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lfr. flO "Vta'tatt ... r. 7" - ~ , . :s:•,_,w 'i" ... 7• . \'~. ... /II• "' "7 '- nJCllw) ~~,.;"",.. ,. ''" ,... ,,~,.., IJO I'P ,m "'' '" \l 1• ,., '"' 1" iJ'''v) ,/{J "' •'" "'' 17 OX} ,,, "" 4•• rl~ "" Jluf.,.-Jl .LJ. c~onu~r/chc/"'r/la-r·hn<> I G-.~1/"an.#ra ehro''nrf., A£:'-fnnurn ct~hcrar~tl J7t!/re tlP!/a I H_lfaru'rn::uitjzult';·/c ! I. J'Lretf.Lyo reriftrari'Olt.o da.(. -= .Bau:a !art.' • -- -- ___-=- - Nfld. r-t= too Encgclopedia of Newfoundland and Labrador SMALLWOOD HERITAGE FOL!ti;DATION Editor in Chief Cyril F. Poole C.M., Ph.D., LL.D., D.Litt. Managing Editor Robert H. Cuff B.A. (Hons.), B.Ed., M.A. Volume Four Harry Cuff Publications Limited, St. John's, Newfoundland 1993 © Joseph R. Smallwood Heritage Foundation Inc. First Edition 1993 Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data Main entry under title: Encyclopedia of Newfoundland and Labrador Vols. 3-4 have editor in chief Cyril F. Poole and managing editor Robert H. Cuff, and are published by Harry Cuff Publications Limited, for the Smallwood Heritage Foundation. Includes bibliographical references. Partial contents: v. 4. N-R. ISBN 0-9693422-1-7 (set). --ISBN 0-9693422-4-1 (v. 4) 1. Newfoundland -- Encyclopedias. I. Smallwood. Joseph R., 1900-1991. II. Pitt, Robert D. W., 1953- III. Poole, Cyril F. IV. Cuff, Robert, 1959- V. Smallwood Heritage Foundation (St. John's, Nfld.) FC2154.E52 1991 971.8'003 C88-098579-8 F1121.4.E52 1991 Harry Cuff Publications Limited wishes to express appreciation for the support of the Department of Communications, Government of Canada. Endpapers. "A view of a stage & also ye manner of fishing for, curing & drying cod at Newfoundland" (c. 1710), courtesy Shane O'Dea; map of Newfoundland (Bunney & Gold, 1802), courtesy Gerald Penney; Boat in Sand by Christopher Pratt, courtesy Christopher Pratt and Memorial University Art Gallery; The Narrows by Reginald Shepherd, courtesy Reginald Shepherd and Memorial University Art Gallery. Published by Harry Cuff Publications Limited for the J .R. Smallwood Heritage Foundation Inc. Data management and typesetting by ZYQOTE™ Systems, Bonavista Printed in Canada by Robinson-Blackmore Printing and Publishing Limited SMALLWOOD HERITAGE fOUNDATION St. John's All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system without permission in writing from the Joseph R. Smallwood Heritage Foundation Inc. Information will be welcomed which will facilitate corrections in future editions. iv Editorial Board George M. Story, C.M., Chairman W. Gordon Handcock Joan Ritcey Michael F. Harrington Shannon Ryan Staff Staff Writers Proofreaders Allison Bates Iona Bulgin Wade Colbourne Joan Morgan Deirdre Greene Sandra Penney Kathleen Winter Research Assistants Systems Manager Karen Barbour Jeff Cuff Theresa Heath Lori Sheppard Contributing Writers J.T. Allston John Horwood Derek B. Muggeridge Melvin Baker Burton K. Janes Anthony Murphy Gerhard P. Bassler Olaf U. Janzen Thomas F. Nemec Robert Benson Paul F. Kenney Patricia 0' Brien Stuart C. Brown Ruth Konrad Patrick O'Flaherty Brian C. Bursey Carla Krachun John Parsons Leo J. Cole Peggy Knichun Fay Parsons George Corbett Raymond J. Lahey Gerald E. Penney Michael Coyne Berkley Lawrence G. Alan Perry Harry A. Cuff Augustus G. Lilly David G. Pitt Ann Devlin-Fischer Margaret McDonald Hans Rollmann George H. Earle Martha MacDonald Sister Charlotte Fitzpatrick Malcolm MacLeod Dale Russell FitzPatrick Jean Graham Queen Maloney Shannon Ryan Raymond F. Gosine David Molloy Gary L. Saunders W. Gordon Handcock Wilfred M. Moncrieff George M. Story Michael F. Harrington James Moore Otto G. Tucker Leslie Harris Barry Moores James Wade Charlie Horwood M.O. Morgan v Consultants The publisher and editorial staff are deeply grateful for the support and research assistance received from many people and institutions. We wish to extend particular thanks to Dr. Melvin Baker and Ruth Konrad, both of whom volunteered timely and enthusiastic assistance. We should also like to express our appreciation to the many librarians and archivists whose professionalism and commitment have been evident on a daily basis, including: Anne Hart and the staff of the Centre for Newfoundland Studies, Memorial University of Newfoundland; Bert Riggs and Gail Weir of the Centre for Newfoundland Studies Archive; Paula Marshall of the Maritime History Archive; Kay Earle, Mary O'Keefe and Kitty Power of the Newfoundland Historical Society; Sister Perpetua Kennedy of the Presentation Convent Archives; David Davis, Cal Best, Howard Brown, Ann Devlin-Fischer and Tony Murphy of the Provincial Archive of Newfoundland and Labrador; David Leamon of the Newfoundland Room, Provincial Reference Library; Gillian Brown and Doris Saunders of Them Days Labrador Archive and Bill Hiscock of the United Church Archives. We also wish to offer particular thanks to those who accompanied researchers in their travels while engaged in community research: Alexander Cuff, Leslie Cuff, Alonzo Rideout, Paul Rideout and Michael Winter. Many people have volunteered information, consented to interviews or offered other assistance to researchers working on the Encyclopedia. We should like to acknowledge the valuable contributions made by the following: Ken Andrews Dick Chaulk Barbara Fowler Bill Hynd Gary Anstey Margaret Clarke Hans Frantzen Austin Hynes Albert Arklie Ernest Cluett Astrid Fudge Cyril Hynes Jeffrey Babstock Maggie Colbourne William Furey Kevin Hynes Mrs. Lewis Babstock Sam Collier Wallace Furlong Dorothy Inglis Gary Baikie Tom Collins Reg Gabriel Bernard Jackson Sherlock Baikie Stan Condon Ian Gall Burton K. Janes Garland Bailey William Connors Barry Garland Albert Jekste Art Baker Pearl Coombs Robert Godden Frank Johnson Gerald Earnable Elsie Corcoran Faith (Paterson) Good Baxter Kean Stanley Earnable Hilda Cassar Trudy Gosse Job Kean Jacob Barnes Lillian Crawford Howard Grace Wilson Kearley C.R. Barrett R.M. Crosbie Jennie Greene George King Winnifred Basha Dmitri Cuff John Gullage Robert Lambe John Bear Eugene Cuff Jean Hanley Frank LaPointe Eli Bishop Harry R.R. Cuff Hattie Hardy Bill Larkham Patsy Bishop Sefora Cuff Joanne Harris John Leamon William Blake Heather Cumming Leslie Harris Bill Learning S. Boland Jennifer Curran Heather Hawkins Joe LeClair E.C. Boone Ivy Dalton Ferd Hayward Mrs. Gordon LeGrow Theresa Bonia Davina Davis Jane Heller Desmond Lewis Larry Bourne Sally Davis Paul Hendrickson Eileen Lewis W. Donald Bradbury David Dawe James Hewitt Millicent Loder Helen Brothers Eric N. Dawe Patrick Hewitt Isaac Lomond Mary Jane Brothers Glenda Dawe Sharon Hewitt Arnis Lucis Linda Browne Randy Dawe Alvin Hewlett Darlene Ludlow Wilfred Burden Tom Dawe Arthur Hewlett W.P. McCann Tom Burke Ethel Dempsey Dianne Hickey Jim MacDonald Mrs. Verdon Burt Donna Russell DesRoches John Hickey Mark McGrath William Burt Steve Dodd Annie Hillier Anne Marie Madden Dermot Butland Jerry Duggan Lewis John Hillier Daisy Mahar Margaret Butland Michael Duggan A.E. Hillyard Fabian Manning Vera Butland Gerald Duncan Jean Hillyard Fraser March A.J. Butler G.P. Dwyer John Hillyard Gaileen Marsh Bill Butler Margaret Earle Philip Hiscock Valera Martin Mark Butler Suzanne Ellison Elsa Hochwald Ed Matthews Donna Butt Calvin Evans Charlie Horwood J .E. Maunder Gerald Byrne Gloria Eveleigh Sister Williamina Hogan Frank G. Mercer Annie Carew Trudy Eveleigh Harold Horwood Patsy Milley Geoff Carre John Feltham Ida Horwood David Molloy Jim Carscadden Sister Charlotte Beverly Hounsell W.A. Montevecchi William J. Chafe Fitzpatrick Maxwell Hussey Len Moores Denise Charron Thomas J. FitzPatrick Christopher Hutton Milton Moores vi WilliamS. Moores F.J. Paine Marjorie Pottle Claris Blake Rudkowski Don Morgan David Panting Edward B. Power Ignatius Rumboldt George Morgan Gerald Panting Evelyn Power Clara Russell M.O. Morgan Marion Pardy Gillian Power Gerry Russell Terry Morrison Christina Parker Gregory Power James Russell David Morrow Denis Parker Phil Power Kelly Russell Bob Moss Michael Parker Bob Pratt Stella Russell Dolarosa Nash Heber Parsons Mary Pratt E.C.W. Rusted George E. Neal Jessie Parsons Dianne Pritchett Nigel Rusted William A. Neal Rex T. Parsons Ambrose Puddister Bond Ryan E.R.W. Neale William A. Parsons Marilyn Pumphrey D.W.S. Ryan Paul Neale Ralph Pastore Ron Pumphrey Francis J. Ryan Peter F. Neary Thakor Patel Sister Mary Purcell Francis J. Ryan Steve Neary Paul E. Patey . Gordon F. Pushie Francis J. Ryan M.T. Neill Bill Patterson Garfield Pynn Tom Ryan Barbara Neis Sandy Payne Marcella Quinlan Chesley Sanger Thomas Nemec William Peach Patsy Quinlan G.K. Sann Eleanor Nesbitt Kenneth Peacock David Quinton Doris Saunders Joyce Nevitt Arthur Pearce Karen Quinton Gary Saunders Cle Newhook Clarence Pearce Dorothy Rabbitts Natalie Sellars Hazel Newhook A. Brian Peckford Mont Ransome George Sheppard Shirley Newhook Ambrose Peddle Wallace Read James Snow Frances Nichols John Peddle Jack Reardigan Joseph R. Smallwood II Sybilla Nitsman James G. Peet Francis Reardon William R. Smallwood Kevin Noble Gord Pelley I.A. Ross Reid Hannah Sparkes N.S. Noel Rowena Pelley Ian J. Reid Gerald Squires N.T. Noel Gerald E. Penney Ida Reid Harold Squires S.J.R. Noel Hazel (Butt) Penney Margot Reid Wendy Squires Walter Noel Katherine Penney Wade Reid Hilda (Norman) Stick John Nolan Millicent Penney Miriam Alleyne Renouf Fritz W. Stobbe Marjorie Nolan Sister Paula Penney Maxwell Rice Leo Stoeterau Ellen Bryan Obed Sadie Popovitch Penney Agnes M. Richard Caroline Stone Kevin O'Brien Woodrow Penney Mrs. Edwin Richards Janet Story Fergus O'Byrne Len Penton Norma Jean Richards Nelson Stowe Agnes O'Dea Dora Pepper D.G. Riche Joe Strawbridge Fabian O'Dea George Perlin Katie Riche Elam Stuckey John R. O'Dea Rae Perlin Nancy Riche Wayne Sturge Raymonde O'Dea G. Ross Peters Ray Riche John Sullivan Shane O'Dea Debbie Petite Tom Ricketts Hector Swain Vincent O'Dea Dorothy Petite Maxwell C. Rideout Adrian Tanner Lucy O'Driscoll Gerald L. Phillips Paul Rideout James Taylor Stephen O'Driscoll Julia Pickard Peter Rideout Ada Thistle Frankie O'Flaherty William Piercey Terry Rielly Ken Thomas Patrick O'Flaherty Winston Piercey Darlene Robansky David Thompson A.M. Ogilvie Percy Pieroway Dan Roberts Juanita Thorne Augustus Oldford Frank Pike Denis M. Roberts Tony Tremblett Della O'Leary Roger Pike Madeline Roberts Otto Tucker Francis J. O'Leary Violet Pike Wilfred Rodway Roland Tucker Gordon O'Leary Wallace Pike Vincent Rodgers Walter Tucker Annie Ollerhead Earl Pilgrim Philomena Rogers Esther Wade Joseph Ollerhead Jr. David Pilot Ronald Rompkey ~arrie Walters Rosemary Ommer William Ping William Rompkey Sister Alice Walsh Hugh O'Neill Arthur Pitcher Clyde Rose John Walsh John J. O'Neill Cyril Pitcher Neil Rosenberg Wade Walsh Paul O'Neill Harold Pitcher F.R. Roskin Russell Ward Michael Organ David G. Pitt Tom Rossiter Bob Warren Dermot O'Reilly Robert D. Pitt Lome Rostotski Sim Wentzell Douglas Osmond Ken Pittman Fred B. Rowe Jack White Marcella Osmond Joseph Pjogge Penny Rowe Keith White Walter Osmond Sister Nellie Pomroy William N. Rowe Linda White Edward O'Toole Edward P. Poole Daisy Rowsell William White Peter Outerbridge Helen Fogwill Porter Roland Rowsell George Henry Williams Brose Paddock Marilyn Porter Geraldine Rubia Marilyn Woolridge Harold Paddock Clayton Pottle Winston Ruby Glenn Worthman vii Joseph R. Smallwood Heritage Foundation Patron Honorary Chairman Frederick W. Russell, C.M., K. St. J. Gordon Pinsent, O.C. Lieutenant-Governor of Newfoundland International television personality, author and actor BOARD OF DIRECTORS Executive Committee Richard Cashin, O.C. Co-Chairmen President, Fishermen, Food and Allied Workers/CAW PaulJ. Johnson Craig Dobbin, O.C. President, Johnson Insurance Limited Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, M.O. Morgan, C.C. Canadian Helicopters Corporation President Emeritus, Janet Gardiner Memorial University of Newfoundland Treasurer, Chester Dawe Limited Past Chairman Arthur R. Lundrigan, O.C. G. Campbell Eaton, O.C., M.C. Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, retired businessman North Star Cement Limited David W. Mercer Vice-Chairman President and Chief Executive Officer, Elmer Harris Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro Vice-President, V.O.C.M. Radio Newfoundland Limited Noel Murphy, C.M. former Mayor of Corner Brook and President, Secretary Humber Valley Broadcasting Company Hon. Mr. Justice Keith Mercer Susan Patten Supreme Court of Newfoundland Chairman, A. Harvey & Company Limited Treasurer Roger W. Pike Jeannie M. French President, Provincial Investments Limited Ernst & Young Gordon W. Seabright Vice-President, Public Relations Chairman Newfoundland Capital Corporation Limited Charles Hutton President, Innovative Marketing Inc. Harry Steele, O.C. President and Chief Executive Officer, Newfoundland Capital Corporation Limited Members George M. Story, C.M. Professor of English, Memorial University of George Bradbury Newfoundland and Chairman of the Foundation's Vice-President, Newfoundland and Labrador Office, Editorial Board Bank of Nova Scotia W. Wayne Thistle Anthony A. Brait Vice-President (Administration and Finance) Chairman, NewTel Enterprises Limited and Legal Counsel, Memorial University of and Newfoundland Telephone Company Limited Newfoundland William R. Callahan G. Bruce Woodland Editor, Editorial Page, The Evening Telegram retired businessman ix SMALLWOOD HERITAGE FOUNDATION Foreword When Mr. Smallwood retired from public life after 23 years as Premier of Newfoundland ( 1949-1972) he embarked at once upon a renewed publishing career including one project as ambitious perhaps as any he had ever set his hand to: the compiling of an encyclopedia of Newfoundland and Labrador. It was, he remarked, to be a complete record. "Every theme belongs in the Encyclopedia. Every person, every event, every location, every institution, every development, every industry, every intellectual activity, every religious movement in Newfoundland belongs there." Into this enterprise Mr. Smallwood put his prodigious energy, his wide-ranging knowl edge, and his life-savings. In I 981 he published volume one (A-E), and in 1984 this was followed by volume two (Fac-Hoy). Three more volumes were to complete the work. Two months after volume two was published, when he had begun the editing of volume three, a sudden and drastic stroke brought the work to a halt and put his publishing company into bankruptcy. A group of friends and admirers decided that the time had come to honour Mr. Smallwood for his sustained and remarkable contributions to his native Province and to the nation. The Joseph R. Smallwood Heritage Foundation was established with a two-fold mandate: to see that the Encyclopedia was completed, and to endow the J.R. Smallwood Centre for New foundland Studies at the Memorial University of Newfoundland. This Centre had already been created by the University when in 1981 Mr. Smallwood, by legal instrument, committed his papers, his Newfoundland library, and his rich and varied collection of Newfoundlandia to the Centre. The Smallwood Heritage Foundation launched a financial campaign across the nation to raise the $2.5 million estimated to be needed to fulfil the mandate. Support has been coming steadily from corporations, from the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, from city and town councils, and from the general public. Harry Cuff Publications was engaged to produce the remaining three volumes. The Foundation appointed an Editorial Board, under the chairmanship of Dr. George M. Story. Dr. Cyril F. Poole, sometime Vice-President of Mount Allison University and most recently Principal of the Sir Wilfred Grenfell College, was appointed Editor in Chief. The Foundation is deeply gratified to have been able to present a copy of volume three to Mr. Smallwood before his death in December 1991 and to have been in a position to assure him that the remaining two volumes would be published. Volume five, the final volume, will appear in the fall of 1994. Paul Johnson M.O. Morgan Co-Chairmen Joseph R. Smallwood Heritage Foundation Inc. xi Introduction Along with the approximately 1300 shorter, factual entries, this volume, like its predecessors, features many lengthy articles of the kind academics refer to as "original contributions to knowledge". The article on nomenclature, for example, shows how the toponomy of the Province is "the product of historical forces and influences, and reflects many aspects of our cultural background and heritage"; and examines the general reasons why in the last century about 160 settlements of the current 800 or so have undergone formal name changes: Bloody Bay to Glovertown, Devils Cove to Job's Cove, Famish Gut to Fairhaven, Gayside to Baytona. The article on resettlement programs notes that in the two decades between 1954 and 1975 approximately 300 communities were resettled. While this volume was in progress the federal government's announcement of a two-year moratorium on the northern cod fishery sharpened the question of how many more settlements will be abandoned by the time the Encyclopedia is revised. The substantial article on the Napoleonic Wars discusses the profound effects that these wars had on the evolution of Newfoundland from "fishing station" to colony. It would be instructive to read with this article the pioneering entry on the Natives' Society, established in 1840, whose "main purpose was to promote the interests of native-born Newfoundlanders ... in a colony that was beginning to acquire a sense of local identity." In four lengthy entries - Native Peoples, Palaeo-Eskimo Tradition, Palaeo-Indian Tradition and Paleontology - readers will find information on the several prehistoric aboriginal cultures that have existed in Newfoundland and Labrador. The article on nursing traces the evolution of the profession from its status as "a logical extension of a woman's domestic role", as late as 1903 none of the nursing staff of 13 at the General Hospital being trained nurses. There are authoritative articles on the history of the Pentecostal and Roman Catholic churches in Newfoundland. From the exhaustive article on postage stamps readers will be surprised to learn, among many other interesting facts, that Newfoundland stamps can still be used on Canadian mail. The article on the Royal Newfoundland Regiment tells the story, battle by battle, of the 6,241 Newfoundlanders who served with it in World War I at the terrible price of 1,305 killed and 2,314 wounded. This volume, like its predecessors, is the work of a large number of people. I should like to thank members of the Editorial Board of the Encyclopedia for their continuing advice and practical assistance. The Board's Chairman, Dr. George M. Story, has cheerfully accepted our numerous telephone calls on a variety of questions. Dale Russell FitzPatrick, who co-ordinated the production of the first two volumes and provided so much information for the third, often assisted us in tracking down facts and files. We also acknowledge our debt to contributing writers, who wrote most of the major entries; to the archivists and librarians, whose assistance was virtually indispensable; and to numerous consultants, some of whom have died since the first volume of the Encyclopedia was published more than a decade ago. Robert H. Cuff continued his duties as Managing Editor with the enthusiasm of youth and the wisdom of experience. Finally, the highly demanding task of design and layout fell to Jeff Cuff, at whose command computers and pro cessors yield their innermost secrets. In reflecting on Mr. Smallwood's death, which occurred as this volume was in progress, those of us who are involved in completing his work became even more acutely aware of the profound disappointment he must have suffered when, after the publication of the first two volumes, his "oft-felt dream" terminated in illness and bankruptcy. At that time he had no way of knowing that a group of his fellow citizens would soon meet the challenge of publishing the remaining volumes. Thanks to the Joseph R. Smallwood Heritage Foundation the Encyclopedia will be completed and will always be associated with Mr. Smallwood's name. Cyril F. Poole xiii Key When a topic is mentioned in an entry and is pertinent to that entry " qv" (for quod vide, "which see") will follow the first mention of that topic to indicate that it can be found in the Encyclopedia. Where there is the possibility of some doubt about the word with which the entry will begin, an asterisk(*) immediately precedes that word: eg "Pierre *LeMoyne d'Iberville qv will be found as LEMOYNE D'IBERVILLE, PIERRE. A.D. Anno Domini L litres AM ante meridiem lb pounds App. Appendix LL.B. Bachelor of Laws B.C. Before Christ; British Columbia LL.D. Doctor of Laws B.P. Before Present m metres c. circa ("about") indicates an M.A. Master of Arts approximate date. M.B.E. Member of the Order of the British c Celsius Empire C.A. Chartered Accountant M.C. Military Cross Capt. Captain mg milligrams C.B.E. Commander of the Order of The MHA Member of the House of Assembly British Empire mi miles C.C. Companion of the Order of Canada MLC Member of the Legislative Council em centimetres MP Member of Parliament C.M. Member of the Order of Canada mph miles per hour C.M.G. Companion of the Order of St. M.Sc. Master of Science Michael and St. George Msgr. Monsignor cwt. hundredweight n.d. no date d penny O.B.E. Officer of the Order of the British Empire D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law o.c. Officer of the Order of Canada D.O. Doctor of Divinity passim throughout the work (or works) cited D.Litt. Doctor of Letters; Doctor of Literature P.C. Privy Councillor eg exempli gracia ("for example") Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy f;ff "and the following pages" PM post meridiem F Fahrenheit pop. population fl. flouruit ("flourished") indicates a Pte. private period of activity where precise Q.C. Queen's Counsel dates are not known qtl quintal g grams qv; qqv quod vide ("which see") indicates that G.C.M.G. Knight Grand Cross there is an entry in the Encyclopedia St. Michael and St. George on this subject or subjects Gen. General (see note above) ha hectares Rev. Reverend Ron. Honourable s shilling ie id est ("that is"); specifically sic "thus": inserted in a quotation inc. incorporated indicates an error occurring in the K.B.E. Knight Commander, original British Empire Sr. Senior; Sister K.C. King's Counsel t tonnes K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath T tons K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of the Order vol. volume of St. Michael and St. George VS versus ("against") K.C.S.G. Knight Commander of the yd yards Order of St. Gregory xiv Authors' Abbreviations ACB Allison C. Bates KAW Kathleen M. Winter BWC B. Wade Colbourne LMS Lori M. Sheppard DMG Deirdre M. Greene RHC Robert H. Cuff ILB Iona L. Bulgin TPH Theresa P. Heath Sources Because the Encyclopedia is being published in a series, a full bibliography of the sources referred to at the end of the entries will not be available until the publication of volume five, late in 1994. In the meantime, to facilitate the use of the sources cited, a key to the abbreviation used and a description of some common sources follow. Many published sources cited by the author's name (or by title in the case of sources for which the author is not known) may be found from that information alone at libraries, particularly the Centre for Newfoundland Studies at the Memorial University of Newfoundland. Articles from collections or periodicals cited in this manner may not always be thus found. The Centre for Newfoundland Studies is engaged in ongoing compilation of a Newfoundland periodical articles bibliography. Unpublished material, cited by author's name, may come from the Centre for Newfoundland Studies, the Department of Anthropology and/or Sociology, the Maritime History Archive, or the Memorial University of Newfoundland Folklore and Language Archive (MUNFLA), all at the Memorial University of Newfoundland. If a source cannot be otherwise located, enquiries accompanied by a self-addressed, stamped envelope will be answered by Encyclopedia staff. Mail enquiries to Harry Cuff Publications Ltd., 94 LeMarchant Road, St. John's, AlC 2H2. Archdiocesan Archives of the Archdiocese of St. John's of EofC:N Encyclopedia of Canada Newfoundland Sup Archives the Roman Catholic Church. Letter and num plement (1949). ber sequences following this reference are the ET The St. John's Evening Telegram cataloguing codes used by the Archives. JHA Journal of the House of Assembly: year is Archives The Provincial Archives of Newfoundland given after the ti tie and Labrador, Colonial Building, St. John's. JLC Jourwl of the Legislative Council: year is Letter and number sequences following this given after the title reference are the cataloguing codes used by MHG The Maritime History Archive at the Memo the Archives. A name following this reference rial University of Newfoundland: number se is the name of a file at the Archives. quences following this reference are the Census Census Returns for Newfoundland 1836- cataloguing codes used by the Archive. 1945, and Dominion Bureau of Statistics and Newfoundland The Newfoundland Historical Society at the Statistics Canada Newfoundland census in Historical Society Colonial Building, St. John's: the name fol formation 1951 to date. lowing this reference is the name of a file at Centre for Centre for Newfoundland Studies at Memo the Society. Newfoundland rial University of Newfoundland, St. John's: NQ The periodical Newfoundland Quarterly: the Studies the name following this reference is the name issue is given after the title. of a file at the Centre. OED Oxford English Dictionary c.o. Colonial Office papers (microfilm at the Pub PHA Proceedings ofthe House ofAssembly: year is lic Archives of Newfoundland and Labrador, given after the title. St. John's). PLC Proceedings of the Legislative Council. CNS Archives The archives of the Centre for Newfoundland Studies at the Memorial University of New PRO Public Record Office, London: the abbrevia foundland. Letter and number sequences fol tion or cataloguing code which follows refers lowing this reference are the cataloguing to a publication of the Public Records Office codes used by the archives. or to documentary material housed there. The cataloguing codes are those used by the PRO. DA The periodical Decks Awash. Smallwood files The series of vertical files compiled by Mr. DCB Dictionary of Canadian Biography; volume Smallwood for production of the Encyclope number is given after the title. Where the dia. While these files will remain in the pos DCB article cited does not correspond to the session of the publisher until completeion of title of the Encyclopedia entry, the subject of the Encyclopedia, they will be conveyed to the DCB article is given as well. the Centre for Newfoundland Studies upon DN The St. John's Daily News. the completion of volume five. DNB The Dictionary of National Biography: vol TCE The Canadian Encyclopedia (1985; 1989). ume number or supplement years are given Them Days Labrador A collection located at the offices of Them after the title. Archive Days magazine, Happy Valley, Labrador: let- DNE Dictionary of Newfoundland English (1982; ter and number sequences are the cataloguing 1990). codes used by the Archive. DNLB Dictionary of Newfoundland and Labrador ws The Corner Brook Western Star Biography (1990). Yearbook This series begins as the Newfoundland Alma EC Encyclopedia Canadiana (1957-1958) nac in 1840, but changes to Year Book and EofC Encyclopedia of Canada (1948) Almanac of Newfoundland in later issues. XV NAIN 1 NAIN (inc. 1970; pop. 1991, 1069). The oldest commu nity in Labrador, N ain was also the most northerly settlement in the Province in 1992 and the largest inhabited predominantly by native peoples. It is lo cated on the north side of a small inlet, Unity Bay, at the base of Nain Hill. Though Unity Bay is quite open, N a in's harbour is well-protected by numerous islands, the largest of which is Paul's Island. The open Lab~a dor Sea is a journey of about 50 km east from Natn, through Strathcona Run. Nain was established as a mission to the Labrador Inuit by the Moravian Church qv in 1771 by a party of missionaries led by Christopher Brasen and Jens Haven qv. The site was chosen because it was well protected and wooded, but the missionaries soon found that to the Inuit of the area Nain was only a Inuit family at Nachvak c. 1905 minor seasonal gathering place, and that there were greater numbers of potential converts to_ th_e north and NACHVAK. A northern Labrador fishing station, south. Accordingly, in 1776 another misston was es Nachvak is a deep fiord about 2 km wide and 20 km tablished at Okak qv and in 1782 one at Hopedale qv. long, divided into two arms (Tallek and Tasiuyak) at Nain, however, remained the headquarters of the Lab its western end. The mountainous shores of N achvak rador mission until 1957. Fiord have the highest elevations along the Labrador The mission village at N ain consisted of a church, coast, with several peaks above 1000 m, incl_uding mission house, trading post and outbuildings con Mount Razorback to the north and Mount Caubvtck qv structed by the Moravians. The first school was built to the south. In 1992 fishermen out of N ain maintained in 1791. Although the first Inuk convert, Kingmingu seasonal camps (chiefly for the char fishery) at the ise qv, was made in 1776 it was not until the early bottoms of the two arms and at coves on the south side 1800s that the Moravians gained widespread accept of the fiord. Historically, there has been a substantial ance among the Inuit. As with the other mission sta Inuit summer fishery at Nachvak, and it also had a tions few Inuit lived year-round at Nain. Rather, the Hudson's Bay Company (H.B.C.) post for many years. peopie lived much of the year loca_tions The Census has never listed a population figure for ~t sca~t~r~d for hunting, fishing and trappmg, VISiting Natn to Nachvak, as Moravian census-takers did not record trade with the Moravians and for the major religious Inuit who were not part of their congregation. Govern festivals at Christmas and Easter. Thus, population or William MacGregor estimated in two early twenti figures gathered by the Moravians for Nain are ~ore eth century visits to the station that there were 20 to ~0 accurately described as a count of the congregatiOn. "heathen" (non-Moravian Inuit) living at Nachvak m There were 115 Inuit recorded as communicants of the addition to Company personnel. Presumably this was Nain mission in 1810, 232 in 1828 and 314 in 1850. a decline from earlier times, as in 1904 several fami In the early days of Nain there was little contact lies bad been induced by the Moravians to move from between the Inuit and whites, apart from the mission the Nacbvak area to a mission station established at aries and crews of their annual supply ship, the Har Killinek. In 1908 MacGregor noted that the Moravians mony. However, beginning in about 1820 a f~w hoped to induce the remaining Inuit to move to He Englishmen began to arrive in the area, usually taking bron. Inuit wives, trapping or fishing at such sites as The most northerly post maintained by the H.B.C. in Voisey's Bay qv to the south and Ford's Harbour qv on Labrador, Nachvak was established in 1869, trading in Paul's Island. By the mid-1800s families such as the furs with the local Inuit and with trappers from as far Fords, Voiseys, Webbs and Winters made up a substan away as Hebron (about 100 km to the south). ~ben t?e tial "settler" population in the Nain area (known to Inuit were resettled from the nearest Moravian mis the Inuit as Kablunangajuit or "almost white men"). sion at Ramah qv in 1908 Nachvak became a seasonal From the 1860s the Nain area was also visited each outpost. Nachvak was also one of the most northerly summer by fishing crews from Newfoundland, who areas fished by "floater" qv cod fishing crews from dubbed the myriad of calm bays and inlets in the area Newfoundland, in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the "Queen Lakes". The Hudson's Bay Company ac being fished by Captain Downer and a crew from Fogo quired a trading post at Ford's Harbour in ~86?, al with a room at Louse Bay, about 10 km north of though it does not appear to have traded heavily m the Nachvak. P.W. Browne (1909), A.P. Dyke (1969), Wil area. As contacts with the outside increased in the late liam MacGregor (1909), John Parsons (1970), D.W. 1800s the Moravians encouraged the Inuit to engage in Prowse ( 1895), Our Footprints are Everywhere the summer cod fishery, a departure from traditional (1977), Archives (MG 8/2/1). RHC lifestyles. Nain also began to attract a few more year NAIL MANUFACTURING. See FOUNDRIES, SMITH round residents in addition to those Inuit living there IES AND NAIL MANUFACTURE. from Christmas to Easter, as Inuit dependence on 2 NAIN A view ofNain and Unity Bay c. 1900 European goods and technology increased. To give the The first trading operation in the mission which was people an increased say in the affairs of the village the independent of the church was probably the Hudson's Moravians introduced an elected village council of Bay Company. In the early 1890s there was also an elders (AngajoKauKattiget) in 1907. It was also at the American named Tabor trading for furs at a nearby turn of the century that the Inuit at Nain were encour- island which still bears his name. However, both the aged to adopt family names. Inuit family names at H.B.C. and Tabor's enterprise were apparently short- Nain in 1992 included some apparently English sur- lived. The first independent enterprise to trade at Nain names (Anderson, Green and Lampe), surnames was begun at Voisey's Bay by Richard White qv in adopted from German and English Moravians about 1915. In the mid-1920s White established prem- (Kohlmeister and Martin) and Inuktitut family names ises in Nain itself but in 1938 he moved with his (including Atsatata, Ikkusek, J araruse, Merkuratsuk, family to nearby Kauk Bight, after a dispute with a Nochasak, Okkautsiak, Pamak, Sillit and Tuglavina). missionary. Their trading operations near bankruptcy, At Nain and other mission stations the Inuit became the Moravians leased their stores to the Hudson's Bay more prone to the white man's communicable dis- Company in 1926. For the Inuit of Nain the years that eases: the first epidemic recorded at Nain was an out- the H.B.C. operated in the community saw an in- break of measles, which killed 40 people in 1827. In creased emphasis on fur trapping, which most often the later part of the nineteenth century tuberculosis took them quite far afield. The H.B.C. relinquished began to take a terrible toll, and in 1895 a typhus control of its stores to the government in 1942, after epidemic took 76 lives (reportedly the disease in this which the Inuit of Nain were once more encouraged to case was brought north by Inuit who had been taken to put more of their effort into fishing for cod by pro- Chicago to be displayed at the World's Fair). Nain was grams which advocated the use of cod traps and rna- also hard hit by the 1918 influenza epidemic. Even torboats. Beginning in 1951 the construction of a radar though the mission received an influx of people from installation at Hopedale drew many people south, but Okak, which was closed as a result of the death of this source of wage labour dried up a few years later. most inhabitants in the 1918 flu epidemic, in 1921 In 1956 the bulk of the population of Nutak qv was Nain 's population was recorded as only 151 people. resettled to Nain. In 1959 Hebron was also resettled, The community received another blow in 1921 when leaving Nain the most northerly community on the the church and other mission buildings were destroyed Labrador coast and the home to the majority of the by fire. Inuit population of the Province. At the same time the NANGLE, THOMAS F. 3 • .i J The original mission house at Nain, destroyed by fire in 1921 settlers left their scattered homesteads, many of them development and execution of a number of attempts to moving to Nain. Without the resources of land or sea diversify the local economy- including an expansion to support a population which had increased from 222 of the char fishery, processing of caribou meat for people in 1956 to 465 in 1961, with woefully inade commercial sale and the development of a labradorite quate infrastructure, with some racial divisions and a qv quarry near Nain. P.W. Browne (1909), A.P. Dyke large element who had been resettled against their (1969), F.W. Peacock (1986), Alluring Labrador wishes, Nain experienced a multitude of social prob (1980), Kinatuinamot /lengajuk (Winter 1991), The lems. These were further compounded as many of the Moravian Mission in Labrador (1971), Nain Munici Hebron people who had been resettled further south pal Plan (1981), Our Footprints Are Everywhere moved to Nain to be closer to char fishing and the (1977), Them Days (Sept. 1983; Sept. 1986), Archives traditional resources of the land to the north. (GN 56/2/11/112; MG 8/1511). RHC In the early 1970s many of the people of Labrador NAMELESS COVE. See FLOWER'S COVE. were beginning to respond to what they saw as neglect by the provincial government. Although the Province NANCY OH. See L'ANSE A L'EAU. did build a freezer unit at N ain in 1968 and a fish plant NANGLE, THOMAS F. (fl. 1913-1933). Priest. Born in 1971, these initiatives coincided with a virtual dis St. John's. The son of a St. John's tailor who died when appearance of the Labrador cod. In 1974 the Royal he was quite young, Nangle made an early commitment Commission on Labrador (the Snowden Commission) to the Roman Catholic priesthood and was ordained in delivered a ringing denunciation of government inac 1913. He enlisted in the Newfoundland Regiment in tion in the north. The previous year the Labrador 1915, and became padre to the Regiment in France. *Inuit Association (L.I.A.) qv had been formed at Later promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he Nain, and subsequent political action has been suc was known in the Regiment as a priest who crossed cessful in achieving increased services at N ain and denominational lines in his effort to bring comfort to making the community the centre of government ser the soldiers. vices to the north coast. As well, Nain has served as a In 1917 Nangle took ad jumping-off point and supply centre for geological vantage of a short furlough exploration, outfitting and scientific observation in in St. John's to deliver northern Labrador. The 1970s and early 1980s gener news of the War to a packed ally saw great strides being made in transportation and Casino Theatre, comment communications in the north, with an airstrip being ing on his work with the completed in 1980. troops in Ypres, Monchy, In 1991 there were three federal and seven provin Guedecourt and Le Trans cial agencies with a permanent presence in Nain, as loy. Part of Nangle's popu well as the headquarters of 10 community and 11 re larity arose from his skill in gional organizations. Prominent among these was the incorporating local refer Labrador Inuit Development Corporation (L.I.D.C.), ences in his stories. He de- established by the L.I.A. in 1981, which oversaw the scribed the old style gas Rev. Thomas Nangle 4 NANSEN, FRIDTJOF addressed the question of whether John Scolvus had visited Newfoundland in 1476, concluding that he had not. Other voyages to Newfoundland and Labrador were discussed, including those of the Norse, the Corte-Reals and the Cabots. In Northern Mists was one of the first books to treat extensively the subject of northern sea exploration. Fridtjof Nansen (1911), Per Vogt (1961). ACB NANTES COVE (pop. 1921, 15). Nantes Cove is an abandoned fishing community on the southern coast of the Burin Peninsula, east of Point au Gaul qv. More often known as Nance or Nan's Cove in 1992, it was probably named for the French fishing port of Nantes. By tradition home to the family of James Walsh from the 1840s, it first appears in the Census in 1891 with a population of 15. Every recorded inhabitant of Nantes Cove (which never numbered more than 20 people in any Census) was a Walsh. The Walshes were inshore Nangle stands at right, watching as Earl Douglas Haig shakes fishermen and also had quite extensive gardens at hands with Prime Minister A. E. Hickman. Nantes Cove. The last families, those of Patrick and Basil Walsh, moved to Point au Gaul Point in the 1920s, where two of the Walshes were killed by the helmet as "a regular mummer's outfit, which would 1929 tidal wave. In later years some related families at frighten everybody at the Christmas season" and Point au Gaul continued to use their gardens and pas quoted this exchange between an officer and a private: ture. In 1992 Nantes Cove was accessible by foot along " 'What are you?' asked an officer... 'a bomber or a the old path from Point au Gaul. Lewis John Hillier grenadier?' 'Neither', came the unexpected reply, (interview, July 1992), E.R. Seary (1977), Census 'I'm a bayman.' " He made a passionate call for re (1891-1921), Archives (A-7-1). RHC cruits, lamenting the fact that members of the Blue Puttees (the Newfoundland Regiment's first 500 sol NAPARTOK BAY (pop. 1945, 69). Napartok (Black diers) were unable to come home for want of volun Duck) Bay is located on the Labrador coast, approxi teers. After the War Nangle worked, as mately 150 km north of Nain. The Bay is divided into Newfoundland's representative on the Imperial War several arms and broad coves along its southern side, Graves Commission, to establish memorials at home its mouth sheltered by two large islands, Ukkusiksalik and overseas to the Newfoundland soldiers who had and Nanutuk. Napartok is the northern limit of the tree lost their lives. He negotiated with French landowners line in Labrador (its Inukitut name means "tree") and for the purchase of land for the Memorial Park at was frequented by Inuit from the coast to the north to Beaumont Hamel, and supervised the building of me obtain fuel and building materials and to trap furs. Two morials at home. Nangle later left the priesthood and salmon-spawning rivers flow into the Bay and the married, moving to Africa in about 1930, where he islands at the Bay's mouth have been an important farmed and became a successful Reform Party politi seal-hunting area. cian at Salisbury, Rhodesia. In 1933 he was elected to While Napartok Bay is not included in early Census the Rhodesian parliament. Burton K. Janes (letter, returns for Labrador, this 1s a reflection of the Morav Dec. 1991), Murphy and Kenney (1991), Thomas Nan ian practice of submitting population figures based on gle (1917), Joseph R. Smallwood (1975). KAW the congregation associated with each mission station. Napartok Bay was then accounted as being a part of NANSEN, FRIDTJOF (1861-1930). Arctic explorer; the mission centred at Hebron qv. In addition to the author. Born Great Froen, Norway, son of Baldur and seasonal camps of the Inuit at scattered locations, the Adelaide (Wedel-Jarlsberg) Nansen. Married Eva Bay was home to the only settler family north of Nain, Sars. Nansen led his first arctic expedition in 1889, that of William Metcalfe. Newfoundland floater qv skiing across the Greenland icecap to Disko Bay. In fishing crews also frequented the area from the late 1893 he began another expedition, this time through 1800s-at Mugford Tickle qv to the south of Napartok the waters of the far north. Allowing his specially Bay and at Ryan's Strand to the north. A Newfound designed ship to freeze in the pack ice, Nansen and his land fisherman, John Lush, also settled at Napartok crew spent three years drifting from Siberia to northern Bay after marrying one of Metcalfe's daughters. Norway, proving the existence of an arctic current. In 1919 Lush's family moved to Okak to become Following his return to Norway, Nansen began to caretakers at the Moravian station and the 1921 Cen write a series of. works on such topics as zoology, sus recorded a population of 11 at Napartok, presum geology, meteorology and oceanography. In 1911 he ably Inuit who had moved down from Hebron. The published.fn Northern Mists, a two-volume work de Inuit population increased to 23 by 1935 and to 69 by voted to early arctic and subarctic exploration. He 1945. In the early 1950s these people were likely NAPOLEONIC WARS 5 Inuit at Napartok Bay c. /910 recorded as "resident" at Nutak qv. In the late 1950s fishery to colony'', and it is this transition which both Nutak and Hebron were resettled and N apartok makes the era of the Napoleonic Wars one of the most Bay became a seasonal station, used largely by former momentous in Newfoundland's history. Hebron Inuit living at Nain. Census (1921-1945), Our Throughout the eighteenth century, wars always had Footprints are Everywhere (1977), Them Days (Sept. the same effect on the British fisheries in Newfound 1976). RHC land, viz., the contraction of the migratory fishery, thereby allowing the resident fishery to increase its NAPOLEONIC WARS. The Napoleonic Wars lasted, share of production. Whenever war broke out, England's strictly speaking, from 1803 until 1815. They were enemies would attempt to cripple her fighting ability fought between France under the rule of Napoleon by attacking trade and commerce. This policy dis Bonaparte (who crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I rupted the transatlantic movement of men and supplies in 1804) and its principal European enemy, Great Brit which was the definitive characteristic of the migra ain. Austria, Russia, Prussia, and other continental tory fishery. Quite often the markets on which the fish powers acted as allies of the British at various times trade depended, primarily those of Spain, Portugal and and contributed substantially to Napoleon's final de Italy, were closed to British trade by circumstances of feat. However, from time to time these allies withdrew war and diplomacy. War also required that the navy be from the conflict and occasionally even changed sides, mobilized and expanded quickly, and the migratory so that England frequently found herself fighting alone. fishery, with its reputation for being a "nursery for The Napoleonic Wars were really a continuation of the seamen", was expected to turn its fishermen over to French Revolutionary Wars that began in 1793; the naval service. That demand increased steadily with Peace of Amiens (1802-03) which separated the two each war or threat of war between 1750 and 1800. In conflicts was little more than an interruption in a struggle short, the contraction of the migratory fishery in war that lasted a full generation. Moreover, the War of time was caused by the combined effect of the loss of 1812 between England and the United States was caused labour, of markets, and of security in transatlantic by tensions and conditions generated by the European commerce. conflict. It therefore seems appropriate to discuss all This contraction naturally meant financial hardship, three wars together. Their duration, the great demands even failure, for the merchants who had invested in they placed on England's military and naval establish the fishery and trade. Yet in the past, new merchants ment, and the considerable disruption that they caused had replaced the old, and the fishery and trade had to maritime trade, all combined to impose enormous managed to survive. However, the wars between 1793 political, economic, and social strains on Great Brit and 1815 were different from previous wars in two ain. Yet England would emerge from the war as the important respects. First, the migratory fishery was foremost power in the world, master of a global em already experiencing a crisis when these wars began. pire, and a leader in the development of a modern Furthermore, because these wars were much more pro industrialized economy. At the same time, the wars longed they would have a more profound impact on greatly accelerated Newfoundland's own transforma maritime trade than any previous war. For instance, tion, characterized by Shannon Ryan as one ''from from approximately 20,000 men before the Wars, the 6 NAPOLEONIC WARS navy would expand to more than seven times that Despite having the most powerful navy in the world, number by 1810, the highest figure before the twenti the British knew from experience that no blockade eth century (Bromley). These circumstances made it could guarantee that a French expedition would not difficult, perhaps impossible, to maintain a nucleus of slip into the North Atlantic and threaten the fisheries. experienced migratory fishermen. Many of the skilled For this reason, the outbreak of war in 1793 also men, both fishermen and outfitters, moved permanently brought a flurry of activity in Newfoundland to im to Newfoundland to avoid the disruption caused by the prove local defences. The number of warships sta war. The fishermen knew that in Newfoundland they tioned there gradually increased, as did the size of the were exempt from impressment, spared the hazards of garrison at St. John's. Under the direction of Major wartime transatlantic voyages and that the merchant Thomas Skinner qv, the chief military engineer, the outfitters could apply their entrepreneurial skills in fortifications and harbour defences were much im the resident fishery. As a result, though the migratory proved, including for the first time substantial works fishery went into an irreversible decline during the on Signal Hill overlooking the Narrows and the har wars between 1793 and 1815, the resident fishery ex bour. Not everyone agreed that these expenditures panded to take its place. The shift from an English were wise. The strategic value of St. John's was lim based fishery to a Newfoundland-based fishery is what ited, and the military commander in 1793 even sug gives the Napoleonic Wars their tremendous import gested that its fortifications were more a curse than a ance to the history of Newfoundland. blessing. Without them, he explained, no enemy could hold the town. And if the town were to be destroyed, it THE MILITARY ASPECT OF THE WARS. Despite would be "of no Consideration", for "it consequently their profound impact on Newfoundland, these wars could be taken Possession of again as a Spring and caused little direct damage to the Island. The extreme Summer Settlement for the Fishery" (Graham). How turmoil of the French Revolution, which began in 1789, ever, the investment in harbour defences seemed justi left France in no position to carry organized warfare fied when a French squadron under Admiral de overseas. Its navy had lost too many experienced offi Richery threatened St. John's in 1796. cers to the guillotine, its dockyards suffered irrepara Just as had been feared, de Richery had managed to ble ruin, and the blockade of France by the Royal evade the British blockade in Europe, slipping out of Navy after 1793 made it extremely difficult to replen Cadiz and into the open Atlantic. His plan was to join ish stores and to move equipment needed to restore the another squadron from Brest before descending on French navy to fighting form (Graham). Recognizing Newfoundland to disrupt its fishery and to destroy St. that the greatest threat to Newfoundland and the other John's. The French had chosen a good time for this British North American colonies came mainly from raid because the British warships stationed at New privateers, Great Britain moved quickly in 1793 to foundland were still under-strength, not to mention capture the French islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon old and weak, the garrison numbered less than six to prevent their use by such commerce raiders. An hundred men, and many of the new defences were still expedition out of Halifax seized the islands, removed only in the planning stage. Governor Wallace made a the residents, installed a British garrison, and placed brave show of strength, which is often credited with the islands under the jurisdiction of the Newfoundland causing the French to withdraw, but in truth de governor. Though the islands were restored to France Richery's sense of discretion was probably motivated under the terms of the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, the by the failure of the Brest squadron to join him. De next phase of the war resumed before any of the inhab Richery still managed to destroy Petty Harbour and itants could return. Thus it was that the French did not Bay Bulls, disrupt the bank fishery, and cause a con regain possession of St. Pierre and Miquelon until siderable amount of damage to the British fishery at 1816. Labrador before withdrawing. The attack contributed ~~~~7------~--~ . NAPOLEONIC WARS 7 to the willingness with which the defences at St. ers seized and tried and several executed. Though John's were subsequently improved, and even Placen most of the Regiment was not involved, it was decided tia, which was "drifting into military oblivion by to transfer it out of Newfoundland as a precaution. 