geographic area: Chapter 2 will focus 1 Rodgers 1937, 538. All dates CE unless otherwise stated. 1 on Britain; Chapter 3, the Rhine; and Chapter 4, the Danube. Within each of these chapters, analysis will be divided into three sections based on sources of evidence. This evidence comprises literary source material, the Notitia Dignitatum, and modern archaeological excavations. After reviewing the evidence individually, the findings will be combined and summarised to conclude each chapter. The thesis will then conclude with a summary of findings and their implications regarding our understanding of the continued existence and distribution of Roman fleets along the Roman frontier during the 3rd – 5th centuries. 2 Chapter 1: Literature Review 1.1 State of the Question “All naval historians of the ancient world agree that Roman sea power had been run down to almost nothing by the late 4th century, and most pass over the next couple of centuries in a few sentences.”2 MacGeorge’s comments on later Roman naval strength perfectly summarise the current dismissive attitude within scholarship. In fact, MacGeorge’s 4th century date is rather generous, as most scholars end their analysis during the middle of the 3rd century before negatively summarising later developments in a few sentences. An analysis of the scholarly tradition reveals that this current view has been heavily influenced by earlier 20th century works which have viewed the entirety of late antiquity as a period of decline little worthy of study. Furthermore, the majority of scholarship has followed an anachronistic model which treats the Roman classes as equivalent to a ‘Roman Navy’ acting as an independent force detached from the Roman army. As a result, the disappearance of most of these classes during the 3rd century has been used to argue for a Roman naval collapse.3 As will be shown, the Romans did not hold the same distinctions between infantry and naval units as those of modern militaries. Instead, it can be said that many ‘infantry’ units also maintained warships as a part of their organisational structure. Roman naval power was never simply restrained by the term classis. These findings heavily undermine the traditional view that the ‘Roman Navy’ was massively diminished or even non-existent by the later 3rd century. 2 MacGeorge 2002, 306. 3 Pitassi 2011, 134-135; Pitassi 2009, 276-277; Rankov 1995, 85; Starr 1993, 191-198; Casson 1991, 213; Starr 1989, 78-80; Rougé 1981, 131-135. 3 1.2 The Early Roman Imperial ‘Navy’ The standard work on Roman imperial naval history remains Starr’s The Roman Imperial Navy 31 BC – 324 AD, originally published in 1941.4 In this treatise, Starr presents a rise and fall narrative beginning with Augustus and ending with Constantine I. According to Starr, Rome’s “navy” owes its establishment to the aftermath of Actium in 31 BCE. Following his naval victory, Augustus founded two flagship Italian bases at Misenum and Ravenna to serve as the foundation for Rome’s naval forces.5 Throughout the 1st century, these standing forces were supplemented by provincial squadrons throughout the Mediterranean.6 Additionally, the great rivers of the Northern Frontier and the English Channel were also given fleets. The Classis Britannica guarded the Channel, while the Classis Germanica oversaw the Rhine. Due to its great length, the Danube was divided between two fleets. The Classis Pannonica for the Upper/Middle Danube and the Classis Moesica for the Lower.7 Based largely upon inscriptions and stamped tiles, Starr portrays these fleets as regionally dominant entities which controlled naval forces at numerous bases within their territory. For example, Starr argues that the Classis Germanica operated bases from its headquarters at Colonia Agrippina to the shores of the Northern Ocean.8 While initially comprising a great force, the Roman navy became increasingly run down during the Pax Romana. As all shores were at peace, the fleets were no longer needed and gradually became neglected by authorities.9 This would prove to be a major weakness in Rome’s defensive scheme. When trouble did occur in the mid-3rd century, this skeleton of a 4 Starr 1993. The work has been republished twice since its initial print in 1941. For the purposes of this work, the most recent 1993 edition will be used. 5 Starr 1993, 11-24. 6 Starr 1993, 106-123. 7 Starr 1993, 124-166. 8 Starr 1993, 148. 9 Starr 1993, 167-198. 4 naval apparatus “everywhere was inadequate to its mission and was swept away” by the invading barbarians.10 From this point onwards, Rome effectively lacked any significant naval forces. This can be seen most clearly at the Battle of the Hellespont during the civil war between Constantine and Licinius in 324. Despite being a substantial naval battle, these ships do not appear to have been made up of the earlier Augustan fleet system. Instead, Starr concludes that they were “hastily levied squadrons” from the cities of the Eastern Mediterranean, indicating
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