1788" (Candow), was given a modest increase in the In the general sense, the "mutiny" of the Latona size of its garrison. and the conspiracy within the Royal Newfoundland What no one immediately realized was that de Regiment can be viewed as expressions of intense Richery's raid was the last serious threat to New frustration of the lower ranks with the harsh discipline foundland of the war. When enemy ships failed to and service they endured in wartime Newfoundland. appear on Newfoundland's coasts, and the fisheries The frustration was exacerbated by conservatism and were left as "undisturbed and secure as in peacetime" reactionary government policies which intensified (Graham), the batteries at St. John's fell into neglect during the era of the French Revolutionary and N apo and the outharbours were left virtually defenceless. leonic Wars, in part because of the protracted wartime Newfoundland's military significance was increas emergency and also because of the ideological re ingly measured by its role as a recruiting ground for sponse to revolutionary France. The mutinous spirit British regiments stationed elsewhere in British North might also be viewed as a reflection of the stress America. In 1811 the garrison at Placentia was finally through which Newfoundland itself was going by then, withdrawn to St. John's, and not even the outbreak of for the wars had a profound effect on Island society. war with the United States the next year caused the authorities to reverse this decision. Though the war THE WARS AND THE MIGRATORY FISHERY. Fol with the United States revived the threat of privateers, lowing the end of the American Revolution in 1783, and though the Americans in 1813 captured about 20 the number of British ships in the fishery had reached Newfoundland fishing vessels, the Royal Navy soon unprecedented numbers, especially in the bank fish had the situation well in hand. More warships were ery, as did the quantity of fish caught and delivered to assigned to the Newfoundland station, and soon the the markets of southern Europe. Eventually, the com hunters became the hunted. According to Frederick bined British fisheries at Newfoundland produced a Rowe, there were 500 American prisoners at St. John's record-breaking catch of nearly 950,000 quintals, when the war ended. With the establishment of tempo which greatly exceeded the 5-600,000 quintals that the rary batteries at several points on the east and south European markets could absorb. Moreover, the quality coasts and the adopion of close convoys, the Ameri of the fish that year was poor. The excess quantity and can threat evaporated and the people of Newfoundland the poor quality combined to cause a collapse in the could return to the business of fishing. Ironically, the price of fish (see FISHERIES). The financial reper most alarming military danger to Newfoundland be cussions of this crisis spread like a chain reaction tween 1793 and 1815 came not from the enemy but through the West Country, Ireland, Scotland and of from British forces stationed there. In 1797 England course Newfoundland, affecting everyone from the received a severe shock when its war fleets in England modest ranks of the middling investors to the great mutinied over a number of grievances (subsequently merchants themselves. recognized as legitimate). The mutiny was more in the Of course, given time, the migratory fishery would nature of a labour dispute, but coming as it did during have recovered from the worst effects of the price a war with England's great enemy it was perceived collapse. But before a full recovery could take place and responded to as a revolutionary event. In St. the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, with John's, the foretopmen of the Latona refused to go their devastating disruption to the migratory fishery aloft, an expression of rebellion which prompted Gov and trade, had begun. In 1796, the year of Admiral de ernor Waldegrave to use his marines to intimidate the Richery's raid, Spain entered the war as an ally of sailors into obedience. France and closed its markets to British trade. British The Royal Newfoundland Regiment had been im salt fish continued to enter Spain clandestinely plicated slightly in the "plot", and therefore hastened through Portugal, but this bad the effect of driving to proclaim its loyalty. However, the credibility of this down prices there. When Portugal found itself threat statement was suspect, for the harsh discipline of mil ened by invasion in 1800, even that market became too itary service had begun to have a corrosive effect on unreliable for fish merchants. Some merchants began morale and desertion soon became a serious problem. to rely heavily on the West Indies markets, so that By 1800 it was the soldiers of the Regiment them overall export levels remained reasonably high selves (most of whom had been recruited locally and (400,000 quintals in 1800). But the quality of the fish were either Irish-born or of Irish descent) who were was poor. Adding to these difficulties, there was grow plotting a mutiny. Just how thorough their plan was, ing competition from Scandinavian countries as well has never been made clear. The most sensational and as from the Americans, who exported nearly as much lurid accounts insist that the conspirators hoped to fish at this time as the British. The number of bank inspire a general uprising of disgruntled Irish Catholic ruptcies occurring during the first decade of the war civilians. Together they would murder the regimental accurately reflects the uncertain state of the New officers and principal inhabitants, loot the town, and foundland fish trade. then flee to the United States. The plot was exposed, Still another problem facing merchants with invest thanks in part to Bishop J.L. O'Donel qv, the ringlead- ments in the fisheries and trade was the threat of 8 NAPOLEONIC WARS capture or destruction of their vessels by the enemy, conditions had caused the migratory fishery to con which caused insurance rates to soar. Labour short tract to the point where it had all but disappeared. ages inflated wages within the fishery and affected Virtually all the fish exported from Newfoundland merchant shipping as well as the shipbuilding indus was now produced by resident fishermen. According try, thus adding to the cost of operating, repairing, or to Head, by 1800 nine out of ten people in most parts replacing merchantmen. Shipbuilding costs increased of Newfoundland were permanent residents, and the because of wartime interruptions in the supply of ma remaining 10% were "merely the crews of supply and terials. These higher operating costs caused wartime sack ships", not migratory fishermen (Head). In 1785 freight rates to increase. British merchants responded the year-round population of the Island was slightly by withdrawing capital from 'the fishery. One result more than 10,000. Within four years it had jumped to was a dramatic decline in the number of British-based more than 19,000. Much of that growth can be linked migratory ships at Newfoundland, especially in the to the increase after 1785 in the number of women and banking fleet. According to Grant Head, the offshore children on the Island, both in absolute numbers and fleet of 82 vessels in 1793 had dropped by 1807 to 33, as a proportion of the overall population. At the same of which 30 were based at St. John's. Lester and Com time, a dramatic twofold increase occurred in the num pany operated a fleet of 20 vessels at Trinity in 1788, ber of planters, while the number of migratory fisher of which about half were bankers. By 1800 it operated men dropped somewhat after the 1788 market glut, only 11 vessels, none of them bankers. Nearly all of and even more dramatically when the wars began to Lester's vessels by then were engaged in the carrying demand seamen in 1794 and 1795. More and more trade (Handcock, 1981). servants were electing to remain in Newfoundland These trends became even more pronounced after rather than return to England. Though some married 1803. In 1802 the Peace of Amiens brought the French and set up their own family operations as independent Revolutionary War to an end. But in 1803, before the fishermen, most became "dieters", a new kind of ser fishery and trade had time to recover fully, the Napole vant who remained in Newfoundland through the win onic War began. At first, conditions within the fish trade ter, working for little more than room and board. were little different from what they had been before 1802. The merchants who once sent fishing fleets from However, a sequence of events began late in 1806 which England to Newfoundland profited by these changes had a dramatic and beneficial effect on the fish trade. and encouraged them. Few merchants were still di First, Napoleon introduced his "Continental System", rectly involved in the migratory fishery. Instead, most designed to cut Britain off from all trade with Europe. found it more lucrative to supply planter/fishermen Britain retaliated by imposing a naval blockade on all with gear, provisions and clothes in exchange for their ports serving Napoleonic Europe. Caught in the middle fish. Thus the "decline" of the migratory fishery did of this economic warfare were neutral trading countries not signify the end of an industry but its transforma such as the United States, whose rights to trade with tion. Fish in greater quantities than ever was being whomsoever they pleased were now threatened. The sent from Newfoundland to Europe and the West In United States therefore declared its own embargo in dies, but was now being supplied by resident rather 1807, prohibiting trade with countries like Great Britain than migratory fishermen. It was this shift from an which deliberately limited the free movement of trade. English-based fishery to a Newfoundland-based one Given the fact that all these measures were designed to which lies at the heart of the Island's transition "from interfere with the movement of maritime trade, it is fishery to colony". somewhat ironic that they would stimulate the British trade in Newfoundland fish. Despite Napoleon's decrees, THE WARS AND NEWFOUNDLAND SOCIETY. markets in southern Europe continued to demand fish, The shift from migratory fishery to colony did not while the voluntary withdrawal by the United States from necessarily signify prosperity for the fisherman. The any trade with the British Empire opened the door to market glut of 1788, which caused fish prices to col further trade between Newfoundland and the West Indies. lapse and left the planter unable to service his debts to From then on, conditions within the fish trade steadily local merchants, was followed by nearly 20 years of improved. The Peninsular War in Portugal and Spain war-generated inflationary pressures that caused the after 1808 gradually reopened those markets to full activ cost of supplies and provisions to double. Planters ity, while the American declaration of war in 1812 further who relied on wage-earning servants found their costs removed the United States from competition by suspend exceeding their incomes (Matthews, 1968; Head). ing its fishery completely. Soon, Newfoundland fish had Low fish prices, uncertain markets, inflated costs for a hammerlock on both European and Caribbean markets. supplies and provisions all combined to create great Over 900,000 quintals of fish were imported in 1811 by hardship within the resident fishery during the 1790s. the principal markets in Iberia and the British West In By 1797 and 1798 the threat of starvation had become dies, and by 1815 the figure reached nearly 1.2 million quite real. quintals (Ryan). The fishery and the fish trade were en The logical response to the challenge was to reduce joying their greatest production and prosperity. costs. Many residents began to rely on smaller boat What was most remarkable, however, about these crews and shore-crews than had been customary, often figures was that practically none of the fish was being employing dieters. But smaller crews hurt productivity. produced by migratory fishermen. By then, wartime Yields per boat after 1783 dropped to half the 1775 levels NAPOLEONIC WARS 9 St. John's c. 1798 (Head). The dieter therefore led a marginal existence, war led some merchants to put their bankers to other subsisting reasonably well when conditions were good, uses. The war also eliminated the French from the but forced into a state of destitution when conditions in Treaty Shore, encouraging both merchants and fisher the fishery were bad. Under the stress of bad conditions, men to exploit the northern resources of the Island. the number of single men, both masters and servants, Finally, market forces must also have contributed to tended to decrease. Some left Newfoundland altogether, the birth of the commercial seal fishery. The oil and while others turned to marriage for the security that a pelts produced by the sealing industry were exported family would provide a fisherman in such hard times. entirely to England, this market not being affected by More and more residents turned to their own families as the sort of wartime closures that troubled the fish a source of labour, though this measure also tended to trade. By 1803 over a hundred vessels, carrying 3500 hurt productivity. This explains why the number of fami to 4000 men, were engaged in the hunt and over lies grew between 1785 and 1805 even though the overall 50,000 pelts were harvested, a figure that would number of inhabitants did not increase significantly. The double within a year (Hiller). growing number of families in turn added enormously to The seal hunt employed large numbers of New the capacity of the Island's population to reproduce and foundland residents at a time of year when work had grow, and the ensuing "baby boom" revealed itself about traditionally not been available, greatly enhancing the 1800. ability to support families. The hunt also fitted in with Other factors not directly related to the war also the new emphasis on family operations in the cod contributed to the increase in population. The year fishery; while the head of the family went off on the 1793 not only marked the beginning of a long period seal hunt, the rest of the family remained behind to of war, it was also the year that the first vessels went prepare for that season's cod fishery. Furthermore, by north to the seal hunt. This development was timely, stimulating ancillary activities in Newfoundland, such but not entirely fortuitous. The growing population as shipbuilding, various building trades, warehousing, had created a need for new economic opportunities and so on, the sealing industry provided an additional that the commercial seal fishery helped to satisfy. and valuable degree of diversity to the economy. Fi Similarly the slump in the fish trade after 1788 had nally, the seal fishery was "a major factor influencing placed many merchants under considerable pressure to the spread of permanent settlement along the north find other activities in which to invest. The acceler eastern coast of the island" throughout the nineteenth ated decline of the bank fishery under the impact of century (Sanger). 10 NAPOLEONIC WARS Nevertheless, the seal fishery only reinforced existing and four thousand during the 1770s, rose to between patterns and trends in settlement. The immediate expan seven and nine thousand during the 1790s and early sion of the resident population was caused largely by the 1800s. By 1815 the number had doubled to well over continuing war with France. Favourable wartime condi 19,000 (see IRISH SETTLEMENT). tions, such as the reduction or even elimination of com The growth of the resident population did not petition within the international fish trade, allowed the greatly alter the distribution pattern that had been es fishery to recover and prosper after 1801. Prices were tablished before 1815. As late as 1836 the proportion generally good, and in some years they were exception of people who lived in or near St. John's and Concep ally high. The brief restoration of peace in 1802 caused tion Bay, about 57%, was not significantly different fish prices in some areas to reach the unprecedented level from that of 50 years before. The growth in popula of over 22 shillings per quintal. The price of train oil tion, in other words, occurred fairly uniformly within showed a similar increase, climbing to £34 per ton in established areas. This fact had major implications for some places - nearly double the average price through future settlement. For instance, not every community out the previous decade. These prices, as buoyant as they or harbour could absorb a dramatic increase in the were, did not immediately counteract the continued effect number of residents. The local fishery could not sup of high cost of wages, provisions, and supplies; the de port the added pressure on its resources, with the re pression of the 1790s persisted into the 1800s. However, sult that in some areas of the Southern Shore "the after 1807 there was an unprecedented degree of prosper number of immigrants had evidently overreached the ity in the Newfoundland fishery. For the first time the carrying capacity of the major harbours" (Nemec). merchants of Trinity Bay bought fish and train oil, and There were simply more fishermen than there was sold goods and provisions, at St. John's prices. A Trinity space for wharves, stages and flakes. Those who were agent in 1811 remarked: "We were obliged to make con unwilling to leave the area altogether were obliged to siderable alterations or else lose our custom. . . I am occupy adjacent coves and harbours which had pre certain the Planters in this neighbourhood never saw viously been ignored by settlers because they were not better times in their lives ... " (cited in Handcock, 1981). particularly suitable for the boat fishery. Not even the outbreak of hostilities with the United States Where the speed and scale of population growth in 1812 would dampen the sense of prosperity and opti were intense and concentrated, as in St. John's, anum mism. The substantial dependency which Newfoundland ber of problems materialized such as overcrowding, had developed on imports of American provisions meant lack of sanitary services, and the absence of social food shortages and higher prices when those imports institutions such as police, hospitals and schools. Yet dried up after war was declared. But these disadvantages the British government, ignoring the extent to which were balanced by the buoyant wages and special ship Newfoundland was changing from fishery into a col ments of provisions from Great Britain and British North ony, did nothing to address these problems. Any action America. In the end "there was an actual improvement in to deal with these conditions was left to local groups the standard of living" in Newfoundland between 1807 and individuals. These local attempts to mitigate the and 1814 (Ryan). squalor and disorder of early nineteenth century St. Such unprecedented prosperity contributed to a tre John's are further evidence of Newfoundland's devel mendous escalation of immigration into Newfound opment into a colony. As more and more merchants land. Now "settlers could ... look forward to year established residence in Newfoundland the wealth round, full time subsistence production plus supple generated by the fishery and trade began to remain on mental employment in ... secondary industries .... the Island. The number of carriages and fine houses, All in all, the Island was never more ready to absorb a the number of professionals, tradesmen, artisans, and large influx of immigrants than during the War of smaller businessmen, the founding of the Mercantile 1812" (Nemec). Although the greatest numbers of im Society in 1806 (an organization representing the migrants arrived after 1815, the final decade of the commercial point of view), the appearance of a news Napoleonic Wars clearly marks the beginning of this paper in 1807, a public reading room before 1810, a massive migration. The prosperity of the fishery acted volunteer Fire Brigade in 1811, a constabulary in to "pull" people to Newfoundland who hoped thereby 1812, even a visiting theatrical group from Quebec in to better their economic position, while the "push" of 1806, all confirmed that a "society" complete with a unattractive conditions in the homelands must also be permanent resident elite had developed in Newfound taken into account. In the English West Country, land. With that development also came the first open "push" factors included deteriorating social and eco expressions of dissatisfaction with government refusal nomic conditions caused, at least in part, by the wars to accept Newfoundland as anything more than a fish with France. In Dorset, rural incomes were eroded by ery. In 1811 and again in 1813 William Carson qv the combined effect of crop failures, a decline in cot published the first of his "reform" tracts. The agita tage industries, rapid population growth and wartime tion for political reform during the Napoleonic Wars is inflation. Still, most immigrants after 1803 were Irish, evidence of the distance Newfoundland had gone in its driven from their homeland by political and economic transformation from fishery to colony. oppression associated with overpopulation and the This is not to suggest that the transformation was com growing impoverishment of the Irish peasantry. Thus plete. Demands for political and judicial reform were residents of Irish origin, who numbered between three sporadic, and cannot be used as evidence of a reform NARROWS, THE 11 "movement". Nor was the sense of social responsibility fishery into a colony, their end in 1815 also brought a among the "respectable classes" in anything but an in sharp reminder that the future of a colony whose eco fant state. Still, the social complexity and diversity of nomic and social well-being rested on a single eco Newfoundland were truly astonishing, particularly to nomic activity would be a rocky one. The bubble of those who had seen the Island just a couple of decades prosperity generated by the Wars ended with a return previously. One recurring theme was the degree to which to peacetime conditions. Norwegian, French and St. John's was emerging as the social, administrative and American salt fish reappeared in world markets, and commercial centre of the Island. Eighteenth century especially in the Mediterranean area; fish prices fell to Newfoundland had been "decentralized" to a degree that pre-war levels; and Newfoundland fish began to be today is difficult to grasp. Communities like Harbour displaced on the European markets. The bank fishery Grace, Trinity, Placentia and Trepassey looked not to St. failed to recover from the impact of the Wars, and the John's as their capital but to England, and traded not with salt fish trade stagnated. Yet the cost of imported pro each other but with communities on the other side of the visions and labour remained high. This combination of Atlantic. factors drove the Newfoundland economy into depres Although St. John's would not be the political capi sion. Many mercantile firms went bankrupt, and those tal of Newfoundland (in the sense of a place where which survived did so by curtailing credit to the planters. decisions affecting all of Newfoundland could be Unemployment was widespread, and thousands of made) until the British government accepted the recent immigrants discovered how harsh life could be Island's transformation from a fishery to a colony in in Newfoundland without work or shelter. Serious 1824, there was no question that the town's role as the fires during the winters of 1816-17 and 1817-18 left economic, social, military and administrative centre thousands homeless. Nature herself seemed to con of the emerging new society had been enhanced signif spire against Newfoundland, for the summer of 1816 icantly by the Napoleonic Wars. The volume of ship and the subsequent two winters were extremely cold. ping at St. John's grew, thanks to the security of its Severe ice conditions prevented sealing vessels from harbour and the presence of extensive warehousing leaving port in the spring of 1817. The hardship, even facilities. Unlike smaller communities such as starvation, among the poor was so extreme that loot Trepassey and Trinity, St. John's had never been dom ing and pillaging became more or less routine. A inated by one or two "great merchants", and war only Methodist preacher in St. John's wrote in despair that reinforced this pattern by creating many new opportu "Insurrection [and] famine have been staring us in the nities within the fish trade which merchants old and face all the winter - I fear Sir that Newfoundland is new were quick to exploit. The Wars also created more almost ruined" (cited in Flynn). Government deci novel opportunities, such as the sale of captured sions exacerbated the economic crisis. France and the American vessels. Both privateers and merchantmen United States were granted generous fishing conces were purchased at "bargain prices" and sold at a high sions in Newfoundland waters when peace was re profit (Rowe). The expanded military and naval garri stored. These concessions inhibited the expansion of sons generated a strong demand for various construc the Newfoundland resident fishery, especially north tion, maintenance and retail services. Even outport wards. Furthermore, French fishermen were assisted planters who lived close enough to St. John's pre by government subsidies, whereas British fishermen ferred to sell their fish and train oil and to buy their were given few incentives. Indeed, the British govern supplies there, with competition among merchants en ment actually made things more difficult by imposing suring better prices than they could get from the out a duty on American flour and bread. port merchants. The era of the Napoleonic Wars was doubly significant The prosperity of St. John's was also enhanced by for Newfoundland. The wars that ended in 1815 had massive additions to the fortifications, garrison and given the migratory fishery its coup de grace and contrib naval squadron. This work not only resulted in a tre uted thereby to Newfoundland's transition from fishery mendous increase in military and naval spending, it to colony. But as the post-war depression made clear, a also attracted craftsmen, artisans and tradespeople in colony wedded to the sea would not have an easy future. great numbers. Before 1775 most tradesmen in the Jean-Fran~ois Briere (1992), J.S. Bromley ed. (1974), town were connected with the fishery. Twenty years James E. Candow (1984), James Flynn (NQ 1981), Ger later there were cobblers, a watchmaker, a glazier, a ald S. Graham (1950), W. Gordon Handcock (1977; baker, barbers, masons, and no fewer than five tailors. 1981; 1989), C. Grant Head (1976), James K. Hiller The increase in the number of craftsmen and mer (1983), John Mannion ed. (1977), Keith Matthews (1968; chants in St. John's further stimulated population 1988), M. Nolasco Mulcahy (NQ 1983), Thomas F. growth. Whereas the population of St. John's in the Nemec (NQ 1973), Shannon Ryan (1983), Chesley middle of the eighteenth century was little more than Sanger (1977). OLAF U. JANZEN that of Harbour Grace (about a thousand people in the NARDINI'S. See STEPHENVILLE CROSSING. winter), by 1786 it was 2500, by 1807 over 5000, and by 1813 it had doubled again. NARROWS, THE. The Narrows is the entrance to the enclosed harbour of St. John's qv. The entrance con THE AFTERMATH OF THE WARS. If the Napole sists of a channel between the South Side and Signal onic Wars helped to transform Newfoundland from a hills, with a least depth of 11m. In the vicinity of Chain 12 NARSARSSUAK HOUSE To commemorate the donation the Red Cross bead quarters at Devon Row, St. John's was named Nar sarssuak House. In 1979 when the Red Cross Society moved to a new building on Wicklow Street, the blood donor room of the new headquarters was called the N arsarssuak Room. John Cardoulis (1990). ACB NARVAEZ, PETER (1942- ). Folklorist; musician. Born Brooklyn, New York, son of Borinquen Maria Narvaez. Educated Drew University; Indiana Univer sity. Before coming to Memorial University in 1974, Narvaez taught folklore in Maine. At MUN he became archivist and later associate director of the Folklore and Language Archive. He has written academic arti cles on a variety of Newfoundland folksong, folk nar rative and popular culture topics and bas edited Media Sense: the folklore popular culture continuum (1987) and The Good People: new fairy/ore essays (1991). Growing up in New Jer sey, Narvaez became inter ested in music at an early age, was playing in rocka billy bands by the time he was in high school and from time to time played The Narrows during World War ll professionally, recording in Rock qv the Narrows is 6lm wide. Flanked by high New York and California. ground on either side, the channel is exposed to strong Since his arrival in St. Peter Narvaez easterly winds in early spring and icebergs occasion John's Narvaez has contin- ally drift into the Narrows. ued to be active as a rock/blues musician and has been The Narrows bas been important in defence strate involved in several local recordings, including albums gies from the earliest days of the migratory fishery to by WGB and Scott Goudie qqv. He has also released World War II. In 1655 a Devonshire captain and vice two cassettes on his Small Wonder label- Your Blues admiral of the Newfoundland convoy, Christopher Ain't Sweet Like Mine and Divin' Duck. In 1984 he Martin qv, erected a small fort on the south side of the released an album, Rock 'n' Roll Ruby. JAMES WADE Narrows. The Castle, as it was known, was useful in NASCOPIE, S.S. The steamer Nascopie, at 1004 net preventing privateers and other enemy vessels from tons, was one of the largest in the early twentieth entering port. Fort Amherst qv, built in 1763, occupied century seal fishery. Well known in Newfoundland as virtually the same position. Around 1770 a chain, a sealer, it was used in the 1930s and 1940s as a supply which could be raised or lowered, was stretched ship in northern waters before its loss near Baffin across the Narrows from Pancake Rock to what be Island. Built in 1911-12 at the yard of Swan Hunter and came known as Chain Rock. A similar method of pre Wigham Richardson of Newcastle, the Nascopie was venting enemy vessels from entering the harbour was jointly owned by Job Brothers Ltd. and the Hudson's used during World War II, when metal mesh nets and Bay Company, and was operated through the subsid a chain boom were installed. To assist friendly vessels iary Nascopie Steamship Company. The ship was rein through the entrance, a lighthouse was built behind forced by a belt of one-inch steel around the hull Fort Amherst in 1811, and replaced in 1954. several feet above and below the water line, and was Although the changed nature of modern warfare has designed to break ice by riding up on it. Powered by made the Narrows less important in defence, it re two steam boilers fed by six furnaces, the vessel also mains one of the more familiar landmarks of St. carried the latest in technology, including electric light John's. See SIGNAL HILL. Paul O'Neill (1975), Sail and a wireless set. ing Directions: Newfoundland (1986). ACB Job Brothers, the minority owners, sent the NARSARSSUAK HOUSE. In 1957 when the Ameri Nascopie to the ice from 1912 to 1915. On its first trip can Air Force Base at Narsarssuak, Greenland closed, several propeller blades were broken by ice, but Cap a number of Newfoundlanders employed there raised tain George Barbour qv effected repairs while the ship and donated several thousand dollars, through the was adrift in heavy ice. In 1914 fishermen's union Newfoundland Civilian Club, to the Canadian Red president William Coaker accompanied the Nascopie Cross in Newfoundland. The money was used to estab to the ice in order to ensure that the recently passed lish the Province's first blood program and blood bank. Sealing Bill was enforced and that working and living NASKAUPI RIVER 13 The S.S. Nascopie conditions on board were improved. The Russian gov sight''. It was also written Cuneskapi and Ouenascapi, ernment expressed interest in the ship in 1915 when it appearing in its modern form by 1733. The term was purchased its sister ship Beothic for use in the White first intended by Euro-Canadians to indicate a sub Sea, but negotiations were hampered by the vessel's group of the Montagnais qv, but the meaning of joint ownership. The Hudson's Bay Company ended 'N askapi' changed with the attitudes of the user. One discussions by buying out Job Brothers' share. During ethnographer, Frank Speck, reported that it was a term the 1920s the Nascopie was chartered as a sealer by of disdain among northern people, referring to Innu both Bowring Brothers and Job Brothers, and was with no concept of religion, no inventions and no commanded by Abram Kean qv. The vessel had its possessions. Missionaries used it in reference to those most successful trip to the ice in 1927, bringing in a native peoples who were least Europeanized, and, in total of 37,352 pelts. their view, most primitive. Among government offi In the 1930s the Nascopie became the flagship of cials it usually referred to those groups who were the Hudson's Bay Company in the far north, supplying nomadic and least subject to their jurisdiction. Al posts in Hudson Bay, Ungava and Labrador. Chartered though the historic use of the terms Naskapi and by the Canadian government as part of the Eastern Montagnais derived from the belief that there are two Arctic Patrol, the steamer carried numerous govern cultures among the Innu, th1s is not the view of the ment officials and R.C.M.P. officers northward. On people themselves. By the late 1980s the common July 21, 1947 the Nascopie, loaded with mail and name Innu ("human being") had gained increasing supplies, was lost in a storm near Cape Dorset. Shan acceptance. See INNU. Peter Armitage (1989), David non Ryan (1987), Chafe's Sealing Book (1989), NQ H. Pentland (1981), Frank G. Speck (1935). ACB (Fall 1978), Centre for Newfoundland Studies NASKAPI-MONTAGNAIS INNU ASSOCIATION. See (Nascopie). ACB INNU NATION. NASKAPI. Naskapi is a term which has been used to NASKAUPI RIVER. Labrador's second largest river, refer to some of the Innu of Labrador. The Jesuit next to the Churchill, the Naskaupi is part of a complex Relations referred to the Ounachkapiouek in 1643, the water system which drains the eastern central Labrador term apparently borrowed by French missionaries plateau and flows into Grand Lake - at the head of from Saguenay River Indians, in whose dialect it Hamilton Inlet qv. Both the course and the size of the meant, ''people of the place where it fades from river have been altered by the development of the 14 NATIONALCONVENTION Churchill Falls hydro-electric plant in the 1960s and convention that would stt m the former legislative the creation of the Smallwood Reservoir. The river chamber in the Colonial Building at St. John's. The derives its name from the Innu qv people, sometimes Convention was to recommend possible forms of fu called the Naskapi, who used the river as part of a route ture government, to be put before the people at a to Lake Michikamau qv. The river is known to the Innu referendum. As part of this political process, Conven people as Michikamau-shipit. tion delegates would examine and debate the changes From its headwaters to Grand Lake, the Naskaupi is that had taken place in the country since 1934 when fed by a number of tributaries, the most important of Newfoundland surrendered its parliamentary system which are the Thomas, Wapustan, North Pole and Red of government in return for financial relief from Brit Wine rivers. Beginning at Grand Lake, the first 30 km ain (see GOVERNMENT). of the Naskaupi are characterized by a wide valley. A Nominations and elections were held as scheduled, series of rapids follow at the 35, 55, 60 and 96 km in 1946, the former on May 31, the latter on June 21 marks. Two relatively large lakes, Seal and Wuchusk, (with the exception of a few outlying regions). Forty are encountered roughly 100 to 125 km up the river. five members were elected, with some districts having On the upper part of the river, a narrow gorge marks dual representation and St. John's East and St. John's the beginning of another series of rapids and falls. The West electing three members each. Candidates had to average width of the river is less than 100 meters, be residents of the districts they sought to represent narrowing to less that 2 m at the upper gorge, and the (for at least two years prior to nomination day), with depth is similarly variable. Surrounded by boreal for the exception of those who had been out of the Coun est, predominantly black spruce, the river is home to try on War service. All those elected (eight by accla various species of fish, including salmon, arctic char, mation) were male, only two women having offered whitefish, trout and northern pike. These are found themselves as candidates (see ELECTIONS). Among throughout most of the river though rapids and other the delegates was a representative from Labrador, Les obstructions block its upper reaches. ter Burry qv, the first time that Labrador had its own The river systems of the Labrador interior were well representation in an elected body. Delegates sympa known to the Innu who travelled each year to Lake thetic to political union with Canada were a minority Michikamau to socialize with other groups and to hunt in the Convention, as most favoured some form of caribou. Hudson's Bay Company trader John McLean restoration of responsible government as a prelude to qv travelled part of the region in J 838, but concluded any change in the sovereignty of their Country. that the Naskaupi was impracticable for travel the The Convention first met on September 11, 1946. whole way to Lake Michikamau. In 1901 an attempt to Following a brief swearing-in ceremony, which took travel to Michikamau was made by Leonidas Hubbard place in the refurbished, nearly century-old Chamber, qv, Dillon Wallace qv and George Elson. Unfortu delegates were welcomed by Mr. Justice Cyril J. Fox nately, with no reliable maps, the three men took the qv, a judge of the Supreme Court appointed by the nearly impassable Susan River by mistake and Hub Commission of Government to chair the Convention. bard succumbed to hunger and exposure as the others In the presence of many guests the formal opening turned back. Mina Hubbard qv, Elson and three others took place at 3 PM with an address by Governor Gor began a second attempt in 1905 as Wallace led a sepa don Macdonald qv on the importance of the Conven rate expedition. Both expeditions succeeded in reach tion. Thereafter, daily sittings began at 3 PM and ended ing Lake Michikamau via the Naskaupi River and at 6 PM. At various times night sittings were held from Mina Hubbard produced the first usable maps of the 8-10 PM. There were also some private morning sit river system. tings, such as the one on November 23 when delegates Construction of the Smallwood Reservoir began in chose one of their own number, F. Gordon Bradley qv, 1966, and when a series of dykes was closed in 1971 to replace Judge Fox, who had died on November 16, Lake Michikamau was flooded. The diversion of wa 1946. ters decreased the overall drainage of the Naskaupi The first business of the Convention was a motion considerably and in some places the river was reduced for the presentation of an Address of Loyalty to His to little more than a stream. The fish population was Majesty and an expression of thanks to His Excellency not greatly affected in most of the river, and in subse for opening the Convention. The motion was made by quent years a commercial sports fishery developed. the Han. Robert Job and seconded by Michael F. Har T.C. Anderson (1985), Mina Hubbard (1981), B.R. rington qqv, who, at 29, was one of four delegates LeDrew (1971), Patrick 0' Flaherty ( 1979), Lester under 30 years of age. The Convention soon got down Riche (1965). ACB to work. Within a few days nine committees were NATIONAL CONVENTION. Having been governed appointed by the Chairman to examine aspects of the since 1934 by a British appointed Commission of Gov Country's financial, social and economic conditions. ernment, on December 11, 1945 Newfoundlanders Each delegate was appointed to two committees. The were told by British prime minister Clement Attlee Convention sought broad powers of investigation what steps would be taken to enable them to decide from the Commission, including the right to summon their constitutional future. A general election would be Commissioners and their officials. But the Commis held in 1946 to select delegates to attend a national sion agreed only to provide the committees with NATIONAL CONVENTION 15 Delegates and officials of the National Convention information, refusing to allow its members and offi turned to the Convention floor, although he sent in his cials to appear publicly before the Convention. votes by letter.) He had been making a fiery denuncia Monday, October 28, 1946 was a fateful day, prov tion of Smallwood's confederation motion and waved ing to be a turning point in the Convention. Following a document which he declared held information that the acceptance of certain committee reports, Joseph R. would disturb the entire gathering and persons outside Smallwood qv moved that a delegation of members be the chamber as well. The mysterious letter was never sent to Ottawa to discuss the possibilities of recovered. The Convention immediately adjourned, Newfoundland's union with Canada. His motion was reconvening on November 4. On the following day followed by an impassioned speech, some language of Bradley's amendment was defeated 25 to 17 while which aroused considerable anger in a majority of Penney's amendment carried 25 to 18. Smallwood's delegates, who felt that it was "belittling" of New weakened amendment then carried. Delegates then re foundland and her people. But the motion was sec turned to debating investigative committee reports on onded by Gordon Higgins qv, although he had no education, mining and forestry. sympathy with the confederate cause. Higgins was Tragedy struck the Convention again on November immediately followed by Harrington, who denounced 16 when Judge Fox suffered a heart attack and died the Smallwood motion, mainly because it was prema suddenly. In the absence of a legally-appointed chair ture, the Convention having just begun its investiga man, public sittings could not be held, but it was tions. Afterwards, members generally agreed that that agreed that in camera meetings would continue under Monday was the Convention's "moment of truth", the auspices of the several committee convenors. The marking a change from non-partisan discussion to a Convention adjourned on December 13 for the Christ bickering, political assembly. Henceforth proceedings mas holiday. As delegates left for their homes would be characterized by a struggle between the con throughout the country, many were upset that the pre federates (who coalesced around Smallwood's leader mature and contentious confederation controversy had ship) and advocates of a return to responsible been injected into general convention debate. During government. Albert Penney, the delegate for Car the Christmas break, supporters of a return to respon bonear, moved an amendment to Smallwood's motion sible government outside the Convention organized that any decision to send a delegation to Ottawa to themselves into the *Responsible Government League ascertain possible terms of union with Canada be de qv, whose most prominent organizer was St. John's ferred until the Convention had received and consid businessman F.M. O'Leary qv. ered the reports of its various investigative When the Convention began its second session on committees. Bradley moved a sub-amendment that the January 5, 1947, the new chairman (Bradley) pre proposed delegation would not go to Ottawa before sided, retaining his voting right on Convention mat January 1, 1947. ters. The Commission agreed to his appointment, On October 30 another moment of high drama oc which had the unanimous support of Convention dele curred when Kenneth M. Brown qv, the delegate for gates. In supporting his candidacy for the position, Bonavista South, collapsed on the floor of the cham anti-confederates had hoped that the appointment ber, suffering a paralytic stroke. (Brown never re- would render him less effective as one of the two 16 NATIONAL CONVENTION strongest supporters of union with Canada, but soon Preparations were now made to send a delegation to realized that they had made a mistake. At any rate, it Ottawa. The delegation, consisting of T.W.G. Ash soon became apparent that the spirit of good will had bourne, Charles Ballam qqv, Bradley, Smallwood, not returned after the Christmas break. Burry, Job and Higgins, left St. John's on June 19, Robert Job, who favoured closer political and eco 1947 and the Convention was adjourned to the call of nomic relations with the United States, moved on Feb the chair. The majority of delegates fully expected the ruary 4 a resolution that the Convention ascertain what delegation to return within a month, but it did not economic or fiscal relationships could be established show up until mid-October. As the weeks wore on, the between Newfoundland and the United States, between other members of the Convention grew restive. On at Newfoundland and Britain, and between Newfound least two occasions impromptu meetings of a large land and Canada. Job had included the last section in number of responsible government supporters resulted the resolution to secure Smallwood's support of his in telegrams being sent to Chairman Bradley urging desire to have future Newfoundland-American rela him to stop the stalling of the Convention's work and tions examined. The motion carried 38 to 8. The Com to bring the delegation home. It was alleged at the time mission, however, refused to approve the provision that the delegation was simply twiddling its thumbs calling for a delegation to be sent to the United States when, in fact, their mission appeared to have a very because it considered the question of a tariff agree low priority in the routine business of the Ottawa ment with the Americans outside the Convention's mandarins (see TERMS OF UNION). terms of reference. On February 28 a motion (Hallett-Butt) was passed unanimously to send a delegation to London. Small wood, seconded by Job, reintroduced his motion to send a delegation to Ottawa. This time the motion passed, by a vote of 24 to 16. Following the Easter recess, on April 11 D.I. Jackman qv moved that the Convention send a mission to Washington to seek terms of union with the U.S.A. The motion got short shrift, Higgins terming it "a stab in the back" to Britain. The imminent departure of the London dele gation posed the question as to what, if anything, the Convention should do in its estimated two-week ab sence. While this debate was going on delegates to the Convention were asked (on April 19) to attend a pri vate meeting, where, to the surprise of many members, Bradley read from a letter he had received from the Michael Harrington addresses the Convention Department of Home Affairs which intimated that the The Convention was recalled on October 10, for its Convention might adjourn indefinitely and halt all first formal sitting in almost four months. Smallwood proceedings until after the London delegation re read a five-page introduction to the report of the dele turned. In the end it was agreed that the secretary gation. Butt attempted to introduce a motion of non would call the Convention together and that work on confidence in Chairman Bradley, but the Chairman certain committees could then be assigned. (who was aware that the motion was going to be intro The visit to London was as fruitless as many people duced and, in all likelihood, passed) forestalled the had expected. The intrigue and manoeuvring motion by resigning on October 10. He was replaced illustrated by the language of Dominions Office offi as chairman by lawyer J.B. McEvoy qv, who was not cials would make a chapter in itself. On his return, the a member of the Convention. delegation's convenor-spokesman, Peter Cashin qv, The Convention received the Canadian terms of was very critical of Lord Addison, describing him as union on November 6. For the remainder of its third "twisting like Houdini", while Albert Butt qv made it session (fall 1947) the issue of Confederation domi plain that from the start the Newfoundland delegation nated almost every sitting as Smallwood seized every was given the "brush-off". Another disturbing fact occasion to extol the benefits of confederation for emerged when it was revealed that Governor Macdon Newfoundlanders (who followed the debate in the ald and A.J. Walsh qv, then Commissioner for Justice Convention through the radio broadcast of proceed in Newfoundland, had stolen a march on the delega ings by the Broadcasting Corporation of Newfound tion by going to London two days before them, brief land). A quick glance through the newspapers Daily ing the British politicians and press and News and Evening Telegram shows such headlines as surreptitiously undercutting the delegation. The Brit "Verbal Fisticuffs", "Tedious Repetition", "Debate ish simply refused to commit themselves to any future by Distortion", as well as more references to financial obligations if Newfoundland were to decide "Pandemonium". These and other "banners" testify eventually either to remain under Commission of Gov to the intensity of the feelings then being aroused ernment or choose the restoration of responsible gov among all delegates. In fact the holiday interval 1947- ernment. 1948 began rather abruptly, December .14, when in the NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 17 dum (for which see CONFEDERATION). Although defeated by the "twenty-nine dictators" (as Small wood described them), the confederates took the mat ter to the public, calling on them to petition the British Government to put confederation on the referendum ballot. While the British were obviously pleased with the petition, they had intended to put that option on the ballot in any case. They publicly responded to the report of the Convention on March 11 when Governor Macdonald announced that confederation would be one of three options in the referendum to be held later in the year. MICHAEL F. HARRINGTON NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. The National Govern ment was a coalition administration formed during the latter part of World War I and which lasted from July 1917 to May 1919. The coalition government formed by the People's Party, the Union Party and the Liberals was first led by People's Party leader Edward P. Morris and later by Liberal William F. Lloyd. The National Government is perhaps best remembered for its pas Confederate W.J. Keough qv addresses the Convention sage of the Military Service Act in 1917. The New foundland Regiment had suffered heavy losses in midst of a Smallwood speech many delegates walked fighting up to 1916, especially at Beaumont Hamel qv. out of the Chamber, thereby leaving the session with Voluntary recruitment became increasingly difficult out a quorum. despite appeals by recuperating veterans and by Wil The final session commenced Monday, January 5, liam F. Coaker qv of the Union Party. Thus by 1917 1948. From the outset it was plain that the delegates the separate existence of the depleted Regiment was in had brought back little of the Christmas spirit of peace jeopardy. Most members of the Fishermen's Protective and goodwill. At almost every sitting, day or night, the Union qv were opposed to conscription, but by 1917, discussions were raised several decibels higher than at when this measure seemed increasingly likely, Prime any previous time, as they certainly were in the all Minister Morris concluded that a coalition government night sitting from 3 PM January 27 to daylight the next would be necessary if conscription were to proceed day, with only a short break during the darkest hours without incident. before dawn to partake of an untypical "scoff" pro Shortly after the War began, Coaker had proposed vided by outside caterers. One brief report of opening an all-party administration, but Morris rejected the day stated that Smallwood had objected to being idea. The situation was reversed in the spring of 1917 "rudely interrupted", challenging delegate Pierce as Coaker at first turned down Morris' proposal, hop Fudge qv "to go outside". On January 23 Smallwood ing to defeat the government in the impending elec moved that confederation with Canada, on the basis of tions. Rumours that Morris was planning to use his the terms of union tabled in the Convention on No majority in the House of Assembly to postpone elec vember 6, 1947, be placed on the ballot for the forth tions led Coaker to reconsider. The National Govern coming referendum to be held on Newfoundland's ment was formed on July 16, 1917 with Morris as constitutional future. Prime Minister and four other members of the Shortly after 4 AM Wednesday, January 28, as day People's Party; Coaker and W.W. Halfyard from the light was breaking over the hills, the votes were taken Union; and four Liberal members, including Lloyd. on the Convention's recommendations on options to Morris left for London soon afterward, leaving Lloyd appear on the ballot paper in a national referendum: 1) as acting Prime Minister, and resigned effective De Responsible Government as it existed prior to 1934; 2) cember 31 to accept an appointment to the peerage as Commission of Government. The 45 members voted Lord Morris. The new National Government was unanimously that these options should go on the refer formed January 5, 1918, under Lloyd, but like the first endum ballot. The motion to place confederation with coalition it was an uneasy alliance of old opponents. Canada on the ballot paper was defeated by a vote of Elections were delayed through legislation until after 29 to 16 on January 27. As previously agreed, dele the War. The House passed an act to create a Depart gates were then asked to express personal preferences ment of the Militia, thereby placing the Newfoundland between one form of government and another. Regiment under government control. There was no The National Convention met for the last time on immediate move to legislate conscription in order to Friday, January 30, 1948 for a private, informal, and give the new Department a chance to raise sufficient more-or-less convivial farewell gathering. Delegates volunteers. As the war progressed, the Regiment suf and their officials wished each other well, and then fered heavy losses at the battle of Cambrai qv and the returned to their districts to prepare for the referen- shortage of recruits grew desperate. In April, 1918 the 18 NATIONAL PARKS British government's request for 300 more troops im mediately and 60 more per month prompted the Na tional Government to pass the Military Service Act with Coaker's endorsement. An armistice was signed before any of the conscripts saw action. The National Government had essentially outlived its purpose with the end of the War, and by 1919 old antagonisms resurfaced. A motion of non-confidence was proposed by Michael Cashin qv in May of 1919. Prime Minister Lloyd was apparently taken aback by the manner in which Cashin proposed to end the coali tion and seconded the motion himself, either in exas peration or as "the automatic response of a befuddled parliamentarian" (Noel). The National Government was dissolved by unanimous vote of the House of Assembly. M.F. Harrington (1991), H.M. Mosdell (1974), S.J.R. Noel (1971), DN (May 21, 1919). ACB NATIONAL PARKS. See PARKS, NATIONAL. NATIVE PEOPLES. There have been several distinct aboriginal cultures in Newfoundland and Labrador since prehistoric times, including the Palaeo-Indian Tradition qv, the Palaeo-Eskimo Tradition qv and the Maritime Archaic Tradition qv. By the time of the historic period the Beothuk qv, Innu qv, Inuit qv and Micmac qv cultures had developed. Traditional histo ries of the Province have concentrated on Europeans Demasduit qv (Mary March) and their descendants and have tended to relegate na described the coast thereabouts, and could name Pre tive peoples to peripheral roles. However, since the sentic [Placentia] of the New-found-land" (cited in 1970s there has been a growing political movement Anger, 1988). among North American aboriginal peoples, partly as a The earliest European contacts with Newfoundland response to social and economic distress and also to a and Labrador (those of the Norse and later the larger political and industrial system which often over Basques) were brief and/or seasonal and seem to have. looks native concerns. This political activism often had no lasting effects on native peoples. Seasonal takes the form of land claims, the land and its tradi English and French fishing stations in the seventeenth tional use having become symbols of the survival of and eighteenth centuries provided a source of Euro native cultures. pean materials such as iron nails which could be mod The transition from archaeologically-known to ified for various uses. There seem to have been some historically-known groups has been fairly well estab clashes between fishermen and the Inuit and Beothuk, lished in the Province. The Innu, Micmac and proba but the early historic period was probably initially bly the Beothuk belonged to a cultural and linguistic beneficial for native groups as scavenging and limited group called Algonquian which extended over a wide trade provided new and useful material goods. area of eastern Canada. The Beothuk seem to have Missionary efforts, which began as early as 1777 in been the makers of the material culture known as Lit Labrador, began a new phase of contact, as Moravians tle Passage. Continuity from Little Passage to Beothuk qv and others sought to replace traditional beliefs with has been demonstrated by such early historic sites as European religions. Trading posts operated by the that excavated by Ralph Pastore qv at Boyd's Cove. In Hudson's Bay Company qv in Labrador encouraged Labrador, the Innu comprise the eastern subgroup of fur trapping, a pursuit which was often at odds with the Algonquian Cree and may be the descendants of subsistence hunting. Instead of concentrating on food the Maritime Archaic and Palaeo-Indians. Their im animals such as caribou, hunters devoted time and mediate prehistoric link is to a culture known to arch effort into gathering the types of furs desired by the aeologists as Point Revenge. The Inuit are closely traders. Together, missionaries and traders influenced related linguistically and culturally to other native some Innu and Inuit to give up a mobile way of life peoples of the high arctic and are descended from the and to settle in one area. Such settlement was contrary Thule, a group known primarily as whalers. There is to the traditions of a hunting and gathering society, some debate over when the Micmac first came to the and hunger was often the result. Disease was another Island, but there is historic evidence that Nova Scotia effect of contact, though its extent is not entirely clear. Micmac were familiar with Newfoundland at least by Illnesses not normally fatal to Europeans had a devas 1602. In that year, mariner Bartholomew Gosnold en tating impact on native groups who had never been countered several Micmac off the coast of New Eng exposed to them. Tuberculosis and, to a lesser extent, land and recounted that they "with a piece of Chalke smallpox, killed many Micmac and Beothuk. These NATIVE PEOPLES 19 diseases, as well as influenza, afflicted many in Lab and favoured a European-style school system, which rador, even into the twentieth century (see HEALTH). was incompatible with traditionally mobile activities Such epidemics led to the abandonment of some such as hunting. Some native people feared the loss of camps and communities and undermined traditional their cultures. Inuk elder Martin Martin qv recalled in native belief systems which were at a loss to explain 1976, such catastrophes. As European settlement grew and Our children are taught, I suppose, how to sur became more permanent, there was competition for vive in white communities but not in the Inuit land and resources. This competition was a primary land ... When learning the white society way cause of the demise of the Beothuk. Denied access to was first introduced, or enforced, as a way of good fishing areas of the coast and forced to adapt to teaching our Inuit children, I strongly objected the environment of the interior, many succumbed to because I foresaw that in the future they would starvation and disease. Some met violent deaths at the forget our Inuit language ... (Them Days Dec. hands of others, but there is no evidence that either the 1976). Micmac or settlers set out systematically to extermi nate the Beothuk. Contacts with English-speaking Newfoundlanders, in The presence of Micmac on the Island was often cluding intermarriage, also contributed to the loss of resented by settlers who saw them as competitors for traditional ways as well as language. resources. John Gale in 1819 wrote that, "The Native people often experienced difficulty in adjust Micmac Indians infest White Bay in a manner that ing from a traditional economy to one based on wage makes it impossible for me or any other Person settled labour. On the Island, Micmac had to contend with the here to make a Life of it catching fur" (cited in Anger, depletion of resources such as caribou herds and the 1988). Henry Camp, a fisheries warden, in 1873 called loss of access to hunting and trapping grounds. By the the Micmac, "saucy" and reported to the House of 1920s large-scale logging operations and railway con Assembly his belief that "to keep an Indian from struction had effectively denied access to large areas spearing salmon, trout and eels I believe you must of land. Some Micmac found work as loggers, but the take his arms off" (JHA, 1873). In the late 1800s and collapse of the fur trade market in the 1930s put an end early 1900s there was a widespread belief among set to trapping as a viable way of life for many families: tlers that native peoples and their cultures were dying Industrial development similarly brought disruptions out. Government policy in Newfoundland and across to the lives of Innu and Inuit families in Labrador. In North America, carried out through churches and 1942 a large air force base was built at Goose Bay, schools, was aimed at the assimilation of aboriginals attracting new settlers to the area. When the develop to the larger society. After 1911 Father St. Croix of St. ment of the hydro-electric plant at Churchill Falls Alban's parish, near Conne River, actively discour resulted in large scale flooding in the interior, Innu aged Micmac language and culture. In Labrador, most people discovered that their traplines, equipment and Moravian and Roman Catholic missionaries were even some burial grounds had been lost. During this obliged to learn native languages in order to commu period of development and construction, native peo nicate, but stressed the importance of learning English ples rarely benefited from the jobs created and it Natives at the Hudson's Bay Company in North West River, c. 1900 20 NATIVE PEOPLES Inuit fishing boats at Nain, c. 1940 became less feasible for some to try and return to a aboriginal movement that reached across North Amer- traditional way of life. Often native peoples found ica. Many native groups formed alliances which in themselves stereotyped as lazy. 1982 had become the Assembly of First Nations. In The official government policy of assimilation had 1972 the Native Association of Newfoundland and been dropped in the 1950s, as it became obvious that Labrador was formed as an umbrella group for all native peoples and cultures were not disappearing. aboriginal peoples in the Province. At Coone River, a Since 1954 the federal and provincial governments Micmac band council was formed in 1972 and the have shared the cost of health services established for office of chief, abolished in the 1920s, was reinstated. native peoples in Labrador. In 1965 the agreement was Local councils were established in several communi- extended to education and social development. New- ties from Port au Port to Gander Bay. Within a few foundland Micmac were excluded from these pro- years, separate organizations had supplanted the Na- grams until 1973, largely because it was also tive Association: the Labrador Inuit Association, government policy to deny that Micmacs had been on formed in 1973, and the Naskapi-Montagnais Innu the Island in aboriginal times and were therefore sta- Association (later the Innu Nation qv) in 1975. The tus Indians. After 1973 these programs did recognize, Micmac group became known as the Federation of in effect, that native cultures were distinct from the Newfoundland Indians (in the Micmac language, larger population and that their concerns had to be Ktaqamkuk Mi 'kmawy Saqimawoutie qv). addressed separately. Land claims became a focus for these new political Often native communities were physically separate organizations, though other issues were also ad- from surrounding non-native settlements. This is no- dressed. The 1980s was a period of intense activism, table at Sheshatshit and North West River and has notably for the Micmac and the Innu. Micmac land been studied by Evelyn Plaice ( 1990). Natives and claims were generally regarded as invalid by the pro- settlers live on opposite sides of the river and rarely vincial government. Beginning in the 1970s the interact socially. Economically and socially mar- Micmac band council began commissioning studies ginalized, many native communities have experi- and archaeological surveys in an attempt to establish enced the effects of poverty and despair, especially the Micmac claim to a prehistoric presence on the among younger people, with alcoholism and family Island and to thus strengthen their claim to traditional violence having become commonplace. Within the lands. In 1982-83 there were disagreements with the school system, the history and culture of aboriginal provincial government over the allocation of funds. peoples are generally omitted. "In this view of his- These disputes led, indirectly, to the recognition of tory," writes Marie Wadden (1991), "the Innu [and Micmac at Coone River as status Indians, though other other native people] are a shadowy people who mis- Micmac in the Province did not receive such recogni- takenly survived the Stone Age and are beaded for an tion. early extinction." The Innu in the 1980s began a campaign aimed at By the 1970s the social and economic distress of stopping low-level military training flights over hunt- native peoples had become widespread. In response, ing grounds in Labrador. Though both the military and native communities began to organize as part of an the provincial government denied that such low-level NATIVES' SOCIETY, THE NEWFOUNDLAND 21 flights had any adverse health effects, the Innu main along with several church organizations, it sponsored tained that the disruptions damaged mental and physi an Innu family on a speaking tour of the Island to cal health, harassed and frightened wildlife and explain their opposition to a proposed NATO base in threatened Innu culture. A civil disobedience cam Labrador. The Group has contributed to environmental paign resulted in over 200 criminal charges against impact studies on such proposals. In 1992, with ab Innu men and women over several years. Eventually, original groups better organized, the Native Peoples the North Atlantic Treaty Organization decided to es Support Group was less active. Peter Armitage (1989), tablish its low-level training centre elsewhere, though Adrian Tanner (interview, 1992), ET(Mar. 7, 1989). primarily for reasons other than the Innu protest. The ACB campaign had nonetheless brought the Innu and their NATIVES' SOCIETY, THE NEWFOUNDLAND. This concerns international attention. Both the Micmac and society was established in June 1840, quickly acquired the Innu, as well as the Inuit, were supported in their prominence, if not real influence, in politics and soci dealings with government and military agencies by a ety, and almost as speedily faded. Its main purpose was St. John's based organization called the Native Peo to promote the interests of native-born Newfoundland ples Support Group qv. As native peoples became bet ers (the word native in this context does not mean ter organized throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s, aborigine) in a colony that was beginning to acquire a however, there has been less need for such liaison. sense of local identity but was still dominated by an Native land claims have been increasingly recog immigrant bourgeoisie whose actions were, in part, nized as legitimate. Some of the arguments against motivated by religious and racial Anglo-Irish hatred land claims are based on the idea that native peoples imported from the British Isles. It has recently been no longer live as they once did. As anthropologist argued that successive British administrations from Adrian Tanner has pointed out, however, native cul 1832 to 1855 ''fostered and promoted a nativist tures which are the product of traditional ways com culture" so that "patriotism and local culture" might bined with influences from other cultures are be ''invented'' -in effect, that nativist culture was an nonetheless genuine native cultures (ET Jan. 15, implant from overseas (McCann). But this is a some 1983). Enoch Obed, an Inuit land claims negotiator, what bizarre misreading of the period. It seems appar summed up the position: "We are not attempting to ent that nativism was largely home-grown, and was a preserve a traditional way of life as a cultural relic; we genuine effort by mostly reasonable men both to es continue to live off the land and its resources" (ET cape the hateful transatlantic legacy that had so May 4, 1979). The settlement of native land claims is embittered public life on the Island as well as to claim seen by some observers as both a moral and legal their own rightful place in the emerging society. obligation of government. Land claims may also be Nativism in Newfoundland began to assert itself as essential to further community development and cul immigration from Britain declined. The Protestant tural survival. In 1992 the Innu, Inuit and Micmac newspaper editor and proprietor R.J. Parsons qv, who peoples of Newfoundland and Labrador still faced was born in Harbour Grace and whose name is closely many challenges, but the political organizations begun associated with the movement in its early stages, in the 1970s and strengthened in the 1980s were help noted in the Newfoundland Patriot qv of September ing to meet them. Dorothy Anger (1983; 1988), Evelyn 22, 1840, that the formation of the Newfoundland Plaice (1990), Ralph Pastore (1977; 1984), Bruce Trig Natives' Society was the "fulfilment of a wish con ger (1985), James Tuck (1976), Marie Wadden (1991), templated for years." How many years remains un ET (May 4, 1979; Jan. 15, 1983), Indian and Inuit clear. The St. John's-born doctor Edward Kielley qv, a Support Group of Newfoundland and Labrador Catholic who became the first President of the Soci (1983), JHA (1873), Them Days (Dec. 1976). ACB ety, said that he had thought of the idea of such an NATIVE PEOPLES SUPPORT GROUP. The Native organization in 1836 "because strangers had been Peoples Support Group is an organization based in St. sucking the vitals of the country," while the native John's which acts as a liaison between aboriginal born, "who were often obliged to seek to better their groups and government and other agencies. It was condition by resorting to other Countries," had been formed in 1979 as a local committee in response to treated "as an unworthy race, and as intruders in their Oxfam's Northern Native Rights Conference. It was native land." (The rhetoric of nativists needs further run by an active membership of about 20 volunteers in study: here the use of the word "race" is significant, 1992. Membership has been drawn largely from the as is that of "strangers," often pointedly used by University community, including several anthropolo Kielley and others to refer to foreign-born residents.) gists who have worked with native groups in the Prov Carbonear teacher William Gilmour, who left the col ince. ony in 1837, told Philip Tocque and other pupils that The Support Group has spoken on behalf of the Inuit he could see no way that Newfoundland "can be qv and the Micmac qv but has been especially active in emancipated but by the united efforts of the native lnnu qv protests against low-level military flights in population." Signs of nativist sentiment appear in the Labrador. Arguing that such flights threaten a tradi press in 1838. But the spark that lit the flame was tional way of life, the group held press conferences provided by John Valentine Nugent qv, who in the and engaged in letter writing campaigns. In 1989, bitter 1840 by-election in St. John's (which terminated 22 NATIVES' SOCIETY, THE NEWFOUNDLAND on June 6) referred derisively to "copper-coloured nessmen, and otherwise part of the Colony's middle natives in their native woods" in campaigning for the class." Richard Bonnycastle qv, a contemporary ob Irish-Catholic victor, Laurence O'Brien qv. Nugent server, said the Society drew its members from "the later denied making the remark, but it seems likely newer merchants" and "professional men." Some that he did make it, or something close to it. An Irish were of Irish ancestry. The most prominent men on the man with intellectual pretensions, he was not above Committee were Parsons of the Patriot, and Kielley. making sneering comments about the poor education Both had been embroiled in politics. Parsons, long a of native-born Newfoundlanders. The need for ad defender of the reform party (other names given to this vanced schooling ("collegiate education", as it was powerful, mainly Irish-Catholic-driven political force termed) would, in fact, become a prominent item on in nineteenth century Newfoundland were the "liberal the nativist agenda. party," "priests' party," or even "chartists") had for A month after O'Brien's election, Parsons reported complex reasons supported the Presbyterian James that the Natives' Society in St. John's had a member Douglas in the St. John's by-election and was begin ship of nearly 300. "This is a new era in our local ning to show signs of taking stands different from nomenclature," he wrote on July 11. Because the com those of the Catholic clergy. For his part, Kielley was mittee in charge of the building known as the Factory the antagonist of reformer William Carson qv in the would make a room available to the new society only Kielley-Carson affair of 1838. A brief summary of this under demeaning conditions while the *Benevolent will illuminate his character. Irish Society qv refused outright to let it use the Or Acting on his assumed authority as Speaker, Carson phan Asylum School, its first quarterly meeting was had rashly ordered Kielley, who had insulted the Irish held on September 12 in the merchant John Ryan's born MHA John Kent qv in the street, to be arrested for fish store in St. John's. Approximately 200-300 at contempt of the House of Assembly. Kielley spent tended. "This night," said Parsons in a fiery speech, August 6-10 in custody, the last night in the common "we proclaim ourselves a people- we proclaim our jail. On August 20, Carson was served with a writ by nationality, and we shall fail to do our duty, if hence the sheriff on Kielley's behalf, claiming assault and forth we do not make that nationality to be respected." false imprisonment, and setting damages at £3000. The double use of the word "nationality" is sugges The Supreme Court ruled in favour of Carson in late tive; and in the last phrase, the sting of Nugent's 1838, whereupon Kielley appealed to the judicial remark may still be felt. Parsons went on: the forma committee of the Privy Council in London. By Sep tion of the Society would, he said, be "the blow which tember 1840, the case had not been argued in London; shall dissipate into 'thin air' the opposition of our indeed, a decision (favouring Kielley) would not be opponents." These opponents were not immediately handed down until January 1843. But the affair was a identified. cause celebre. It had without doubt helped to under At the meeting as well a motto ("Union and mine public faith in Representative Government. And Philanthropy") and a flag were displayed. The com it had made Kielley famous. Yet his courage must not plex flag bore an elaborate device around which was a be mistaken for a rebellious spirit. Kielley had served wreath "composed of the rose, thistle and shamrock, in the Royal Navy and was at heart an establishment denoting the stock from whence the Newfoundlander figure who felt at home in the company of the derives his origin." It will be noted how the word Colony's English Protestant elite. "Newfoundlander" is here reserved for the native Despite Parsons' and Kielley's involvement with born; in fact, it had been used in this way as early as politics, from its inception the Society professed to 1765. A 25-member Committee of Management (in have "nothing to do with religion" and to belong to cluding an Executive) was already in place. Kielley as "no party." In the heated atmosphere of the 1840s in President stated the Society's purposes, which in Newfoundland, still dominated by fierce sectarian ri cluded "co-operating with the peaceable, orderly, re valry, that was a naive hope. The very fact that it spectable and well-disposed inhabitants of this professed allegiance to "no party" implied a dissatis Island," as well as promoting the interests of "our faction of some sort with existing ones. Moreover, the fellow countrymen." This apparent distinction be exclusivity clause in the Society's bylaws could not tween his "countrymen" (evidently native Newfound help but stir up resentment. In order for native-born landers) and "inhabitants" is again of note. The word inhabitants to be pushed ahead, the Irish, English, and "country" also appeared frequently in nativist ora Scots would have to be pushed aside; this could hardly tory. be accomplished in the "orderly" and "respectable" The Society was now, to all appearances, firmly manner the Society professed to want. Not only was it established. According to the "Rules, Regulations, not accomplished; in reality it was never attempted. and Bylaws"(Newfoundland Patriot, Oct. 17, 1840), As noted, the antagonism of the Benevolent Irish membership was confined to "the Natives of New Society towards the new organization was felt im foundland exclusively." Who were these natives? mediately, and by September as well Henry Winton Geoff Budden has stated of the Committee of Manage qv, Tory editor of the Public Ledger and a friend of ment that "both Protestants and Catholics appear to Kielley's, was reporting that Catholic priests were have been well represented" and that "most members preaching against it. (Though a Protestant, Winton had ... seem to have been professional men, small busi- informers who let him know what was said from Catholic NATIVES' SOCIETY, THE NEWFOUNDLAND 23 altars.) Before 1840 ended, another by-election, this by thousands and rapidly found its way into the news one in Conception Bay, provided evidence that, with papers. Parsons printed it on May 26. In the petition, or without a Natives' Society, very little had changed the Society maintained that it had no desire "to create in Newfoundland. The priests supported Edmund distinctions of country, or to make them the watch Hanrahan qv against James Prendergast qv; both candi words of party in this already too much divided coun dates were Catholic and native. Though both were also try." It emphatically opposed any thought of "the notionally liberal, the contest was still violent, so withdrawal of our Constitution" and rejected the no much so that the returning officer closed the poll and tion that Newfoundland had been granted elective sent back the writ without declaring a winner. As government "prematurely." No form of government "liberal" as the priests may have been, what they "that was wanting in the vivifying principle of the really valued was submission. This fiasco strength Third Estate, to be elected by the People, and to be ened the British authorities' suspicion that they had invested with all the powers enjoyed by the analogous been premature in granting the colony elective gov bodies in the other North American Colonies" was ernment in 1832. acceptable. Wherein had sprung the evils of the im The Conception Bay by-election also apparently led mediate past? From, the petition stated, "an elective Parsons, who supported Prendergast, to begin to re franchise not sufficiently defined" (where "defined" think his belief that a fundamental realignment had is probably code for "limited"), an "almost total want taken place in Newfoundland politics with the forma of qualifications for Members of the Assembly," and tion of the Natives' Society. He was in any case a the lack of "any Law for regulating the manner of weak, insecure man, much given to bluster. A further holding Elections." In addition, the constitution of inducement for him to re-establish links with the Cath 1832 had made no provision for "freeholders and rent olic clergy came early in 1841 with the appearance of payers for property (other than dwelling-houses)" to a new liberal pro-Irish newspaper in St. John's, the vote or to sit as members, which meant that "many of Newfoundland Vindicator qv, edited by Nugent. On our most respectable, intelligent, and influential August 4, 1841, the Patriot, back-peddling furiously, inhabitants" are "excluded." stated that it "was always the advocate of Catholic From these assertions (few of which could have rights" and that had O'Brien been nominated first in pleased either the reformist members of the Assembly, the St. John's by-election, "no consideration on earth who had won majorities in the general elections of would have induced us to withhold our vote from 1836 and 1837, or the Irish priests, who had used the him." Soon Parsons was toadying before Catholic liberal franchise given to Newfoundland in 1832 to Bishop M.A. Fleming qv in his old manner. Through their advantage), the Society went on to argue that the out 1841, he continued, somewhat uneasily, to write number of members should be "materially in on nativist issues and publicize the activities of the creased," through "a new division of the places from Society. But although a bold nativist logo had been which Representatives are returned," and with one adopted for the Patriot in January 1841, it was re member from each electoral district. This would have moved in July 1842. The slackening of the Patriot's the effect of producing "liberality of sentiment" by an interest in its activities was undoubtedly a blow to the "admixture of enlightened opinion." What the Soci Society. ety had in mind, it seems, was to increase the number Meanwhile, members of the Society looked for of representatives from "the Northern, Southern and things to do that would not offend the "peaceable, Western Districts of the Island," where it claimed orderly, respectable, and well-disposed" citizens. natives were in the majority, thereby countering the They attended funeral processions of deceased mem influence of St. John's, where the Irish influence re bers; they formed committees of correspondence and mained strong. It emphasized that any changes to the relief; they asked the government for a piece of land system of government must take into consideration and raised money to build a hall; in January 1841, they "the growing importance of the Outport Settlements" held a procession and ball in St. John's. The Society in which "so many of us reside." It noted as well that was becoming a symbolic and social presence in New the native-born were "considerably in advance" of foundland life. In May, at the festival of St. George, a recent immigrants "in point of morals, intelligence, toast was proposed to natives, to which Kielley, who and peaceable deportment"- an extraordinary asser could always be counted on for a speech, responded tion, probably meant to challenge what prominent na "most eloquently, feelingly, and pathetically." Also in tivist Richard Barnes qv called "the prejudice which May, the Society declined to participate officially in had operated against them on account of their want of the procession to lay the foundation stone of the the higher means of education"- and that "we must Roman Catholic cathedral, though the Mechanics' So make up the class from which the future Representa ciety qv did take part in it and many Catholic (and tives of the people must come." some Protestant) natives marched as well - "in the All this was quite a mouthful. The petition, which van," according to Nugent. Such actions did not go appears to have had little if any effect on decision unnoticed in St. John's. makers in London, defines, though sometimes by When news arrived in April 1841, that the British implication only, some of the chief motivations under Parliament was to study anew Newfoundland's consti lying the nativist movement. First, its claim was to tution, the Society drew up a petition that was signed represent the whole island, particularly the outports; 24 NATIVES' SOCIETY, THE NEWFOUNDLAND second, its members were propertied, respectable men "Catholic Native" said, for its meetings "often" fea seeking to expand their influence, partly through cur tured "tirades ... against the leaders of the liberal tailing that of Irish-supported politicians, who had, as party." As for the natives' petition, he claimed that the Barnes would say in 1842, "disgraced ... the last plan to reform representation proposed by the Society House of Assembly"; third, though loyal they looked would throw constituencies into the hands of the mer to North America for models for the development of chants. By 1842, the opinion was abroad that the their own colony; fourth, they wished to retain demo Society's real purpose was to counter Fleming's influ cratic government. ence in Newfoundland "and all those Irishmen who By June 1841, the Society claimed a membership of supported him." 544. In addition, branches were springing up in Con At its second annual meeting, on June 13, 1842, ception Bay. (These need further study.) "We have congratulations were extended by Kielley to members gained the respect of those individuals who but a short of the Society on the continuing "great advancement" time since laughed at our exertions," Ryan said, in in "wealth, Numbers, and public importance." The what may have been another allusion to Nugent; he Society, he added, "seemed now to have taken such added that natives would soon have "a sweeping ma deep root that of its rapid progression he could not jority in the councils of the country." Among the ad entertain a doubt." He stepped down as President dresses received by John Harvey qv, the new (though he stayed on as Vice-president) and was re governor, on his arrival in September was one from placed by Robert Carter qv, a Ferry land-born Anglican the Society, pointing to the exclusion of the native who bad served as both a surrogate judge and an offi born from government offices. Thus, s~id Kielley in cer in the Royal Navy- establishment credentials as his wonted fashion, "For the first time, as a people, solid as those of Kielley himself. the Society has greeted the representative of Royalty By September, campaigning had begun for the first on his arrival at these shores." Lobbying of this kind and only election under a restricted new constitution, no doubt further angered Irish Catholics. It was now one that provided an Amalgamated Legislature com becoming noted and commented on whether a govern prising 15 elected and 10 appointed members. The ment appointee was or was not a native: whatever Natives' Society now showed its hand by becoming motives were behind the nativist movement generally, involved in the contest. They sent a circular to the this finger-pointing must have seemed to some petty districts calling for the return of "men who feel the and jejune (though this is not to say natives had no Country's best interests at heart, and best know how to reason to think themselves disadvantaged). Nugent in promote them" (which doubtless meant: vote for na the Vindicator in August claimed that the Natives' tives and against the Irish and Irish-supported reform Society was creating "division" in Newfoundland; candidates); they let it be known that they were dis natives had good reason to love Bishop Fleming, he gusted with having "had a Colonial Legislature 8 said. "A Catholic Native" (doubtless Nugent himself) years in the hands of strangers" (to quote Barnes); and wrote a "letter" to the Vindicator on October 9, as they actually ran candidates from the executive. The serting that the "political principles" of the Natives' results of the election in December were mixed. Nug Society were "the same" as those of the governing ent, O'Brien, and Carson were elected in St. John's Executive Council and ridiculing its desire to avoid a "sickening" result, according to the Newfound "meddling in politics." The Society was political, lander qv, of which the publisher was now the youth ful St. Jobn'sman and Natives' Society committee member Ambrose Shea qv - but Carter was returned in Bonavista and Barnes, Treasurer of the Society, a Congregationalist and a young man of great promise, was elected in Trinity. Perhaps more significantly, the Society had more or less thrown its support to "conservative" candidates (or "Tories") in the election, thus making it virtually impossible to maintain a pose of political non alignment thereafter. At one St. John's meeting of natives in November, at which an effort was made to nominate a candidate for the district of Placentia and St. Mary's, there was even a confrontation between Irish and nativist electors which could well have turned ugly. The nativists were in effect driven out of one hall and into another. Parsons of the supposedly liberal Patriot, now firmly in Fleming's pocket, de nounced the "unholy proceedings" (i.e., the efforts of the natives to nominate the candidate) and praised the Irish for routing "the attempted scheme of the Native Tories." But Parsons' perceptions of what constituted The Seal of the Natives' Society a liberal, and what a tory, must not be swallowed NATNES' SOCIETY, THE NEWFOUNDLAND 25 whole. Politics in the 1840s were not easily translat sound in principle," Shea noted scornfully in the New able into modern "liberal" and "conservative" labels. foundlander, "but that it sounded well, and made for Shea, a Catholic who would later have a distinguished the time being a very convenient clap-trap." But more public career as a liberal, vehemently denied that the than nativism was in the air in 1843: there was now Irish-sponsored candidates in 1842 - and for that great to-do about agriculture and temperance, the Irish matter, those in 1836 and 1837- should be given that (soon to be joined by Parsons, ever eager to take the name, and called on electors devoted to "liberal lead once he saw where his hoped-for followers were principles" to oppose them. going) were up in arms over the Repeal of the Union, Was the Society unwise to embroil itself in politics and the idea of responsible government (Parsons so early in its life? Possibly, though it is hard to see prominent here too) was being examined. The isle was how any other path than politics would give it real full of clamorous noises. Still, at the June annual influence. Had its intervention healed any of the old meeting of the Society, where Barnes was elected wounds? It appears not. In fact, reading some of the President, no suggestion could be heard in the oratory now-current descriptions of candidates (e.g., "Catho of a retreat from the natives' "long-neglected claims." lic native Tory"), we have to wonder if the appearance They were pressing these "claims," they were careful of the Natives' Society had not merely created one to say, not "in any invidious spirit." Barnes kept in more split in an already divided community. It also sisting on this point: the natives, he once told the seems apparent that the Society overestimated its legislature, "never asserted the doctrine that they had strength in the election of 1842. The influence of the exclusive or superior claims, and merely contended Irish priests throughout the 1840s (and later) remained for their right to stand on the same footing with all powerful. Nor were Irish-born politicians incapable of around them." He thought it was the duty of natives creating division within the nativist movement. When "to hold out to strangers the right hand of fellow Nugent landed in jail in late 1842 as a result of an ship." (Two joined hands formed the main emblem on action for libel, natives (though not, of course, the the Natives' Society's seal and flag.) Society) held a meeting in support of him and, when As noted, one boon they had requested was a piece he was released, sent a deputation to congratulate him. of land on which to build a hall. Late in 1843, word "I have always loved the native character of New came from Harvey that they could have the land. He foundlanders," he said on that occasion. Despite this fully recognized, he wrote in a letter,. "the strong and other assurances, the tag "copper colour" would claims" which the Natives' Society had upon the fa stay with him all his life. vour of the Sovereign. A meeting was called in Janu The new Assembly that met in 1843 had a small ary 1844, to celebrate this sign of the Governor's rump of native-born members (to which Parsons was approval. There was considerable "excitement." Shea added in a by-election, made necessary by the death of was in ecstasy. Hitherto, he said, natives had been Carson in February), and Governor Harvey mentioned somewhat in doubt as to the impression they had made "native talent" in his opening Address. One of the on government, for they had encountered "an appar first actions of Carter and Barnes was widely com ent shyness"; but now they had it in writing: "The mented on: they supported the motion to replace R.R. Head of the Government had told them that they had Wakeham qv, a native, with E.M. Archibald qv, a Nova claims, and that those claims should not be disre Scotian, as Clerk of the House, an irony not lost on garded." Carter spoke too: when he saw "almost Nugent, Kent, and other "liberal" members who op every office of trust or distinction filled by Strang posed the motion. The treatment of Wakeham, which ers," he said, he would be surprised if Governor Har provoked a protest meeting and petition in St. John's, vey too were not "alive to such manifest injustice." reflects the occasional acute discomfort of nativists as Kielley for his part hoped that natives would soon they tried to find a role in the snakepit of Newfound have seats in the Legislative and Executive Councils, land politics. It also shows some of the biases of "the doors of which had hitherto been shut against Barnes and Carter, for Archibald was a creature of the them" - a remark perhaps directed at the bounty establishment. This is not to discredit Barnes, how already shown by Harvey to non-natives such as Car ever, for he would later affirm his independence by son, Morris, O'Brien, and Kent. One is struck by the opposing some of the-excesses of Harvey's adminis courtliness of these proceedings, and also by their tration. (Even the Colonial Office in London knew of openness, their naivete. These were not backstairs Harvey's inclination to live as a "grandee.") Barnes men; they thought they could gain their point by fair was in fact a notable figure in the new legislature, one dealing and public presentation of argument. of his major achievements in its first session being his Having seen the beneficial effects of one short let introduction of the Education Bill which, as Pamela ter, Harvey promptly sent another. He had said the Bruce has written, "established the legislative basis natives had "strong claims" on the government; now for a denominational system of education in the he said they had "peculiarly strong claims." As long colony" (DCB VII). as these "claims" remained verbal and undefined, Native rights would be mentioned from time to time Harvey was quite willing to acknowledge them. in legislative debate in 1843, with even the Irish mem But the natives had in fact misjudged him. A pea bers Nugent and Patrick Morris qv sometimes stand cock of a man, a near bankrupt who liked the good life ing up to support the cause - not because "it was - a strutting, vain lover of ceremony and praise - he 26 NATIVES' SOCIETY, THE NEWFOUNDLAND nonetheless knew who had the real political power in is perfectly suicidal to our interests for us to be sepa the Island, and whose hurt feelings he had to placate rated, while others make gain of us by this division." in St. John's if he were to be well thought of back in It was summer; the regatta was in the offing; His London. Though he bought off Nugent with an ap Royal Highness Prince Henry of the Netherlands, son pointment as Inspector of Schools, he sensed that he of William II, King of Holland, was due to visit the could not purchase Barnes (re-elected President of the colony in August. All this somewhat dampened native Society in June 1844); and he did not think he needed anger. There was, however, no Natives' Society repre to appease the other natives. In 1844-45, though sentation at either the procession greeting Prince Barnes himself was growing in influence and stature Henry or at the splendid government dinner in his in the legislature, natives fell into a kind of apathy, honour. Nor was there a mention of natives in accepting Harvey's counterfeit assurances of favour Harvey's speech opening the legislature in January as true currency. On May 24, 1845, a date chosen to 1846. That month, however, the Society held its ball in demonstrate loyalty, the cornerstone of their Hall was accustomed style. laid, with "thousands" in attendance. It was a beauti In February, the appointment of a stranger to the fully fine day. Harvey, with suite - and in his case vacant position of jailer sparked a debate on nativism this meant something resembling an imperial train - in the legislature. Parsons started off; Barnes fol did the honours and said he had no doubt the planned lowed; both were moderate. But Bryan Robinson qv, a edifice would be "highly ornamental" to the city. Be Dublin-born Protestant lawyer much in favour with fore he spoke, there was cheering long and loud, Harvey (to whom, it was said, he had loaned money), "intermixed with the expression of 'keep it up' from got to his feet and said that talk of "Native rights" all sides." was "clap-trap." He denied that "the fact of being A month later, after the fifth annual meeting of the born in the country gave men any superior claims." Society in which Carter came back as President, Har "No intelligent man" would be found to advance such vey let his true feelings be known. He made a total of views, he said. In his judgment, "the tests should be 37 appointments to four important commissions and, merit, and station in society by character and length of as Shea in the Newfoundlander noted in an enraged residence." Barnes rebuked him sharply, and Robin editorial on June 30, his government could find "BUT son, somewhat chastened, spoke again. Colonial Trea ONE NATIVE IN THE DISTRICT WHOM THEY surer Morris (now secretly robbing the public purse of CONSIDERED FIT TO BE ENTRUSTED WITH A thousands of pounds) supported Robinson. Kent said PLACE!!!" This, said Shea, has "utterly falsified all that natives had been "carried away by questions His Excellency's expressed intentions towards the na growing out of the accident of birth"; the Newfound tives of the country," who have been "flattered into land people were made up of "Natives, English, Irish, satisfaction and quiescence." On July 3, Shea snarled and Scotch," but he (a Crown nominee in the Amalga that natives had been told, "Hew your wood and draw mated Legislature who had benefited so much from your water." More editorials and letters in this vein belligerent Irishness) wanted "to hear no more of followed. Shea was now prepared to admit that the these sectional divisions." In this debate, it seemed natives had not made a big impact on Newfoundland easy for prominent foreigners to articulate lofty posi politics: they were, he said, "ranked with either the tions - positions which, on examination, promoted one or the other of the parties in our political differ their own narrow interests- while depicting nativism ences - sometimes dramatically opposed to each as irrational and mean-minded. Similar self-serving other- As a body they could hardly be said to have a arguments against Newfoundland nationalism would distinct existence, and were merely used to advance be advanced by carpet-bagging sociologists, histori the pretensions of those with whom they became asso ans and political scientists in the late twentieth cen ciated." Shea thought that Harvey's policy, ''which tury. makes the Natives the only aliens in their native In the dreadful fire in St. John's on June 9, 1846, the land," would have the effect of awakening the natives. Natives' Hall was spared and served as a refuge for the He even issued a not-so-veiled threat of a natives' destitute. The normal June meeting of the Society was uprising: "while the gates of the temple are kept shut postponed to August 27, when Shea was elected Pres only against them, can it be wondered at that they ident. Barnes, though gravely ill, remained on the should knock loudly, and if long unattended to that Committee, but on September 3 he died. Two weeks they should try the strength of the bolts at last." later, on September 19, in the fierce storm that tore Tempers had cooled a little by July 17, when there through the Island, the Natives' Hall "was blown was a public meeting of protest in St. John's. President down, and in the confusion to escape therefrom, two Carter, the lawyers F.B.T. Carter and H.W. Hoyles poor creatures, a young woman and child, were qqv, Parsons (back in the saddle, now that the old crushed to death." These were severe setbacks to the nativist horse showed signs of reviving), Barnes, and Society. The year 1846 also saw the appearance of others gave speeches. Barnes was in fine form. Like potato blight; in fact, the years 1846-54 were full of Shea, he called for action. "We must," he said, "have distress and economic uncertainty throughout the Is a more independent existence as a body - as natives land. It was not a favourable time for the advancement of the country - as a political party, than we have yet of a cause such as native rights. But when the new had, and there must be more union among ourselves. It Governor, Gaspard LeMarchant qv, arrived in the NAVAL RESERVE, ROYAL 27 spring of 1847, he was duly greeted by a Natives' ~E\\FOC~DLA:-.10 :<:ATl"RA L HISTORY SOC!fr, <}l"ARTFRL\' Society deputation. Having no doubt been forewarned by officials about Harvey's difficulties, he replied to the Society's address to the effect that natives had "strong claims" on his consideration, and that those THE among them who had "intelligence and worth" would have his favour extended to them, to a degree consis tent with "the concurrent claims of the other portions of Her Majesty's subjects." To the Newfoundlander, OSPREY which had lost interest in nativism, these views were " manly and straightforward." It was not only the grim events of 1846 that killed the Natives' Society. As time passed, more and more SPECIAL RETROSPECTIVE ISSUE native-born Newfoundlanders eventually assumed pos itions of importance in the colony. F.B.T. Carter and June, 1987 H.W. Hoyles, for instance, would become prime min isters. Before the century ended, there would even be The Society's Earh' l {story, 1929-1965 • ...... Merrbershlp :.. : .. t , 197' . a native Roman Catholic bishop in St. John's. New Sampler of articies publi!..lf'ri 1970-1985 foundlanders gradually took over the running of their society, and as this happened an organization such as the Natives' Society seemed no longer needed. From nativist seeds, as Geoff Budden notes, grew Newfoundland nationalism - though how hardy the plant became remains a good question. As a Colony and Dominion, and later as a Province of Canada, Newfoundland has perhaps been more willing than other places to tolerate foreign intrusion into its Special issue of the Osprey culture and institutions. The historian D.W. Prowse (or reactivated). G. Leslie M. Tuck qv was one of the in 1902 lamented "the way in which we fall down founding members and is credited with introducing and worship the alien tramps that drift to our the Christmas Bird Count, which the Society has con shores." It would not be difficult to find complaints tinued to sponsor. The first president was Eric A. of this nature by Newfoundland writers in the clos Bowring and the first secretary Rupert Bartlett. ing decades of the twentieth century. Richard Throughout most of the 1950s weekly broadcasts were Bonnycastle (1842), Geoff Budden (1983), Marjorie aired on radio. At one stage an effort was made to Doyle (1986), Gertrude Gunn (1966), Philip McCann distribute the magazine of the Canadian Audubon So (1988), DCB III (Edward Kielley), DCB VII (Richard ciety to all high schools in Newfoundland. Later the Barnes), DCB X (Robert Carter), DCB XI (Robert John journal of the Society, The Osprey qv, was mailed to Parsons). PATRICK O'FLAHERTY schools, but the project was abandoned when it proved too costly. NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, NEWFOUND At monthly meetings lectures are offered on a wide LAND. Since August 1972 the Newfoundland Natural variety of nature topics. The production of bird check History Society has been officially known as The Nat lists has been a major function of the Society since ural History Society of Newfoundland and Labrador 1967. Dr. Peter J. Scott qv has also published a check Inc., but is generally referred to under its shorter name. list of vascular plants in the Society's journal. Since Its emblem, an osprey carrying a fish, was created by 1983 an award has been presented annually to a person artist Reginald Shepherd qv. The Society is based in who has made an outstanding contribution to conser St. John's, but there are branches in Gander and Corner vation. A high point was the hosting in October of Brook. Primarily interested in animals and plants, it is 1987 of a return visit by Harold S. Peters and Roger also concerned with other natural phenomena. Partic Tory Peterson, author and illustrator respectively of ular attention has been focused on life forms within the The Birds of Newfoundland (1951). The Society has Province, with birds a perennial interest. The Society also taken an active role in research, notably on the has shown an increasing awareness of environmental birds of northern Labrador (see ORNITHOLOGY). issues, and has lobbied for protection of sensitive Osprey (vo1s. 1-21 passim). CHARLIE HORWOOD areas. The first known attempt to establish such a society NAVAL RESERVE, ROYAL. The first naval reserve in in Newfoundland goes back to the autumn of 1929, Newfoundland was established in 1900. Called the and especially to the efforts of Gower Rabbitts. The Royal Naval Reserve (Newfoundland), it was a branch first president of the group, which would seem to have of the Imperial Force and was established more to train met regularly for only a few weeks, was Professor sailors for the Royal Navy than for the defence of Sleggs of Memorial University College. In 1950 the Newfoundland. By the end of the nineteenth century Newfoundland Natural History Society was formed Britain realized the potential of a Newfoundland 28 NAVAL RESERVE, ROYAL reserve of navy-trained seamen who would be able to On August 2, 1914, Commander A. MacDermott of take an immediate place with the fleet if required. This H.M.S. Calypso was advised that the Admiralty had decision was perhaps stimulated by a resolution issued an order calling the Royal Naval Reserves to adopted in 1898 by the Navy League of Canada, point active duty, and was instructed to put the order into ing out that Canadian sailors and fishermen were anx force forthwith. Copies of the order were posted in St. ious to enlist in the Royal Naval Reserve but were John's, and outport magistrates were requested by debarred from doing so unless they were currently telegraph to make the news public. Commander serving in vessels registered in the United Kingdom. MacDermott, the senior naval officer for Newfound In September 1900 the British Admiralty distributed land, observed that "this was the height of the fishing a circular in St. John's inviting eight volunteers to join season and to be called away from their work at this H.M.S. Charybdis on November 10, 1900 for a six time naturally entailed great hardship and serious fi month cruise. Successful cruises were made to the nancial loss to these poor fellows. 'You'll never get West Indies by H.M.S. Charybdis over the next three them!' I was told, 'You can't expect men to give up years, and about 50 volunteers were trained to the their livelihood for a war they know nothing about, level of qualified seaman on each cruise. The experi and in which they have no concern.' I did get them, ment proving successful, it was decided to station a every man-jack of them, and with no trouble at all permanent training ship in St. John's for the use of the though many of them had to walk fifty or sixty miles Newfoundland Royal Naval Reserve. In about 1902 an to the nearest steamer or railway station." The 491 old wooden cruiser H.M.S. Calypso, under the com trained seamen immediately available for active ser mand of Captain Walker, was fitted out at the dock vice were soon assigned to British and Canadian yard in Devonport to accommodate 300 men, with ships. To complete its crew, H.M.C.S. Niobi embarked alterations to the structure and equipment to fit it for 100 Newfoundland reservists at St. John's on Septem the special function of a dockside training and drill ber 6, 1914. In all, 1964 men of the Newfoundland ship. The initial enrolment was 46 men from the Royal Naval Reserve saw active service during the Charybdis cruise of 1900, and by 1905 enrolments Great War. Sailors from the Reserve served in every from subsequent cruises brought the strength up to flotilla and squadron in the war zone and earned high 560. Recruitment and training of the Reserve contin praise everywhere, particularly in their handling of ued during the succeeding years, reservists being re small craft. quired to report on board the H.M.S Calypso every To protect our own shores and shipping the year at a time of their own choosing for 28 days of Newfoundland-Labrador Patrol was established. A drill and training. In fact all reported for duty during number of small craft were commandeered by the gov the winter months when there was little other employ ernment and armed with small, quick-firing guns by ment available. The Admiralty paid travel expenses to H.M.S. Calypso. The Calypso also provided armed St. John's, and reservists were paid as able seamen guards for the wireless station at Mount Pearl, built a during their training. Six pounds a year was also paid battery at Fort Waldegrave, and manned the flotilla of as a retainer which bound reservists to report for ser mine-sweeping trawlers and drifters as well as the six vice with the fleet at any time if called upon. "Q" boats (or mystery ships) for the protection of the Training of reservists NAVIGATION SCHOOLS 29 English government, however, took the view that Newfoundland was not the primary target of the Acts. Because of the difficulty of enforcement on the Is land, large-scale illegal trade developed as New York and New England shipped and received tobacco, brandy, bills of exchange and refuse fish (to be fed to slaves) through Newfoundland. When in 1729 Henry Osborn qv became the first official governor of the Island, thereby establishing a civil government, he was charged with enforcing the Act of 1663. This ended the question of whether or not the Acts applied to Newfoundland. But the Navigation Acts were more and more ignored, and were repealed in 1849 as Brit ain moved from mercantilism qv toward free trade. See PALLISER'S ACT. Harold Innis (1938), R.G. Gun drill on H.M.S. Calypso Lounsbury (1934). ACB fishing fleet on the Banks. The Calypso was renamed NAVIGATION SCHOOLS. The earliest known effort H.M.S. Briton on June 15, 1916, and was known by to organize the teaching of navigation in Newfound that name until the end of 1920 when it was paid off land was at Trinity, where former master mariner Wil and the Newfoundland Royal Naval Reserve ceased to liam Pittman settled in 1788 and taught reading, exist. Anthony MacDermott (BN II, 1937), Hector arithmetic and navigation. (When George Garland qv Swain (1975). J.T. ALLSTON sent his son to learn the business in 1798 he advised NAVIGATION ACTS. The Navigation Acts were a se him to continue his studies in navigation under Pitt ries of laws aimed at protecting the British carrying man.) Other schools for teaching navigational skills to trade. Several of these Acts affected the Newfoundland mariners have existed on the Island since the early fishery, especially those passed in the 1600s. Around 1800s. Prior to about the middle of the nineteenth 1650 the increasingly influential merchant class in century, however, most mariners who wished to gain England impressed upon the Crown the importance of formal training in navigation attended schools in Hal foreign trade to the state's economy and to its general ifax, Boston or England. well-being. One of the earliest Acts affecting the New One early school was run by a former naval officer, foundland fishery was passed in 1626. It specified that Thomas Youden, at Bull Cove qv near Brigus. Operat all fish caught by English crews had to be exported in ing in the early 1800s, Youden taught surveying as English ships. Intended to help English carriers, the well as navigation. The *Benevolent Irish Society qv Act interfered with trade deals worked out between opened a school in St. John's in 1827 to provide basic English exporters and foreign importers. Since foreign education in reading, bookkeeping, arithmetic and markets were large consumers of Newfoundland fish, navigation. When the school ran short of funds in West Country merchants opposed the trade restric 1841, the B.I.S. petitioned the government for aid, tions, which were eased and later disregarded. In 1651 stressing the importance of its navigation classes to a an Act stated that only fish oil that was produced in the maritime country. Carbonear teacher Alexander Commonwealth could be imported and that it had to be 0 'Donovan qv offered carried on Commonwealth vessels. After 1653 similar classes in navigation in that restrictions were placed on salt cod. These restrictions town from 1843 to 1864. In were intended to exclude Dutch traders, but were mod 1855 the House of Assem ified during the war with Spain so that neutral ships bly agreed to grant £30 could export Newfoundland catches to that country, yearly for the encourage and West Country merchants would not lose revenue. ment of navigation schools. An Act of 1663 (15 Ch. II, c. 17) allowed for the Such schools were opened duty-free importation of salt used in the North Ameri in the St. John's area by can fisheries. However, as these 'salt' ships were often James Campbell and by used to import restricted foreign goods to Newfound Henry Roche, who taught in land and New England the Act presented a problem for the 1860s. Francis J. Doyle government officials trying to stem the flow of black replaced Campbell in 1863 market goods. The importers argued that mercantilist and is said to have gradua F.J. Doyle restrictions did not apply to trade in Newfoundland ted over 100 masters from since, unlike other parts of North America, it had no his schools on Victoria Street and Theatre Hill, includ civil government (i.e. was not a colony). Although the ing such noted mariners as Robert A. Bartlett and Navigation Acts were primarily aimed at New England Abram Kean qqv. with its growing economy, some officials nevertheless Memorial University College began offering sum attempted to enforce the laws in Newfoundland. The mer courses in navigation by the 1930s and travelling 30 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS In the 1830s, part of the planning for a lighthouse at Cape Spear qv included the placement of a heavy gun to give audible warning. There was already a gun fired hourly in foggy weather from Fort Amherst at the entrance to St. John's harbour. Later, during British/ Newfoundland negotiations concerning a projected light at Cape Pine or Cape Race, the House of Assem bly stressed the need for a weather bell, but British builders of the Cape Race installation made no provi sion for an audible alarm. (Wrecks continued to pile up there. The worst was the Anglo-Saxon qv in 1863, which en route from Londonderry to Quebec was lost with 237 lives.) A campaign to equip the foggiest coasts with alarms began at that key corner of the Avalon, following a complaint from Canada about the lack of audible aids. It was decided that Newfound land, already operating the Cape Race light, should handle the fog alarm as well. Installation of "scream ing apparatus" at other sites followed. By 1902, when the Newfoundland government operated 60 lights, there were audible alarms, either explosive or steam, at seven of them, and at four of the nine Canadian lighthouses. By 1937 nearly 20% oflightstations had alarms, and by the mid-1950s Newfoundland's 46 foghorns com prised 10% of the Canadian total. By 1991 the New Navigational training at the College ofFisheries c. 1960 foundland List of Lights showed 53 foghorns and 18 schools were operated by the Department of Fisheries whistles. Eleven were stand-alone alarms, including beginning in 1954. The *College of Fisheries, Naviga installations at Sagona Island (Fortune Bay) and tion, Marine Engineering and Electronics qv opened in Horse Chops (Trinity Bay), experimentally operated St. John's in 1964 and by 1980 was able to offer by solar power. Like lights, fog alarms are calibrated sophisticated upgrading and training courses. Short with individual characteristics, so that on hearing the courses in navigation for practising mariners were of sound mariners know not only that there is land in that fered by the College's Extension Service Department direction but which signal it is. The born at Fort Point in communities throughout Newfoundland. C.R. Bar at the entrance to Trinity Harbour, for example, rett (letter, 1971), W.G. Handcock (1981), F.R. Rowe sounds for two seconds three times a minute. The (1964), JHA (1855), NQ (Dec. 1944). ACB technology of navigational aids, which before the ad vent of the railroad was Newfoundland's most ad NAVIGATIONAL AIDS. Marine navigational aids vanced, became even more complicated when fog constitute a system of technology for the convenience alarms were installed. Until well into the 1900s - and safety of ships at sea. With new technology and with the coming of gasoline engines, later diesel and information, the system developed during the 1800s then electric- the equipment was usually powered by became much more sophisticated in the 1900s. The a steam boiler. For a time around 1900, interestingly, most visible and traditional aid is the lighthouse. A the siren at Belle Isle south was powered by a water system of navigational lights for the coasts of New wheel. At other places, the supplies that had to be foundland and Labrador began with a first installation hauled in were greatly increased by fuel for the fog in 1813, reached its greatest geographical extent ex alarm. The first Cape Race whistle, for example, actly one century later, and by 1990 comprised 433 burned 46 tons of coal annually. Also, there had to be land-based lights (See LIGHTHOUSES). an ample and reliable supply of water for the boiler. In 1883 at Catalina a shaft had to be sunk for seawater, FIXED AUDIBLES. After lights began to be installed, while at Cape Spear water was sometimes carted. Care the first diversification of the system was the installa had to be taken so that water systems would not freeze tion of audible alarms at some of the lighthouse sites. up in winter. They froze up anyway, more than likely. Observations during the 1880s indicated that around By the mid-1880s Newfoundland's lighthouse com St. John's there was enough fog to obscure naviga missioners were recommending the acquisition of tional lights on 76-80 days in the average year. Cape small hot-air engines to guarantee the flow. Race qv has 158 days of fog per year on average. In 1871 tenders were called for the first steam alarm Conditions on the whole northeast coast as far as the at Cape Race. The best bid -$3600 for a 10-inch diameter Strait of Belle Isle are not much better, while Labrador "Booth trumpet"- came from the steamboat inspec and the west and south coasts are much more free of tor's office at Saint John, New Brunswick. John T. fog. Neville qv, who had become inspector of lig}lthouses NAVIGATIONAL AIDS 31 MAKKOVIK CAPE HARRISON IJ O"A.INOIAN HR. r.J>l.,. ,r-' (\ ~'- c.I ~------,. \...._\.1' ST. ANTHONY A NFLO. STATIONS, EST. 1907-12 • CON. STATIONS, EST. 1904 * LORAN STATIONS 0 RADAR BEACON STATIONS • COAST GUARD MAIN STATIONS * RADIO BEACON STATIONS * REPEATERS (EXTENDED RANGE FACILITIES) CAPE RAY the previous year, observed the testing of the alarm rather than a rotating drum - it became standard trumpet in Saint John the next year. After a delay of apparatus throughout the world, including Newfound several weeks the alarm was shipped to St. John's, and land. In the 1950s another Canadian invention, the installed in the spring of 1873. As time passed, New resonator, was adopted, and greatly increased the foundland became more self-reliant. For example, a range of audibility. replacement boiler and siren for Cape St. Francis, installed 1902, were made at the Angel iron works in BUOYS. There was a degree of unreliability in naviga St. John's. Although submarine fog-signalling appara tional aids deployed seaward on moored buoys. Neville, tus spread from the United States to several Canadian the innovator who also foresaw the coming of the lighthouses after 1905, Newfoundland never fell for electric lighthouse 40 years ahead of time, in 1882 this fad. When a Toronto engineer invented the dia placed a "Courtenay automatic" (that is, self-sounding) phone (1902) - sound produced by a pulsating piston buoy at Powles Head, Trepassey. Its design permitted 32 NAVIGATIONALAIDS seawater to enter the buoy and generate air pressure Newfoundland now made an effort to complement, during wave action, making it a "groaner". Buoyage instead of duplicating, the Canadian radio system. was one aspect of navigational aids on which Canada Whereas the Canadian system was oriented towards had placed more reliance than Newfoundland. By the transatlantic shipping, Newfoundland concentrated on 1920s Canada had 11 "buoys" with personnel on assistance to the seal hunt and to the floater fishery board, i.e. lightships, whereas Newfoundland had from Newfoundland communities to Labrador. The none. (The commission of inquiry into the wreck of Marconi company was willing in 1906 to enter a new the Florizel did discuss mooring a ship southwest of agreement, undertaking to establish a radio network Cape St. Mary's, where extensive shoal water made a northward, for the same cost per item as the earlier land-based fog alarm of little use.) By the 1930s Can contract visualized for the Island. In addition to 102 ada could fabricate huge acetylene gas buoys of up to lights and 12 alarms, in 1911 Newfoundland was oper 19 tons weight, 60 feet overall with a draft of 30 feet, ating no fewer than eight marine radio stations, all in and capable of staying in place with five tons of chain Labrador: Battle Harbour, Venison Island, American mooring down to 312 feet. Tickle, Domino, Grady, Indian Harbour, Cape Harri After Confederation Canada began to upgrade navi son and Makkovik. A keystone station at Fogo was gational aids in Newfoundland to usual federal stan under construction. In the 1920s marine radio was dards. But up to the mid-1950s Newfoundland still installed at additional Newfoundland lights. The 1927 had only 30 light and sound buoys (three different Marine and Fisheries report noted that the country types), only 3% of the Canadian total (five different generally - and especially business - was pleased types). The proportion of unlighted buoys was even with the good services performed by marine radio: smaller: 130 of 5144. By the 1980s Canada was testing "particularly noticeable in connection with the Seal prototypes of a new generation of buoys that would be Fishery where regular connection was maintained maintenance-free for 5 years, with new arrangements with the steamers prosecuting that voyage". The im for mooring, paint and design of the superstructure. In mense value of marine radio was illustrated. almost 1990 there were 74 light/bell/whistle buoys in New daily. The rescue of most of the crew of the foundland waters - almost 18% of the number of Langleecrag qv in 1947 is a good example. The lights and signals on land. Nevertheless Newfound Langleecrag, bound from England to the St. Lawrence land waters are far from having a reliable system of for grain in November, went aground on Great Sacred buoys. "Most aids to navigation are not under contin Island. The wireless operator jumped from his bunk to uous observation", runs a disclaimer carried at the find the ship broken in two. The radio was on his part masthead of recent annual editions of the List of of the ship, but the aerial on the other. He formed a Lights. On buoys, "lights may be extinguished or gang to sound signals may not function due to ice, collisions, fix up the stumps of the aerial left on our half of mechanical failure and, in the case of bell and whistle the ship and we got connected up and then sent buoys, calm water. The shape of a buoy may be altered our SOS out. Belle Isle radio answered and that by ice formation or damage ... colour of a buoy may was one of the happiest moments of my life ... be altered by freezing spray, marine growth or fouling Belle Isle took a radio bearing on us ... repeated by birds." our signals for the next eight hours because my TELE-AIDS. The dawn of the twentieth century stump of a radio was too weak to get much range. opened a new era for navigational aids, heralded when Thanks to prompt alert by radio, only 2 lives Signal Hill qv, at the entrance to St. John's harbour, were lost. received its famous transatlantic signal ( ... S). The Radio aids to navigation have of course shown Newfoundland government moved quickly to capital steady improvement. Initially all messages went awk ize upon the possibilities which the new invention wardly in code. Starting with St. John's and Ramea in promised, signing a contract on October 20, 1903 with the 1940s, ship-to-shore radio-telephone services in the Marconi wireless telegraph company (Montreal). plain voice became common. Applied to navigation For radio along the Newfoundland coast (guaranteed defined as position-fixing, radio provided the direction range, 50 miles over water), Newfoundland would pay finding (or DF) station, and later the beacon. $1200 per station installed, and an annual royalty for Newfoundland's first DF station, of use to aviation as 10 years of two-fifths of that amount. Ottawa, how well as marine navigation, was installed at Cape Race ever, had a similar agreement with the same firm, and in 1918. By 1920 it was being contacted by ships moved first. Without asking Newfoundland's permis asking for their bearing an average of 385 times per sion, in 1904 Ottawa simultaneously installed radio in month. Demand doubled to 8400 bearings given in five of the Newfoundland lighthouses operated by Can 1936-7. At that time there were two other DF stations. ada: Cape Race, Cape Ray, Point Riche, Point Amour A second Canadian DF station had been established at and the south end of Belle Isle. Newfoundland resented the south end of Belle Isle, which in 1936 responded what it regarded as high-handedness, and when Ottawa to 2050 requests for bearings. Newfoundland service requested land for another Canadian lighthouse, Cape at St. John's was established after the 1920 commis Anguille, a rider was added that there was to be no sion on navigational aids noted that there would be an "wireless or other telegraphy". advantage to the ship repair business if crippled NAVIGATIONALAiDS 33 vessels could follow a friendly radio signal to New foundland instead of going on to Halifax. The Newfoundland government kept abreast of the next generation of radio aids when in 1935 it estab lished at Twillingate a radio beacon, "included in an arrangement for the coordination of radio beacons of the United States, Canada and Newfoundland". Can ada had situated beacons at its lights at Cape Ray and Cape Bauld, and by 1943 also at Flower Island and Belle Isle (northeast). Beacon stations were of benefit to vessels which had their own DF equipment on board, for they not only heard the characteristic signal which the beacon broadcast according to a regular, publicized schedule, but were able to read the compass bearing from which the signal came. The effect in navigation was like being able to see the beam from a lighthouse in any weather. Meanwhile, the next great advance in radio aids had occurred, in Newfoundland's case its usage greatly accelerated by the invasion of friendly neighbours in World War II. DF stations, even beacons, only pro vided bearing; they did not indicate a ship's distance from the coast. The next step was the installation of super stations which, operating in groups of two or three and sending their signals simultaneously over long distances, could be used precisely to fix position where bearing lines intersected. The development has LORAN-C complex, near Cape Race become familiar since the 1940s as LORAN - long not yet deployed generally. In the meantime (see map) range aid to navigation. The 1920 commission (E. Newfoundland in 1992 was well served with radio English, C. Couch and J. Collins) had recommended aids: six Coast Guard main stations and 15 repeaters, that Newfoundland take over the Canadian DF station including the one at Killinek just beyond the northern at Cape Race and operate it in conjunction with instal tip of Labrador; three vessel traffic services; 13 radio lations advocated for Cape Bonavista and Cape Cha beacon stations; three radar beacon stations (including peau Rouge (St. Lawrence), but this plan was not one at Galantry Head, St. Pierre); and two LORANs. adopted. By the early 1940s, however, a LORAN sta tion, aimed particularly at aviation and operated in WEATHER AND ICE FORECASTING. Telecommu conjunction with operations installations in Canada, nications made it possible, of course, for ships to re was established at Elliston by the Royal Canadian Air ceive regular weather bulletins. Forecasting weather Force. The United States Navy established an entire for Newfoundland began in 1909, and has always been system of stations at Port aux Basques, Twillingate done by the Canadian weather service. (See METEOR and Battle Harbour. With changed military needs, all OLOGY, which, however, incorrectly suggests that these stations, except for Port aux Basques, were dis Canada's meteorological service first moved into mantled. That facility, inherited by the Canadian Newfoundland in the 1930s.) During 1908 Canada government, by 1950 was operating in linkage with a supplied equipment, established stations at Port aux station in Nova Scotia in one of three Canadian Basques, Burin and St. John's and gave initial training LORAN networks. In the mid-1960s there were fur to staff, while Newfoundland maintained the stations ther improvements (LORAN-C) under a comprehen and bore the expense of observers' wages and of tele sive Canada-United States agreement. Radar graph messages to and from Toronto. Forecasts and (Radio-Assisted Direction and Ranging) has also, storm warnings were received daily at St. John's, and since the immediate post-war years, been of great as from there distributed to a network of outlets in New sistance to navigation. foundland and Labrador and to ships through each Global positioning was a major development in nav government's marine radio system. After the fully igation. Introduced in the 1970s, it uses signals from integrated service began in December 1909, coverage satellites to establish location within a few metres (for was further improved by the establishment of weather only $1200 per vessel at 1992 prices). The next great stations at Fogo and Domino (Labrador). By 1911 advance in technology will be ground-wave radar that Newfoundland's chief of meteorology, John Devine, is able to track ships and icebergs, and to read sea state was able to report that "fully 90 percent of the fore and even ocean currents over the horizon. In 1992 casts received from Toronto proved correct". ground-wave radar was being developed experimen Along with weather reports, beginning in the early tally by John Walsh qv and others at Memorial Univer twentieth century ice reports were broadcast. Method sity, and commercialized by an offshoot company, but ical collection of ice data began in the 1880s, when the 34 NAZARENE, CHURCH OF St. John's harbour master conducted a surveillance expanded into the super program, and the lighthouse chief, Neville, directed market and food service keepers to keep a daily log of ice movements. From business. In 1992 the firm 1911 the weather service arranged for Canadian light was being wound up by a keepers at Point Amour and Belle Isle to feed daily grandson of the founder. messages on wind, ice and seals into their data collec George Neal was an elder of tion for daily distribution. Spurred on by the sinking St. Andrew's Presbyterian of the Titanic, a 1913 conference in London estab Church and for many years lished the International *Ice Patrol qv, funded by 16 treasurer of the St. John's governments and operated principally by the United Masonic Lodge. He died States Coast Guard. Thereafter daily reports were suddenly, on May 5, 1919, given to New York or to Cape Race and broadcast to while in Montreal for shipping. Since the 1930s this American program has medical treatment. H.M. been supplemented by Canadian patrols, especially Mosdell (1923), W.A. Neal GeorgeNeal concentrated on the narrow waters of Cabot and Belle (interview, Mar. 1992), ET (May 6, 1919), NQ (sum Isle straits. mer 1919). RHC By the 1990s, the Canadian east coast ice advisory NEAL, GEORGE ERIC (1942- ). Businessman. Born system was a highly structured reporting and warning St. John's, son of William A. and Margaret (Harvey) mechanism that combined data from the international Neal. Educated Bishop Feild College; Memorial Uni patrol, the Department of Transport and a methodical versity ofNewfoundland; Harvard University. Married collection of data from ships passing through the re Sylvia Kennedy. After graduating from Memorial in gion. Ice headquarters in St. John's was responsible 1964 Neal joined the Bank for the Newfoundland coast from Rose Blanche of Montreal in St. John's, counter-clockwise to Flower's Cove and north to Cape later working with the Bank Chidley, while Halifax watched the Gulf of St. Law in Montreal and Toronto. rence, including Newfoundland's west and southwest He was appointed a vice shores. See also ICE. Edward F. Bush (1975), James president in 1977 and senior E. Candow (1992), Randy Dawe (interview, 1992), vice-president and treasurer Jerry Duggan (interview, 1992), Thomas Fitzpatrick two years later. Neal left the (1916), Ian Gall (interview, 1991), K.W. Hoffman Bank in 1988 to become ex (1978), Malcolm MacLeod (1982; 1989), Ed Mat ecutive vice-president and thews (interview, 1992), Paul Neale (interview, 1992), chief investment officer of Thomas F. Nemec (1975), George Robinson (1889), the Manufacturers Life In Tom Ryan (interview, 1992), John Walsh (interview, surance Co. He was a mem Nov. 1992), Department of Transportation Annual Re ber of the advisory board of port (1937-1990 passim), Ice Navigation in Canadian G. E. Neal the Memorial University Waters (1987), JHA (1835-1897 passim), List of New school of business from 1982 to 1987, and in 1992 was foundland, Canadian and French Lights and Fog appointed to the University's Board of Regents. The Alarms on the Coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador Newfoundland junior tennis champion in 1957, 1958 (1939), Marine and Fisheries Annual Report (1894- and 1959, Neal also was senior tennis champion in 1938 passim), Navigational Aids Test Establishment 1962. He was admitted to the Newfoundland Tennis (1989), Radio Aids to Marine Navigation (1991), New Hall of Fame in 1988. G.E. Neal (letter, June 1992), foundland List of Lights, Buoys and Fog Signals Who's Who in Canada (1988). RHC (1991), Archives (GN 2/5), Newfoundland Historical Society (Langleecrag). MALCOLM MACLEOD NEALE, E.R. WARD (1923- ). Geologist. Born Mon treal, son of Mabel (McNamee) and Ernest John Neale. NAZARENE, CHURCH OF. See CHURCH OF THE Educated McGill University; Yale University. Married NAZARENE. Roxie Eveline Anderson. Ward Neale was head of Memo NEAL, GEORGE (1865-1919). Merchant. Born St. rial University's geology department from 1968 to 1976, John's, son of George and Mary (Macgregor) Neal. a period of expansion and increasing international recog Married Lydia Tucker. Neal began in business as an nition of the department. In 1982, following a period at auctioneer with the firm of James Murray qv. When Calgary's Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geol that firm became insolvent in 1894, he established his ogy, he was appointed vice-president (academic) of Me own business as a wholesaler, George Neal Ltd., at morial University, a position he held until his retirement Beck's Cove. In 1909 he acquired a new location, ''the in 1987. During his time as vice-president he gave im grocers headquarters", on Water Street with promi petus to the beautifying of the campus. nent harbour-front premises. He also became a vessel One of Canada's most distinguished scientists, owner, operating a freighting service to the Bell Island Neale served as head of both the Appalachian and mines. George Neal Ltd. and the Bell Island Steamship Precambrian sections of the Geological Survey of Co. were subsequently operated by his son, William R. Canada (1959-68), as Commonwealth Geological Neal, who was later joined by two of his brothers and Liaison Officer, London (1963-65), as director of the NEA VE, MOSES 35 Canadian Geological Foundation (1973-78) and as (Dalton) Neary. Married Mary Maher. Educated Wa head of the Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum bana. Neary was active in provincial politics for more Geology ( 1976-81 ). His than 20 years. published work includes Upon completing high school, Neary worked at the Some Guides to Mineral Argentia naval base until 1945, when he returned to Exploration (1965), Geol Bell Island to work with the Dominion Steel Company ogy of the Atlantic Area (DOSCO). He played a role in the formation of a ( 1967), The Earth Sciences union of office and professional employees, and for 12 in Canada (1968) and Geol years was a member of the Wabana municipal council. ogy and Geophysics in Ca In 1959 he was secretary-treasurer of the Newfound nadian Universities (1980). land Federation of Labour, during the bitter I. W.A. Both as scientist and strike in central Newfoundland, and was also the New teacher Neale was a pas foundland Democratic sionate advocate of inter Party candidate for Bell Is disciplinary study, and for land. Later he was recruited this leadership received the E.R. ward Neale to the Liberal party by Pre first Ambrose Medal of the mier J.R. Smallwood, and Geological Association of Canada. Other honours in in 1962 was elected MHA clude the Bancroft Award from the Royal Society of for Bell Island. He was ap Canada (of which he is a Fellow), the Queen's Jubilee pointed to cabinet in 1968 Medal, an honorary LL.D. from the University of Cal and was Minister of Public gary (on which occasion his role in building Memorial Welfare (later Social Ser University's geology department was cited) and the vices) from 1969 until the Order of Canada. Liberals were defeated in Following retirement Neale moved to Calgary, 1972. He became one of the where he helped to found the Calgary Science Net best-known opposition Steve Neary work to promulgate knowledge of science to the pub members and established a lic, especially to schoolchildren. In 1990 the federal reputation as something of a maverick in 1975 when government appointed him chairman of the Review he contested the Liberal nomination in LaPoile, lost, Committee on Chemical and Biological Defence. and then won the seat as an independent Liberal. He E.R.W. Neale (interview; letter, Feb. 1992), ET (Oct. later rejoined the Liberals and mounted an unsuccess 10, 1981; Feb. 13, 1982; Sept. 6, 1990}, MUN Gazette ful candidacy for the leadership in 1977. He did be (Oct. 15, 1981; June 10, 1987; Oct. 5, 1989), Who's come party leader in 1982 (after Len Stirling qv lost Who in America (1990-91). KAW his seat in a general election) but did not fight an NEARY, PETER FRANCIS (1938- ). Historian. Born election as leader. In 1985 Neary retired from politics Bell Island, son of Peter and Margaret (Dalton) Neary. to attend law school at Dalhousie University, but did Educated St. John's; Memorial University of Newfound not go on to complete a degree. In 1988 he attempted land; London University. Married Hilary Bates. After a political comeback, but was defeated as Liberal can receiving his doctorate in history in 1965, Neary joined didate in the St. John's East federal by-election. Steve the Department of History at the University of West Neary (interview, Aug. 1991), DNLB (1990), Centre ern Ontario. He has written extensively on the history for Newfoundland Studies (Steve Neary), Smallwood of Newfoundland, sometimes in collaboration with files (Steve Neary). TPH Patrick O'Flaherty qv. His areas of interest include the NEAVE,MOSES (jl.1762-1794). Merchant. Born period of Commission government, party politics in Poole, Dorset? The Neaves were a Quaker family of Newfoundland and relations between the Province and Hampshire and Dorsetshire involved in milling, brew the governments of Quebec, Canada and Great Britain. ing and the Newfoundland trade. Moses Neave was He has edited The Political Economy of Newfoundland" trading in Newfoundland at least by 1762, when 1929-1972 (1973) and, with Patrick O'Flaherty, has French forces raided his premises. From Poole, Neave produced an anthology of historical writings, By Great and his brother Joseph did an annual business of about Waters (1974). In 1980, with James K. Hiller, he pub £2000. The Neaves maintained plantations at Little lished Newfoundland in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Placentia (Argentia), Paradise and Freshwater and by Centuries. Neary and Patrick O'Flaherty published Part 1791 had three ships: the Britannia, the Fly and the of the Main in 1983, an illustrated history of the Fox. Moses Neave, a literate man, and friends in Poole, Province. Neary's 1988 work Newfoundland in the collected books for a Society of Friends library in North Atlantic World was a finalist for the Trillium Placentia. After Neave's death the business was di Award. P.F. Neary (interview, Nov. 1991), DNLB vided between his wife Mary, their two daughters, and (1990), Newfoundland Historical Society (Peter Neary). son George. The firm became Neave and Penney after ACB the turn of the century and operated until 1829. W. NEARY, STEPHEN ALOYSIUS ( 1925- ). Politician. Gordon Handcock (interview, 1992), Maritime History Born Wabana, Bell Island, son of Peter and Margaret Group (Moses Neave). ACB 36 NEDDIE'S HARBOUR NEDDIE'S HARBOUR. See NORRIS POINT. pologist. Research done in NEILL, JAMES SCOTT (1889-1958). Civil servant. the Trepassey-St. Shott's Born Belfast, Ireland. Educated Trinity College, Dub area led to a doctoral thesis in lin. Married Grace Howard. Neill began his colonial 1973. In 1969 he was ap service as a cadet in Fiji, and was appointed district pointed associate professor in commander there in 1916, remaining in Fiji untill926. the department of Sociology Between 1927 and 1937 he served in Tonga, where he and Anthropology at Memo was the British agent and consul. He was appointed rial University. He proposed acting administrator for St. Lucia in 1942 and acting and was the first to teach a Governor of the Windward Islands in 1945. Neill came course on Newfoundland So to Newfoundland in 1945 as the Commissioner for ciety and Culture, and col Public Utilities and Supply, an office which he held lected an extensive archive of student papers prepared in until 1949. Following Confederation he retired and Thomas Nemec returned to England, writing a memoir of his service the course. Nemec has been in Africa, Ten Years In Tonga (1955). He died in book review editor of the Newfoundland Quarterly since Reigate, Surrey on Oct. 3, 1958. DNLB (1990), Who 1979. He is the author of "Irish Settlement in Newfoundland'' in volume three of the Encyclopedia of Was Who, 1951-60. LMS Newfoundland and Labrador and "Postage Stamps" in NElS, BARBARA LOU LAURETTE (1952- ). Soci volume four. Tom Nemec (interview, 1992). ACB ologist. Born North Bay, Ontario, daughter of William and Sheila (Utting) Parfitt. Educated Memorial Uni versity; University of Toronto. Married Robert Neis. Barbara Neis came to Newfoundland in 1976 to do graduate work in sociology, studying the regional dis tribution of the Fishermen's Protective Union, and later joined the University's sociology department. She has also studied aspects of the fishery in the post World War II period. In 1986 she was principal re searcher with the Fisheries Research Group, analyzing the impact of technological change in the deep-sea fishery. She also pursued her interests in gender rela tions and occupational safety in the fishery. In 1992 Neis was working on a monograph on the sociology of the modern fishery in Newfoundland. Barbara Neis (interview, 1992). ACB NELSON, HORATIO (1758-1805). Naval officer. Born Norfolk, England, son of Edmund and Catherine The Neptune returning from the seal hunt, c. 1878 (Suckling) Nelson. Married Frances Nisbet. Nelson is NEPTUNE. A wooden whaling and sealing ship, the best known as the hero of the Battle of Trafalgar in Neptune was built in 1872-73 by Alexander Stephen 1805, in which he scored a decisive naval victory over and Sons of Dundee, Scotland. Construction of the the French. He was killed in the engagement. 465-ton ship was overseen by Edward White qv, who In 1782, as captain of the H.M.S. Abermarle, Nel was to be its master for the next 10 years. Eleven other son escorted a convoy from Cork to Quebec City. captains would take the Neptune to the ice, including Delayed by bad weather and fog, the convoy arrived in Samuel Blandford, Samuel Bartlett and George Bar St. John's on May 26. Prevented by easterly winds bour qqv. In 1888 Blandford brought in 42,242 pelts, from leaving, Nelson was forced to remain several a record for a wooden steamer. The Canadian govern days in what he described as a "disagreeable place". ment chartered the ship in 1884 and again in 1902-03 He and his officers are said to have spent the time at a for use in a geographical survey of the Arctic. Going Water Street hostelry known as the Ship Inn. He left north as far as Ellesmere Island, the Neptune helped to the harbour on June 3 to rendezvous with the rest of establish Canadian sovereignty in the far north. It re the convoy at Caplin Bay (Calvert). After leaving turned to sealing and in 1921 carried the spotter plane North American waters, Nelson went on to establish Baby Avro. Wind and weather conditions prevented the his reputation as a naval commander in the West In plane from being used, but over 10,000 pelts were dies. Tom Pocock (1987), Newfoundland Historical taken anyway. Four years later, Neptune' s second trip Society (Lord Horatio Nelson). ACB to the ice that season brought its total take to over one NEMEC, THOMAS F. (1939- ). Anthropologist. Born million. In recognition of this achievement, each man Chicago, son of William and Anna Marie (Leonard) received, in addition to his regular pay, a cash bonus Nemec. Educated University of Colorado; University of and a framed picture of the ship. Michigan. Married Mary Myrick. In 1967 Nemec came to Ownership passed to the Ungava Steamship Com Newfoundland to conduct field work as a social anthro- pany in 1934. The Neptune went to the ice for the last NETILES 37 time in 1941. Job Brothers bought back the ship at a behind to oversee repairs to the Neptune II, which was public auction in February 1943 for use as a collier. In fitted with a Kelvin engine, and returned to Newtown March the Neptune sank near St. John's, with no loss on April 25, 1930. Four years later the vessel was sold of life. James Candow (1989), Michael Harrington to the business of Forward and Tibbo of Grand Bank. (1986), Shannon Ryan (1987), Centre for Newfound On its first voyage under the new owners, it began to land Studies (Neptune). ACB leak and had to be abandoned after nine days at sea. The crew were rescued by a passing British oil tanker. NEPTUNE II. A Danish-built ship used in the transat Captain Barbour later published an account of his ad lantic trade, the Neptune II was purchased by Samuel venture, Forty-eight Days Adrift. Job Barbour (n.d.), and Job Barbour qv of Newtown, Bonavista Bay in Robert Parsons (1992). ACB 1928. The three-masted wooden schooner was used in the family business, "coasting" (carrying freight). On NERISSA, S.S. The Nerissa was built in Glasgow by W. November 7, 1929 it arrived in St. John's with a cargo Hamilton and Company for Bowring Brothers' passen offish. Heading back to Newtown on the 29th, the ship ger and coastal service. The 3000-ton ship, specially ran into bad weather off Cape St. Francis and was designed for winter service, was launched in the spring blown far off course by a series of strong gales. On of 1926. The Nerissa could accommodate 200 passen board were Captain Job Barbour, crew members gers and was part of the *Red Cross Line qv operating Pearce Barbour, Peter Humphries, John Norman, Har between New York, Halifax and St. John's. During the old Keats and a man named Baxter. There were also winters it was sometimes used as a cruise ship on the five passengers: Esther Humphries, William Norris, tourist run to Bermuda and the West Indies. The Fur Edward Gill, Ephraim Blackmore and George Bungay. ness Withy Company assumed ownership of the vessel On December 12, the crew contacted a passing ship, in 1929 when it took over the Red Cross Line. With the the S.S. Cedric. Believing that their troubles were not outbreak of World War II the Nerissa was used to serious, Captain Barbour sent a message to Newtown transport troops from St. John's and Halifax to Liver that they would be delayed. But by the end of Decem pool, England. On April 30, 1941, about 200 miles ber, with food and water rationed and the ship damaged from Northern Ireland, the ship was sunk by a German by continued bad weather, the captain decided to make torpedo. Fourteen Newfoundlanders were among the for the British Isles rather than attempt to reach New 207 passengers and crew who lost their lives. J.P. foundland. None of the crew had any experience with Andrieux (1984), Charles Hocking (1969), Harry deep sea navigation and had only an out-of-date chart Roberts ( 1982). ACB of the English Channel. The west coast of Scotland was sighted January 14, NETTLES. The common name for the plant genus and the ship was towed to port by a passing British Urtica, nettles comprise about 30 ai:mual and perennial ship, the Hesparus. The voyage of the Neptune was weeds frequenting waste areas and roadsides. Certain featured in European newspapers and the passengers members of the mint family are also called nettles and crew became minor celebrities before returning because of their bristles. Both types of nettles are home on the Nova Scotia. Captain Barbour stayed found in Newfoundland and Labrador. The Neptune II at Job's wharf in St. John's 38 NEVILLE, JOHN T. Two species of true nettle appear here: the stinging Nevitt spent her early nettle (Urtica dioica L.) and an annual variant (U. years in Jamaica and, after urens L.). The stinging nettle is a plant of north tem returning to England for perate regions, naturalized in North America from Eu some time, came to Canada rope. A perennial, it grows from a rootstock and after World War II. After produces erect stems up to 2 m high. Contact with the nursing and teaching expe stems' bristles causes stinging, itching and slight rience in the United States welts. The Greek word (di + oicos, "two homes") and Canada she came to reflects the mode of pollination, female plants catch Newfoundland in 1965. Di ing pollen puffed into the air by male flowers. A pest rector of the School of to most gardeners, the stinging nettle is reputed to Nursing until 1973, Nevitt have many uses. As a commercial source of chloro continued as a professor of phyll it rivals the rich green of spinach, while medici nursing at MUN until her nal home remedies have included concoctions for retirement in 1982. In 1978 Joyce Nevitt gout, rheumatism and rashes. The plant has been used she released a history of nursing in Newfoundland and as a substitute for rennet to coagulate milk and to Labrador, White Caps and Black Bands. She later make beer and wine. Mature stems have been rotted wrote a history of St. Michael and All Angels church. and spun into cloth. The stinging nettle is said to have In 1988 Nevitt received the Canadian Volunteer Award been cultivated as a potherb in Scotland, and young for her work on behalf of the handicapped, the aging, leaves are boiled in soup in the outer Hebrides. Tender and the hearing impaired. On the occasion of its 25th tops are also commonly eaten in Germany, Belgium anniversary celebrations in 1991 the MUN School of and other parts of Europe. In Newfoundland and Lab Nursing named a lecture theatre in her honour. Joyce rador the plant's nutritional benefits are known, and Nevitt (1978; interview, Aug. 1991), DNLB (1990), local recipes include simple steaming or boiling and a Centre for Newfoundland Studies (Joyce Nevitt). TPH creamed nettle dish with milk, butter, salt and pepper. Two "nettles" of the mint family occur in New NEW BAY. A large bay in central Notre Dame Bay qv, foundland: the annual hemp nettle (Galeopsis entered between New Bay Head to the east and Leading Tetrahit, var. bifida) and perennial hedge nettle Tickles to the west. New Bay extends south some 22 (Stachys palustris), also called woundwort. The hedge km and is divided into three major arms: South Arm, nettle, distinguished by purple, two-lipped corolla has Southwest Arm, and Osmonton (Northwest) Arm. Ar become a difficult weed to control in many parts of chaeological evidence suggests that New Bay could Newfoundland. John M. Fogg Jr. (1956), Diane Grif have been visited by people of the Maritime Archaic fin (1984), U.P. Hedrick (1972), F. H. Montgomery Tradition some 5000 years ago. The Beothuk certainly (1964), Roecklein and Leung (1987), Peter J. Scott frequented the area on their seasonal migrations to the (1975), E.L.D. Seymour (1936), Robert L. Zimdahl coast. One of the earliest maps of the area, Captain (1989), Native Cookery and Edible Wild Plants of David Buchan's map of 1811, shows an "Indian path" Newfoundland and Labrador (1987). KAW across the isthmus of the New Bay Peninsula in the area of Winter Tickles Lake Provincial Park. Older NEVILLE, JOHN T. (11.1853-1895). Civil servant; ar residents still repeat tales of unfriendly contact that chitect. He was working for the government as an occurred when the first European settlers arrived in the architect in 1853 and was the designer of the Colonial early 1800s. The entrance to New Bay had no doubt Penitentiary, completed in 1855. In 1864 he was ap been fished by the French and English as early as the pointed Superintendent of Public Buildings and from 1700s, during which time migratory fishermen proba 1871 he was also Inspector of Lighthouses. He person bly made occasional excursions up the Bay. The first ally inspected all or most of the lighthouses, hospitals, settlers arrived to catch salmon, to hunt and trap for fur courthouses and other public buildings on the Island and to cut wood. They came in the fall and winter from each year. Threatening to resign unless his pay was older settlements on eastern Notre Dame Bay's outer increased, he was granted a raise by the House of islands, particularly Fogo, Twillingate and Exploits Assembly in 1881. His last report to the House is dated Islands. Perhaps the first Englishman to have made January 1, 1895. He was succeeded by R. White as journeys into the Bay for furs and salmon was one Inspector of Lighthouses and by William Churchill as Matthew Ward, who fished South West Brook (later Superintendent of Public Works. Patricia O'Brien Point Leamington qv) for salmon in the 1770s. The (1989), Blue Book (1865; 1894), JHA (1855; 1880; earliest known settlers were the Rowsell family (who 1895). ACB probably first came as employees of Ward). George NEVITT, JOYCE (1916- ). Nurse; educator. Born Rowsell Sr., formerly of Fogo, was operating the Kent, England, daughter of Robert and Selma (Mel salmon fishery at New Bay River (near Point ville) Nevitt. Educated Jamaica; Fulham Hospital, Leamington) in 1804. Descendants of Rowsell lived at London, England; McMaster University; University of Leading Tickles, just outside New Bay, and it is likely Toronto; Harvard University; Teachers College, Co that they and other Leading Tickles residents contin lumbia University. Nevitt was the founding director of ued to travel up the Bay seasonally for salmon fishing Memorial University's School of Nursing. and trapping early in the 1800s. Joseph Rowsell was NEW BAY HEAD 39 communities in western Notre Dame Bay. By the 1960s roads gave access to central Newfoundland markets. Around the same time, however, competition from mainland Canada adversely affected the local industry. Until the mid-1970s the population of New Bay was increasing, but then, with the principal indus tries experiencing difficult times, some residents were obliged to seek employment elsewhere. Meanwhile, the sheltered arms of New Bay became popular sites for cabins, many of which were owned by former New Bay residents working in central Newfoundland or elsewhere. Burton K. Janes (1983), J.J. Mannion ed. (1977), Wendy Martin (1983), Milton Moores (inter view, Jan. 1992), A.L. Peyton (1987), E.R. Seary .~~·~~ · ~ (1977), James A. Tuck (1976), Census (1836-1986), ' __.. ~.~· DA (Oct. 1983), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory A view of New Bay from the old cemetery at Moores Cove (1871), Sailing Directions: Newfoundland (1986). BWC living in New Bay by 1840. Other early settlers in cluded one Richard Rideout and the family of Edmund NEWBAYHEAD (pop. 1921, 14). An abandoned Moore(s) at Moores Cove Uust north of Cottrell's Notre Dame Bay fishing community, north of Cove). Others settled in several small coves near the Cottrell's Cove qv and south of the prominent headland best fishing grounds, between Cottrell's Cove and New which gave the community its name. The few families Bay Head. which inhabited New Bay Head lived at and just to the By 1869 the number of permanent residents had north of a small cove partially sheltered by Silver increased to 94, most of whom were on the outer Buckles Island- identified on some maps as Jacob's eastern shore. Family names were Andrews, Boone, Cove, but known locally as Cox's Cove. The first Budgell, Cox, Moores, Richards, Rowsell, Sharon known settler, John Cox, was granted fishing rights (Shearing), Spencer, Stuckless, Rourke and Ryan. near New Bay Head and likely made the Cove a sum Around this time communities were being established mer fishing station in the 1830s. A John Lush and in western Notre Dame Bay and New Bay's rich tim family were recorded as the sole residents of Jacob's ber stands, especially pine, attracted lumbermen. Cove in 1836. The Cox family were permanent resi After a lumber mill was built at Point Leamington in dents by 1845, and Robert House was also reported as the 1870s this community became the largest focus of resident in 1851. There are no separate Census listings settlement up the Bay. Thus by 1884 the population of for communities in the Cottrell's Cove area prior to New Bay had jumped to 324, most of whom likely 1921, but it is unlikely that New Bay Head ever had fished from the Cottrell's Cove area and engaged in more than two or three families. The fishery was sup winter logging and trapping further up the Bay. After plemented by winter logging and trapping in a wooded the initial closure of Pilley's Island pyrite mine in valley between Cox's Cove and Fleury's Bight qv to 1899 several families from there moved to New Bay, the east. Isolation led to the abandonment of New Bay particularly to Point Leamington. Few separate Cen Head in the 1920s, with the last inhabitants, the Cox sus listings were provided until 1901 when settle and Billings families, moving to Cottrell's Cove. Mil ments were reported at New Bay (pop. 220) -from ton Moores (interview, Jan. 1992), E.R. Seary (1977), the tip of New Bay Peninsula to Southeast Arm, in Census (1869-1921), Archives (A-7-2). RHC cluding Cottrell's Cove - South Arm (pop. 73), Southwest Arm (pop. 198) and Northwest Arm (pop. 28). More detailed figures in 1921 listed Cottrell's Cove (164), Southeast Arm (99), Pleasantview (41), Bobby's Cove (36), Point Leamington (338), Os monton (45) and New Bay Head (14) qqv. With the exception of the Cottrell's Cove area, most settled sites in New Bay were distant from fishing grounds and depended principally on forestry. Lum bering declined somewhat in the early 1900s, but the opening of the Grand Falls mill in 1909 again pro vided employment in the woods. Attempts were made in the 1890s to develop copper mines at Tea Arm and Saunders Cove (respectively about 3 km north and east of Pleasantview), but they proved unproductive. Some additional employment was provided by agri culture, with produce from the Point Leamington Pleasantview area being shipped to mining Encyclopedia researchers at New Bay Head, 1991 40 NEW BONA VENTURE NEW BONAVENTURE (pop. 1986, 97). New Bona New Bonaventure also declined: to 120 by 1935 and to venture is a fishing community on the north side of 68 by 1945 (including George's Cove and White Trinity Bay, approximately 17 km southwest of Trin Point). Shortly after Confederation White Point and ity. Like nearby Old Bonaventure qv, it was likely an George's Cove were practically abandoned and the early station used by fishermen out of Trinity. While remaining Kings and Hydes left under the resettlement eighteenth century records do not distinguish between program soon thereafter. But the early 1960s brought the Bonaventures, New Bonaventure had a more ex a few new families from resettling communities such posed harbour than Old Bonaventure and local tradi as British Harbour, Ireland's Eye and Kerley's Har tion has it that the site was used for gardens by residents bour, while the completion of a new road connecting of Old Bonaventure prior to being settled - there is the Bonaventures to Trinity assured the community of also an early cemetery at New Bonaventure. The Millers continued existence. In 1992 several homes in New are said to have been the first family to have settled Bonaventure were occupied only seasonally, as sum New Bonaventure, which first appears distinct from mer homes by former residents or by pensioners. White Old Bonaventure in the records of Trinity parish in Point and George's Cove were abandoned and used as 1808 when a child was born to Samuel and Martha pasture. Common family names included Hodder, Miller of New Bonaventure. By 1812 John and Mary Janes, Locke, McGrath, Miller and Short. George King King were living at White Point (just west of present (interview, July 1992), E.R. Seary (1977), Census day New Bonaventure). Other early family names in (1836-1986), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory clude Ivany and Hyde, the latter family living at (1871), Statistics: Federal Provincial Resettlement George's Cove between White Point and New Bona Agreement (1975?), Archives (A-7-2/M; VS 64A). RHC venture. In the first Census in 1836 there were 99 inhabitants recorded. By 1845 there was a Church of NEW BRIDGE (pop. 1986, 71). New Bridge is an un England church and in 1857 a Church of England incorporated community on the southeastern shore of school was established. In 1869 there were nearly 200 Salmonier Arm, St. Mary's Bay. Settlement first oc people living in the area: 125 at New Bonaventure, 43 curred on Kerwan's Point, a spit of land which forms at White Point and 27 at George's Cove. These people a small harbour. Community tradition has it that the fished for cod locally and sold their catches to mer place was first settled by an Irish family named chants at Trinity or through local trader Moses King. Kerwan. By the 1860s the Kerwans were joined by the In the latter part of the nineteenth century several Lewises, and later by families named McDonald (from residents of New Bonaventure became involved in the Mount Carmel, across the Arm) and Ryan. Most people Labrador fishery and the population reached over 200. fished for a living. The settlement was known as Little The Society of United Fishermen and the Loyal Orange Harbour, Salmonier until the early 1900s, when a con Association both built lodges in the community which, crete bridge replaced an old wooden one across the like the impressive Church of England church built in Little Harbour River. It was the parish priest, at nearby 1912, also served Kerley's Harbour qv and Old Bona St. Joseph's qv, who reportedly renamed the commu venture. With the precipitous decline of the Labrador nity. New Bridge first appeared in the Census in 1911, fishery after World War I, however, the population of with a population of 120, having been previously NEW BONAVENTURE NEWFOUNDLAND. New Bonaventure, from an old postcard NEW CHELSEA 41 NEW CHELSEA (pop. 1986, 138). A fishing commu nity 4 km northeast of Hant's Harbour qv, New Chel sea was known as Seal Cove until 1911. Reportedly, when (like numerous other Seal Coves) the commu nity was informed in the early 1900s that its name would have to be changed, New Chelsea was sug gested by residents who had relatives living in Chelsea, Massachusetts. Tradition has it that New Chelsea saw some sea sonal use by residents of Old Perlican from the mid- 1700s. The community traces its founding to an Old Perlican fisherman named Rodgers, who built a schooner there in 1790. Towards the end of the century families such as Harrises, Johnsons and Whiteways are said to have come there from the Northern Bay area of Con ception Bay, while the Belbins and Pynns are said to have fished out of New Chelsea and wintered at Mos enumerated under Salmonier. The Kerwan name did quito (Bristol's Hope) before moving to New Chelsea not survive in New Bridge. In 1992 family names year-round in the early 1800s. The other common fam included Lewis, Bennett, Daley, McDonald and Ryan. ily names of New Chelsea are Trimm (descended from St. Joseph's provided most services, but prior to 1966 a native of Poole, Dorset who settled there in 1810) New Bridge had a one-room school that taught up to and Bailey. From the earliest recorded population of grade eight (high school students would cross the Arm 127 people in 1836, New Chelsea grew to a commu and board in Mount Carmel). nity of 365 people by 1921, based on an economy of Although settlement was originally concentrated inshore fishing supplemented by sawmilling on Big around the harbour and bridge, in 1992 most newer Brook, at the bottom of the Cove, and logging "in houses were north of the bridge, along the road to country". Most were outfitted by the firm of Job wards Forest Field and Mount Carmel. New Bridge's Brothers at Hant's Harbour, who took a number of main employer was Daley's fish plant, supplied by the New Chelsea men to their Labrador premises at brothers' two 65-foot draggers. The concrete bridge Forteau each summer (where Belbin and Trimm be which gave the community its name has now become came common family names). Early in the twentieth the "old bridge", its graceful arches stretching un century most New Chelsea fishermen dealt with the used beside the angular structure built to replace it in Button firm at nearby New Melbourne qv. Since the 1972. Michael Duggan (interview, Dec. 1991 ), Dianne 1940s a general scarcity of cod in the area has led to a Hickey (interview, Nov. 1991), Desmond Lewis, (in dramatic decline in the population of New Chelsea. By terview, Dec. 1991 ), Eileen Lewis (interview, Dec. the 1980s most of the few remaining fishermen made 1991), Census (1911-1991), Archives (A-7-1). KAW much of their living from other species -such as crab, New Bonaventure, 1990 42 NEW FEROLLE the early- to mid-1800s, local tradition identifying the first settler at New Ferolle (and one of the earliest English settlers on the St. Barbe coast) as a man named Rumbolt. Patrick Rumbolt, for many years a patriarch of the community, claimed to have been born there in 1844. Certainly Patrick and John Rumbolt were living in New Ferolle Cove in 1873, along with English fishermen named Pittman and Hughes and a Frenchman named Garro or Genneaux. A census taken in 1874 recorded a population of 27. By 1891 the population had dropped to 10 people, likely the Rumbolt family, as the others occupied scattered coves to the north. (Until the early 1900s the coast around New Ferolle was very sparsely settled). But other families began to take up residence at New Ferolle in about 1907, most, including the Doyle fam ily, coming from the Flower's Cove area to settle in the only predominantly Roman Catholic community in the area. By 1912 a lighthouse had been installed at Ferolle Point by the Canadian government, and this brought the Beaudoins from Quebec as light keepers. Aerial view ofNew Chelsea, c. 1955 In 1921 the population was 77, with a further 10 at the capelin and squid - processed at the P. Janes and Point. Sons plant in Hant's Harbour. After 1921 a one room school/chapel was built in The earliest settlers of New Chelsea were members the community, but it was often difficult to attract of the Church of England, but the first place of wor teachers to the area. In 1937 lighthouse keeper ship in the community was a Methodist ch!lpel, built in Beaudoin is said to have hired his own teacher for his 1828 and replaced in 1865 (the oldest church building family of 16 children. Medical care could be obtained in the area still in use in 1992). The Salvation Army at a nursing station at Flower's Cove, but there were built a citadel in the community in 1916, but the Army few local services. For many years there was an abun suspended operation in 1976 - coincident with the dant lobster, herring and salmon fishery. Most people opening of a new church by the Pentecostal Assem in the community also cultivated small vegetable gar blies, which had been in the community since the late dens and kept some livestock. By the 1920s about 20 1920s. School was first held in about 1840 by Robert vessels were involved in the shore fishery around New Belbin, a long-serving teacher who was also lay reader Ferolle. Nine small lobster factories were in operation at the Methodist church for many years. In 1965 a and salmon was being processed. In the winters fami Pentecostal school was built in the community, while lies often moved into St. Margaret's Bay or to Castor children of other denominations attended classes at River for logging. Hant's Harbour (elementary) and Brownsdale (high In the late 1960s, 39 people were resettled from school). Gary Belbin (1980), Lloyd Belbin (1964), New Ferolle to Port au Choix. Woods work gradually Lester Mansfield (MHG 41-B-1-43), E.R. Seary declined in the area but people continued to rely on the (1977), Census (1836-1986), Lovell's Newfoundland fishery as two small fish plants processed cod and Directory (1871). RHC herring. A Roman Catholic church was built by the NEW FEROLLE (pop. 1986, 129). A fishing and lobstering settlement on the Ferolle Peninsula of the St. Barbe coast, about halfway between Port au Choix and Flower's Cove. The peninsula, on which the com munities of Shoal Cove and Reef's Harbour qqv are also located, separates St. John Bay from St. Margaret's Bay to the north. The name Ferolle or Ferole appears on European maps of the Great North ern Peninsula as early as 1674, but it is sometimes difficult to determine whether the area referred to is Old Ferolle (near Plum Point qv), New Ferolle or Ferolle Point. The peninsula was probably named by Basque fishermen, possibly after the fishing village of El Ferolle, near Corunna in northern Spain. As part of the French Shore qv after 1713, New Ferolle and Ferolle Point were visited by French fish ing vessels. English settlement began at some time in Wharf at New Ferolle NEW HARBOUR, TRINITYBAY 43 early 1980s in what had been the community centre. include Bishop, George, Hefford, Hillier, Pollett and Children attended elementary school in Reef's Har Thorne. New Harbour's best-known citizen in the early bour, while older children went to school in Plum years was Charles Newhook qv, a son of the Trinity Point. Family names in 1992 included Doyle, Hughes shipwright of the same name who came to the Harbour and Hynes. Edgar Mudge (197-), E.R. Seary (1959, in the early 1800s to oversee Garland's shipyard and 1977), Gloria Tucker (1983), Roland Tucker (letter, stayed to establish a business and shipyard on his own n.d.), DA (vol. 14, no. 3, 1985). ACB account (likely taking over from Garland's by the 1830s). In 1815 the community was well established NEW HARBOUR, BONAVISTA BAY. See NEWPORT. and had built its own Church of England church (St. NEW HARBOUR, FORTUNE BAY (pop. 1945, 24). George's, built under Newhook's direction). The first An abandoned fishing community in northeastern For teacher in the community was recorded in 1830, and a tune Bay, New Harbour was located across the Bay school was built in 1841. Three years later one George north of St. Bernard's. The community first appeared Cranford came there as a teacher, establishing that in Census records in 1857 with a population of three family name in the community. Other well-known fam people, one of whom had been born in England. By the ilies of New Harbour first recorded in the early 1800s 1869 there were four families (family names Mat include Smith, Williams and Woodman. In the 1836 thews, Pauls and Rideout) who probably were attracted Census the population of New Harbour was 194. It from the Grand Bank area to fish herring for bait to be increased steadily thereafter, to more than 500 by sold to American and French banking vessels. With the 1901 . decline of the bait fishery shortly thereafter, families The early economy of New Harbour was based on at New Harbour relied almost exclusively on the in the local fishery, shipbuilding and winter lumberiqg shore cod fishery. By 1901 the population had declined and milling at several locations elsewhere at the bot to six, although there was a family of Keepings re tom of the Bay (where several new communities were corded at Jim's or Jemmy's Cove (about 2 km east of later founded by New Harbour people). From a winter New Harbour) from 1891 to 1911. Early in the twenti site for Trinity, New Harbour became a mercantile eth century the Wills arrived from the Bay L' Argent centre for southeastern Trinity Bay, a minor govern area to take up some vacated premises, and by 1936 ment service centre and headquarters of the Church of every inhabitant bore that family name. Never large England in the area. A new church was begun in 1879, enough to support a church or school, New Harbour and construction was speeded up the next year after was apparently abandoned in the late 1940s. E.R. Seary St. George's nearly collapsed under the weight of an (1977), Census (1857-1945), Lovell's Newfoundland especially large congregation gathered to greet Bishop Directory (1871). RHC Llewellyn Jones. The community played a major role in the Labrador fishery from southern Trinity Bay, NEW HARBOUR, SOUTHWEST COAST. See PAR with local crews and others from surrounding commu SONS HARBOUR. nities shipping "down north" each summer. The most NEW HARBOUR, TRINITY BAY (pop. 1986, 957). prominent local merchant from the late 1800s was New Harbour is located near the bottom of Trinity Bay, Fred Woodman, who began as a fish buyer for St. on its south side. The bottom of the Bay was being John's firms and had established his own general busi frequented by fishing firms headquartered at Trinity ness on the north side of the harbour in 1912. He was harbour (about 90 km to the north) in the mid-1700s succeeded in the business by a son, E.P. Woodman, the and New Harbour, as a new area being opened up by firm supplying fishermen from Sunnyside to Heart' s Trinity, was probably named at this time. It was being Content. occupied seasonally in 1753 by three fishing servants. From 1913 New Harbour had a station on the A court record from the following year identified Ed Heart's Content branch railway. The railway had the ward Fisher and Cornealle Button as fishing there. There are references to New Harbour in the diaries of Trinity-based merchant Benjamin Lester qv from the 1760s and 1770s. The earliest birth recorded at New Harbour in Trinity parish records was of a Thornton (Thorne?) in 1770. One family name recorded there in the 1770s and still surviving in the community in 1992 is Hillier (a James Halyar of Netherby, Dorset, being recorded in 1774). By 1800 the Lester/Garland firm had premises on the north side of New Harbour, con sisting of a "small dwelling house, fish house, two stages, cook room and fisherman's house". There were also nine resident families, most of whom would appear to have settled recently on the south side of the Harbour, where Cat Cove is protected by New Harbour Island and Miller's Point (in 1992 the site of Higdon's Seafoods plant). Family names recorded in 1800-01 Pothead drive at New Harbour 44 NEW HORIZONS View of New Harbour c. 1930,from a painting by Ray Hillier effect of increasing the incidence of forest fires in the their fellow citizens. The first New Horizons Club in area and had an unfortunate effect on sawmilling, es- Newfoundland was formed in September 1972, in St. pecially after the Great Burn of the early 1920s. By the John's. Among those present at this founding meeting 1930s the Labrador and shore fisheries in the area were: William Veitch, the regional organizer; his as- were both in decline, with the Labrador fishery soon sistant, Mike Gushue; Queen Maloney, representing disappearing altogether. This had the effect of reduc- the Southern Shore; Beatrice Snow; Elizabeth Burton ing and ultimately ending the demand for the schoon- and William Murdoch. The meeting established the St. ers whose construction had once been so important to John's Senior Citizens Handicraft Group. In succeed- New Harbour. In later years fisheries for species other ing years some 200 New Horizons groups have been than cod (particularly salmon) became more import- formed in Newfoundland. Queen Maloney (scrap- ant, while from the early 1900s to the 1960s pothead book), DN (Feb. 29, 1980), ET (Nov. 1, 1989), Senior whale harvesting was an important part of the local Voice (Aug./Sept. 1983; May/June 1989; Sept./Oct. economy. In 1991 Higdon's Seafoods and Woodman 1989). QUEEN MALONEY Sea Products were the community's major employers, NEW INDUSTRIES. Newfoundland's quest for "new while other work was available in New Harbour's ser industries'' is both synonymous with and as old as its vice industries. C. George Brown ( 197-), Gary quest for industrial diversification. When the fishery, Cranford (1983), E.R. Seary (1971; 1977), Census Newfoundland's sole traditional industry, began to de ( 1836-1986), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory cline in the late nineteenth century, politicians and (1871), Newfoundland Historical Society (New Har entrepreneurs looked for salvation to new land-based bour; Newhook family). RHC secondary industries. The first major development NEW HORIZONS. New Horizons is a Canadian organ took place in the 1880s and the following two decades ization, administered by the social services programs with the appearance of a complex of mostly short-lived branch of the Department of National Health and Wel new industries, such as factories for furniture, glass fare, for senior citizens. Its main objective is to encour embossing, carriages, clothes, rubber goods, footwear, age those over 65 to continue to participate in mattresses, tobacco, nails, soap and fruit bottling. community life, both for their own benefit and that of Although the term "new industries" is associated others. When a group of 10 or more senior citizens chiefly with Premier J.R. Smallwood's program of have formed a club and chosen a project, the Depart rapid industrial development in the early 1950s, in the ment awards a cash grant to cover such expenses as 1930s Albert Perlin in the Observer's Weekly called rent of a meeting room and purchase of supplies. The for new industries as the most promising reconstruc projects can range from writing up local history, phys tion strategy for the Commission of Government. In ical fitness programs, handicrafts, a foster grandpar 1939 members of the Newfoundland Board of Trade ents plan, counselling service for first offenders or and the government formed a joint New Industries putting together a cookbook of local recipes. It is not Committee which in 1942 transformed itself into the an employment program; its purpose is to give an Newfoundland *Industrial Development Board qv. outlet to the interests of those who can contribute to During its eight-year life this board, however, did not NEW INDUSTRIES 45 get beyond the creation and discussion of blueprints by firms or businessmen from Germany. The first in for a few industries. dustry was a cement plant with 100,000 tons capacity, Smallwood's interest in new industries can be found designed by the German firm of MIAG. Named as early as 1931 in his book The New Newfoundland, "North Star" after a Swedish award Valdmanis bad where he argued that land-based industrial develop allegedly received while Minister of Finance in Lat ment was Newfoundland's alternative to depopula via, the plant was erected in Corner Brook where gyp tion, bankruptcy and poverty. By 1946 he was sum, limestone, and shale deposits formed an almost convinced that only union with Canada would realize ready-made mixture for roasting Portland cement. The his dream of a "New Newfoundland". The economic cement plant was intended to provide Newfoundland crisis accompanying Confederation hastened the with the basic materials for further large-scale devel adoption of the envisioned industrial development opment (see CEMENT LIMITED, NORTH STAR). strategy. In 1949 a chain reaction of local business Near the cement plant the government built its second closures, coupled with the severe crisis of the fishery, industry, Atlantic *Gypsum qv. The contract was raised the spectre of a future characterized by unem awarded to the German firm of Benno Schilde. Repre ployment and a mass exodus of Newfoundlanders. A senting the latest German and Latvian technology, new industrial infrastructure, Smallwood argued, was both plants were erected by teams of skilled German also essential to generate the funds for the moderniza and Latvian workers brought from Germany. Latvian tion of the fishery. But he found little sympathy for his engineer Ernest Leja supervised their construction and plans, either among the local elite of merchants and managed the cement plant from 1950 to 1952, and the businessmen, or among Canadian, American and Brit gypsum plant from 1952 to 1955. Both plants were ish investors. later purchased by local investors. The third government Following Perlin's advice, Smallwood decided to owned industry, a birch products or hardwoods plant, entrust the implementation of his development policy was the brainchild of local building contractor Chester to an energetic and competent young technical direc Dawe qv, who was its president from 1951 to 1954 tor. Upon the recommendation of C.D. Howe, Federal (see HARDWOODS, NEWFOUNDLAND). Minister of Trade and Commerce, he chose Latvian Among the first privately-owned new industries born Alfred A. Valdmanis qv, who had immigrated to were a film and electronics company and a tannery. Canada from Germany in 1948. As Latvia's Minister Atlantic Films and Electronics Ltd. was owned by of Finance, Trade and Industry in 1938-39 Valdmanis' Latvian-born Albert Jekste qv. He had managed to credentials included both experience in industrial de salvage his Riga Film unit and its technologically ad velopment and connections with European industry. In vanced sound film equipment when he fled from Lat his capacity as Director General of Economic Devel via to Germany in 1944-45. On his · first visit to opment for Newfoundland from 1950 to 1953, Germany in 1950, Smallwood inspected Jekste's Ham Valdmanis relied on a network of Latvian refugee in burg studio and immediately recognized the potential dustrialists in West Germany and their contacts with significance of this film unit for his development German industrial circles. strategy. He brought the firm to Newfoundland where, Smallwood's new industries program was launched under manager Arnis Lucis, it produced, sold, and in 1950 with three industries built entirely with public serviced audio-visual and marine electronic instru funds. It was assumed that ments until 1981. William Dorn, whose father owned these could be sold and the the Wieman leather factory in Neumiinster, Germany, proceeds reinvested in the not only established a tannery in Carbonear, but also establishment of more new introduced two additional industries to Newfound industries, and so on. This land. In Harbour Grace, Dorn set up a company manu strategy, however, did not facturing leather garments and be brought with him succeed. German entrepre the Hamburg construction firm of Werner Suerbier neurs, though eager to re (United Engineers and Contractors), which proposed gain a foothold in postwar to build Darn's and other plants for considerably less North America, had no dol money than local construction firms. Dorn acquired lars and were subject to Al second-band machines for his tannery from a defunct lied regulations prohibiting German firm in Elmshorn whose premises had suf the investment of capital fered extensive war damage (see TANNERIES AND abroad until 1952. Only the A.A. Valdmanis LEATHER GOODS). offer of government loans During 1951-53, following recruiting trips by or loan guarantees made possible the recruitment of Smallwood and Valdmanis to Germany, ten industrial privately-owned German industries. The loans came concerns decided to proceed with branch plants in from the $45 million surplus account left by the Com Newfoundland: MIAG of Braunschweig with a heavy mission of Government. The machinery the German machinery plant (CMIC) at Octagon Pond near St. industrialists proposed to bring with them served as John's; Rawe & Co. of Nordhorn with a cotton and collateral. textile mill (United Cotton Mills) near St. John's; G. Between 1950 and 1956, 18 new secondary indus Hahlbrock of Hamelin with a glove factory (Atlantic tries were established on the Island, 15 of them built Gloves) in Carbonear; Ferd. Moser and Sons of 46 NEW INDUSTRIES Schramberg with a chipboard or "fibrply" factory Newfoundland government support. When chocolate (Atlantic Hardboard Industries) in Donovans; L. production began, the rubber plant had already closed Grube of Hannover with a rubber plant (Superior Rub down and several of the other new industries were in ber Co.) in Holyrood; Schafers & Krebs of Offenbach the process of being taken over by the government with a leather goods factory (Gold Sail) in Harbour because of their inability to repay their government Grace; Hanning and Kahl of Bielefeld with a battery loans. Adler's had problems from the outset - New plant (Hanning Electric) in Topsail; Textilwerke Karl foundlanders preferred imported over locally pro Remy of Schilttorf with a clothing factory (Terra Nova duced chocolates, as the director of economic Textiles) in St. John's; Dr. Egon Koch of Hannover development explained - and was out of business by with a shoe factory (Koch Shoes) at Harbour Grace; 1963. The tannery, the glove factory, the leather gar and Eckardt Strickwarenfabrik of Vocklabruck, Aus ments and leather goods companies, and the battery tria, with a knitting mill (Eckardt Mill, Brigus Knit plant had to cease operations in 195 8, despite their ting Mills, marketing Irene Knitwear until 1970) in high-quality products. Dependence on imported raw Brigus. Unsuccessful negotiations were conducted hides, uncertain markets, and a production rate (espe with German entrepreneurs toward establishing other cially of batteries) far below capacity made it impossi new industries: a steel mill; a chemical industry; an ble for these industries to show a profit. appliance plant; a flour mill; shoe and synthetic On balance, however, the overall record of the new leather factories; ceramics, brick and tile industries; industries does not appear particularly unfavourable glass and lead manufacturing; factories for paint, glue, compared with similar industries in the Maritimes. Of and soap; a marine oil hardening and guanine indus Smallwood's 18 new industries of the 1950s, five try; a furniture factory; a fish cannery and fish meal failed within five years, nine survived from six to plant; a fur-dressing and dyeing factory; a bread and thirty years, and four still existed in the early 1990s, biscuit industry; a zipper factory; an optical instru although under different ownership. At least ten of the ments industry; an eyeglass factory; pulp and paper new industries and their spinoffs contributed notably mills and hydro-power stations. to the changing economy and modernization of life in The last among the new industries of the 1950s was post-Confederation Newfoundland. Although unable Adler's chocolate factory. Established three years to create a large number of jobs, companies like after the resignation of Valdmanis, Adler's came to CMIC, United Cotton Mills, Terra Nova Textiles, and Bay Roberts from the United Kingdom in 1956 with Atlantic Films provided on-the-job training, skills 7 Artist's conception of the Octagon Pond heavy machinery/steel mill complex, as originally proposed NEW MELBOURNE 47 upgrading and technical education to their local em 1905 the community was known as Russell's Cove. ployees. In the 1980s, the existence of successful ce Perhaps this was after an early resident of Old Perlican ment and gypsum industries in the Province (a Samuel Russell having been noted as a planter there encouraged the government to base its offshore strat in 1681 ), although the earliest reference to the site is egy on the construction of concrete platforms. David ''Cove Refused''. The modern name was adopted in G. Alexander (1974; 1976), Gerhard P. Bassler (1986), honour of the Viscount Melbourne, Prime Minister of Hans Frantzen (interview, Nov. 1983), A.M. Fraser Britain 1834-41, with the "new" being appended, it is (1950), Albert Jekste (interview, June 1985), J.L. Joy said, to distinguish the fishing village from Mel ( 1977), Arnis Lucis (interview, Mar. 1984 ), G .F. bourne, Australia. There does not appear to be any Pushie (interview, May 1985), G.K. Sann (interview, special reason why Lord Melbourne was chosen to be Dec. 1984), J.R. Smallwood (interview, Nov. 1983), so commemorated. One resident wrote that the name Leo Stoeterau (interview, May 1985), Fritz W. Stobbe was changed "because others in the area" had (interview, Apr. 1986), DN (1949-1958 passim), ET changed in the early 1900s, but New Melbourne in fact (1949-1958 passim), Observer's Weekly (1934-1939 adopted its new name some years before its neigh passim), J.R. Smallwood Collection, Centre for New bours, Seal Cove (New Chelsea qv) to the west and foundland Studies. GERHARD P. BASSLER Lance Cove (Brownsdale qv) to the east, were re named. NEW LAND MAGAZINE. Founded in 1962, New Land New Melbourne, visible from Old Perlican, saw Magazine was owned by writer P.J. Wakeham qv. Its some seasonal use by residents of that place before contents were all written by Wakeham. A biennial permanent settlement. Local tradition has it that the publication in booklet form, through its 28-year life it first year-round residents were named Mansfield and contained short stories (often with a historical setting), that in the mid-1800s the family moved to Mansfield's dramas, ballads and essays, nearly all with a New Point (the abandoned north end of the community in foundland connection. There were also humorous an 1992) from New Chelsea, after some years of winter ecdotes, written in colloquial language. Wakeham's woods work at New Melbourne. The community does "Jarge from Crinkle Cove" letters, first published in not appear in early Census returns, which note only a 1970, became a feature item in each subsequent issue. few settlers at Lance Cove or Lance Cove Bight prior Wakeham died in May 1990. Prior to his death he had to 1857. Russell's Cove first appears separately in prepared material for the 50th edition of New Land 1874, with a population of 137. In addition to Mans Magazine, which was published in the summer of 1991 field, common family names of New Melbourne in by his daughter, Jean Wakeham Hall. New Land Mag clude Clarke, Driscoll, Durdle, Goodwin, Harris, azine (passim). JAMES WADE Pynn, Reid and Woodland. To other Newfoundlanders the best-known resident of New Melbourne is proba bly Lucy Harris, who was lost in the woods in March of 1936. The search for the child and her amazing survival of the 12-day ordeal was the subject of what passed for a "media event" in the 1930s. While some of the original settlers of New Melbourne came there from Old Perlican, other families originated at New Chelsea or Hant's Harbour. Like these older communi ties, New Melbourne was almost exclusively Method ist. A school/chapel was built by 1861, and the first teacher was Moses Button. In later years the commu nity had a Methodist (United) church and a lodge of the Loyal Orange Association. The Orange Lodge, the largest in the area, was attended by Orangemen from Old Perlican to Hant's Harbour on ceremonial occa sions. The economy of New Melbourne was based on the local shore fishery, supplemented by the Labrador fishery and subsistence farming. Most fishermen orig inally sold their catches to merchants at Old Perlican and their surplus vegetables to Bay de Verde. From the late 1800s W.J. Button had a general store in the com munity (and subsequently succeeded Moses Button as Justice of the Peace for the area). By 1921 he owned a liver factory, a lobster cannery, a sawmill and Labra dor schooners. In that year the community had a pop NEW MELBOURNE (pop. 1986, 101). New Mel ulation of 377, but a decline in the local fishery and a bourne is located approximately 12 km southwest of collapse of the Labrador fishery led many people to Old Perlican qv, across Lance Cove Bight. Prior to leave the community, the population declining to 219 48 NEW PERLICAN first frequented by men from Old Perlican as a site for cutting, shipbuilding and ''laying up'' vessels for the winter in New Perlican's more protected harbour. There is a tradition that Bloody Point, which divides the harbour into two coves, was the site of an early battle between the French and Beothuk (or French and English). South of Bloody Point ''the Harbour'' pro vides a well-sheltered anchorage, while west of the point is Vitters (fitters) Cove, whose name may derive from the earliest days of shipbuilding. While little is known of New Perlican's early days, it would appear to have been a small summer fishing base. There was a seasonal population of 49 people in 1677. One of the people in charge of the fishing prem ises in that year was William Efford (the other being Edward Horse), but a connection has not been estab Aerial view of New Melbourne, c. 1955 lished between him and the Efford family who lived in by 1945. A further setback to the community was the the community in later years. Tradition has it that two drowning of community leader Nelson Button in 1943. unrelated families of Heffords were among the earliest Generally, since World War II New Melbourne has year-round settlers, in the mid-1700s. In addition to seen further decline in its population, with only a very the Heffords there were, according to local tradition, few people continuing in the fishery and more finding families with the names Gordon, Hammond, Pitt, Tilly work at the fish plants in Old Perlican and Rant's and Shipp, but, with the exception of Hefford, none of Harbour. High school students attend classes at these names survive in the community in 1992. A Brownsdale, the lower grades at Rant's Harbour. Most Church of England clergyman visiting in 1764 noted other services are available at Old Perlican. Gary eight families living at New Perlican, half of them Driscoll (MHG 41-B-1-47), Rex Piercey (MHG 41-B- English and half Irish, with the two factions in " ... a 1-48), E.R. Seary (1971; 1977), Census (1874-1986), state of war with one another.... " It would seem that Lovell's Newfoundland Directory (1871), Newfound the English Protestants lived around the main harbour, land Historical Society (New Melbourne). RHC with the Irish Catholics on the northeast side, locally known as Smutty Nose. The first permanent settler at NEW PERLICAN (inc. 1971; pop. 1991, 281). New Vitters Cove is said to have been John Condon, in Perlican is a fishing community on the south side of about 1785, followed by a family named Callahan. Trinity Bay, just north of Heart's Content qv. One of Other early family names of New Perlican include the older fishing stations in the Bay, it was an outpost Burrage, Cotter, Fisher, Grant, Hobbs, Matthews, of the West Country fishing firms headquartered at Old Peddle, Penney, Piercey, Seaward, Smith, Warren and Perlican qv from the mid-1600s. It is likely that it was White. By the time of the first Newfoundland Census A part of New Perlican NEW WORLD ISLAND 49 in 1836 New Perlican was a thriving community of Goshen's Arm, Pike's Arm and Cobb's Arm form the 251. "fingertips") and at Moreton's Harbour and Tizzard's Most of the early settlers would appear to have Harbour qqv to the west. On the western side of the come to Newfoundland originally as servants of the Island the communities of Valley Pond, Cottlesville Lester-Garland firm at Trinity. From about 1800 the and Summerford qqv have, to a greater extent, tradi Garland business was under the direction of William tionally been involved in the lobster, herring and Pittman, who began a shipyard in the community and salmon fisheries in the Bay of Exploits. Since the whose descendents helped to give New Perlican a rep 1980s sheltered bays and arms on the western side of utation for well-built schooners up until the 1920s. In the island (such as Puzzle Bay and Intricate Harbour, about 1840 the Garland business was sold to William near Cottlesville) have been home to some of Bemister and Co., a Carbonear firm. The business was Newfoundland's earliest aquaculture operations. A fa run for some years by John Bemister qv, with Reuben cility for processing cultured mussels has been estab Bemister taking over management after his brother lished near Bridgeport qv. To the south lies Dildo Run, entered politics. The firm of Reuben Bemister and a passage much encumbered by islands and shoals, Sons helped develop commercial ties with Conception which has nonetheless often been used by small ves Bay, particularly with the Harbour Grace firm of John sels wishing to avoid the ice on the "outside" in the Munn and Co. The participation of local merchants spring. The south side of the island has therefore re such as Bemister, George Pittman and Michael mained largely unpopulated, with the notable excep Howley in the Labrador fishery helped the community tion of Summerford on the southwest corner, where to support a growing population, which reached 519 Farmer's Arm provides good shelter and anchorage. people by 1874 and 699 by 1921. The landing of the New World Island probably first became known to transatlantic telegraph cable at nearby Heart's Content Europeans shortly after Twillingate became the most in 1866 contributed to the prosperity of New Perlican northerly outpost of the northern fishery in about in the latter half of the nineteenth century. 1732. The population of Twillingate began to expand The early 1900s, however, saw a decline in both the after the French Shore boundary was changed in 1783 Labrador fishery and shipbuilding, and when the Trin to exclude the area, with the first settlement at Herring ity South branch railway terminal was located at Neck on the eastern headland of New World Island Heart's Content in 1915 the community suffered an probably occurring soon afterward. By the early 1800s other blow. A decline in the local shore fishery led fishermen were establishing premises in the harbours many people to leave for New England in the late of the western headland as well, at Moreton's Harbour, 1920s and 1930s. In the 30 years between 1921 and Tizzard's Harbour and Western Head qv. By the first 1951 New Perlican's population was approximately Census in 1836 the Island had a population of 798, halved, to 361. Subsequent improvements in road evenly divided between the Herring Neck area and the transportation through the area have not halted the Moreton's Harbour area. decline. By the 1990s most residents were either re In the 1840s settlement began to expand down into tired or employed away from the community- either Friday Bay, most especially from Tizzard's Harbour, in the fish plants at Old Perlican and Hant's Harbour whose residents began to move down the Bay to cut or in services in the Carbonear area. Albert Hefford wood and build boats. The first settled sites in Friday (MHG 41-B-1-49), Elizabeth Penney (MHG 41-B-1- Bay were probably Black Island and Trump Islands 50), Arthur Pittman (NQ Christmas 1935), E.R. Seary qqv. There were settlements on the shores of the Bay ( 1971; 1977), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory (1871 ), by 1869 with a combined population of 131. Cottles Sailing Directions: Newfoundland (1986). RHC ville and Summerford were settled in the 1880s, and by 1884 the Island supported about 2500 people. At NEW WORLD ISLAND. Located off the northeast coast, New World Island is the second largest of Newfoundland's offshore islands, after Fogo Island to the east. It has been connected to the mainland by a causeway since 1965. The Island is shaped somewhat like a cupped hand, with the fingers towards the east and the thumb extended to the west. At the wrist the Curtis Causeway crosses Dildo Run to join the island to Chapel Island and to the Port Albert Peninsula, at Boyd's Cove. In the palm, Friday Bay nearly bisects the Island, with the narrowest part between Virgin Arm qv and Dildo Run only 1 km wide. South Twillingate Island extends into Friday Bay and was joined to New World Island by a causeway in 1973, providing New World Island with a road connection to Twillingate qv. There are several harbours well situated for the in shore and nearshore fisheries, most especially in the area usually known as Herring Neck qv (where Carter's premises at Herring Neck 50 NEW WORLD ISLAND ~...... ::; ~~ ~.-.. ~~ ~.-.. r---~ ~..-. ~---~ I I • EXISTING SETTLEMENT • ABANDONED SETTLEMENT j PROVINCIAL PARK • CAUSEWAY I I~ IWESTERN HEAD ~ ~ ~ IVALLEY POND I ~ I I ~ . ~ <{} .•oDN,4 <:) c i o.&:> I ~ DILDO RUN L...... -.. ~...... ::; ~.-.. ~...... ::; ~...... ::; ~.-:.; _.J New World Island about this time several New World Island communi wood for the paper mill at Grand Falls. In the 1930s ties began participating in the Labrador fishery, with the virtual collapse of the Labrador fishery brought the greatest concentration of schooners at Herring hard times and led many people to abandon the fishery Neck. In 1908 the *Fishermen's Protective Union for wage labour elsewhere, particularly at Gander (FPU) qv was begun at the Orange Hall in Herring after 1936. Neck and soon had locals established in most commu The resettlement programs of the 1950s and 1960s nities on New World Island, which remained one of resulted in the abandonment of some of the more re the staunchest supporters of the Union for many years. mote communities - the islands in Friday Bay, Lob Union Trading Company stores were also established ster Harbour qv, Wild Bight and the three coves at Herring Neck and Moreton's Harbour (where the collectively known as Western Head. The building of store was managed by local fisherman Walter B. Jen the causeway across Dildo Run provided residents nings qv, later MHA for Twillingate). with further access to employment prospects else From the 1860s there was considerable migration where and also resulted in schools, shops, a medical (out of Moreton's Harbour and Western Head most clinic and other services being centralized at particularly) into western Notre Dame Bay, where a Summerford and Virgin Arm. In 1992 Summerford "copper boom" .gave rise to the several new mining was the largest community, with 1157 of the Island's towns and generally opened the area up to settlement. approximately 5000 people. Small fish plants were The boom in mining had little direct effect on New located at Herring Neck and Cottlesville. World Island, although there were short-lived mines at In 1992 only the oldest of the settlements on New Trump Island (copper, in the 1860s) and at Moreton's World Island were known by their historic names. Harbour (gold and antimony, in the 1890s). A lime Thus Village Cove, Farmer's Arm and Strong's Island stone quarry at Cobb's Arm was also first developed in make up the incorporated community of Summerford, 1870, although it operated more regularly after 1930 while Cottle's Island and Luke's Arm have incorpo (see LIMESTONE). Beginning in the early 1890s rated as Cottlesville. Big and Little Chance Harbours there was considerable involvement by New World have become respectively Bridgeport and Chanceport Island residents in boat building and in lumber mills in qv, Burnt Cove has become Newville qv, Boyd's Cove the Bay of Exploits, Dog Bay (Horwood qv) and Gan and Tilt Cove were renamed Fairbanks qv, Squid der Bay. After 1910 many people from Friday BayJ!!ld Cove, Salt Pans and Seal Cove became Hillgrade qv, the Summerford area also found work cutting pulp- Dark Hole is now Parkview qv and Valley Pond was NEWFOUNDLAND ANCESTOR, THE 51 open-minded delegates on the question of Newfoundland's future form of government. Though he may have pre ferred a revamped Commis sion of Government, he voted to give the people the option of Confederation. He served on the Convention's Educa tion and Public Health and Welfare committees. While a member of the Convention Newell earned a reputation as a poet. In 194 7 he won first Isaac Newell, 1946 prize in the O'Leary Newfoundland Poetry Award Con test. After Confederation he resumed his studies, and taught English at Queen's University until ill health obliged him to retire. He died at Kingston, Ontario on May 26, 1977. Michael Harrington (letter, Mar. 1989), DNLB (1990), ET (May 28, 1977). JAMES WADE Aerial view ofTizzard's Harbour NEWELL'S ISLAND. See GREENSPOND. formerly known as Whales Gulch. Handcock and NEWFOUNDLAND ANCESTOR, THE. A quarterly Sanger (1981), C. Grant Head (1976), E.R. Seary publication of the Newfoundland and Labrador Genealog (1977), Aubrey Tizzard (1984), Census (1836-1991), ical Society, the Newfoundland Ancestor began as a news Sailing Directions: Newfoundland (1986). RHC letter in November of 1984, a month after the Society's formation. Originally known as the Newfoundland and NEWELL, HAROLD (1890-1974). Librarian. Born Port Labrador Genealogical Society Newsletter, the publica de Grave. Educated Port de Grave; Memorial University tion was initiated by Society president Elsa Hochwald. Its College; Bishop's University; Columbia University. In function is to help members share information that would 1934 Newell was appointed librarian of the first public help them in tracing family descent. • Early issues, noting that an interest in searching out ~~~%~~e~~:~~~n~~a~:d family roots was growing in Newfoundland, as else stressed the great need for where, discussed special problems facing researchers public libraries in Newfound because of the fact that many parish registers, which land, and when the Commis sion of Government was appointed in 1934 a New foundland Public Libraries Board was established. On the recommendation of Al bert Hatcher qv (then presi t • Newfoundland and labrador GENEALOGICAL SOCIETY Inc. dent of Memorial University Summer 1991 Volume 7 No.2 College) Newell, a school teacher, was appointedlibrar- Harold Newell ian of the new Gosling Li- brary - with Agnes O~Dea qv and Faith Randell as assistants. Newell later served the Board as secretary. He retired in 1958. Agnes O'Dea (interview, Aug. 1991), DN (Jan. 4, 1974), Newfoundland Who's Who 1952 (1952). RUTH KONRAD NEWELL, ISAAC (1917-1977). National Convention delegate. Born Cupids, son of Edward and Lilly Newell. Educated Cupids; Memorial University College; Queen's University; Duke University; Oxford University. Married Jean Nast. Mter attending Memorial University College, Newell taught school in Comer Brook, and then, for five years, was a field worker with the International Grenfell Association at St. Anthony. In 1946, at a public meeting in St. Anthony, he was drafted as a candidate for the National Convention. He was perceived as one of the most 52 NEWFOUNDLAND BILL form the backbone of most professional and amateur In London, a Newfoundland club was formed in genealogical research in Newfoundland, had been 1921 to create "a gathering ground" for Newfound burnt or otherwise destroyed, or had simply not been landers in England. The composition of this club con kept. The aim of the newsletter, then, was to help sisted mainly of well-to-do merchants and politicians people share pieces of information that would help who had retired to the Old Country. An inaugural form a larger picture than one could uncover alone. luncheon was hosted by Sir Edgar Bowring qv, then As the paper progressed from a photocopied newslet High Commissioner to the United Kingdom, and a ter to a computer-typeset version in 1989, it rounded speech was given to the assembled guests by Lord out items of interest to researchers with human inter Birkenhead, the Lord Chancellor. The club began with est stories about community history, book reviews, about 100 male members (membership of women was marine disasters and mysteries, and with explanations under consideration at the first meeting) who planned of terms and customs of the past in Newfoundland. In to meet to exchange views on matters concerning 1992 other services available through the Society in Newfoundland. cluded a library, collections of tombstone inscrip Throughout the 1920s there were a number of other tions, microfiche and exchange journals. organizations formed in the Boston and New York Unfortunately, much of the Society's collection was areas. The Newfoundland Seal Social Club was incor destroyed in the Harvey Road fire of December 1992. porated in the Bronx, New York in 1923. Most of its Elsa Hochwald (letter, Dec. 1991), Newfoundland 125 members (in 1925) were young men who had gone and Labrador Genealogical Society Newsletter (Nov. to find work and were homesick. In Boston the Mutual 1984-Fall 1987), Newfoundland Ancestor (Winter Benefit Association was joined by the Terra Nova As 1987-Winter 1991). KAW sociation and the Newfoundland Charitable Society. The Terra Nova club was similar to the Mutual Benefit NEWFOUNDLAND BILL. See BILL, NEWFOUND Association, while the Newfoundland Charitable LAND. Society had as its main purpose the distribution of aid NEWFOUNDLAND BULLETIN. See NEWFOUND to the poor. Yet another society was formed in Boston LAND GOVERNMENT BULLETIN. at a banquet held in 1929 to honour Ron O'Toole qv, the first Newfoundlander to run the Boston marathon. NEWFOUNDLAND CHURCHMAN. See DIOCESAN The Boston Newfoundlanders Marathon Club was MAGAZINE. originally formed to raise funds for O'Toole, but con NEWFOUNDLAND CLUBS. Newfoundland clubs tinued to encourage athletics in general in the Boston have been formed by expatriate Newfoundlanders in area. In addition to these groups, Newfoundlanders numerous communities throughout Canada, the United had the option of joining the Boston branches of the States, Britain and elsewhere as social organizations Canadian Club and the Intercolonial Club. and as a way of maintaining ties to friends and family. These various groups were able to communicate Some of the earliest were started in New England by with one another through the Boston Newfoundland emigrants who had arrived in the "Boston States" Weekly qv. This newspaper, published from 1924 to seeking employment. Membership in these early clubs 1932, carried accounts of the various clubs' activities was generally restricted to men, with perhaps a smaller as well as news from "home" and the achievements of ladies' auxiliary. The clubs provided a chance to so Newfoundlanders abroad. From 1940 to 1941 the cialize, but they have also taken the form of mutual Newfoundland Weekly was resurrected in New York benefit societies or charitable and community service under the title the Newfoundland Times. It published organizations. Others bad their roots in military ser much the same type of articles as its predecessor and vice, as Newfoundlanders banded together in Europe advertised itself as the only newspaper devoted to and, as returned veterans, in North America. More Newfoundland interests outside of Newfoundland. recently, Newfoundland clubs have tended to be purely During World War II, a social club and hostel for social groups with membership open to all native-born Newfoundlanders serving in the armed forces was set Newfoundlanders and their descendants. up in London. It generally catered to a wider clientele The numbers of single men and young families who than the previous Newfoundland Club of London and emigrated to the Boston area in the latter part of the was begun with funds raised by the St. John's Rotary 1800s encouraged the formation of one of the first Club. For returned veterans, there were Newfoundland Newfoundland clubs. The Newfoundlanders Mutual War Veterans Associations in Boston, New York and Benefit Association was formed in 1892. It was social Montreal. As the Mutual Benefit Association of Bos in nature but functioned primarily to provide sick and ton marked its 50th anniversary, several new clubs death benefits for its members. Money was raised arose in the New York area, especially in Brooklyn. through annual balls and other entertainments. An Both the Newfoundland Club and the Original New other Boston area group had formed by the turn of the foundlanders were incorporated groups involved in century and both operated for some years. The Cabot fund raising and recreational sports teams. Charitable Club was founded by a number of Newfoundland work came to be channelled through the New York Boston businessmen who helped to organize Old Home branch of the Newfoundland Special Needs Associa Week qv, when several hundred expatriate Newfound tion. By the 1940s, women were active members in landers returned for a few days in the summer of 1904. most, if not all, of the clubs. NEWFOUNDLAND EXPRESS 53 The movement of people from Newfoundland and Lab Florida and Sommersville, South Carolina. John Car rador continued throughout the 1950s and 1960s and doulis (1990), Downhomer (May 1992), ET (Feb. 21, wherever a number of Newfoundlanders settled a club 1929; Feb. 3, 1991), NQ (June 1904; Autumn 1921; was often formed. The Newfoundland Association of March 1955; Fall 1963); Newfoundland Times (1940- Montreal was active in the mid-1950s as a social and 1941 passim), Newfoundland Weekly (Jan. 17, 1925; service group. In California, the Newfoundland Club was Jan. 23, 1926; Apr. 24, 1928; Apr. 20, 1929). ACB formed in about 1954. At their annual picnics, club mem NEWFOUNLAND COLONIST, THE. See COLONIST, bers maintained ties with friends and relatives in New THE. foundland by recording messages to be broadcast on St. John's radio station CJON. As far afield as an American NEWFOUNDLAND COMPANION. The Newfoundland military base in Narsarssuak, Greenland, the Newfound Companion, which was first issued in July 1946, was land Civilian Club held fund raisers, donating the money published and edited by Cyril Knight. The monthly to the Newfoundland Red Cross. was subtitled, 'The Home Magazine' and was mod Gradually, Newfoundland clubs throughout North elled after Protocol qv, another local publication. The America have come to be purely social organizations. Companion's stated purpose was to provide an outlet In 1989, Sandra (Dove) and Ron Young qv, originally for Newfoundland writers and to inform and entertain of Twillingate, began a Newfoundland newspaper in its readers. Short fiction and feature articles on various Toronto. The Downhomer helped Newfoundlanders subjects comprised most of the magazine. A small cash outside the Province maintain contact with one an prize was awarded to the best original poem in each other and facilitated the formation of the John Cabot issue. The magazine appears to have folded before the Society of Ontario. This club aimed to "provide an year ended. Patrick O'Flaherty (1979), Newfoundland environment of traditional down home hospitality" Companion (July 1946). ACB and "to develop and sustain a social organization for NEWFOUNDLAND DIALECT. See DIALECTS. all members" (Downhomer, May 1992). In 1992, the NEWFOUNDLAND DISASTER. See NEWFOUND Downhomer was distributed in communities through LAND, S.S. out North America and carried advertisements for Newfoundland clubs in places such as Windsor, Sarnia NEWFOUNDLAND DOGS. See DOGS. and Cambridge in Ontario; Thompson, Fort McMurray NEWFOUNDLAND EXPRESS. Published by J.T. Bur and Flin Flon in western Canada; and St. Petersburg, ton and edited by James Seaton qv, the Newfoundland Newfoundlanders hold a dinner at Toronto c. 1950 54 NEWFOUNDLAND EXPRESS Express began publication as a morning newspaper on eight million dollars doled out for relief and "a low Oct. 21, 1851. Published with frequency varying from ered vitality of people", the same issue gloried in twice a week to daily, it was renamed the Express in Newfoundland's relationship with Britain and looked December of 1866, and continued until 1876. Between forward to "sending her sons to the Motherland in the 1858 and about 1876 another edition, the Weekly Ex cause of Freedom". Along with advertising and edito press, was issued on Tuesday evenings. rial content whose lines often blurred in the effort to The Newfoundland Express published Supreme promote local enterprise, the Eye Opener printed po Court proceedings, a small section of local news and etry, inspirational filler material and Church of Eng extensive foreign news. It carried long features on land snippets such as an extract from the coronation foreign commodities markets, detailing the merits of service anointing King George VI at Westminster Indian tea versus Chinese, or following cotton produc Abbey. The latest issues of the NewFoundLanD Eye tion in Italy. Among the tenders for the supply of Opener in Newfoundland library holdings in 1992 are coffins to the lunatic asylum and promotions of from 1940. NewFoundLanD Eye Opener (Jan., Mar. Charles Pedley's qv History of Newfoundland ap 1940). KAW peared an array of advertisements for compounds, NEWFOUNDLAND EYE OPENER. A half-sized mag balms and tonics, one lamenting that "one quarter of azine of about 40 pages, the Newfoundland Eye all our people are scrofulous", another guaranteeing Opener, published in St. John's by Mimeograph Print relief from "Spermatorhoea, loss of manly power pro ers Ltd. and edited by Ron Pumphrey qv, first appeared duced by early indiscretion ... ". The paper's editorial in 1964. It was a hodgepodge of advice, information policy was conservative, its religious sympathies and comment. Advice to politicians and articles with Methodist. The Express opposed Roman Catholic unlikely bylines such as Joe Ozark and Johnny Manelli priests' influence in elections, spoke out against Re are found side by side with social snippets. An article sponsible Government, and supported confederation about a man who remodelled a car that had been used with Canada and the construction of a railway across as a hen bouse might appear next to a regular column Newfoundland. Suzanne Ellison ( 1988), Newfound titled "Of God and Man", in which one contributor land Express (passim). KAW wrote a piece entitled "I Was a Confirmed Atheist NEWFOUNDLAND EXPRESS. Published weekly in St. UNTIL A BUMBLE BEE 'STUNG' ME BACK TO John's by Thomas Murphy for about a year, starting on GOD''. The magazine ceased to appear after a few December 6, 1972, the Newfoundland Express billed it issues. Newfoundland Eye Opener (summer 1964; fall self as a family paper geared toward ''the average 1964). KAW citizen". Under managing editor Edward Coady, it fea NEWFOUNDLAND FISHERMAN. The official maga tured light local news, sports, various columns, radio and zine of the Newfoundland Federation of *Fishermen television listings and articles on media personalities. qv, the Newfoundland Fisherman was published by While the paper's wide margins and amateur graphics Guardian Associates Ltd. from 1952 to 1962. A small, gave it an unsophisticated appearance, it was notable for its attempt to cover Labrador as well as the Island, and for its occasional innovative story ideas suited to a family weekly. Suzanne Ellison (1988), Newfoundland Express (passim). KAW NEWFOUNDLAND EYE OPENER. Subtitled "ANa tional Commercial and Industrial Magazine'', the NewFoundLanD Eye Opener advocated both the devel opment of the fishery and other resources and the establishing of new industries. Editorials expressed a wish to "foster in Newfoundland a Newfoundland conscious spirit, to become an industrial and manufac turing country'' (Mar. 1940). Articles and advertisements exhorted Newfoundlanders to keep their money in local circulation. Lucrative foreign business ventures, such as tin mining and rubber plant ing in Malaya, were the subjects of feature articles, presumably to encourage Newfoundland entrepreneurs to duplicate these efforts locally. Edited and published by J.H. Adams, the magazine did not attempt to align its economic goals with any strong political stand, often praising colonial powers which other advocates of financial independence re garded as obstacles to such growth. While a January 1940 column queried why, after five years of Commis sion of Government, there was nothing to show except NEWFOUNDLAND GAZETTE 55 pocketbook-s~ze~ journal, it _contained ~essages from dan, Margaret Jordan, and John Kelly, for PIRACY, the organizatiOn s leaders, 1tems submttted by local MURDER, &c., to which is added Jordan's Dying branches, news items, features and advertisements. Confession, Execution &c." Notices of public auc Features included essays on the capelin roll and the tions held on St. John's wharves invariably included Norwegian cod fishery. General articles included news exotica such as, "1 spotted satin Bonnet, trimmed; 1 of the discovery of new fishing grounds, insurance for opera cloth hat and flower; 1 superfine cloth mantle, lobster gear, regulations regarding mesh sizes and trimmed with Fur." courses for fishermen in fisheries biology, oceanogra Although Ryan was dependent on government ad phy and technology. The magazine also included news vertising and generally conservative, social problems from the branches of the Federation regarding local of the day made their way into the Gazette. One note fishery conditions and elections of officers. In 1962 signed by the Governor complained of and prohibited the Federation announced that it would discontinue the the unauthorized bringing into port on Irish vessels of quarterly and begin publishing a more regular one that great numbers of poor women who "become could keep on top of the news, but no further publica distressed" and "occasion much disorder". Among tion was issued. Newfoundland Fisherman (passim). curious miscellaneous items was an 1860 notice by KAW Richard Neyle qv of his intention to apply for a patent for his "improved" cod jigger, for which he became NEWFOUNDLAND GAZETTE. Newfoundland's first well-known. Early illustrated advertisements for newspaper, the Newfoundland Gazette was first pub Royal Baking Powder appeared among notices about lished in the early 1800s as the Royal Gazette and public lectures on Roman archaeology and govern Newfoundland Advertiser (sometimes titled the Royal ment tenders for the supply of slates, cement and lime Gazette). Early issues, published by John Ryan qv, stone. contained a much greater variety of material than is Ryan was not as actively involved in the Gazette sues after 1924, which simply printed government no after 1832, when he was succeeded as King's Printer tices. by John C. Withers qv. John W. Withers qv succeeded Contents in the first half of the nineteenth century his father as King's Printer and publisher of the Ga included obituaries; notices of public auction; and col zette in 1890. In 1914 the paper backed up its motto, ourful notices of imported goods such as ale, lime, "Fear God: Honour the King", calling for recruits for bricks, sailcloth, paint, linseed oil and cases of "supe the first Newfoundland regiment with the slogan, rior claret and vin de grave". Mariners were notified "Men of the Ancient and Loyal Colony, Show Your of new lighthouses, with details of when the lanterns Loyalty NOW." Passing out of the hands of the With would beam. Advertisements solicited applications ers family to David R. Thistle qv in 1924, the paper from store clerks who knew how to cull fish, and from became the Newfoundland Gazette. By this time its farm hands willing to bind themselves for a few years function as a newspaper had been superseded by pub to enterprises in Cape Breton. Items for sale included lication of official government notices, such as lime juice, cocoa and an "elegant one-horse chaise". amendments to various acts, notices to creditors of Literary tastes were hinted at in advertisements such deceased persons, statutory notices regarding wills as one in 1810 that announced for sale, just received, and estates, and municipal council appointments and "a few copies of The Interesting Trial of Edward lor- rule alterations. It continued weekly publication into ;~lear (!i;ol:J: Wonor t!Jc 1\tng. Vol. XXIV. TUESDJJ. I~ Septembm· 20, 1831. No. 1256. (J::". - ~.\1~'1' .J\lll:\'!S: l'riut•••lawll'uuli-ln•tlhy .J(lll~ ltY.\X, l'rin!Pr tutltc Kts.,·s 1\!uST Exn:t.LI·:"'l' 1\],\JI·:ST\", atltisOili,·e,J.:iug'.,]'/ace. <.'i>n ::nlr. Notice~. .\l\!-'0:\, of tlH• City of E!ST C'oguac Dramly, ON TUUU§DAY, JIY lJrisrol, :uul of Xt•wfouutllnnd, ~Ierclnwt, B Hum, The 2!Jtl. Octouer next, n11 E11g-li~li B:wkrupt, nre lH"rt.•Ly n·qui 1\bdeira ) WILl, BE SUB)IJTTEI> FOit SALE, rt>tl lo mw or th·liYcr till• saul(' forthwith Sic:ilian ~ llctl aml \Yllite \Yiues~ 56 NEWFOUNDLAND GOVERNMENT BULLETIN 1992. See also JOURNALISM; PRINTING AND bronze caribou erected at the memorials to the New PUBLISHING. Suzanne Ellison (1988), Newfound foundland Regiment in France and Belgium. The New Land Gazette (passim), Royal Gazette and Newfound foundland was damaged in action near Sicily that Land Advertiser (1810; 1832; 1833; 1860; 1914 summer and spent several months under repair in Bos passim). KAW ton. By December it was with the Pacific fleet and was present in Tokyo Bay at the Japanese surrender. After NEWFOUNDLAND GOVERNMENT BULLETIN. This the war it was decommissioned, sold to the Peruvian paper was published in 1943 by the Newfoundland War government and renamed Almirante Grau. The silver Savings Committee, from 1943 to 1953 by the Depart caribou was returned to Government House, St. John's. ment of Finance and from 1968 to 1971 by the provin G.W.L. Nicholson (1969). ACB cial government. It had a different title during each period, and an evolving function. In 1943, as the Newfoundland War Savings Bulletin, it launched a campaign for investment in government war savings certificates and stamps: "Lend your money to win the war! Newfoundland children are just beginning to understand the power of ten cents. A ten cent WAR SAVINGS STAMP means FOUR BUL LETS for our fighting services - that's POWER." The paper also advocated thrift at home and encour aged subsistence farming. It printed a four-part "po tato plan", issued by the London ministry of food, advising readers to "refuse second helpings of other food until you've had more potatoes." In 1945, as the Newfoundland Government Bulletin, the paper's motto still read "thrift is practical patriotism", and it pushed savings stamps. But it also included govern ment announcements written up in story form, looking like a newspaper without advertisements or editorial criticism. When the Smallwood administration took over the paper it became a vehicle for showing the Premier and the Province in the best possible light, and when it re-emerged as the Newfoundland Bulletin in 1968 there was even more of this kind of emphasis. Consti tuted of lists of new expenditures, projects and glim mers of hope for the future, the Bulletin proclaimed, for example, that Newfoundland children were staying NEWFOUNDLAND HERALD. This weekly began in school longer than ever, more people were learning publication in 1946 in newspaper format, as the St. to drive in Newfoundland than ever before and the John's Sunday Herald. Through a series of title and Province was climbing to new heights in mineral pro format changes, it survived into 1992 as duction. No headline was ever more negative than this Newfoundland's largest-circulation and longest-lived one from June of 1969: "There aren't any cutbacks in weekly. education; it's just that we can't spend all we would From its inception, the Herald reflected the admira like." Suzanne Ellison ( 1988 ), Newfoundland Bulle tion of publisher Geoff W. Stirling qv for things Amer tin; Newfoundland Government Bulletin; Newfound ican. In the late 1940s it advocated economic union Land War Savings Bulletin (passim). KAW with the United States. Early anti-confederate content NEWFOUNDLAND, H.M.S. British cruisers of the included a report that ballads lambasting Canada were Uganda class built during World War II were named being sung all over Newfoundland. There were tales for Commonwealth countries. In 1942 the news that a of suffering in Canada, such as the report of a New new ship was to be named H.M.S. Newfoundland was foundlander living in Nova Scotia who, on encounter enthusiastically received here. As construction of the ing hard times, "found little of the helping hand 8000-ton ship began the Evening Telegram launched attitude so prevalent in Newfoundland during times of an appeal to raise $50,000 toward the cost of its arma distress", and who was forced to sell the family bed ment. The objective was reached within five months for food (July 13, 1947). Scattered among such reports and in September Dominions Secretary Clement Attlee were the Hollywood notes that would remain a feature qv, on a visit to Newfoundland, was presented with a of the Herald into the 1990s, along with American cheque for the amount. Commissioned for service, comic strip serials such as "Dick Tracy", under Captain R.W. Ravenhill, in January the cruiser "Superman" and "The Phantom". Meanwhile, as was given a white ensign on behalf of the Women's television became more popular - Stirling himself Patriotic Association and a small, silver replica of the was a major player in establishing the new medium- NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR HYDRO 57 the paper included TV listings and stories about Amer Protestant Public Ledger, boasting of ''frequent expo ican stars. Feature stories became less political and sure of the glaring and wilful falsehoods propagated more sensational- a man leaving his wife for a teen through its columns" (Nov. 18, 1843). Theindicator's age girl, a California professor experimenting with own columns carried news from Ireland, much of it breeding featherless chickens, end-of-the-world pre supporting the Loyal National Repeal Association. dictions. Horoscopes became a regular feature. In One report of an Association meeting, duly noting creasingly present with the 1970s were titbits of "loud cheers", proclaimed the adoption of a resolu esoterica, along with excerpts from books about tion that ''all the bribes of England could not purchase Eastern spirituality. off one single Catholic clergyman from the people In 1976 the Herald assumed a journal format, and throughout this entire isle" (Jan. 20, 1844 ). by the 1980s it had a full colour cover- often featur The Indicator printed notices of interest to its Cath ing American movie and TV stars, with an occasional olic readers. A notice offering education for young appearance by local entertainment personalities. De ladies listed classes at the new convent school run by spite some coverage of local news, the arts and enter the Sisters of Mercy. While general studies cost five tainment, the Herald retained this American/ pounds per annum, schooling in music alone came to Newfoundland duality. Suzanne Ellison (1988), St. an annual eight pounds (Nov. 18, 1843). A night on the John's Sunday Herald, Sunday Herald, Newfoundland town might include a concert in which a Mr. Swain, Weekend Herald and TV-Radio Guide, Newfoundland "accompanying himself on a good piano", would sing Weekly Herald and TV-Radio Guide, Newfoundland a program of romantic songs. "The Room," assured Herald and TV-Radio Guide, Newfoundland Herald the notice, "will be well aired" (Jan. 20, 1844). and Official TV-Radio Guide, Newfoundland Herald, The Indicator's most informative local items, like Newfoundland Herald TV Week, Herald (passim). those of other papers, were notices of vessels in port KAW with their picturesque cargoes - candles (mould, dipt, sperm and wax), grindstones, red ochre, West NEWFOUNDLAND ILLUSTRATED TRIBUNE. Major phalia hams and "new grass butter". The Indicator, repositories of historic Newfoundland newspapers despite its motto Resurgo Resiliens, appears to have hold only special Christmas issues of this newspaper survived less than two years, the last issue in Provin style magazine, issued in St. John's during the late cial holdings dated September 27, 1845. Suzanne Elli nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Representa son (1988), Newfoundland Indicator (passim). KAW tive issues from 1907 to 1915 show a high-quality publication notable for its photographic and engraved NEWFOUNDLAND JOURNAL OF COMMERCE. The reproductions of many subjects. official magazine of the Newfoundland Board of Co-authored and published by Mary Bowers, Pat Trade, this monthly journal began in the 1930s as a rick R. Bowers qv and William J. O'Neill, the maga chronicle of Newfoundland's economic state. Early zine included articles on telegrapher Orrin S. Wood, issues featured economic reports on matters such as the working class housing, and unionism in Newfound annual value of fish products, the financial condition land - "looking forward to a time when those who of fishermen, development in Labrador, mineral ex build the mansions will not live in hovels." Engraved ports and blueberry crops. The magazine reviewed the cover illustrations prefigured wonderful inside por cod fishery, agriculture, tourism and the lumber indus traits of people: Captain Robert A. Bartlett and the try. Early editorial staff included C.F. Horwood and crew of S.S. Roosevelt en route to the North Pole; Albert B. Perlin qv. prophet Richard Brothers qv; Prime Minister Sir E. P. When Michael F. Harrington qv became editor in Morris; and many other prominent people. Places 1952 the paper began to appear more magazine-like, were also portrayed in fine style: fish curing on the with a single colour accenting the cover and more premises of Alan Goodridge and Sons in Ferryland attractive layout and advertising. Features supple and scenes in Bowring Park. The magazine's flavour mented reports on activities of the Board of Trade. was grand, romantic and Victorian. Newfoundland Through the 1960s the paper continued with much the was portrayed as "the Tourist's paradise" with same format, and included features on the progress of "COMFORTABLE HOTELS IN EVERY SETTLE development at Churchill Falls, industrial arbitration MENT - Shooting Bungalows within easy reach of in Newfoundland, and tips on salesmanship. On occa the Lordly Caribou, THE ·FINEST GAME IN THE sion an article would appear that was not directly NEW WORLD." Combined with exotic articles on related to commerce, such as a 1969 wildlife Antwerp, Paris, Versailles, Lourdes and the_Pyrenees, biologist's piece on ruffed grouse as a tourist attrac these features gave the magazine a mood unique to its tion. The paper, circulated to Board of Trade members, own time and place in history. Suzanne Ellison (inter was renamed News and Views in 1972, and Business view, Feb. 1992), Newfoundland Illustrated Tribune News in 1986. Newfoundland Journal of Commerce (Christmas editions 1907, 1909, 1911, 1915). KAW (Jan. 1935; Jan. 1937; Jan., May, June 1950; Jan.-Dec. 1969). KAW NEWFOUNDLAND INDICATOR. A newspaper of strong Roman Catholic and Liberal sympathies, the NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR HYDRO. In Newfoundland Indicator was published in St. John's 1975 the Newfoundland and Labrador Power Commis by Michael Jordan beginning in 1843. It opposed the sion, a crown corporation originally established to 58 NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR HYDRO assist in rural electrification, was renamed Newfound the transmission facilities to the Island, will extend land and Labrador Hydro Corporation. The develop from about 1997 to 2004, and the electrical power ment and expansion of the Hydro group of companies requirements of the Province will be secured for the from the passage of theN ewfoundland Power Commis greater part of the twenty-first century. sion Act in 1954 to 1980 is outlined in Volume I (see In 1991 C.J. Abery resigned as chairman and chief ELECTRICITY). executive officer and was replaced by D.W. Mercer as In 1984 the construction of the Cat Arm hydro-electric president and CEO. James R. Chalker became chair project was completed, and became operational during man of the board of directors early in 1992. In that the first half of 1985. The project increased the year Hydro adopted a new policy respecting small Island's generating capability by 127 megawatts hydro developments. Previously Hydro, which holds (MW) and 700 million kilowatt hours annually. Late the water rights to all Island rivers (other than those in 1984 Victor L. Young qv resigned as chairman and granted to the paper companies and private developers chief executive officer and was replaced by C.J. prior to the establishment of Hydro), agreed to relin Abery. quish its franchise water rights only on very small Throughout the period 1985-1991 the demand on hydro projects (one MW or less). The new policy the Island for electrical energy decreased. The most provides for the relinquishing of franchise water significant factor in this decrease was the closure of rights on hydro-electric projects up to a maximum size the *Electric Reduction Company (ERCO) qv phos of 10 MW and at a capacity factor of 60%. In addition, phorous plant at Long Harbour in 1989. As a conse Hydro indicated its willingness to consider releasing quence of a lower demand than anticipated, major slightly larger sites to the private sector. Further to generation additions were not required on the Island encourage such developments, Hydro indicated that it during the latter 1980s and early 1990s. However, a would be prepared to purchase the power and energy small hydro-electric project was constructed at Para from these developments, on a long term basis, pro dise River on the Burin Peninsula. This facility was a vided the cost would not be in excess of the alterna "run of river" generating plant with an installed ca tives available. In order to encourage the private pacity of 8 MW and an average annual energy capabil sector in the development of small hydro sites and to ity of 36 million kilowatt hours. It was completed and ensure the availability of additional power and energy became operational in 1989 at a capital cost of $24 to meet the projected deficiency in the 1997-98 pe million. The facility was interconnected with the riod, Hydro formally requested proposals from inter transmission grid, and it increased the reliability of ested parties for the purchase of 50 MW from small electrical supply to the Burin Peninsula area. During hydro sites. The final selection of these projects was this period the capacity of two units at the Holyrood scheduled to be made in November of 1993. generating station was increased from ISO MW to 175 Studies of alternative energy sources have con MW each. In addition, Hydro embarked upon an inno cluded that the transmission of hydro power from vative source of generation in the Roddickton and St. Anthony areas. Studies, at the time, indicated that electricity generated from the burning of wood chips would be more economically attractive over the long term than conventional diesel generation utilizing No. 2 oil as fuel to meet the electrical load growth in these non-integrated areas. Moreover there was an eco nomic spinoff, in that the wood chips would be sup plied from local resources. Consequently, late in 1987 work commenced on the construction of a 5 MW chip burning generating station in Roddickton, and the die sel distribution systems in the two areas were interconnected with a 66 KV transmission line. The facility was completed in late 1989 at the capital cost of $28 million and has an average annual energy capa bility of approximately 28 million kilowatt hours. The electrical load growth throughout the 1990s is forecast to be less than that experienced over the pre vious ten years, and it is anticipated that additional electrical generation will not be required until late in the decade. In 1990 negotiations were reopened with Hydro-Quebec respecting the sale of power and en ergy surplus to Newfoundland's needs from the pro posed hydro-electric developments at Gull Island and Muskrat Falls on the Lower Churchill River in Labra dor. If a deal can be reached with Hydro-Quebec the construction period for the overall project, including Small hydro-electric dam at Paradise River NEWFOUNDLAND LIGHT & POWER CO. LIMITED 59 Labrador to the Island is the most economic long-term source of supply for the Island's electrical energy needs. It is in Labrador that the bulk of the Province's hydro-electric potential is concentrated - at Chur chill Falls, which is a developed site of 5400 MW, and at the undeveloped Gull Island (2264 MW) and Musk rat Falls (824 MW) sites on the Lower Churchill River. There is also significant potential in other Lab rador rivers, and in particular in the interprovincial rivers which have their headwaters in Labrador and flow into Quebec. The total estimated undeveloped hydro potential in Labrador, including the interprovin- cial rivers, is 7800 MWs and 53 billion Kwhrs annu LEO J. COLE Union Electric hydro plant The Union Electric Light and Power Company, United Towns Electric Company Limited, West Coast Power Company Limited and the Public Service Electric Company Limited. The old Newfoundland Light and Power was incor porated as the St. John's Street Railway Company in 1896, by Robert G. Reid and his sons William D., H.D. and Robert G. Jr qqv. It obtained water rights to Petty Harbour Pond in 1898 and on May 1, 1900, inaugurated the streetcar service in St. John's, using electric power generated from that source. Since the capacity of the Petty Harbour plant exceeded the de mand of the street railway, surplus power was avail able and a market was soon found for it. In July 1900 the Company arranged to purchase the assets of the St. John's Electric Light Company, which had been selling electricity in St. John's since 1885 from its generating plant on Flavin Street. The Reids closed down the small Flavin Street plant in January 1901 in favour of the Petty Harbour supply. The streetcar and electrical service was run as part of the parent *Reid Newfoundland Company qv for many years, but in 1920 it was incorporated as the St. John's Light and NEWFOUNDLAND LIFESTYLE. A features and en Power Company. In 1924 this Company was sold to tertainment magazine published from 1983 by Hubert Montreal Engineering Company which, together with Hutton, Newfoundland Lifestyle began as a controlled its parent, Royal Securities Corporation Limited, was circulation periodical, sent to households categorized controlled by I.W. Killam. The local company was as targets for advertisers. These advertisers included then incorporated as the predecessor Newfoundland furriers, jewellers, hotels and pubs, florists, realtors Light and Power Company Limited (NLP), and in and selected restaurants. While the magazine pur 1926 was transferred to International Power Com ported to be about Newfoundland life, its counterpart pany Limited, a firm incorporated by Killam to con in reality is not readily to be found. Articles included solidate his holdings in South and Central America in photo-essays on heritage interiors and a profile on addition to those in Newfoundland. International Playboy centrefold Shannon Tweed, while recipe edi Power divested itself of its interest in NLP shortly tors transformed rabbit and fish into "lapin moutarde" before Newfoundland's entry into Confederation in and ''sole swirls with tropical sauce''. Newfoundland 1949. The street car operation ceased in 1948, but Lifestyle (passim). KAW NLP continued until the 1966 amalgamation, building hydro plants on the Southern Shore and in central NEWFOUNDLAND LIGHT & POWER CO. LIM Newfoundland, and a steam plant on the south side of ITED. Newfoundland Light & Power Co. Limited St. John's harbour. In 1951 it acquired the distribu (Newfoundland Power) was formed in 1966 through tion system of Bay of Islands Light and Power and the amalgamation of the five investor-owned electric that of Bowater in Corner Brook and Deer Lake; in utilities that served the Island at that time: the former 1956, the A.N.D. Company's lines in the Grand Falls Newfoundland Light and Power Company Limited, Botwood area; in 1958, the Department of Transport 60 NEWFOUNDLAND LIGHT & POWER CO. LIMITED system in Gander; and in 1965, the system in the and on January 1, 1953, ac Town of Lewisporte. quired the facilities of the Claren ville Light and UNITED TOWNS' ELECTRICAL COMPANY LIM Power Company. It en ITED. United Towns' Electrical (later United Towns larged the Port Union hydro Electrical Company Ltd. or UTE) was formed in 1902 plant in 1920, added diesel by people in Harbour Grace, Carbonear and Heart's generating units from time Content. Construction of a hydro-electric plant at Vic to time, and built a second toria began in June 1904, and power was delivered to hydro plant at Lockston in Carbonear on November 4, to Harbour Grace the next 1955. Aaron Bailey became day, and to Heart's Content early in the following private secretary to William year. Coaker in 1923 and assis Prominent among the first directors were John P. tant general manager of Powell qv of Carbonear (who worked with the Reid Union Electric in 1926. By Aaron Bailey Newfoundland Company and had been involved in the 1930 he was president of the company and directed its construction of the Petty Harbour plant) and John J. operations until the amalgamation of 1966. Murphy qv, whose business interests included a lum bering operation and hotel in Gambo. Over the next 10 PUBLIC SERVICE ELECTRIC COMPANY LIM years Murphy increased his investment in UTE and ITED. On August 8, 1917, an act was passed establish became the majority shareholder. In 1915 he was ing the Public Service Electric Company and giving it elected president of the Company, and his son, Robert exclusive rights to a licence to sell electricity for light, J. Murphy qv, became managing director. Control of heat and power along the Trinity South shore and UTE remained in the hands of the Murphy family until Conception Bay shore north of Spaniard's Bay. The 1954 when their shares were sold and two Montreal petitioners for this legislation were businessmen in the firms, the Power Corporation of Canada and W.C. Harbour Grace-Carbonear-Heart's Content area, in Pitfield Company, became the largest shareholders. In cluding some of the original supporters of United 1961, the Power Corporation sold its interest to Towns. J.P. Powell played a key role in the new com Thomas R. Fildes and Bernard D. Parsons qv of St. pany. Because of franchise encroachments, there was John's. periodic conflict between United Towns and Public United Towns Electrical built generating plants and Service Electric which led to a court case in 1920. distribution facilities throughout the Avalon Penin While the court found in favour of UTE, disputes over sula. In 1914 it acquired Conception Bay Electric the service area continued. Finally, in 1932, an agree Company, which in the previous year had obtained a ment was negotiated which resulted in the purchase of franchise to service the Bay Roberts-Brigus area; in the shares of Public Service by UTE. The Public Ser 1929 it obtained a franchise to supply service on the vice properties included a generating plant at Heart's Burin Peninsula and, in that year, built a hydro plant at Content, which had been constructed in 1918. Lawn and a feeder to Grand Bank; in 1931 it acquired WEST COAST POWER COMPANY LIMITED. In the Wabana Light and Power Company, which it 1944, United Towns Electric set up West Coast Power wound up in 1959; and in 1932, the Public Service Company which acquired franchise rights in the dis Electric Company , which it continued as a subsidiary. trict of St. George's-Port au Port and the area within a In 1944 it established West Coast Power Company to radius of 25 miles of Port aux Basques. In November supply the Stephenville-St. George's and Port aux 1945 power was supplied to Port aux Basques from a Basques-Channel areas. diesel plant in the town, and to the St. George's area UNION ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER COM from a hydro plant located at Lookout Brook. Initially, PANY. The Union Electric Light and Power Company the company operated from an office in St. George's was incorporated in 1916 on the petition of Dugald and billing was carried out by the parent company in White, Joseph Perry and John Guppy qv, members of St. John's. In 1954 a billing office was set up on Main the *Fishermen's Protective Union (FPU) qv which Street in Stephenville, and in 1962 operations and was setting up headquarters in what was to become billing were consolidated in Stephenville. Port Union. William F. Coaker qv, head of the FPU, AMALGAMATION. During the early 1960s a number became president of the electric company following of events influenced the merger of the aforementioned the inaugural meeting of shareholders on June 28, utilities: disputes over the service area in and around 1916. Work began that year on the construction of a St. John's; political promises to lower electricity hydro plant at the mouth of the Catalina River, and rates; a government proposal to expand the role of the power was delivered to the FPU commercial proper Newfoundland Power Commission to supply uni ties and the residences of Port Union on February 17, formly priced power from Bay d'Espoir to all areas of 1918. The construction of the hydro project was car the Island; and the growing need for an interconnected ried out by Reid Newfoundland Company, under the transmission grid. On June 2, 1966 all companies supervision of Reid's engineer, J.P. Powell. signed an Amalgamation Agreement by which shares Union Electric extended its distribution system to of the amalgamating companies would be exchanged, Bonavista and other communities on the peninsula, at different ratios, for shares in a newly created NEWFOUNDLAND LUMBERMAN 61 Newfoundland Light & real estate company, whose Power Co. Limited, which principal asset was the of was registered on Septem fice tower at 139 Water ber 8, 1966. Denis Stairs of Street. The company Montreal Engineering changed its name to Fortis Company became the first Properties Corporation and president, but became acquired other smaller chairman of the board in properties in proximity to 1967 and was succeeded as the original purchase, and president by Aaron Bailey in 1992 the Herald Towers from Union Electric. V.A. in Corner Brook. Ainsworth and George During 1991, Fortis Adams of NLP became gen Properties acquired a 50% Aidan Ryan eral manager and treasurer, Angus Bruneau interest in a partnership respectively, and J.B. O'Keefe of UTE became secre with Unitel Communications Holdings Inc. of Toronto tary. Ainsworth was succeeded in 1968 by David Tem to build and operate a telecommunications system pleton, who held the senior management position until across Newfoundland. Connected to the Canada-wide his retirement as president on December 31, 1985. network of Unite) through Nova Scotia, the system Considerable growth took place following amalga was operational in 1992. In 1990 Fortis Inc. acquired mation, but sales began to taper off in the mid-1970s, approximately 33% of the common shares of Maritime with escalating oil prices and a growing dependency Electric Company, a utility operating in Prince Ed on oil-fired generation at the Power Commission's ward Island. In 1992 the Fortis group, with Newfound Holyrood steam plant. Beginning with the completion land Light & Power Co. Limited as the principal of Bay d' Espoir in 1967, the Company purchased a subsidiary, had between 950 and 1000 employees, and growing portion of its power requirements from the fixed assets of $695.5 million. Baker et al (1990), Jack Power Commission (which was later named New Sexton (1982), Newfoundland Light & Power Co. foundland and Labrador Hydro) as an alternative to Limited Archives. RAYMOND F. GOSINE building new generating facilities. It continued to op NEWFOUNDLAND LOGGER. Published monthly in erate more than 20 small hydro plants, which the pre 1959 and 1960 by the woods department of the Anglo decessor companies had constructed around the Newfoundland Development Co. Ltd. (A.N .D. Co.), Island, and in the 1980s undertook to improve their the Newfoundland Logger was a public relations mag efficiency. By that time, however, Company-owned azine directed at loggers and their families. A journal facilities could produce only 10% of total sales. In of about 16 pages, it had a one-colour glossy cover and areas other than generation, the Company spent con carried stories and photographs that portrayed workers siderable sums in expanding and improving its trans as contented members of a smoothly-running team, a mission and distribution system. Property and scenario contradicted by loggers' complaints about equipment increased from $83,944,000 in 1966 to working conditions and wages which gave rise to the $685,004,000 at the end of 1991. In 1986 the position I.W.A. loggers' strike of 1959. The A.N.D. Company of president was filled by Angus Bruneau and manage ceased publishing the Newfoundland Logger in 1960, ment was reorganized. The Company's new mission giving as its reason the need for a new paper directed included the formation and support of other enter at both loggers and millworkers. Newfoundland Log prises to enhance the economy of the Province. ger (passim). KAW FORTIS INC. In 1987 corporate reorganization re NEWFOUNDLAND LUMBERMAN. The official month sulted in the creation of Fortis Inc. as the parent and ly paper of the Newfoundland *Lumbermen's Associ sole common shareholder of Newfoundland Light & ation qv, the Newfoundland Lumberman was published Power Co. Limited. Angus Bruneau was appointed in Grand Falls from the late 1930s until about 1950. A chairman, president and chief executive officer of For newspaper format publication, it carried a combination tis Inc., while retaining the senior management posi of stories designed to entertain and inform men in the tion in Newfoundland Light & Power Co. Limited lumber camps - articles on workers' rights, notices until 1990, when Aidan Ryan became president and from lumber companies, advertisements, poetry, sto chief executive officer and Bruneau became chairman ries and international news items. of the board. The masthead slogan extolled workers' rights to Fortis Inc. made its first investment, outside of the enjoy the wealth created by their labour, and editorial core utility business, in 1989 when it purchased the articles were quick to point out potential effects of shares of Newfoundland Building Savings and Invest government policy upon the average worker and upon ment Ltd., a small St. John's business which began in the lumberman in particular. A 1947 editorial on terms 1936 (and renamed it Fortis Trust Corporation). With of confederation argued that Newfoundlanders would the new impetus provided by Fortis Inc., assets in have to pay dearly for the move: "Our woods industry creased from $9.3 million in 1989 to $41.6 million at will be more or less a reserve for future financial the end of 1991. Also in 1989, Fortis Inc. purchased a benefits ... and our loggers can cut the scrub in the 62 NEWFOUNDLAND MAGAZINE Spring", and one issue reprinted a hymn sung by the Canadian corps at Vimy Ridge. Products such as Brit .,_~ ...... , ..... I ish woolens, "klim" (a milk substitute) and whisks _ ~ . ~. ... ·- .. from the broom department of the Newfoundland Pen ~':' w::.:.:.-:: I ---- itentiary were advertised. The magazine also included ·--.,-····... - .. -. fictional stories with moral themes and carried notices President's Addreas to Tenth Annual Convention ~Gov'l. that spoke of social problems of the time. One such Jlr-~_(~-=---!.:" ___ "'"...... :~ ..-lkit-.-v:=.~":"=~""::.::.':=.:...... _ .... _ Leque .... - -·- notice, in the November 1920 issue, proclaimed that ~:=:,=-..-:.::_.__ 5=;.;;r:.:::t~~~~~--;:;s::1 patients for the Asylum for the Insane must not be sent ~-~~-=E"~~E~~~~:..'::'~=:--- · ..-.------··11--~·--.u- ... -·- ·---.. :;;~;... unannounced from the outports while building renova tions limited space. The Newfoundland Magazine was continued by the Newfoundland Magazine and Com mercial Advertiser, which ran until the early 1930s. Newfoundland Magazine (passim). KAW NEWFOUNDLAND MAGAZINE. A publication of M & M Enterprises Ltd. in Corner Brook, Newfoundland :~"'!-:::;:~- ... _.., __ ..... _ ,..!!..."':::"="""::==-= ~~:.:::::..-..:.:..---..- Magazine came out monthly in 1981 and 1982, replac ing Where and When (issued from 1979 to 1981). Its editors were Noel Murphy qv, Gilbert Higgins, Wendy Martin and Edwina Martin. Containing short personal ity profiles, community histories and a monthly calen dar of activities, the small magazine was geared to vacationers in Newfoundland. Contributing writers in llltl~i.__..~ - ...... lo.., _,_...... ~- · .c~ · · ,.,..__,_., cluded Don Morris, R.W. Guy and Nellie Strowbridge qqv. Newfoundland Magazine (passim). KAW bogs of Quebec and other places that have been cut NEWFOUNDLAND MERCANTILE JOURNAL. T h e over, and from which the real Canadian lumberjacks earliest library and archival holdings of this paper in have left to seek employment in British Columbia or Newfoundland are from 1816 and the latest from 1827. Uncle Sam's state of Maine, and where they could The paper offered a variety of news reprinted from earn a day's pay." Against this editorial backdrop foreign sources, often detailing the hardship of citizens came international items such as a report on the assas under foreign governments, as well as military mem sination of M.K. Gandhi, and a "poet's corner", sub oirs, travel pieces with such titles as The Grandeur of titled "songs requested by the men in the camps at Mt. Etna and missionaries' accounts of misery and Badger, Bishop's Falls, Springdale and Robert's famine in lands in which they had served. Most ofthese Arm." Newfoundland Lumberman (July 27, 1939; news items came from overseas sources, including the May 1947; Feb. 1948; Mar. 1950). KAW Derby Mercury, Canadian Spectator, Devonport Tele graph and London Magazine. NEWFOUNDLAND MAGAZINE. A short-lived St. Local news was minimal and confined to notices of John's literary magazine edited by novelist Theodore accidents, fires, deaths and the business of prominent G. Roberts qv, the Newfoundland Magazine included people. Presumably these people also appreciated the essays by such well-known local figures as D.W. Pro paper's long essays on genteel subjects such as the wse, P.T. McGrath and W.J. Higgins qqv, as well as poetry of Byron or answers to Thomas Paine's "infa short stories and poetry. Like the Newfoundland Quar mous attacks on the Christian Religion" (Sept. 28, terly qv, which issued its first number in 1901, 1826). The best indicator of local happenings and their Roberts' magazine also published work of an emerging effects on ordinary people came from the substantial literary group in St. John's. Roberts left Newfoundland advertising content: the price of a hogshead of coal in 1902 and the magazine ceased publication. Frances from Newcastle, watchmakers' inventories of ame Gale Heaney (1960), Newfoundland Magazine (July thyst brooches and cutlery, and the arrivals, origins 1900). KAW and destinations of cargoes of flour, lard, canvas, NEWFOUNDLAND MAGAZINE. Published bimonthly hams and chocolate. Notices of places to let, the sale in St. John's from 1917 to 1920 by E.A. Smith, the of barrels of mackerel or leaf tobacco, and news of Newfoundland Magazine began as a patriotic, wartime items sold "for fish, oil or cash" indicated a social paper featuring articles on women's war work, local and economic order that the paper's columns of for poetry and timely advertisements. One recurring War eign news may have otherwise obscured. The journal, Risk Insurance advertisement warned that fire insur issued biweekly from 1816 to 1817 and weekly from ance policies would not cover personal losses ''should 1817 to 1827, was printed and published in succession an inflammable bomb be thrown into St. John's by the by Haire and Lee, Robert Lee and Donald M'Phee enemy." A 1917 poem, signed "an Old Boy", carried Lee. Suzanne Ellison (1988), Newfoundland Mercan the title, "When the Boys are Bazzin' Marbles in the tile Journal (passim). KAW NEWFOUNDLAND QUARTERLY 63 NEWFOUNDLAND NEWS MAGAZINE. The Newfound photo of the rig bordered with a black band. Initial land News Magazine, a monthly journal in newspaper optimism about oil prosperity waning in the mid- format, was edited and published in St. John's by W. 1980s, the magazine ceased publication. East Coast J. Crotty from 1938 to 1940. In 1938 it protested the Offshore (passim), Newfoundland Offshore (Nov. policies of the Commission of Government, wondering 1981; Dec. 1981). KAW • 'how it is that though we have lost our liberty over NEWFOUNDLAND OUTLOOK. In October 1903 four years ago many of us have not yet begun to realize H.M. Mosdell qv, then a schoolteacher, bought the what it means.'' In an article headlined ''The Mum Brigus printing plant of the defunct newspaper Vindi mers of 1938" it depicted the United Kingdom com cator and Brigus Reporter. With C.W. Mosdell, he missioners as the "modern mummers", agents of announced his intention to continue the paper, begin disguise and deception. Subsequent issues were friend ning in November, as the weekly Newfoundland Out lier towards the Mother Country, the June 1939 issue look, but although the paper was registered early in welcomed the visit of King George VI and Queen 1904 by Outlook Publishing there are no known copies Elizabeth with many a ''God Save the King and of it. H.M. Mosdellleft Newfoundland for Toronto in Queen" and a poem titled "Chorus of Welcome". 1907, and two years later Charles Russell qv bought Along with such items, and a history column called the presses to establish the Bay Roberts Guardian qv. "Echoes of the Musty Past", the paper also regularly Suzanne Ellison (1988). ACB printed poetry, short stories, and photographs of such things as community scenes of Newfoundland or, as NEWFOUNDLAND PATRIOT. See PATRIOT AND World War II escalated, military scenes. Newfound TERRA NOVA HERALD. land News Magazine (1938-1940). KAW NEWFOUNDLAND QUARTERLY. On July 1, 1901, the first issue of the Newfoundland Quarterly went on sale. In 1993 the Quarterly was still being published, having missed only a dozen or so issues - for such diverse reasons as change in ownership, shortage of finances and a mail strike. By 1993 there had been four book format publications based on the Quarterly: a 240- page Special Seventy-Fifth Anniversary Issue contain ing selected prose works and pictures from the years 1901-1976, two books of poems from Quarterly back issues- Choice Poems from the Newfoundland Quar terly I909-1981 and Modern Newfoundland Verse from the Newfoundland Quarterly 1971-1987- and The Newfoundland Quarterly: Its Evolution Over an 85-Year Period 1901-1986. For the first half-century, the owner and printer was John J. Evans qv, printer of 34 (later 38) Prescott Street in St. John's. The editors were Evans (1901-44) and John J. Evans Jr. (1944-51). From 1952 to 1965 the proprietor and editor was Lemuel Janes qv. Since 1966 the editor-in-chief has been Harry A. Cuff, while the owner and printer was Creative Printers and Pub lishers until 1982, when ownership passed to a regis tered non-profit charitable organization, the Newfoundland Quarterly Foundation. Over its first 91 years, the Newfoundland Quarterly published 348 is sues containing 5334 items on Newfoundland history NEWFOUNDLAND OFFSHORE. Published by Joe B. and culture, poetry and fiction, biography and literary Harvey from 1981 until the mid-1980s, Newfoundland criticism. Most issues have been of 48 pages and for Offshore - retitled East Coast Offshore in 1982 - the first 82 years included advertisements. Although was subtitled "Canada's first Offshore Oil and Gas the advertisements in the early issues make interesting Magazine''. Intended to help the local business com reading (and have provided valuable information for munity keep abreast of developments offshore, the researchers), the Newfoundland Quarterly Foundation glossy-covered magazine, printed on newsprint paper decided to discontinue selling advertising space. Since stock, had an appearance similar to that of the New 1952, the Quarterly has been distributed to every foundland Herald qv. The magazine's approach was school library in the Province, the cost shared by the one of expectant optimism that exploration off New provincial government and the owners. Virtually all foundland would result in a measure of prosperity. Newfoundland writers of note have been published When the Ocean Ranger qv was lost on February 15 of (many for the first time) in the Newfoundland Quar 1982, the subsequent memorial issue carried a cover terly. Although most early editions had black and 64 NEWFOUNDLAND QUARTERLY the editor. Yet the practice continued of having many established and new writers featured. It is doubtful whether the Newfoundland Quarterly would have continued beyond 1966 if the Newfound land Historical Society had not agreed to the sugges tion of Ralph Davis (then manager of Creative Printers and Publishers) that the Society regularly provide ma terial for it. Davis prevailed upon Harry Cuff to accept the editorship, and the Society's vice-president, Leslie Harris qv, was asked to be responsible for providing appropriate articles. Harris went further, founding and editing "Aspects": the official organ of the New foundland Historical Society as an insert in the New foundland Quarterly. A.B. Perlin qv joined the staff as consultant and supported Cuff in his decision to pub lish a summary of Newfoundland's news highlights in each issue and proposed that the Quarterly continue to comment on major news items. They also agreed to publish the official results of each provincial election - a practice which has continued. The emphasis on encouraging Newfoundlanders to write was strengthened in 1971 when Everard King qv was appointed poetry editor. (Twenty contributors have since had books of poetry published). In 1974 Patrick O'Flaherty qv proposed a book review section, and edited it until Thomas Nemec qv succeeded him in white or duotone covers (often including the table of 1978. After some years of association with the Quar contents and even advertising), beginning with the terly, including the co-editing of the Seventy Fifth Foundation's ownership covers have been in full col Anniversary Special Edition, in 1977 Cyril Poole qv our, featuring the works of Newfoundland photogra became associate editor, and reinforced the phers and artists. magazine's determination not to become a high-brow It is difficult to determine the continuing philoso publication for scholars, but to remain one with appeal phy of the Quarterly. It has always been apolitical and to the general reader. its editors appear to have disapproved of writing edi When the Newfoundland Quarterly Foundation was torials. Consequently, the character of the magazine established in 1982, the unanimous choice as chairman has changed as its main recurring writers and support ers have died. But it has consistently been concerned with preserving Newfoundland's culture, and provid ing a means for publishing the works of Newfound land writers, and more recently photographers and artists. Certainly the first three editors, as owners, had to be concerned with attracting and retaining advertis ers, for the production of the Quarterly constituted a major portion of their income. Under the editorship of Evans, senior, it had been the practice to have writers contribute an item in every issue over a decade or more: thus D.W. Prowse and M.F. Howley qqv had articles in each of the first 50 issues, Arthur Selwyn Brown wrote in each issue from 1913 to 1933, while W.J. Browne and W.A. Muon qqv contributed to virtu ally every number from 1933 to 1939- Munn provid ing a history of Harbour Grace spread over 22 issues. Although Evans, junior, had W.J. Browne write a lead article Review of the War in each issue during World War II, and carried an article by Robert Saunders in each issue from 1945 to 1951, he opened his magazine to a variety of writers. Throughout his editorship from 1952 to 1965, Lemuel Janes had one or two major articles in each issue by Saunders (who bought 100 subscriptions annually) and many prose items by "Anon" (probably Janes), as well as poetry fillers by NEWFOUNDLAND, S.S. 65 was Michael Harrington qv, editor, broadcaster and 11:30 AM and took them to a patch of seals, giving long-time friend of the Quarterly. The other members Tuff orders to return to the Newfoundland when they of the Foundation have included John Acreman, Eliz were finished hunting. Despite their distance from the abeth Batstone, Roy Brown, Grace Butt, Aiden Newfoundland and the fact that the weather was dete Maloney, Paul O'Neill, George Story and Bruce Wood riorating, Tuff did not ask Abram Kean for permission land. The group injected new blood into the editorial to return to the Stephana for the night. As they at staff by appointing as assistant editors Melvin Baker, tempted to reach the Newfoundland they were blinded Robert Cuff and Robert Pitt (succeeded in 1992 by by a blizzard, and with one man, William Pear, already Jeffrey Cuff). Baker initiated the regular feature injured, had no choice but to stop and erect shelters "Prominent Figures from our Recent Past" in 1984. In against the storm. They spent 53 hours trapped in the writing an overview of the magazine Percy Janes ob blizzard. Without wireless telegraphy both Wes Kean served " ... the Newfoundland Quarterly provides a service and his father assumed that the men were safe on the to Newfoundland writers, to the public and our culture other's ship, and no search was undertaken. A small in general, that has never been and is not now being group of survivors got back to the Newfoundland, but offered by any other magaz~ne." HARRY A. CUFF 78 men died of exposure or drowning. Eight bodies were never recovered. Of the survivors, 11 men were NEWFOUNDLAND, S.S. A wooden ship built in 1872 permanently disabled. in Quebec, the S.S. Newfoundland was purchased by A magisterial enquiry was held into the disaster. Captain J. Farquhar in 1893 and, registered in Wind Sealers blamed both captains and, to a lesser extent, sor, Nova Scotia, was used in the seal hunt throughout George Tuff for not arranging for the Stephana to pick the 1890s. In 1898, because of Farquhar's involvement them up. The enquiry assessed no criminal blame, but in the Spanish-American War, the ship was caught and felt that Abram Kean, George Tuff and Westbury Kean held for six months in Charleston, North Carolina. In were all guilty of errors in judgement, the latter for 1904 the vessel was in the registry of the Newfound failing to order that his ship's whistle be sounded land Sealing Company Limited, and, based in St. continuously. Three thousand people signed a petition John's, participated annually in the seal hunt off the calling for Abram Kean's arrest on charges of criminal northeast coast. negligence, and many sealers refused to work for him In 1914 the Newfoundland was under the command again, but the following year he was again at the seal of Captain Westbury Kean qv. Hampered by severe ice hunt, as captain of the Florizel. conditions, the ship became jammed in the floe sev A commission of enquiry was held in 1915 to exam eral miles from the other vessels. On March 30, ine the causes of the Newfoundland disaster and the Kean's father, Captain Abram Kean qv, signalled from sealing industry in general. Two of the commissioners the Stephana that he had located seals. Frustrated by found Abram Kean responsible, concluding that he his inability to move, Wes Kean decided to have his misjudged where he dropped off the Newfoundland's crew walk the seven miles to the Stephana. After the men and their distance from their own ship, and that in seals were taken, Kean believed, his father would take any case he was wrong to have put them on the ice at them on the Stephana for the night, as the Newfound the beginning of a blizzard. George Tuff was also land could probably not be reached before dark. At judged to be in error for not arranging shelter for the 7:00 AM the following morning the sealers from the men in his command. The third commissioner, how Newfoundland, led by George Tuff qv, Kean's second ever, concluded that the disaster was an act of God and hand, left to walk to the Stephana. But 34 of the crew, assessed no blame. The commission recommended observing no seals and with the weather worsening, safety legislation and that ship owners be held respon turned back. Abram Kean picked up the others at sible for injury or death to their crew. It was also S.S. Newfoundland Survivor being assisted ashore at Harvey & Co. wharf in St. John's 66 NEWFOUNDLAND SPORTSMAN fitters who cater to visiting hunters and sports fisher men. Newfoundland Sportsman (1990-92 passim). ACB NEWFOUNDLAND STUDIES. Literature on New foundland and Labrador society and culture draws on a long tradition. Institutionalized, scholarly research in the area at Memorial University dates from the 1950s. In 1977 the University introduced an interdisciplinary undergraduate program in Newfoundland Studies, and two years later students could obtain a certificate in Newfoundland Studies upon the completion of 10 courses in at least six different subject areas. By the early 1980s Newfoundland Culture became a core high school graduation requirement (although this require ment was dropped by the Department of Education in 1992). Newfoundland Studies has long been a serious area of research at other universities. Within New foundland and Labrador it had been the subject of much popular interest. The study of Newfoundland history has been part of the public school curriculum since at least the mid- 1830s and the publication of W.C. St. John's Cate chism of the History of Newfoundland. From 1885 schools had Moses Harvey's Textbook of Newfound The bodies "stacked like cordwood" on the hatch of the land History for the use of Schools and Academies. Bellaventure Since Harvey's there have been a number of other school textbook histories: William Pilot (1908), James recommended that every ship carry telegraphs, barom Cochrane (1938), Leslie Harris (1968), John Greene eters and thermometers; that there be more thorough (1982) and Keith Matthews et al (1984). Newfound inspections of ships and lifeboats; and that there be land geography has also been part of the school curric access to accurate weather forecasting. The enquiries ulum, textbooks ranging from James P. Howley's and the public outcry over the Newfoundland disaster Geography of Newfoundland (1876) to John Rogers' together with the loss of the Southern Cross qv, which Newfoundland (1911) to James Cochrane's The Eco disappeared in the Gulf of St. Lawrence during the nomic Geography of Newfoundland (1936) and Wil same blizzard, resulted in changes in the sealing in liam and Mary Summers' Geography of Newfoundland dustry. A permanent marine disaster fund was estab (1965). Collections of Newfoundland literature and lished almost immediately to compensate victims, poetry have also been available in the school curricu their widows and children, and the Sealing Law was lum since the introduction of William Blackall's Sto amended later that year to make telegraph equipment ries from Newfoundland (c.1924). mandatory on all sealing vessels. Popular histories of Newfoundland and Labrador In 1915 the Newfoundland was sold to Job Brothers have contained chapters on divers aspects of local and Company Limited, and the next year its name was society and culture. In his comprehensive 1895 history changed to the S.S. Samuel Blandford. In August 1916 D. W. Prowse included chapters on fisheries, railway it was lost in St. Mary's Bay. Cassie Brown with Har construction, telecommunications and churches. W.G. old Horwood (1972), James E. Candow (1989), Shan Gosling in 1910 provided a broad sweep of Labrador non Ryan (1987), ET (Apr. 2-May 27, 1914), JHA history and life, as did Patrick W. Browne in Where (1914), Mercantile Navy List and Maritime Directory the Fishers Go (1910). The first book to take a broad (1904; 1907), NQ (July 1914), A.C. Hunter Vertical almost encyclopedic approach to Newfoundland File (Newfoundland), Centre for Newfoundland Stud stud~ ies- "a fuller and more authoritative account of the ies Ship File (Newfoundland), Newfoundland Histori people, institutions, and conditions of Newfoundland cal Society (Newfoundland Disaster). LMS than has hitherto been available" - was the two NEWFOUNDLAND SPORTSMAN. The first issue of volume Book of Newfoundland edited and published in the Newfoundland Sportsman was published in the fall 1937 by Joseph R. Smallwood. In this publication of 1990 by Dwight Blackwood. Based in St. John's, the Smallwood expanded the approach of his The New quarterly magazine has been edited since its inception Newfoundland (1931), which described the industries, by Jeff Blackwood. The Sportsman prints a variety of customs, traditions and dialects of Newfoundlanders. articles on game hunting, fishing, camping, nature The Book of Newfoundland provided accounts of local photography and related subjects; and carries features society and economy, geography and natural resources on sporting personalities from the Province. The mag by various authors. Its appearance in 1937 coincided azine promotes tourism by advertising guides and out- with the valuable pamphlet by P.K. Devine on local NEWFOUNDLAND STUDIES 67 folklore, its phrases, expressions, ongms and mean Fl~l!ISf; .IN!) TRAnTXG C Leod (1990), Harvey Mitchell (1958), M.O. Morgan (interview, May 1992), Agnes O'Dea (1986), Patrick O'Flaherty (1979). MELVIN BAKER NEWFOUNDLAND STUDIES. An interdisciplinary journal whose first issue appeared in the spring of 1985, the editorial board of Newfoundland Studies was composed of faculty members of Memorial Univer sity's department of English language and literature in 1992. The periodical contained essays in the arts and sciences about the culture and society of Newfound land. It included such topics as literary oral styles in Newfoundland autobiographies, French cartography in eighteenth-century Newfoundland, and the tradition of mummering in the light of the 1983 "Mummers Song" by the Fortune Bay group Simani. Newfoundland books of academic import were reviewed in each issue. Edi tors included William J. Kirwin, Shane O'Dea, Patrick O'Flaherty qqv and Richard Buehler. The format was that of a glossy paperback of about 100 pages, with a white embossed cover, meant to come out twice a year. Newfoundland Studies (various issues 1985-1990). KAW Drs. Kirwin and Story at work on the Dictionary NEWFOUNDLAND TRADE REVIEW. A newspaper anthropology, has been supportive in the development largely devoted to ''the general business of the of several new sites in the Province. In education the Country'' -the trade in salt fish- the Newfoundland University has a publication program dedicated to Trade Review began publication in St. John's in 1892 examining educational and social issues, while the as the Daily Review. It was renamed in 1901 and issued faculty of medicine has promoted the study of our as a weekly. Maurice A. Devine qv and Michael J. medical history. Research on material culture was for O'Mara published and edited the paper until 1910, malized with the creation in 1988 of the Centre for when it was edited by Devine alone. Patrick K. Devine Material Culture Studies to "initiate, promote, and qv replaced his brother as editor in 1912. Shipping and sponsor research on material within both the Univer market reports made up most of the Review, which also sity and the general culture." Also, in 1988 Memorial included legislative proceedings, government notices, created the J.R. Smallwood Centre for Newfoundland advertisements, and local and foreign reports on Studies, with a mandate to promote both individual and group scholarly collaboration research in the field of Newfoundland Studies. Recent research in aspects The Newfoundland of Newfoundland studies can also be found in several TRADE REVIEW edited collections. James Hiller and Peter Neary ed (COMM£RCIE) (INDUSTRIIES) ited in 1980 historical research on nineteenth and twentieth century subjects, while in folklore the qual ity of research is reflected in Gerald Thomas's and John Widdowson's 1991 anthology. Graduates of the Newfoundland studies programs of the 1970s have made their mark outside the Uni versity as well as within. The ongoing work on the Encyclopedia of Newfoundland and Labrador, a proj ect initiated by Joseph Smallwood, is a good ex ample. The popularity of Newfoundland studies is also seen in the growing number of books by authors such as Paul O'Neill, Jack Fitzgerald, Michael Mc Carthy and Frank Galgay. Local publishing has flour ished in the past decade, with financial assistance from both the federal and provincial governments. The variety of the published titles is found in an annual compilation of "books in print" available from the Newfoundland Historical Society. See also HISTORICAL WRITING; LITERATURE; MEMO RIAL UNIVERSITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND; PRINTING AND PUBLISHING. Hiller and Neary (1980), A.C. Hunter (BN IV, 1967), Malcolm Mac- 70 NEWFOUNDLAND VINDICATOR commerce and industry. This format was largely main pledged to the United States. Suzanne Ellison ( 1988), tained in the 1930s when the paper was published by Newfoundland Weekly (passim), Newfoundland Times David R. Thistle qv as the Weekly Herald and New (passim). KAW foundland Trade Review. Thistle's Trade Printers and Publishers continued the Trade Review until 1948. A NEWFOUNDLAND WEEKLY. Published on Fridays collection ofP.K. Devine's writings for the paper was from December 1956 through 1957 by the Weekly published in 1990 under the title In the Good Old Publishing Co. Ltd., this newspaper claimed to be Days!. P.K. Devine (1990), Suzanne Ellison (1988). non-partisan and showed a preference for exclusive ACB material. While two of the paper's editorial staff, Ar thur Harnett and James A. McGrath qv, had run unsuc NEWFOUNDLAND VINDICATOR. A four-page weekly cessfully for the Progressive Conservatives in the paper published by William Beck and edited first by previous election, the paper made only occasional crit Walter Dillon, then by John V. Nugent qv, the New icism of the Liberal government. For the most part it foundland Vindicator began publication in St. John's offered an innocuous selection of stories, which often on January 2, 1841. It appears to have ceased publica speculated about the future instead of dwelling on the tion less than two years later. The Vindicator carried a present or the past. The paper also included a radio and verse near its masthead that promised to ''vindicate the television guide, comics and a page for youth. Suzanne oppressed", and its pages carried a running commen Ellison (1988), Newfoundland Weekly (passim). KAW tary on evils of the Tories as opposed to the saintly activities of the "Whigs" or Liberals. The first issue NEWFOUNDLANDER. The first issue of the New of the paper reprinted proceedings of a trial convicting foundlander appeared in August 1827, and the paper a returning officer of refusing to receive the plaintiff's continued in weekly and biweekly form until late 1884. vote. Subsequent issues often devoted extensive cov Published successively by various members of the erage to reports of the superior courts and courts of Shea family (John, William Richard, Ambrose and session, and to reports on meetings of the Legislature. Edward D. Shea qqv), it contained local news, court The paper's sympathies were Irish and Roman Catho and legislative reports, shipping news, fishing reports lic, and foreign news included an emphasis on Irish and extensive foreign news. The paper remained polit developments. The paper opposed the conflicting ically neutral until the 1840s, when it began to decry views of both the Times and the Public Ledger qqv. rural poverty and to oppose the proposed establish Suzanne Ellison (1988), Newfoundland Vindicator ment of denominational education. (passim). KAW With the introduction of the Amalgamated Assem bly in 1843, the Newfoundlander advocated a return to NEWFOUNDLAND WEEKLY. This paper was pub representative government. After Ambrose Shea won a lished in Boston from 1924 to 1932 and in New York seat in the legislature in 1848, Edward Shea's was the from 1940 to 1941, billing itself as a Newfoundland dominant voice in the paper. For the remainder of its news digest for American-Newfoundlanders. It was life (with the exception of the period 1869-73) at least published by the Newfoundland Publishing Company one, and frequently both, of the Shea brothers were under Robert H. Tait qv, a St. John's lawyer who had prominent members of the legislature. By 1865 the moved to Boston in 1923. Archibald G. Gibb co-edited paper had become the main confederate newspaper, it with Tait, but died before its revival in New York. opposing the administration of Charles Fox Bennett During its final four months in New York the digest from 1869 to 1874. After 1874 the Newfoundlander became a biweekly paper, renamed the Newfoundland supported the Carter and Whiteway governments. Su Times. zanne Ellison (1988), Newfoundlander (passim). KAW True to its mandate of providing news from home for the large Newfoundland communities in Boston NEWFOUNDLANDER. Bearing the subtitle ''Dedi and New York, the paper published fishery, mining cated to the Restoration of self Government'', the and election news, along with birth, death and mar Newfoundlander was published weekly beginning Oc riage notices. It carried advertisements by business tober 6, 1934 and apparently ending in late December people careful to highlight their Newfoundland ori of the same year. Bitterly opposed to the Commission gins. Besides providing expatriate Newfoundlanders of Government and former Prime Minister Frederick with home news, the Weekly promoted trade and tour C. Alderdice qv, the paper lost no opportunity to critize ist travel· between the United States and Newfound the administration. Published by Commercial Quick land, and encouraged wider consumption of New Print and edited by J.T. Meaney qv, the Newfound foundland products. The publication carried stories lander reputedly was backed by former Prime Minister portraying Newfoundland as a sportsman's paradise, Richard A. Squires qv. It carried front page headlines and reported on its industrial and resource develop accusing Alderdice of prevarication, duplicity and de ment. Any formal link between the United States and ception, and called the Commission of Government an Newfoundland, such as the start of the military bases oligarchy and a hybrid dictatorship established by at Pleasantville and Argentia, was given extensive Machiavellian means. Not surprisingly the paper re coverage. Interestingly, the paper promised that while ceived no government advertising, and in November it would promote Newfoundland, it would do so with announced that the government had threatened to out jeopardizing any newer allegiance its readers had blacklist firms which advertised in it. No copies of the NEWFOUNDLANDER 71 THE No. 427· THURSDAY, October I, 1835. Sixpence COLONEL VERNON; ®n .$alt. ®n ~alt. @n :alt. I OR, THE WARNUi'G VOICE. NOW !.ANDING, Hope's Cargo! ~t t!)t .:::ufls;Hibms• (!J'oal Yarll, (A Tale of the Civil Warr.} 700 BarrPis frc"h Su~rfioe FLOUR. A CARGO Of THE BEST UST recei•ed per Coll~ctor • froVm HALl f ~ ~s u Brief is the rlate of human happiness, and they I ~no STAVES, 100 Esarrpfs TAR, J and for. Sale al JAMES STE \ ART&. C • 9'ho boast I hat felicity is theirs, &bould ev~rmore be Ct.rgo of tlu IJrig Hope. from New York. U1•per Premtsea, prf'parerl for an awful chang~"'." Por A~~~ ~Y~'~d~on ~.~;~.~·days ogo 74 Chest~ Dohea Tea, h was the unerable Herhert who spoke, and it WITH !OM£ A uo, a Cara:o per JAM~s. . 1 25 o..,. Fme do. do. wu while the bride, d~eply impressed wtlh the so- From tiLe New Orr~/ Plt at tlu Bndgtpflrl ftluus Ne~rohPart a ad LP~f TO li.-4. ~CO. lO l>u. Congo do. l~moi1y of I he marri:.ae vow which she had bul that 1 Fur Sule in Barter bq 15o Half chests •lo. do. moment pronounced~ faintiy rf'plieLI to a he kind OT II tht>~t' Car~oes .are o( a lar~e Quality aud I J. DUNSCiHI B &. Co. B will hP Sol•la• a C/,twp Ru.te; tJ(!Isuns r~qui~ Also. an auortmpnt of HYSON SKIN, YOUNG !lpee('ht'a ofcnngraluldling friends, and thl•Se word~ rlfll! tht>ir \\'in• Pro· ~wrl>s will 6nd them oo lnal 10 s~plember 10. H _Y~ON, "I_'W A_~ K A V, ~nd POUCI!O N.... G .T~as. ~("re pu.11r~d ! n~o- the ears ot .Is:• be~. l_n lite cloudless paper dated after December 1934 were in major library Dr. Cluny Macpherson qv, inventor of a gas mask, and holdings in 1992. Suzanne Ellison (1988), Newfound Bay Bulls clergyman P.J. O'Brien, who designed a lander (passim). KAW device for diverting torpedoes. Also included in the paper were readers' stories and poetry, health advice, NEWFOUNDLANDER. The Newfoundlander in the a long pen pal column and advertisements largely for early 1940s continued the monthly paper the Barrel domestic products such as soap, flour and ranges. Dis man, which in turn had consisted largely of items tributed free of charge the Barrelman was subtitled printed from the radio program "The Barrelman" qv, "Newfoundland's Home Monthly", and claimed to narrated by Joseph R. Smallwood. The newspaper ver reach every home in Newfoundland. sion claimed to be edited by ''the barrelman' ', and In the early 1940s the paper became the Newfound while Smallwood's name was not used the prose style lander, edited by Michael F. Harrington qv and pub and content of early numbers bore the hallmarks of his lished by the Newfoundlander Publishing Company. It design. Published by the Barrelman Publishing Com continued to emphasize Newfoundland culture and pany for F. M. O'Leary qv, sponsor of the radio pro history, printed instructional stories on domestic and gram, the paper in its early years emphasized stories farm topics and Newfoundland songs. Politically neu about Newfoundlanders thought to exhibit unusual tral for the most part, it supported Responsible Gov strengths and talents. Smallwood urged readers to send ernment in 1948. The Newfoundlander ceased him such stories, explaining, publication in 1954. Suzanne Ellison (1988), Barrel You see, I am trying to show the world that New man (passim), Newfoundlander (passim). KAW foundlanders are a smart people. I am trying to NEWFOUNDLANDER. Published in 1990 in St. John's show that they always succeed, every time they by the Independent Press, this publication proclaimed get a decent chance. Help me to prove this. Send itself a social-issues magazine dedicated to the preser me stories - true stories - showing how brave vation and propagation of Newfoundland culture, but are the Newfoundlanders; how hardy they are; it did not manage to preserve even itself. Supposedly how strong they are; what hardships they endure a monthly periodical, it ran but a single issue, its staff (June, 1938). railing against conservative political authority. New foundlander (no. 1, 1990). KAW Everyone who sent in such a story, he promised, would receive free samples of Palmolive soap. And NEWFOUNDLANDER. Published in Steady Brook, send them in people did, including the story of a man this 40-page magazine devoted to Newfoundland her who had wrestled single-handedly with a stag and a itage and culture apparently survived for three issues man on New Gower Street who had licked a red-hot in the last quarter of 1990. Edited by Bill Temple, it stove-lifter, "all of which goes to show you once featured cover stories on entertainers Rufus again, ladies and gentlemen, that Newfoundlanders Guinchard, Kelly Russell, Pamela Morgan and Noel can lick anything that comes up against them" (Nov. Dinn. Contents included Newfoundland music re 1938). Supplementing these tales were Smallwood's views, a gardening column and features on Labrador own stories of noteworthy Newfoundlanders. One re and family names of Newfoundland. Newfoundlander curring list titled "Newfoundland Inventors" included (Oct.-Dec. 1990). KAW 72 NEWHOOK, CHARLES NEWHOOK, CHARLES (1752-1799). Shipbuilder. London slums. Returning to Newfoundland in 1982, Born England? The first of a line of master ship Newhook became executive administrator of the builders working in the Trinity area to 1867, Newhook *Ocean Ranger Families Foundation qv. He edited But came to Newfoundland from Europe around 1777 to Who Cares Now? (1987), an account of the Ocean work for the mercantile firm of Benjamin Lester qv. Ranger families, and has also published a book about An 1808 note in the register of St. Paul's Anglican his boyhood in Norman's Cove: Mostly in Rodneys Church in Trinity indicates that the name Newhook is (1985). from the French Huguenot name Nuik, and it is gener Newhook became involved in the New Democratic ally agreed that the first Charles Newhook was of Party, and became provincial party secretary in 1985. French extraction. While Newhook's principal resi After being defeated in a 1986 by-election in St. John's dence was in Trinity, it is possible that he wintered in East Extern and in a 1988 by-election in Waterford New Harbour to cut timber and to build ships, and that Kenmount, he was elected provincial NDP leader in several of_ his children were born there. Three of his 1989. That year, fighting his first election as leader, he sons, Charles qv, William and James, also became unsuccessfully sought the seat of St. John's East Ex master shipbuilders. Elizabeth J. Bennett (1973), tern, the party failing to win any seats. Newhook re Garry J. Cranford (1983), ET (June 17, 1965), NQ mained party leader, but was defeated in by-elections (Mar. 1959). KAW in Trinity North and Ferryland in 1991 and 1992. In July 1992 he announced his intention to resign as NEWHOOK, CHARLES (1778-1839). Shipbuilder. party leader. Cle Newhook (1985; interview, June Born Trinity?, son of Elizabeth and Charles Newhook 1992), DNLB (1990). GEORGE CORBETT qv. Married (1) Catherine Newell; (2) Martha Penny, father of Jonas Newhook qv. The eldest son of the first Charles Newhook of Trinity, he may have been born in New Harbour qv, church records giving his birthplace as ''Trinity Bay''. He succeeded his father as master shipbuilder at Trinity for the Lester firm, which by 1805 had come under the control of George Garland Sr. qv. In 1806 Newhook moved to New Harbour, but returned to Trinity in 1832. As master builder for the Garland firm, Newhook built and repaired cutters and brigs that included the Bee, George Robinson, Gar land, Victoria and Dart. A piece of the notice board of St. George's Church, built in 1815 overlooking the Newhook dockyard, is remembered as having read, ''Charles Newhook, Architect''. (The piece at some time broke off the board, which was preserved in the museum of the Church of England Cathedral, St. John's). Newhook was killed in St. John's in the spring of 1839 when he fell from the mast of a wrecked vessel on which he had been working. Elizabeth J. Bennett (1973), Garry J. Cranford (1983), ET(June 17, 1965), NQ (Mar. 1959). KAW NEWHOOK, CLEOPHAS JAMES (1943- ). Social activist; politician. Born Norman's Cove, son of Ernest and Elizabeth (Smith) New hook. Educated Norman's Cove; Memorial University Hazel Newhook of Newfoundland; Oxford NEWHOOK, HAZEL (1914- ). Politician. Born Grand University. Married Debbie Falls, daughter of Suzanna (Saunders) and Naaman McOwan. Ordained an An Carter. Educated Grand Falls High School; Presenta glican priest in 1966, New tion Convent. Married Harry Newhook. When she and hook served in Wallington, her husband bought a transportation franchise in Gan Surrey, England for two der in 1948 she managed the office. In 1973 she ran for years. From 1969 to 1970 he membership on Gander's town council and became was chaplin at Memorial mayor by virtue of having won the most votes. The University. In 1972 he co..._ family business was sold in 1977. Two years later founded and managed the Newhook ran as a Progressive Conservative in the first drug counselling cen provincial election. Elected then and in 1982, she be tre in St. John's. Later that CleNewhook came one of the first two female cabinet ministers in year he left the ministry and returned to England to Newfoundland history, serving as Minister of Con direct the Albany group, a self-help organization in the sumer Affairs and Environment and as Minister of NEWMAN AND COMPANY 73 Municipal Affairs. Newhook retired from politics in NEWMAN AND COMPANY. The Newman family 1985 following an unsuccessful bid for re-election. were originally from Totnes, Devon, but by the end of Hazel Newhook (interview, May 1992), Atlantic In the fourteenth century were living in Dartmouth, sight (Sept. 1979), Chatelaine (Aug. 1982), DNLB where they became established in the import and ex (1990), Newfoundland Historical Society (Hazel New port trade, dealing chiefly in cloth and wool. By 1503 hook). KAW Thomas Newman was importing from Europe wines which he had purchased in exchange for fish and salt. NEWHOOK, JONAS N. (1823-1901). Shipwright. Thus began the relationship between the Newman fam Born New Harbour T.B., son of Martha (Penny) and ily and the Newfoundland fish trade. Within two gen Charles Newhook qv. Married Rachel Knight. From a erations the firm was procuring fish and fish oil in long line of renowned shipbuilders, Newhook as a Newfoundland. young man settled in Jackson's Cove, Green Bay, By the seventeenth century John Newman was send where he continued the family tradition. His barque ing his own fishing vessels to Newfoundland and to Fleetwing, a 249-ton vessel, was described in the Tele European markets, thus maintaining control over the graph of St. John's: " ...coppered high to the bends, whole process of catching and marketing fish. In 1601 of a very superior build, all juniper frame, topsides, Richard Newman was granted fishing rights off rails and covering boards of Baltimore white oak, keel "Newman's Rock" on the south coast of Newfound son of white oak and Demerara greenheart with green land. By the middle of the century the Newman family heart treenails. This vessel will bear the strictest and the fishery were inseparable. They had established examination and is, without exception, the fastest ves marketing connections in Portugal, the largest con sel in the trade.'' In his sailing autobiography, When sumer of salted cod, and in Spain, and had set up Ships Were Ships, Captain William Morris Barnes seasonal fishing stations in Newfoundland. In 1672 termed the barque ''the fastest thing ever sailed salt Richard Newman built a trading station at water''. It apparently made numerous trips from Har Pushthrough qv, the first Newman plantation. Trading bour Grace to Pernambuco in record time. Newhook stations were also established at Harbour Breton, also built the Tasso, another vessel of legendary speed. Gaultois and Hermitage qqv. Despite the laws against J.R. Smallwood (1937), ET (June 17, 1965), New permanent settlement in Newfoundland, there were foundland Historical Society (Newhooks; New Har year-round inhabitants at these plantations by 1679. bour). KAW The firm also traded with the planters and Micmac of NEWHOOK, SHIRLEY ANN (1932- ). Broadcaster. Harbour Breton, and carried on whaling and sealing Born Woodstock, Ontario, daughter of William and expeditions to Greenland from Newfoundland. Audrey (Billings) Telford. Educated Erasmus Hall, Newman and Company's practice of sending ship Brooklyn, New York; Brooklyn College; Barbizon ments of port wine to Newfoundland to mature began School of Modelling, New York. Married G. Warren during the latter half of the seventeenth century. In Newhook. Newhook was 1679 a Newman's ship left Oporto, Portugal bound for host of the CBC television London with a shipment of port. When the ship was series "Coffee Break" for chased by a French privateer and blown off course the 16 years. captain decided to head for the Newman's plantation Coming to Newfound in St. John's. The ship stayed in Newfoundland land in 1961, in the mid- through the winter and when the cargo arrived in Lon 1960s she began making don it was discovered that the quality of the port had some local television and greatly improved. Thus began the practice of sending radio appearances as a large quantities of port to Newfoundland for maturing. singer. Following a short In 1847 wine vaults were built on the corner of Spring period as a feature writer dale and Water streets. The vaults were purchased in and assistant women's edi 1986 by the provincial government and declared a tor at the Daily News, she historic site. Newman's port was still being matured in did a daily commentary on Shirley Newhook 1992 at the Kenmount Road plant of the Newfound CBC's "Radio Noon". land Liquor Corporation. From 1974 to 1990 she was host of "Coffee Break", In 1679 the Newman family expanded their enter which featured comment and interviews. Active in prises by entering into a partnership with the Roopes, community affairs, Newhook was a board member of another family of Dartmouth merchants. By 1700 this the YWCA, 1970-73, governor of the College of partnership had become known as Robert Newman Trades and Technology, 1970-77, and president of the and Company. Another expansion occurred in 1711 Women's Network in 1984. In 1991 she was providing when the firm opened a house in Oporto to handle fish a weekly commentary on health issues on CBC radio. marketing. By 1735 the company had developed into a Shirley Newhook (interview, July 1991), Who's Who long-term partnership with the Holdsworth family of Newfoundland Silver Anniversary Edition (1975), Dartmouth and the Olive family of Poole, known as Centre for Newfoundland Studies (Shirley Newhook). Hunt, Roope and Company (which conducted the port TPH wine trade). 74 NEWMAN, JOHN THOMAS Newman's premises at Gaultois Between 1730 and 1775 the family business in New came increasingly involved in the outport trade. In foundland was run by brothers Robert and Richard 1864 the small Burgeo operation was closed. The Newman. Richard's business was concentrated in larger Gaultois operation was reduced in size in 1897, Conception Bay, Robert's in the St. John's-Southern and sold in 1900. In 1907, the last branch, at Harbour Shore area. Between them they operated a fleet of 10 Breton, was sold, ending over 300 years of Newman's vessels. When Robert Newman died in 1776 his son involvement in the Newfoundland fish trade. Margie John reorganized the firm as John Newman and Com Chang ( 1972; 1975), Phil Power (interview, Aug. pany. When John died in 1779 the company became 1992), Shannon Ryan (1986), Donald A. Warr (1973), Robert Newman and Company. In 1784 it opened a DNB V (Robert Newman), Maritime History Archive new Newfoundland business at St. Lawrence, and later (Newman Family), A.C. Hunter Library (Newman and branches at Little Bay and Burin. The headquarters of Company). LMS the business moved from St. John's to Harbour Breton. The decision to move to an outport was largely NEWMAN, JOHN THOMAS (1857-1930). Clergy responsible for the firm's success. The area was abun man. Born Lancashire, England. A local preacher for dant in fish, there was less competition and the fisher several years on the St. Helen's-Prescot (Lanes.) cir men were residents, whereas the St. John's fishermen cuit, Newman entered the - were migratory. Newman and Company, foreseeing Methodist ministry in New that the future was in the supply trade to the resident foundland in 1883. Shortly population, made more profit from the goods they thereafter, though young supplied the fishermen than from the fish itself. In and inexperienced, he was 1800 the company cleared £90,000. By the 1850s of selected by the Newfound fices at Burgeo, Gaultois and Harbour Breton were land Methodist Conference handling the fishery trade, while the St. John's office to establish a circuit in operated the wine business. Hamilton Inlet, Labrador. But the Company was experiencing increasing prob Braving many hardships lems with its Newfoundland business. In the 1850s it and hazards, living under became increasingly concerned about the quality of primitive conditions, he not the salt fish it was trading. Competition from St. only survived his ordeal, John's-based firms posed another problem as they be- but accomplished his Rev. J. T. Newman NEWMAN'S COVE 75 mission. Returning to the Island in 1886 he was or moved to Harbour Breton qv. Robert Newman died in dained and posted as assistant minister to Bonavista. Dartmouth on July 30, 1803. The business was then Thereafter he served circuits at Fortune, Bay St. run by his brothers, and was eventually taken over by George, Channel, George Street (St. John's), Harbour his nephew, Robert William Newman. DCB V, Centre Grace, Bonavista, Blackhead, Britannia, Botwood, for Newfoundland Studies (Robert Newman), A. C. Burin and Freshwater. From 1895 to 1900 he was Hunter Library (Newman and Co.). LMS secretary of the Newfoundland Methodist Conference NEWMAN'S COVE (pop. 1986, 256). Newman's and in 1900-01 its president. Retiring in 1923, he Cove is a fishing community located southwest of settled in Carbonear. In 1925 he visited the Holy Lands Bonavista, on the east side of Blackhead Bay (the as a beneficiary of a fund provided by Campbell Mac southeastern section of Bonavista Bay). Tradition has pherson qv to enable selected ministers to make such it that the community was first settled in the early visits. Newman died December 23, 1930. D.W. John 1820s, but Blackhead Bay had long been considered a son ([1925]), Minutes of the Newfoundland Methodist part of the hinterland of Bonavista. In the early 1800s Conference (1895-1901), DN (Dec. 24, 1930). DAVID winter crews from Bonavista went to the Bay to cut G. PITT pine for lumber, and it is likely that year-round settle NEWMAN, ROBERT (1735-1803). Mariner; mer ment was predated by several years of seasonal occu chant. Born Dartmouth, England, son of Robert and pation. Mary (Holdsworth) Newman. Married Anne Holds The family usually identified as the first settlers of worth. The Newman family had been involved in the Newman's Cove are the Wisemans, closely followed Newfoundland cod trade since the sixteenth century. by the Hicks family and the Skiffingtons. The commu Robert Newman first came to Newfoundland in the nity appears in the first Census in 1836 with a popula mid-1750s. In 1757 he was appointed commander of tion of 11 people, a single family. By 1845 the the company's Syren, and acted as agent in St. John's population had increased to 72 and by 1857 (pop. 149) between 1757 and 1760. He returned to Dartmouth, most of the common family names of Newman's Cove married and was elected a freeman of the borough of were established. Many - the Abbotts, Bakers, Dartmouth. He and his brother John were agents in St. Cooles, Elliots, Haywards, Keatses, Romaines and John's until their father's death in 177 4. John Newman Tilleys - had an earlier connection with Bonavista. reorganized the company as John Newman and Com Some of those who settled at Newman's Cove had pany, but Robert played little active role in it until been fishing in eastern Blackhead Bay for many years John's death, at which time he restored the name Rob before they made the move. Family tradition of the ert Newman and Company. Bakers, for instance, has it that they fished grounds off With two other brothers, Richard and Lydston, as Danson Cove (between Newman's Cove and partners Newman expanded the operations of the firm Bona vista) out of Bona vista before moving to Danson in Newfoundland. In 1784 he opened a new branch at Cove and eventually to Newman's Cove in the 1840s. Little St. Lawrence, which by 1800 was trading as Newman's Cove opens to the north and is generally much as the St. John's branch. New branches were shallow, so that boats have to be hauled ashore in also established at Burin and Little Bay. The decision rough weather. In addition to having access to fishing to expand proved an advantageous one as the area was grounds, the Cove is backed by a broad valley, offer abundant in fish and there was less competition than in ing land for gardens and a winter route into the coun St. John's. And, the area having been recently settled, try. By the mid-1800s the pine stands of Blackhead there was a growing resident population with which to Bay were much depleted, but Newman's Cove contin trade. The move to the outports was so successful that ued to supply fuel and lumber to Bonavista. The com by 1812 Newman's main branch in St. John's was munity also retained other commercial ties to the A view of Newman's Cove, 1990 76 NEWPORT larger town, with most people trading their catches of ters by families from Greenspond and other island cod to Bonavista firms. By the early 1900s Philip communities. Up until the 1870s the population of Templeman qv of Bonavista had established a branch Newport was never recorded at more than 14, presum store in the community, which also served nearby Bir ably the extended family of the Collinses, who had chy Cove and the Amherst Coves to the south. also settled Shoe Cove qv (to the east) by 1867. By Templeman's premises were eventually taken over by 1874 there were 47 people in eight families, and Lewis Elliot, who established his first shop in through the 1870s and 1880s others arrived and settled Newman's Cove in 1928. further down harbour (family names Keats, Holloway, In 1901 Newman's Cove was a community of more Rogers and Wiseman). Some of the new arrivals were than 300 people, with most residents reliant on the engaged in lumbering to a greater extent than had the inshore fishery supplemented by winter woods work. Collinses, but most were engaged in the Labrador fish Subsequently, employment in the woods increased and ery. In the late 1800s this fishery was burgeoning many Newman's Cove men were employed at the bot throughout Bonavista North and drew settlement onto tom of Bonavista Bay in lumber camps. The popula the mainland from the more remote islands. By 1911 tion peaked at 408 in 1921, but since that time has there were 113 people at Newport, rising to a peak of generally been in decline. By the 1940s most 156 in 1945 -by which time the community had two Newman's Cove loggers were employed by a contrac schools, Church of England and Salvation Army, one tor based in Elliston, on the Trinity Bay side of the on either side of the harbour. Peninsula. Newman's Cove was also connected by By 1945, however, the collapse of the Labrador fish road to the Trinity Bay side, by a road between Am ery had made the people of Newport largely reliant on herst Cove and Catalina, which was also the centre for cutting pulpwood or pitprops, at Hare Bay qv and the Church of England parish. Indian Bay, although some of the Collinses persisted Newman's Cove is said to have been named for a in the Labrador fishery into the 1940s and later at Church of England clergyman. In the early days most tempted to revive the traditional practice, after reset people were members of that church. The first tlement. By 1951 the population had decreased to 120 school/chapel in the community was established in and two years later the people began to move under 1853. In 1859 the Keats and Skiffington families es the first resettlement program. Most of the Collinses tablished a Methodist congregation, and by 1874 a of Newport went to Hare Bay (which community had Methodist church had been built and more than half been first settled largely by that family) or to other the community had become adherents. The congrega nearby communities, such as Indian Bay or Shoal Bay tion was served by clergy from Bonavista and later (Dover), which were projected to be accessible by from the Elliston mission. A Church of England road once the Bonavista north highway, then under church was built in the 1890s, but burned in the 1970s construction, was completed. John Feltham (1992), and was subsequently replaced by a smaller structure. C.G. Head (1964), Census (1836-1951), Archives (A- In 1991 Newman's Cove continued to have strong 7-3). RHC ties with Catalina. Most catches of fish were trucked NEWSPAPERS. See JOURNALISM; PRINTING AND to the Catalina-Port Union fish plant by the Elliot firm PUBLISHING. and some residents were employed there. Students were also bused to Catalina to attend school. Melvin NEWSTEAD. See COMFORT COVE-NEWSTEAD. Abbott (MHG 41-B-1-54), Vincent Abbott (MHG 41- NEWTOWN (inc. 1954, pop. 1991, 518). Formerly B-1-52), Art Baker (interview, June 1992), Charles known as Inner Pinchard's Islands or Inner Islands, Lench (1919), E.R. Seary (1977), Randy Strickland Newtown is located in northern Bonavista Bay, ap (MHG 41-B-1-53), Atlantic Guardian (Feb. 1955), proximately 5 km north of Wesleyville qv. The com Census (1836-1986), DA (Mar.-Apr. 1989), Lovell's munity is scattered over several islands and the Newfoundland Directory (1871). RHC adjacent mainland, and since incorporation has in NEWPORT (pop. 1951, 120). A resettled fishing com cluded nearby Templeman (formerly Fox Cove). In munity, Newport was located on either side of New January 1992 the municipality of Newtown was amal Harbour, a 2 km long indraft off the north side of gamated with Wesleyville and Badgers Quay Indian Bay, Bonavista Bay, about 15 km southwest of Valleyfield-Pool's Island qv to form a new Wesleyville. Known as New Harbour until the early municipality, which was unnamed as of September 1900s, Newport was settled at sometime before 1835 1992 and usually referred to locally as "the Area". by Samuel and Hannah Collins. It was recorded in the The largest of the Inner Pinchard' s Islands is Burnt first Census in 1836 with a population of nine, includ Island, which is separated from the mainland by Sloops ing two fishing servants. Run to the north. South of Burnt Island lies Barbour's The Collinses were chiefly engaged in the inshore Island, the second largest. There are also homes on cod fishery out of Newport, and in the early years of smaller islands lying close by, now connected by brid settlement most likely lived near the harbour's mouth, ges and causeways. Just offshore is Bennett's Island, on its eastern side. Inner New Harbour also offered abandoned since the 1870s. access to good forest land in the interior and it is likely Settlement at Newtown was begun in the 1850s by that the Collins family was joined at their winter quar- residents of Pinchard's Island qv, about 1 km offshore. NEWTOWN 77 ------ Newtown Church records indicate that families named Black that it was at the school Christmas concert in that year more, Hall and Norris had moved there from that John Haddon, operator of a local lobster factory, Pinchard's Island by 1850 and were shortly joined by made a surprise announcement that the community the Barbours from Cobblers Island and the Sainsburys was to be renamed. The new name was quickly ac of Pouch Island. In the 1860s and 1870s more families cepted - it was adopted as the name of the new moved in to Newtown, where the narrow tickles be Church of England parish formed in 1894 - but the tween the islands offered shelter for the Labrador and name of the post office was not changed from Inner sealing schooners which were becoming increasingly Islands until 1903. The first school at Newtown dates important to the area's economy. By 1870 most of the to 1878, when a Mrs. Collins began keeping school for modern family names of Newtown were present in the those children who could not attend classes at community, including (in addition to those listed Pinchard's Island. A Church of England school/chapel above) Bungay, Hefferton, Parsons, Perry, Tulk and was erected in 1880, and there was a Methodist Way - most of whom came from Pinchard's Island. school/chapel by 1885. A Methodist church was com Newtown first appears separately from Pinchard's Is pleted in 1889 and St. Luke's Church of England was land in the Census in 1874 with a population of 167, consecrated in 1895. The Methodists experienced a which had increased to 382 ten years later and to 584 substantial "revival" in the early 1900s and with the by 1901. It was also between 1874 and 1884 that the establishment of Newtown Methodist circuit in 1912 Greens and Tuffs of Bennett's Island (between New the community was the centre of church life for the town and Pinchard's Island) moved in to Templeman. surrounding communities. The booming population of Newtown in the later Barbour's Tickle, between the two main islands of part of the nineteenth century can be traced to a gen Newtown, was also becoming a mercantile centre for eral movement off the smaller islands of northern the area, through the efforts of Benjamin Barbour and Bonavista Bay, coincident with the rise of the Labra Sons and the firm of E. & S. Barbour (established in dor fishery in the area. (In 1884, 114 of the people of 1893). The heyday of Newtown continued until the Newtown went to the Labrador fishery). Beginning decline of the Labrador fishery in the 1920s and its with Captain Joe Barbour in the 1870s, the Barbours virtual collapse in the late 1930s. E. & S. Barbour went of Newtown also became known as sealing captains, out of the general fishery supply business in 1940 and the most notable being Captain George Barbour qv. by 1945 the population of Newtown had declined to The community paid the price for its involvement in 359 (from a peak of 632 in 1921). The completion of a sealing: several Newtown men were among those lost bridge over Sloops Run and a highroad to Wesleyville while under George Barbour's command in the Green in 1952 brought Newtown further into the economic land qv disaster of 1898. George Tuff qv of Temple sphere of the larger community, but also helped to man survived the Greenland and in 1914 was mate on ensure its continued existence at a time when many of the Newfoundland, in which several men from the area the island communities of northern Bonavista Bay were were killed. being abandoned. That winter the Vincents of Cape In 1892, however, the future of "the Venice of Island moved into Newtown, on the "mainland" at Newfoundland" indeed looked bright. Tradition has it Sloops Run, and the next year were joined by much of 78 NEWVILLE lobster. Early Census returns for the area recorded Newville under the general heading of Friday Bay, so the community first appears in 1901, with a popula tion of 64. Most residents dealt with merchants at either Herring Neck or Twillingate and some partici pated in the Labrador fishery. The population of Newville did not rise above 100 people until the mid-1960s, when the completion of the Curtis Causeway and the Road to the Isles linking New World Island with the mainland made for im proved road communications in the area. Several fam ilies moved in to Little Burnt Cove from Black Island (mostly Rices) and the name of the community was changed. By 1971 Newville had a population of 138 and a new elementary school had been constructed on the highway, serving communities in eastern New World Island (older children being bused to a regional high school at Virgin Arm). In 1992 there were only a handful of active fisher men at Newville, with others finding employment at St. Luke's Anglican Church, Newtown fish plants elsewhere on New World Island or in the local service centres of Virgin Arm and Summerford. the population of Pinchard's Island. With the inclusion Mrs. Verdon Burt (interview, June 1992), Maxwell of Templeman in the municipal boundary established Rice (interview, June 1992), E.R. Seary (1977), Cen in 1954, Newtown's population had rebounded to 518 sus (1869-1986), McAlpine's Newfoundland Directory by 1956. In 1992 residents of Newtown obtained most (1894), Archives (A-7-2/L). RHC services at Wesleyville, including schooling above the primary grades. Job Kean Barbour (n.d.), Max Elliot NEYLE, RICHARD (1828- 1917). Businessman. Born (MHG 41-B-1-57), John Feltham (1986), Beverly Newton Abbott, Devonshire. Neyle came to New Hounsell (interview, Sept. 1992), Charles Lench foundland in 1849 to establish a branch of his father's (1919), E.R. Seary (1977), Naboth Winsor (1981; 1985; business. He opened a hardware store on Water Street, 1991), Census (1874-1991), Lovell's Newfoundland Di just east of Beck's Cove, the same year. The business rectory (1871), Newfoundland Historical Society continued until 1989, later as Neyle-Soper Hardware, (Newtown; Pinchard's Island). RHC and was famous for the variety of fishing tackle it carried. Neyle continued working till well into his 80s, NEWVILLE (pop. 1986, 159). A community located on retiring in 1912. He was a prominent member of St. New World Island on the east side of Friday Bay, just Andrew's Presbyterian Church. Neyle attributed his south of Main Tickle, which separates New World long life, which extended through the reigns of five Island from South Twillingate Island. Newville was monarchs, to physical exercise, especially his daily known as Burnt Cove until the late 1960s, but Burnt walks. P.K. Devine (1937), Paul O'Neill (1976), DN Cove and Little Burnt Cove (just to the north) are (Mar. 28, 1917). JAMES WADE identified on charts as Byrne Cove and Little Byrne Cove. NICHOLS, FRANCES (1934- ). Businesswoman. Newville was being frequented for winter woods Born Hamilton, Ontario, daughter of Anna (Bicknell) work by fishermen out ofTwillingate and also Tizzard's and Frank Hayward. Educated Grand Falls; Newfound Harbour, on the opposite side of Friday Bay, by the land Institute of Chartered Accountants. Married Gor 1840s. At about this time nearby Black Island qv was don Nichols. A prominent Grand Falls community first settled and by the 1860s a family of Keefes had worker, Nichols in 1974 became the first woman in moved to Newville from Twillingate. Other families to Newfoundland to be designated a C.A. by the New arrive at about this time included Burts from Tizzard's foundland Institute of Chartered Accountants. She has Harbour and Tarrants and Mehaneys from Black Island. held executive positions with that Institute and with Originally settlement was concentrated around Peter's the Grand Falls Chamber of Commerce, and has served Head (the point between Little Burnt Cove and Burnt on Memorial University's Board of Regents. From Cove), where a small Church of England chapel was 1982 to 1986 she was a member of the Economic built, and on the north side of Burnt Cove. Eventually a Council of Newfoundland and Labrador. Methodist school/chapel was built between Newville Nichols' community work has included co-founding and Indian Cove to the north, with a larger United the Exploits Valley Y.M.C.A. in 1979, executive mem Church being constructed on the north side of Little bership on the Exploits Valley Development Associa Burnt Cove in 1938. tion and membership on the Central Newfoundland Most early settlers were inshore cod fishermen, with Advisory Board of the Salvation Army. In 1983 she eastern Friday Bay and Main Tickle also being known was chosen Grand Falls citizen of the year. Nichols as prolific areas for bait (particularly squid) and retired from business in June of 1988 because of ill NICHOLSVILLE 79 health. In 1989 she was appointed to the advisory board for Newfoundland's Economic Recovery Com mission. She was honoured in 1990 as the first woman designated a fellow of the Institute of Chartered Ac countants of Newfoundland. Frances Nichols (inter view; letter, Feb. 1992), Newfoundland Lifestyle (vol. 6, no. 3, 1988). KAW NICHOLS, JOHN W. (1846-1916). Educator; artist. Born Leeds, England. Married Ida Bemister. Nichols came to Newfoundland in 1870 as a drawing master at the Methodist College in St. John's. In 1873 he left the College to found the St. John's Art School, which taught classes in painting, sketching, design, model ling and architectural drawing. The students partici pated in examinations and competitions administered by the Royal Drawing Society, and exhibitions which The Nichols family homestead were held regularly. In 1908 Nichols represented New foundland at the International Congress for the Devel tance from the town of Deer Lake qv. Agriculture is its opment of Drawing and Art Education. He retired from primary industry, but many residents work in Deer the School that same year but continued to teach art Lake. The settlement was named for the first perma throughout Newfoundland. Active in the Methodist nent settlers in the area. George and Kathy Nichols Church, in 1915 he edited A Century of Methodism in came from Cape Breton to settle at the north end of Newfoundland 1815-1915. Nichols died in St. John's Deer Lake between 1889 and 1892. Later joined by on July 16, 1916. Centre for Newfoundland Studies Nichols' brother, the family established a farm, using (J.W. Nichols), A. C. Hunter Newfoundland Collection a river boat to transport goods to market and to bring (J.W. Nichols). LMS in supplies. Four sons and eight daughters were born to the couple at the farm and several of these children NICHOLSON, GEORGE WILLIAM LINGEN (1902- later married and settled nearby. Though George Nich 1980). Military historian. Born Weston-super-Mare, ols and his immediate descendants were farmers they England, the son of Arthur and Caroline (Middleton) became renowned as woodsmen and guides for the Nicholson. Educated Queen's University; University hunters and fishermen who frequented Deer Lake and of Toronto. Married Edith Ashcroft. Nicholson came area after the railway went through in 1895. to Canada in 1919 and taught school in Saskatchewan Nicholsville was for many years the only settlement in the 1920s and 1930s while working towards degrees of note in the region, although two or three families in history and education. On the outbreak of World were living at Lake Siding after the turn of the cen War II he joined the Prince Albert Volunteer Corps. In tury. The community was first listed in the Census of 1943 he was appointed to the general staff of the 1921 with a population of 53, most of whom were Canadian Army's historical section, and at the end of members of the Nichols family. In 1923 construction the War was deputy director of the division with the began on dams and a power house at Deer Lake to rank of Colonel. He wrote several books on military supply energy to the new pulp and paper mill at Corner history, including the official military account of The Brook. As workers moved to the site, shacks and then Canadians in Italy 1943-45 (1956). Nicholson was ~ore permanent dwellings were built along the road to named director of the Army's historical section in Nicholsville. By 1951 the community had 30 families. 1959. The proximity to a large town provided residents with Retiring in 1961, he pursued his interest in the his tory of the Royal Newfoundland *Regiment qv. His researches led to what became the authoritative his tory of the Regiment, The Fighting Newfoundlander (1964); and More Fighting Newfoundlanders (1969). Nicholson's other works include Canadian Expedi tionary Force 1914-19 (1962), The White Cross in Canada (1967), The Gunners in Canada (1967) and Keep Your Fork, or Fifty Years at Red Pine Camp (1979). From 1957 to 1961 he was honorary secretary of the Canadian Historical Association, and in 1968 the Royal Society of Canada awarded him the J.B. Tyrrell Gold Medal for his distinguished contributions to Canadian history. G.W.L. Nicholson (1964; 1969), Who's Who in Canada 1964-66 (1966). ACB NICHOLSVILLE (pop. 1986, 509). Nicholsville is a community on the Upper Humber River, a short dis- William Nichols and two ·'sports" 80 NICKEL access to schools, medical care and employment op portunities. In 1992 poultry farming was a viable busi ·ness in Nicholsville, and agriculture remained a primary concern of the Humber Valley Development Association. Western Woodworks, a furniture-making business, was also based in Nicholsville. W.C. Won ders (1951), DA (Nov.-Dec. 1985), NQ (July 1908), Rounder (Apr. 1980), WS (Dec. 3, 1977). ACB NICKEL. A metallic element noted for its strength and malleability, nickel has been found in small deposits in Labrador and on the Island of Newfoundland. These deposits have been associated with both copper and iron ores, as well as with magnesium silicates, though rarely in workable quantities. Nickel is most com monly used in making alloys, such as stainless steel, and in electroplating. Nickey's Nose Cove In 1869 nickel was discovered near the margin of most of the inhabitants of Nickey's Nose were mem the main copper ore body at the Union Mine in Tilt bers of the Pynn family, who moved to Jackson's Cove Cove qv, Notre Dame Bay. Some 30 tons were ex from Goose Cove (near St. Anthony) in the early tracted from the mine in that year and marketed in England. The mine's production of 88 tons in 1870 1900s. In the 1930s economic survival still depended amounted to 5% of the world's (then minimal) nickel on the summer fishery, but was often supplemented by production, most of the remainder coming from Nor winter woods work as the logging industry developed way. Production at Tilt Cove reached a peak of 233 in the Springdale-King's Point region. The population of Nickey's Nose Cove has continued to be small, tons in 1873, but within three years the deposit was fluctuating between the high of 43 recorded in 1901 exhausted. A total of over 400 tons had been produced and the low of 18 in 1911. Thus the community had to in seven years, valued at $32,740. The discovery of rely on nearby Harry's Harbour for some services, and large amounts of high quality ore near Sudbury, On also traded with Nippers Harbour and Little Bay Is tario in the 1880s made subsequent development of nickel deposits in Newfoundland and Labrador un lands. After the completion of the road in the 1950s the community enjoyed closer ties with King's Point likely. The Tilt Cove mine is the only one in the Prov ince to have produced marketable amounts of nickel. and Springdale. In 1992 other known sources of nickel in Newfound Early residents were exclusively Wesleyan, but after the arrival of the Pynns the community became largely land and Labrador, such as those found with iron ore Salvation Army - members of a corps at Harry's in the Labrador trough qv, were small and of low Harbour. By 1935 several people had become mem grade. James Howley (1909), Wendy Martin (1983), bers of the Pentecostal congregation at Middle Arm, V.S. Papezik (1964). ACB across the bay. Over the years most children attended NICKEY'S NOSE COVE (pop. 1986, 25). A small school at Harry's Harbour, and in 1991 this was still fishing and lumbering community in Green Bay, just the case for elementary grades, older children being southwest of Harry's Harbour qv. Originally known as bused to King's Point. Wendy Martin (1983), Census Nick's Nose Cove, the community takes it name from (1874-1986), Baie Verte Peninsula Regional Study a nearby headland. The earliest known inhabitants (1960), McAlpine's Directory (1894-95), Newfound were the Bartlett family of nearby Three Arms. The land Directory 1936 (1936), Sailing Directions: New earliest Census listing appeared in 187 4 when 23 peo foundland (1986), Archives (A-7-1). BWC ple were recorded at Nick's Nose Cove and Langdown Cove. Most of the people were apparently at the latter NIELSEN,ADOLPHE (1850-1903). Civil servant. location, since only nine people were at Nickey's Nose Born Norway. An inspector with the Norwegian fish 10 years later. ery, Nielsen was appointed Newfoundland's first su People were attracted by the protection afforded by perintendent of fisheries in 1888 on the the small cove and by timber for building purposes recommendation of Augustus W. Harvey qv, secretary and fuel. Another attraction may have been the area's of the Fisheries Commission. Responsible for initiat known potential for copper mining; five mines eventu ing and administering the programs of the Commis ally opened near Jackson's Cove, but deposits at sion, his tasks were to restock areas with cod fry, Nick's Nose Cove, optioned in 1868 by Robert recommend laws to assist the fishery, look for new Knight, were never developed. Around the turn of the fishing grounds and to improve methods of catching century the Bartlett family left Nickey's Nose for Rat and curing fish. tling Brook, but about the same time other people Nielsen selected Dildo, Trinity Bay, as the site for a arrived, including the family of Elijah Luff, who cod and lobster hatchery. With a capacity for several moved there after the closure of Pilley's Island mine million cod eggs, it was the largest such facility in the in 1899, and Robert, Levi and John Pynn. Thereafter world and for a time put Newfoundland in the forefront NIMROD 81 of the new technology. gering, cramps or convulsions, and loss of speech, Often critical of Newfound feeling and consciousness. The plant has been used in land methods, he published folk remedies; external leaf-juice preparations applied several pamphlets on . im to tumours, and berries used to treat eye diseases, fever proved methods of curing and rabies. and packing fish. A Bait In This plant is a low, spreading annual from one to telligence Service was es two feet high. Stems are roughly angled and the oval tablished for the Bank leaves with their wavy margins are two to four inches fishery and fisheries statis long. Flowers are small, white stars with protruding tics were collected. Nielsen yellow stamens and back-curved petals, in drooping was a proponent of the con clusters of up to five stars. The berries, which ripen servation of species, blam from pale green to black, commonly appear at all ing the depletion of cod stages together in midsummer along with new blos stocks on the use of seines Adolphe Nielsen soms, since the plant blooms from July to September. and the hook and line fishery. When the government Depending on conditions of soil and climate, the tox ceased funding the hatchery in 1895 Nielsen and Har icity of deadly nightshade varies to the extent that use vey kept it running for a short time with private funds, of the berries as a substitute for raisins has been re but Nielsen left Newfoundland in 1896 because of poor ported, although it is not advised. health. He later returned to run a whaling factory at Bittersweet nightshade (Solanum dulcamara L.) is Bauline (near McCallum). He died in a St. John's hotel another species of Solanum also called the woody on November 1, 1903. See FISHERIES RESEARCH. nightshade, scarlet berry, violet bloom and fever-twig. Melvin Baker (interview, Jan. 1992), DA (December It too grows in Newfoundland, its range extending 1981), DNLB (1990), NQ (June 1956). ACB through central Canada and British Columbia. Found NIGHTINGALE, GEORGE MAURICE (1893-1964). on moist woody banks, along stream borders and Machinist; politician. Born Liverpool, England, son of around dwellings, the plant contains the glucoside Harriet and Robert Nightin dulcamarin as well as the solanine present in deadly gale. Educated Liverpool nightshade. This is a woody climbing vine with oval Technical Institute. Mar leaves that often have one or two prominent lobes at ried Violet Noseworthy; fa the leaf-base. Flowers are violet, back-curved stars, ther of Florence Paterson with rare appearance of white stars and yellow pro qv. Nightingale came to St. truding stamens. Containing similar toxic properties John's in 1911 and worked to those of deadly nightshade, the bittersweet species for two years under contract is capable of causing vomiting, vertigo, convulsions, with Angel Engineering weakened heart and paralysis. Folk medicine uses Company. From 1915 to have included preparations to treat skin eruptions, 1918 he served overseas as cancers and warts. Other nightshade species which air mechanic with the Royal may be present in Newfoundland are three-flowered Flying Corps. On his return nightshade (Solanum triflorum), a variety found as a he established a garage and garden weed in other parts of eastern Canada; and automobile dealership busi George Nightingale Solanum tuberosum, which Rouleau lists as a non-in ness, Nightingale Motors Ltd. In 1949 he was elected digenous plant found in Newfoundland. Foster and a St. John's city councillor, and served until he was Duke (1990), Faith Pyles (1920), Peterson and defeated in 1961, filling the post of deputy mayor and McKenny (1968), Ernest Rouleau (1956). KAW for many years serving on the city Traffic Commis NIMROD (pop. 1869, 11). An abandoned fishing settle sion. In 1956 and 1959 he was elected as Liberal MHA ment located on the shores of the narrow passage sep for St. John's North. Nightingale was a member of the arating Nimrod Island from the southeast corner of Rotary Club of St. John's, an active mason and a Triton Island, Notre Dame Bay. Local tradition main member of the Canadian Legion. St. John's City Hall tains that Nimrod was named by George Simms, one Archives (Rotary Collection). KAW of the earliest settlers in western Notre Dame Bay, NIGHTSHADES. Deadly nightshade, (Solanum perhaps after the biblical Nimrod- "a mighty hunter nigrum L.), also known as black nightshade, garden before the Lord' '. nightshade, common nightshade or stubble-berry, is a Nimrod offered good access to inshore fishing member of the nightshade or potato family, grounds and to salmon rivers and trapping in Seal Bay Solanaceae, to which tomatoes, potatoes and peppers and Badger Bay to the south. It was first recorded in also. belong. Widely distributed throughout the world the Census of 1845 with a population of 14 at except in the extreme north and south, it occurs in "Nimrod Tickle" . (In the only previous Census, taken Newfoundland on open and shaded ground. The ber in 1836, Nimrod may have been included under the ries, leaves and stems contain the poisonous alkaloid listing for Wards Harbour and Triton Islands.) By solanine, with symptoms of ingestion the same for 1857 there were 38 inhabitants. However, Nimrod of animals and humans: pupil dilation, stupefaction, stag- fered only limited shelter and sites to the west offered 82 NIMROD greater attractions for settlers after the opening of Tilt particularly to thin skinned Southerners, as the Nipper Cove mine in 1864. By 1869 the population was only is the largest and most formidable of the mosquitoes" 11, the Simms family. They were still there in 1874 (cited in DNE). But the name may have originated with when the Census recorded 64 people at Triton Harbour the surname Nippard - recorded by the mid-1800s in and Nimrod. Although the community does not appear Fogo district, from whence came some of the earliest in later Census records, McAlpine's Directory for English fishermen in the area. 1894-95 notes William Simms and William Vincent The Beothuk are believed to have frequented the Sr. as being resident. It is likely that the Simms family Nippers Harbour area long before French and English left soon afterward for Triton qv, continuing to use migratory fishermen arrived in the late 1700s (see Nimrod as a summer fishing station. Census (1845- INDIAN BURYING PLACE). Continuous settlement 1874), DA (Sept.-Oct. 1988), Lovell's Newfoundland is thought to date from the late 1700s, when a West Directory (1871), McAlpine's Directory (1894-95). BWC Country firm operating out of Twillingate, John Slade qv and Co., established a fishing post there. Two of the NIMROD. The Nimrod was one of the first wooden first known settlers were Slade's agents in 1804, John steamers built expressly for the Newfoundland seal Rideout and John Noble. Noble remained at Nippers fishery. The 226-ton ship was constructed at Dundee, Harbour. Thomas Starkes from Fordingbridge, Hamp Scotland for the firm of Job Brothers under the super shire was sent out around 1820 as his servant, eventu vision of Captain Edward White qv. White brought the ally marrying one of his daughters. In 1991 Starkes Nimrod to St. John's in February of 1867 and took it and Noble were still the community's dominant family to the seal hunt for the next four springs. Thereafter names. The Rideouts moved on from Nippers Harbour the Nimrod was also used as a trading vessel and went to become one of the most common family names to the seal hunt under a number of skippers, including elsewhere in Green Bay. As many other families came Henry, Moses and Robert Bartlett qqv. In 1907 the to fish out of Nippers Harbour, the community came to vessel was sold to be used in an Antarctic voyage by be known as "the capital of Green Bay". But because British explorer Ernest H. Shackleton. L.G. Chafe of the limited amount of land suitable for homes and (1923), H.M. Mosdell (1923), Shannon Ryan (1987), gardens many people were obliged to settle further up DCB XI (Edward White, Sr.). RHC the Bay. After the mid-1800s Nippers Harbour was a NIPPERS HARBOUR (inc. 1964; pop. 1991, 243). A port of call for coastal boats and an anchorage for fishing community on the eastern shore of the Baie ships waiting to load at the Betts Cove and Tilt Cove Verte Peninsula, Nippers Harbour is "the first natu copper mines. The community also continued to be rally secure harbour inside Cape St. John" (J.P. frequented by fishing families from nearby communi Howley, cited in Poole) and hence one of the oldest ties. English settlements of western Notre Dame Bay. Local In 1836, with a population of 66, Nippers Harbour tradition holds that the community was named for its was one of the largest settlements on the northeast abundance of mosquitoes, or ''nippers''. That theory coast west of Twillingate. By this time Slade's busi was endorsed by Bishop Edward Feild in 1854 when ness had been taken over by Hodge and Waterman of he wrote that the "name is rather an alarming one, Twillingate. In addition to the cod and salmon fisher- A view ofNippers Harbour NIPPERS HARBOUR 83 Premises at Nippers Harbour, 1990 ies, an extensive seal fishery was also conducted, with resurgence took place in the late 1960s and early three ships going to the ice by 1857. The population 1970s after a road was constructed to the community, had increased to 120 by 1869, family names including with several residents of smaller communities nearby, Batstone, Bowers, Dollond, Langdown, Noble, Pitt such as Tilley's Pond, Rogues Harbour and Indian man, Randell and Starkes. Hodge and Waterman were Burying Place, moving there under the government's succeeded in the 1890s by the St. John's firm A. resettlement program. But as the local fishery contin Goodridge and Sons qv. In the early 1900s several ued to experience problems some families were soon local trading firms were established, including Bow obliged to leave. ers and Starkes Ltd., Walter B. Milley and Son and The early population of Nippers Harbour was exclu L.J. Noble and Son. The Fishermen's Union Trading sively Church of England, but by 1884 a majority of Co. also made Nippers Harbour the centre of its trade residents had converted to Methodism. A church had in Green Bay after 1912. During one of William been constructed by 1845 and by the 1860s school was Coaker's visits a Church of England bishop arrived being held. A school inspector's report of 1865 noted: only to be told to "Come back some other time, Teacher away.... In July and August 1863 he Bishop; Coaker's here today" (cited in Philbrook). was occupied as a Board teacher at Burying The Union Trading Co. branch was managed by Ro Place.... After an interval of a year and a quar land G. Starkes qv, who went on to establish the ter he was again employed and sent to Nipper's Northern Trading Co. at Nippers Harbour and to rep Harbour, commencing November 1864, with fif resent the area in the House of Assembly when Green teen pupils which are now fallen to eight. There Bay was established as a separate district in 1928. A is no school room, but a cooper's shop is lent for prosperous community, it established funds to im the purpose.... prove roads and to hire a doctor. Still, the community did not grow beyond the 383 By 1884 both the Church of England and Methodist people recorded in 1935. When the inshore fishery congregations supported churches and schools, which went into decline many men were forced to seek em were operated until amalgamation occurred in the ployment elsewhere, and the Northern Trading Co. 1960s. High school students have attended school in moved to Lewisporte. Thus by 1961 the population La Scie since the 1970s. had dropped to 236 and Nippers Harbour had lost to In 1991 the fishery was still the economic backbone Springdale its status as "capital" of the region. A brief of Nippers Harbour, but many residents were obliged 84 NISBET'S HARBOUR to work elsewhere. Principal family names in 1991 duffel parkas, boots and moccasins for the shop. She were Bowers, Noble, Perry, Prole, Randell and also made wall hangings, crocheted and quilted Starkes. Edward Feild (1854), W.G. Handcock (1989), blankets, dolls and knitted pieces. Her crafts are widely Howley and Murray (1881), Tom Philbrook (1966), known for both their practical construction and their C.F. Poole (NQ July 1976), E.R. Seary (1977), James beauty. Millicent Loder (interview, Sept. 1990), Sybilla Starkes (MHG 41-B-1-63), Norma Starkes (MHG 41- Nitsman (letter, 1992). ACB B-1-62), Baie Verte Regional Study (1960), Census NOAD, JOSEPH (1797-1873). Civil servant. Born (1836-1991), DNE (1990), Lovell's Newfoundland Di England. Married Emma Gaden Lilly. He came to rectory (1871), Newfoundland Directory 1936 (1936), Newfoundland in 1832 as the first Surveyor General. Report upon the Inspection of Protestant Schools for One of his first projects was to establish a street plan the Year 1865 (1866), Statistics: Federal-Provincial for Harbour Grace after the fire of 1832. Noad Street Resettlement Program (1975?), Archives (A-7-1). BWC in that town was later named for him. As Surveyor NISBET'S HARBOUR. The site of the first Moravian General he was also involved in the reconstruction of mission in Labrador, Nisbet's Harbour was built and St. John's after the fire of 1846. briefly occupied in 1752. There has been some dispute In 1842 he was appointed to the Executive Council over the location of the harbour with traditions at both by Governor John Harvey qv, despite the objections of Davis Inlet and Makkovik claiming the mission. Gos William Carson, who argued that Noad had no stake in ling gives the latitude of the mission house as 55° 10' Newfoundland and would therefore only be interested Uust north of Makkovik) and states that it was in his salary. With the introduction of a new constitu then known as Ford's Bight. However, both J.K. Hiller tion in 1843, Noad was appointed a member of the (1967) and F.W. Peacock (1981), consulting eighteenth Legislative Council. He resigned from this position in century documents giving the latitude as 55.30', place 1845, but continued to sit on the Executive Council. the mission just south of Davis Inlet. Maps of 1795 Noad travelled the south and west coasts of the Island and 1808 show Makkovik near modern Hopedale. The with Governor John G. LeMarchant in 1847, and, im tradition locating the 1752 mission at modern pressed with the fertile soils and rich fishery of the Makkovik seems to have begun after the name French Shore, he became an advocate of settlement in Makkovik had fallen out of use at a more northerly that area. After 1848 Noad was appointed to a new site. The original Nisbet's Harbour is probably one of council which advised the governor and acted as an the fjords between Davis Inlet and Hopedale. upper house. Awarded an annual pension of £285 in It is known that in 1752 three merchant members of 1855, Noad and his family left Newfoundland to settle the London congregation, Nisbet, Grace and Bell, out in Upper Canada, where he died. See MINISTERIES fitted the Hope to establish a mission in Labrador. In AND OTHER DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT. July the ship arrived at a harbour, which expedition D.W. Prowse (1895), DCB X. ACB leader Johann Christian Erhardt qv named for one of the patrons. The captain and some crew of the Hope NOAH, KALLEEM BACILE (1868-1957). Business left Nisbet's Harbour in early September to trade with man. Born Hadeth El Jibbe, North Lebanon. Educated the Inuit, but did not return. After an unsuccessful at Hadeth. Married Cecelia Koritem. Named Kalleem search for them, the four missionaries decided to Noah Bacile, he changed his surname upon emigrating abandon the harbour and act as crew for the return to to New York in 1887. He travelled the eastern United England. W.G. Gosling (1910), J.K. Hiller (1967), States and Canada as a peddlar until 1891, and then F.W. Peacock (1981). ACB settled in Yarmouth, Nova Scotia. He later moved to NITSMAN, SYBILLA (1911~ ). Craftswoman. Born St. John's, after some years Okak. Married (1) Jonas Hunter; (2) Eli Nitsman. of conducting business on Mother of Renatus Hunter qv. Orphaned by the Spanish the southwest coast. In 1896 influenza epidemic which hit Okak in 1918, from her he started a dry goods busi adopted parents Sybilla ness in St. John's on the cor Pamak learned to sew, pro ner of Water and Buchanan ducing her first pair of seal streets. Five years later he skin mitts at age 11. After built a new store at 320-322 her marriage, she began to Water Street, as well as a make traditional sealskin building on the corner of and duffel clothes and boots Springdale and New Gower for her children. Following streets and several other Kalleem Noah her first bus band's death properties. He advertised from pneumonia she moved his business as the largest wholesale dry goods estab to Hopedale and married lishment in Newfoundland. Noah employed several Eli Nitsman. When a craft other Lebanese as pack pedlars, selling his goods in the centre opened in Hopedale outports. See LEBANESE COMMUNITY. Winnifred in the early 1970s Nitsman Basha (interview, Oct. 1991), Jabbra and Jabbra Sybilla ( Pamak) Nitsman began making sealskin and (1987), Paul O'Neill (1976), DNLB (1990). KAW NODDYBAY 85 NOBLE, GRAHAM E. ( 1922- ). Clergyman. Born in the Rising Tide Theatre stage play and television pro Springdale, son of Jonas and Ida Noble. Educated duction Joey in the early 1980s. Noble also worked in Springdale; Eastern Pentecostal Bible College, Peter some feature films, most notably Gordon Pinsent's John borough, Ontario. Married Mildred Jean Spencer. and the Missus in 1986. Kevin Noble (interview, Aug. After working for nine years with the Royal Air Force 1991), DNLB (1990). JAMES WADE transport command in Gander and with British Over NOBLE, LOUIS LEGRAND (1812-1882). Clergy seas Airways in Iceland, Noble became a partner in his man; author. Born Ostego County, New York. Or father's lumber mill at Springdale, Jonas Noble and dained as an Episcopalian minister in 1840, Noble Sons. Experiencing a religious conversion in 1954, the served in North Carolina, New York and Chicago. In Nobles entered Eastern Pentecostal Bible College in addition to his ministry, Noble wrote several books. In 1956, graduating in 1959. After conducting meetings 1859 he visited Newfoundland and Labrador in com in Ontario and Newfoundland, they established a pany with landscape artist F.E. Church qv for the pur church at Howley. In 1962 they were called to Elim pose of sketching and studying icebergs. Hiring a ship, Pentecostal Tabernacle in St. John's. In addition to his the Merlin, with William Knight qv as captain, Noble other duties, Noble became the speaker on "The Old, and Church sailed to the Labrador coast and down the Old Story", a religious radio program. In 1982 he west coast of the Island. In 1861 Noble published a assumed the position of Chaplain for Institutions (St. book about the experience, After Icebergs with a John's) for the Pentecostal Assemblies of Newfound Painter: a summer voyage to Labrador and around land. Pentecostal Assemblie~ of Newfoundland news Newfoundland. He described in detail the voyage to release (1982). BURTON K. JANES Battle Harbour and the return journey, and included observations on the communities they visited and the NOBLE, KEVIN (1950- ). Actor. Born Twillingate, son people they met. Church's iceberg sketches were in of Earl and Elsie (Lush) Noble. Educated Nippers Harb cluded in the book. Peter Neary (1992), L.L. Noble our; St. John's; Memorial University of Newfoundland; (1861), Norah Story (1967), Dictionary of American National Theatre School, Biography (1872). LMS Montreal. He gained his first acting experience in a 1967 NODDY BAY (pop. 1986, 87). Noddy Bay is a small production of Tom Jones by fishing settlement on the northern tip of the Great the St. John's Players. Be- . Northern Peninsula, west of Quirpon qv. Noted by that tween 1967 and 1972, when name in 1763 by Capt. James Cook, the bay was named he enrolled in the National for the Atlantic fulmar, which nods its head in flight Theatre School, Noble had (see SHEARWATERS). Noddies once nested in large appeared in about 40 produc numbers in the area and were caught for use as bait. tions, including several with The French name for the Atlantic fulmar is mauve, and the Newfoundland Travelling the harbour was sometimes known as Baie aux Mauves Theatre Company. He first ~ ,~,. , or Mauve Bay. appeared on television in Mi- ~ The bay was well known to navigators and migra chael Cook's Head, Guts and Kevin Noble tory fishermen by the 1700s. Noddy Bay's first known Soundbone Dance, and later English settler was Thomas Spelt, who was sealing in became well known in the Province for TV roles. During the area in 1774. When in 1786 French fishermen the late 1970s he played Dolph, the taxi driver in "Up at objected to his presence he was ordered to leave. By Ours". Later he played a feature role, Eli Whitten, in the mid-1800s other settlers had arrived in Noddy Bay several CBC productions of ''Yarns from Pigeon Inlet''. to fish and seal, as nearby Quirpon became the focus He is probably best known for his role of the title character of a migratory fishery out of Conception Bay. The Noddy Bay 86 NOEL, NATHANIEL STEW ART 1869 Census recorded 34 people in Noddy Bay, with and taught in Memorial University's school of general family names Bartlett, Brewer, Decker, Keefe and studies. Nathaniel Noel (interview, Feb. 1992), MUN Tucker. Shortly thereafter the arrival of the family of Gazette (Feb. 25, 1988). KAW Aquila Eddison from Cupids established what was to NOEL PAUL'S BROOK. Noel Paul's Brook is a major become the most common family name at Noddy Bay. tributary of the Exploits River, with headwaters at Seasonal fishermen continued to visit- 18 vessels Blizzard Pond, between Meelpaeg and Red Indian in 1921 - but the permanent population did not rise lakes. Some 20 streams feed into the brook which, much above 50 until after Confederation. In addition including standing water, is over 100 km long. The to the inshore fishery, many harp seals were taken upper section of Noel Paul's Brook is relatively narrow each spring. Most people also did some subsist~nce and fast flowing and the gravelly, rocky bottom makes gardening and kept a few sheep or goats. Servtces, an ideal habitat for brook trout, stickleback and such as schools and churches, were obtained either at ouananiche. In 1822 William Cormack referred to the Quirpon or at larger communities nearby, such as brook as Shannoc Brook, a name derived from the Griquet, and in St. Anthony. The building of the high Beothuk term for the Micmac. But in a geological way in the 1960s made nearby communities more ac survey of 1888 it was called by its present name after cessible. Family names of Noddy Bay in 1992 Noel Paul qv, a Micmac who had traplines in the area. included Eddison, Hedderson, Tucker and White. Har The forested area around the brook began to attract old Innis (1940), E.R: Seary (1959; 1977), Robert loggers from the late 1930s, but with the harvesting of Wells ( 1960), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory mature forest completed, logging operations ceased in (1871), Archives (A-7-2). ACB 1964. A series of abandoned dams and sunken logs NOEL, NATHANIEL STEWART (1920- ). Lawyer; began to adversely affect the fish population and led judge. Born St. John's, son of Thomas C. and Flora to a government-assisted re-stocking program in the (Winsor) Noel. Educated Springdale Street School; late 1960s. William Cormack ( 1822), Howley and Bishop Feild College; Memorial University College; Murray (1888), J.G. Millais (1907), K.M. Mercer Dalhousie University. Married Olga Thistle. Noel was (1967). ACB on active service with the 59th (Newfoundland) Heavy NOEL, SIDNEY JOHN RODERICK (1938- ). Politi Artillery Regiment in cal scientist. Born St. John's, son of Edmund Noel. World War II, and served in Educated Memorial University of Newfoundland; Ox Normandy and the Baltic as ford University. Married Carol Hargreaves. Noel was a traffic control officer with awarded the Rhodes Scholarship in 1959 and a 12th Corps Headquarters. Rothermere research fellowship in 1964, receiving his On his discharge he studied D.Phil. degree from Oxford in 1965. In that year he law, was admitted to the was appointed to the political science department at the Newfoundland bar in 1949, University of Western Ontario. As a political scientist and practised in St. John's. Noel's areas of research focused on Newfoundland and In 1966 he was elected Canadian politics. He has published numerous articles MHA for St. John's North on these subjects, and his Politics in Newfoundland as a Liberal, but did not seek ( 1973) has become a standard source on Newfound re-election in 1971. Noel land politics from 1900 to 1934. In 1990 he published was appointed a judge of the Patrons, Clients, Brokers: Ontario Society and Poli Newfoundland Supreme Justice N.S. Noel tics 1791-1896. S.J.R. Noel (1973; 1990; letter, Sept. Court (Trial Division) in 1973. G.W.L. Nicholson 1992), Centre For Newfoundland Studies (Sidney J.R. (1969), Nathaniel Noel (interview, July, 1991), DNLB Noel). LMS (1990), Who's Who Newfoundland Silver Anniversary Edition (1975). TPH NOEL, WALTER BERNARD DOUGLAS (1942- ). Politician. Born St. John's, son of Walter and Made NOEL, NATHANIEL THOMAS (1958- ). Sculptor; laine (Shute) Noel. Edu geologist. Born St. John's, son of Geraldine (Walling) cated Memorial University and Alex C. Noel. Educated Memorial University of of Newfoundland. He estab Newfoundland. Noel began sculpting while working as lished a wholesale/retail a geologist in Labrador. Working in Newfoundland business, Footwear Sup pyrophyllite qv he has become known for carvings of plies Ltd. In 1970 Noel northern creatures observed in their natural surround wrote A Response to Our ings. While similarities exist between his sculpture a~d Time, turning his attention that of northern native cultures, he does not deptct to politics. He unsuccess mythic or legendary themes, but strives for realistic fully contested St. John's detail and capture of movement. His figures have been East Extern for the New presented to dignitaries visiting the Province, and sold Democratic Party in the through craft fairs and the Stone Garden Gallery (run 1971 provincial election. In by himself and stone engraver Michelle Rice). In 1992 the 197 4 federal election, Walter Noel Noel completed his master's degree in earth sciences, again representing the NOGGIN COVE 87 NDP, he failed to win the district of St. John's West. also moved on by 187 4. Some of the Wheaton children There followed unsuccessful contests for St. John's later settled in Frederickton, and by 1992 the family city council in 1977, 1981 and 1985. In 1982 and 1985 name was once again in Noggin Cove. It was in the Noel ran for the Liberals provincially. In the 1989 late 1870s that Noggin Cove was finally settled per provincial election he successfully contested Pleasant manently - by fishermen from Ochre Pit Cove, a ville district for the Liberals and soon earned a reputa community in Conception Bay which had strong ties tion as a vocal backbencher. Noel took an active with Indian Islands, about 12 km off Noggin Cove. interest in constitutional negotiations (see MEECH Local tradition has it that the first settlers from Ochre LAKE) and was one of the Province's most visible Pit Cove were two young fishermen, Levi Pennell and proponents of a "No" vote in the October 26, 1992 Charles White, and their wives. The Parsons and Gil national referendum on the Charlottetown constitu lingham families also came from Ochre Pit Cove and tional package. Walter Noel (interview, June 1992). were joined by Angells, Snows and Whites. In 1884 GEORGE CORBETT the population was 46, with a schooner having been built in the past year, and by 1911 there were 112 NOEL'S POND (pop. 1986, 111). The community of people. These early settlers were almost all Method Noel's Pond is located just to the northeast of Stephen ists and in the early years attended a Methodist church ville along the highway, the pond itself lying within at Frederickton, before building their own the boundaries of Stephenville. The community main school/chapel in the early 1900s, when Noggin Cove tains its own council to deal with local affairs. The area was part of the Carmanville Methodist circuit. was occupied primarily by farmers in the late 1800s While there was some early involvement in the Lab and early 1900s. Among the early settlers were the rador fishery, most residents of Noggin Cove fished Cormiers. Tradition has it that branches of the family local waters for cod or participated in the summer moved to the area from the Magdalen Islands c. 1850 fishery off the Wadham Islands qv, at the eastern en and from St. Pierre in 1907. Noel's Pond first appears trance to Hamilton Sound. Most of the cod, lobster and in the Census as a separate community in 1956 with a herring caught was sold to Earle's and Roberts' at population of 91. The boom ended in 1966 with the Change Islands. Over time, however, residents drew closure of Harmon Field, and the population of Noel's on logging for the bulk of their incomes, working in Pond began to decline from a figure of 180 in 1971 as sawmills in Gander Bay and, as the twentieth century people moved away. Those who remained continued to progressed, cutting pulpwood. By 1935 the major spe work in Stephenville, though a few were employed in cies fished commercially was lobster. In the 1940s a agriculture. Family names in Noel's Pond in 1992 few families moved to Noggin Cove from Indian Is include Carberry, Cormier, Hynes, Wheeler and lands and by 1945 the population was 195. A major White. R.A. MacKay (1946), E.R. Seary (1977), Cen forest fire in the area destroyed much of the useful sus (1956-1986), List of Electors (1975). ACB timber, but in the 1990s woods work, carpentry and NOGGIN COVE (pop. 1986, 338). A fishing and lum general labour remained the major sources of employ bering community, Noggin Cove is on the south side ment at Noggin Cove, with the few remaining fisher of Sir Charles Hamilton Sound, just west of Carman men selling their catches at Frederickton. Since the ville qv. The community lies in the southern extremity building of the highway through Noggin Cove in the of Noggin Cove, which takes its name from a small mid-1960s, children have attended school at Carman cask used to hold rum or butter. It may be that the Cove ville. Deborah Attwood (MHG 41-B-1-64), E.R. Seary is named after Noggin Island, about 5 km off its eastern (1977), Census (1857-1986), DA (Nov.-Dec. 1983), point, which bears some resemblance to an overturned List of Electors (1962), Lovell's Newfoundland Direc half-cask. There is also a local tradition that the first tory (1871), Archives (A-7-3; VS 83). RHC settler was a fisherman and cooper named Doyle from Tilting on Fogo Island. In the 1850s the Hamilton Sound area was being frequented by fishing crews from the north shore of Conception Bay, which may have provided a market for Doyle's trade, Muddy Hole (Frederickton qv) to the west having a population of 54. Doyle is said to have lived on the western side of the Cove for a few years before returning to Tilting. It is probably his family that was noted there in the 1857 Census, when Noggin Cove was recorded as having a population of six, all Roman Catholics. The next settlers recorded, in 1869, were Robert and Sarah Wheaton (and their 13 children), who had been living on the east side of Gander Bay since the 1850s and may have used Noggin Cove for summer fishing prem ises for some years. The Wheatons lived in the south east part of the Cove, at Noggin Cove Point, but had Noggin Cove 88 NOLAN, DICK NOLAN, DICK (1937- ). Musician. Born Corner where his associatiOn with Brook, son of James and Marjorie (Gaudon) Nolan. Don Jamieson qv presaged Educated Corner Brook. Nolan began working as a a political relationship. In musician at the age of 14, when he made regular ap 1966 he was elected Liberal pearances on a radio program, "Woodland Echoes", MHA for St. John's South. sponsored by Bowater's Newfoundland Ltd. at Corner Appointed to cabinet in 1968, Brook. In 1958 he moved to Toronto, where he became he held the portfolios of Mun a country and western club singer, and in 1962 signed icipal Affairs, Supply and his first record contract, recording a total of 10 albums Services, and Economic with Arc Records over the next decade. His first two Development, and for a albums consisted of cover versions of hits by Johnny time served as treasury Cash and he was originally best known as a singer of board president. In 1971 he truck-drivin' country and western songs. lost a bid for re-election in ncn Ferryland, but was elected John A. Nolan ~ CAMDEN for a term as MHA for Conception Bay South in 1975. From 1981 to 1986 Nolan was a citizenship court judge in St. John's. Among his voluntary activities were his founding directorship of the advisory board of Big Brothers in Newfoundland and appointment as aide-de-camp to Lieutenant-Governor James McGrath in 1987. Between 1987 and 1992 Nolan worked with Q Radio and cable television. John A. Nolan (inter view, Apr. 1992), ET Oct. 24, 1986; Sept. 29, 1987), Newfoundland and Labrador Who's Who ( 1968), New foundland Historical Society (John A. Nolan). KAW NOMENCLATURE. Nomenclature refers to the sys tem of names used to identify geographical features, including the names of settlements. Toponymy, de rived from the Greek words topo (place) and onama (names), is the study of geographical names, or top onyms. The toponymy of our Province in both written and oral forms is the product of historical forces and influences, and reflects many aspects of our cultural When "Newfie music" began to boom in the mid- background and heritage. The European naming of 1960s (a phenomenon associated with Newfound features, for instance, dates at least to the Icelandic land's *Come Home Year qv in 1966), Nolan recorded Sagas recording happenings from about 1000 AD and two albums of more Newfoundland-oriented material has a well-documented record of voyages of explora and returned to the Island for a while before going tion to our shores going back five centuries. From back to Toronto. In 1972, under the RCA label, he these beginnings naming has gone on right up to the released the album Fishermen's Boy, which included a present. The current gazetteer (dictionary of place song written by Ellis Coles, "Aunt Martha's Sheep", names) of Newfoundland and Labrador (1983), pub which was to become a country and western hit across lished by the Canada Permanent Committee on Geo North America. Nolan moved back to Newfoundland graphical Names, contains nearly 25,000 entries. This and over the next few years made several more com name inventory represents our officially approved mercially successful recordings, and for a season had names. It is, however, only a small proportion of the a television show on CJON-TV, often featuring his total nomenclature in use; numerous names in oral ten-year-old daughter, Bonnie Lou (who also recorded usage around the Province have never been recorded. an album). In 1978 Nolan returned to Toronto, where In addition thousands of geographical features, espe he continued to be known as a club singer of "down cially in wilderness areas, have never been named. east country" and recording artist. Marjorie Nolan The rich variety of our nomenclature has long been a (interview, Nov. 1992), A.C. Hunter Library (Dick source of attraction to visitors. Keenleyside found here Nolan), Centre for Newfoundland Studies (Dick the most delightful and imaginative nomenclature he Nolan). RHC had ever encountered, observing that "In no other country with which I am acquainted is there so great a NOLAN, JOHN ALEXANDER (1930- ). Broadcaster; variety of unusual place-names". Most articles on politician. Born St. John's, son of Rose (Redmond) and place names, particularly those by popular journalists, Leo Nolan. Educated St. John's. Married Edith have tended to focus on their more whimsical aspects Snelgrove. and especially on the more unique and unusual names From 1955 to 1966 Nolan was an announcer and such as Come-By-Chance, Ha Ha Bay, Joe Batt's Arm, news commentator with CJON Radio and Television, Dildo, Nameless Cove, Chase-me-Further Pond and NOMENCLATURE 89 Bonavista Damnable, names that evoke humour or mystery. Much For over a century following its rediscovery by Eng of the early writing on nomenclature was done by anti lish and Portuguese explorers about 1500 the shores of quarians such as M.F. Howley qv. But the research of Newfoundland were frequented only during the sum scholars such as Seary, Story, Kirwin and Hollett of mer months by fishermen from Europe. Meanwhile Memorial University has elevated the study of topon the major features of the coast (bays, harbours and ymy to a more serious academic level. The work of capes) were given names on maps and charts. Once E.R. Seary qv stands foremost in terms of its contribu established, this nomenclature was reproduced by Eu tion to a fuller understanding of the linguistic, cultural ropean cartographers. The main influence during the and historic origins of our nomenclature. Professor 1500s was the Portugese, who produced the first maps Seary compiled an inventory of all historical maps and and charts and provided the earliest names. Some of charts, the main source of our historical toponymy, our oldest extant names come from those implanted by produced a checklist of all toponyms used on the Na the Portugese between 1502 and 1508. These include tional Topographic Maps of the Great Northern Penin Bonaventure, derived from Cabo de boa ventura, sula, and published a classic work in Place Names of Cape Race, initially Capo raso, and Baccalieu from the Avalon Peninsula (1971), a book that is a standard Rivo de los Bacalaos. The first French names in New reference on the origin and derivation of all names in foundland do not appear until the publication of the most populous region of the Province. Descelier's map of 1542, though Jacques Cartier men From the time of explorations by Cabot, Corte Real, tions a few names in accounts of his voyages of 1534 Cartier and others the features of the coast were the and 1536. Among the oldest and still surviving French first named. Because our economic pursuits have al toponyms are Cap de Bonne Viste, which we know ways centred on the sea, coastal regions have a higher better in its Spanish or Portugese form as Bonavista, density of names than inland regions. Current maps of and Catalina, a name probably derived from the trans the interior are characterized by numerous unnamed lation of Cartier's Saincte Katherine. Quirpon, Brehat features, partly because the local oral names have not and Degrat are old French toponyms as well. French been recorded and also because many features have toponymy expanded with their migratory fishery. By indeed remained unnamed. Nonetheless many features 1 790 French names could be found all around the of the interior of the Island and of Labrador have a Island and along sections of the Labrador coast side by nomenclature imposed by native peoples as well as side with English names. Regionally, the French ele hunters, trappers, loggers, sportsmen, anglers, mining ment in toponymy was strongest in Placentia Bay and prospectors, travellers and guides. Bush pilots and on the Burin Peninsula (areas settled by the French in other aviators are said to have their own informal the period 1662-1713), and along the *French Shore nomenclature for identifying features of wilderness qv, which included the Great Northern Peninsula, areas which are unnamed on published maps. Micmac where they fished until 1904. names also constitute an important nomenclature in Labrador appears to have been derived from a the interior of Newfoundland. Maps of Labrador like Portugese word meaning "small land-owner". New wise contain Inuit and Innu toponyms, but clearly only foundland comes from English, but was first written a small percentage of those in oral usage. as "the newe founde isle". Meanwhile the Portugese 90 NOMENCLATURE called the Island Bacalaos ("land of the cod"). Eng coastal maps of Newfoundland, but also increased lish nomenclature was not very prominent until the English recorded names. Cook imposed his own pref publication in 1626 of a map by Captain John Mason erences at will. These ranged from the names of his qv. Mason, governor of the Cuper's Cove (Cupids) survey ships (Lark, Pearl and Tweed), to English colony from 1615 to 1621, surveyed part of the coast rivers (Humber and Thames), to a Newfoundland gov between Bonavista Bay and Placentia Bay and his map ernor (Graves) and to his admiral friends (Hawke, records the first good crop of English names. Many of Saunders and Keppel). Cook also named Portland Mason's names were transformations of toponyms Creek for its likeness to Portland in the English Chan earlier given by the Portugese, Spanish and French. nel, and on one occasion coined a Nameless Cove. Among these were Harbour Grace, Carbonear, St. Most names first recorded by Cook, however, were John's, Petty Harbour, Ferryland and Trepassey. The clearly those which came from local oral usage and earliest purely English compositions included Torbay, were most likely authored by fishermen and settlers. Bristol's Hope, Cuper's Cove, Heart's Content and Cook's practice of consulting local residents on no~ Avalon. Avalon, derived from Avalonia, is a name menclature was followed by many later surveyors and associated with the legend of King Arthur, and was explorers working on behalf of various government borrowed by Sir George Calvert qv for his Newfound agencies. When Cook was posted on the Endeavour land colony, or plantation. In 1621 Calvert established for work in the Pacific the Newfoundland survey was a settlement on this land at Ferryland. continued by his former assistant. Michael Lane added Selma Barkham has shown that in the late sixteenth more toponyms to the standing record, but his contri century the Basques named a considerable number of bution to Newfoundland nomenclature has not yet features while fishing and whaling in the Gulf of St. been fully analyzed. Lawrence. Some examples include Cape St. George While most of the additions to coastal toponymy in (Cabo de San Jorge), Cape Ray (C. de Rey), Ferrole the nineteenth century came from hydrographic sur Point (Ferrologo Amuixco Punta), Port aux Choix veys, pioneer geologists such as J.B. Jukes, W.E. (Portuchoa) and Codroy (Cadarrai). In subsequent Cormack and James Howley qqv began in this period usage these names became anglicized. Thus Codroy is to establish a nomenclature of inland features. In 1795 the anglicized version of the Basque Cadarrai, while the British Admiralty established a Hydrographic De Ferryland was derived from a Portugese name first partment, and from the early nineteenth century spon recorded as Farilham on a map by Verrazano in 1529 sored a series of detailed coastal surveys in and St. John's from R. de Sam Joham on a Portugese Newfoundland and Labrador. From these surveys map of 1519 (Reine]). came some 90 charts, many of which have been re By the 1670s the English had settled the area be vised. Various editions of the Newfoundland and Lab tween Cape Bonavista and Cape Race, then known as rador Pilot have included name lists for most the English Shore, but settlements bore names im significant features mapped on these charts. Indeed posed by fishermen of other nations. Of 32 English this source provided a large proportion of the names settlements occupied in 1675d for example, only about which after 1949 were used on the 1:50,000 National a third -English Harbour, Trinity, Ireland's Eye, Old Topographic Series of Maps and which were pub Perlican, Heart's Content, Silly Cove, Salmon Cove, lished in the two editions of the Newfoundland gazet Clown's Cove, Bryant's Cove, Torbay and Tors Cove teer (1968, 1983). As is the case with Lane's work, - have a fairly obvious English origin. Most of these however, very little research has been completed on were imposed by English migratory fishermen rather the naming process or the special contributions of the than by the earliest settlers. From the late seventeenth various hydrographic surveyors of the nineteenth cen century, however, English toponyms increased in the tury, including G. Holbrook (1821-23), T. Smith settled areas, as did French nomenclature on the treaty (1821-26), F. Bullock (1821-26), J. Orlebar (1857- shore. Meanwhile the anglicization of existing non 64), W. Chimmo (1865-72), J.H. Kerr (1872-91), and English names, or their replacement, also accounted W.F. Maxwell (1891-1900). for some of the changes. French names such as What names were imposed by these hydrographers Toulinquet, Audierne and Baliene were transformed to and what names did they gather in conducting their Twillingate, Oderin and Bauline respectively. The Bay surveys? Answers to these queries can be gleaned only of Flowers was changed to Bonavista Bay and Baya de from their journals, log books and their original Santa Cyria (originally named after a Portugese saint) charts. The recent publication by W.J. Kirwin of some became Trinity Bay. of Chimmo's journals related to his surveys on the In addition to Mason other key figures who added to northeast coast of Labrador in 1867 illustrates quite the early stock of English names were Henry South clearly the value of this source in determining origins wood (who visited in 1676), Captain James Cook and some of the inspiration for names in the areas of (1762-67) and Lieutenant Michael Lane qqv (1762- his survey. Not surprisingly, some, if not all, of these 90). In the summer of 1676 Southwood consulted local hydrographers seized an opportune moment to achieve fishermen and settlers on names while compiling nav a measure of personal glory and immortality. Thus we igational information which was later published in have Holbrook Head (NTS 2C/12), Bullock Island (2 The English Pilot (1689). Cook's survey not only ad E/9), Bullock Point (2 C/4) and Chimmo Rock (13 vanced cartography and resulted in the first accurate 1117). It is likely too that at least one or more of the 15 NOMENCLATURE 91 Bauline, Southern Shore features with the specific Smith has a similar origin. guage was shannoc. Shannoc Brook was recorded by The explorers of the interior also dispensed names Jukes in 1842, and is believed to be the Beothuk word commemorating persons they admired and their per for Micmac. Later this brook was renamed Noel Pauls, sonal friends. As Cormack relates in the journal of his after a Micmac guide. (In 1914 Jack of Clubs Cove on travel across the Island in 1822, "I have used the the Port au Port Peninsula was renamed Aguathuna, in customary privilege of giving names to the lakes and the belief that this was a Beothuk term for "white mountains ... in this hitherto unexplored route, and stone"-see PORT AU PORT-WEST-AGUATHUNA these are in compliment to distinguished individuals FELIX COVE). Toponyms containing the elements and private friends." Names inherited from Cormack Indian and Wigwam indicate sites of settlement or include Jameson Hills, "in honour of an excellent cultural contact with Europeans. Mary March Brook friend and distinguished promoter of science and en commemorates a Beothuk woman captured in 1819 terprise - Professor Jameson, of Edinburgh", King near Red Indian Lake. Recently the name Mount George IV Lake and Mount Sylvester (honouring his Caubvick was approved for the highest peak, pre Micmac guide, Sylvester Joe qv). Some of Cormack's viously unnamed, in the Torngat Mountains (Caubvick names, such as Gowers Lake, Emmas Lake and Rich was an Inuit woman who survived a smallpox out ardsons Lake, are no longer in use. The name Cormack break among a group taken to England by George was fittingly bestowed on a post-World War II settle Cartwright in the 1770s). ment designed for war veterans. How do geographical features get their names and Clearly the naming and renaming of geographical who does the naming? According to Jean Poirier, features has gone on spontaneously from the time of places get named by deliberate imposition, by persons the first occupation of the areas of the Island and who had or assumed authority, and by a process of Labrador. Consequently most areas have a complex spontaneous creation, or collective usage. Imposed nomenclature made up of names left by different cul names tend to be restricted to settlements and to prom tures and by different generations of the same culture. inent natural features. Spontaneous names are, how These different name layers (or palimpsests, as Pro ever, usually more numerous and include also all fessor Story calls them) are usually mixed and blended names in oral usage, nicknames, vulgar names and the within an area, but the more distinctive sets are easily like. The earliest authorities to impose names were the identified. Micmac toponymy, for example, is evident early explorers and cartographers. Later this role was in many landmarks and natural features in the south assumed by governors, hydrographers, geologists, ern and western regions of Newfoundland. Names clergymen, post office officials and politicians. Cur such as Annieopsquotch ("rocky mountain"), Mael rently the only authority that can impose name Paeg ("Crooked") Lake. and Kaegudek ("on the top") changes or approve new names is the Newfoundland Lake are good examples. However, names given by and Labrador Geographical Names.Board. The mod the Micmac to features along the coasts have, accord ern names board, which was formed in 1979, consists ing to Professor Frank Speck, been lost and replaced of six members from around the Province and is the by English toponymy. Seary maintains that the only successor of the Nomenclature Board established in toponym known to have come from the Beothuk Ian- 1904. The earliest spontaneous names in Newfound- 92 NOMENCLATURE land evidently came from the migratory fishermen. "brooks" are in many other parts of North America The vast majority of names that we possess today were called "creeks". Regional linguistic difference in the invented and bestowed by the ordinary settlers, who use of generics also occur within Newfoundland. are mainly responsible for much of the variety in our Water-logged soils, for which one of the standard ge toponymy as well for much of the repetition and more nerics is "marsh", are in some parts of Newfoundland mundane aspects of our nomenclature. Personal names referred to as "mish" and in others as "mash". and family names are frequently found in the names of Specifics are much more numerous than generics. communities and in numerous natural features - Nearly every community in the Province has a "Gull coves, ponds, points etc. For instance the community Pond", while many have several, distinguished as of Princeton in Bonavista Bay commemorates Prince, "Big Gull Pond", "Inside Gull Pond" or "Outside a pioneer family. Nearby Charleston is named after Gull Pond". "Little" and "Big" are very commonly Charles Prince, a descendant of the same family who used qualifiers. Other features include specifics such established a new settlement. Meanwhile Charlotte as "Back", "Great", "Green" and "Southwest". The town, Bonavista Bay evidently honours Charlotte current gazetteer contains scores of Wild Coves, Spracklin (nee Hussey), a pioneer mother of the com Sandy Coves, Long Ponds, Southwest Ponds, North munity. west Ponds, Flat Islands, Burnt Heads, Burnt Islands In considering imposed names created by authority, and Burnt Points. Seary noted that both governors and members of the Repetition of names can be a problem, especially in clergy were generous in giving their own names. After the case of settlements. Towards the end of the last a visit to the northeast coast in 1866 Governor century the Postmaster General had authority to Musgrave had his name attached to the communities change the name of any settlement which duplicated of Musgrave Harbour (formerly Muddy Hole) and another. The first Nomenclature Board assumed this Musgravetown, a newly settled site in Goose Bay, authority in 1904. In 1992 the Newfoundland and Lab Bonavista Bay. Governors' names are the main ele rador Geographical Names Board can authorize name ment in Cochrane Street, Cochrane Pond and Glover changes for any unincorporated community if most town, while prime ministers gave the community residents petition for a change. Incorporated commu names Whiteway and Winterland. Names of religious nities (cities, towns etc.) are empowered to alter their significance, especially those of saints (St. John's, St. own names. The Geographical Names Board is, how Mary's), were among the first imposed in Newfound ever, responsible for naming all natural features. land. Other names include those chosen to replace Among the current settlements (about 800) some 160 older names deemed unsuitable. Thus St. Michael's have had a formal name change within the last cen replaced Caplin Cove, St. Phillip's replaced Broad tury. Most of these changes were approved by the Cove, and Black Duck Gullies became St. Joseph's. Nomenclature Board, usually after receiving petitions The Nomenclature Board frequently commemorated from local people, politicians, clergymen, magistrates local clergy in changing names or in creating new or merchants. Most changes were prompted by the names. Searston in the Codroy Valley was named for a need for a community to have a unique identity. There popular Roman Catholic priest in the area. Earlier this were simply too many Fox Coves, Northwest Arms, century one of the several Cuckhold Coves was re Holyroods and New Harbours. Other changes were named Dunfield after a Church of England clergyman, motivated by a desire to avoid awkward associations and Bird Island Cove was changed to Elliston after the -North Side of Norris Arm (Alderburn), Botwood Reverend William Ellis, the first Methodist minister in ville, Ship Cove (Botwood), Upper Rocky Brook and the area. Middle Rocky Brook (Monroe) ... etc. - or by the Geographical names normally contain two parts, a perceived need to improve either the euphemistic or specific part (e.g. "Kelligrews" in Kelligrews Point) the euphonious appeal of a name, or simply to avoid a and a generic part (e.g. "Tickle" in Black Tickle). "negative" label. Thus Silly Cove became Winterton; Generics identify the class, family or general type to Devils Cove, Job's Cove; Bay Bulls Arm, Sunnyside; which an individual feature belongs (e.g. cove, island, Bloody Bay, Glovertown; and Famish Gut, Fairhaven. lake, etc.). An analysis of "specifics" and "generics" More recently Gayside has become Baytona. Repeated reveals much of the history and culture of any area. A efforts to change the name of Dildo have failed. recently published glossary of generic terms, Generic Authoritative intervention has not always proven Terms In Canada's Geographical Names, shows that effective. Indeed names officially rescinded often sur Newfoundland toponymy contains numerous generic vive in oral usage. or at least are retained as nick terms which are very rare or unknown in other parts of names. One still hears casual reference to Silly Cove Canada - an indication of the rich cultural variety in instead of Winterton, Squid Tickle for Burnside, Dam our nomenclature. Newfoundlanders were inclined to nable for St. Chad's and Ward's Harbour for Beau name inland bodies of water "ponds", whereas else mont North. Likewise, officially proclaimed names where in Canada they were classed as "lakes". An have often been thoroughly resisted by local residents explanation of this difference is that most of the early and alternative names have had to be considered, settlers in Newfoundland came from the southwest of sometimes including a reversion to an old name. Shoal England and were unfamiliar with the term "lake" Bay, Bonavista was altered to Wellington, but then since no lakes occur in the homeland. Similarly became Dover; and Salvage Bay was proclaimed NONIA, M. V. 93 Snug Harbour, Labrador Brighton and then Eastport. Flat Islands, Bonavista approved by the Board are submitted to the Canada Bay became Samsons Islands but later reverted to the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for original. By a 1916 proclamation Wood's Island be- entry into the toponymic data base for the Province. came Innishmara, but the name never caught on. Over- These new names will appear on maps and in subse- all, however, most official place name changes have quent publication of gazetteers. Up to 1991 detailed gained public acceptance. It appears that the main field surveys have covered the Avalon Peninsula, the agent enforcing change, following a proclamation by Burin Peninsula, the Bonavista Peninsula, Bonavista the official board, has been the post office. More re- North, the Straight Shore as far as Musgrave Harbour, cently the practice of sign-posting by the highways Terra Nova National Park, Gros Morne National Park department and by municipal governments has con- and the Sandwich Bay area of Labrador. Some 15,000 tributed to the stabilization of official place names. "new" names have come from these surveys. Addi- N omenclature Board records for the period 1904-195 8 tional field work has been conducted in recent years disclose a preoccupation with settlement name by the department of English of Memorial University changes. Although the Board was active up to the in the Placentia Bay area aimed at recording and pre- 1950s its activities were spasmodic. Indeed much of serving the linguistic aspects of the culture as repre- the work involving geographical names in the 1950s sented in geographical names. Other work has and 1960s was done by civil servants. Particularly involved the field collecting of names among the na- noteworthy was the work of two land surveyors, J.H. tive peoples of Labrador. All these projects will result Burridge and W.J. Walsh, who were responsible· for in improved toponymic coverage of the Province and compiling the 18,000 names which appeared in the in the preservation of an important component of our first published Newfoundland and Labrador Gazetteer cultural heritage. W. Gordon Handcock (1987), R. (1968). This gazetteer marked a significant advance Hollett (1991), M. F. Howley (1901), K. L. Keenley- upon the list of 3200 names compiled in 1941, which side, Jean Poirier (1985), E.R. Seary (1958; 1962; stood until1968 as the most comprehensive inventory 1970), G.M. Story (1987), W.J. Kirwin (1985), Can- of toponymy. The 1968 gazetteer for the first time ada Permanent Committee on Geographical Names listed scores of toponyms for natural features, gath- (1968; 1983), Newfoundland and Labrador Geograph- ered from printed sources and from numerous land ical Name Board. W. GORDON HANDCOCK surveys and cadastral (land-ownership) maps. NONIA. See NURSING AND INDUSTRIAL ASSOCI In 1981 the department of geography at Memorial ATION, NEWFOUNDLAND OUTPORT. University began a field program to record local top onymy and to check the accuracy of the names on NONIA, M. V. A sister ship of the Bonavista, the Nonia current maps against local usage. Undergraduate ge was built for Canadian National Railways in 1956 at ography students began visiting communities to inter the Hall Russell yard in Aberdeen, Scotland. The view elderly and knowledgeable residents and to diesel-powered ship was similar in design to earlier record names on maps of the National Topographic coastal steamers and could accommodate 90 passen Series 1:50,000. The results of the field survey are gers as well as freight. Commanded on its maiden submitted to the Geographic Names Board. Names voyage by Captain Joseph Prim, it replaced the Codroy 94 NONOSBA WSUT on the run between Lewisporte and Baie Verte. In the fully in Bonavista Bay, including 1882, although on summer months the Nonia delivered mail along the this occasion he was later declared elected, after W.B. Labrador coast. In August 1961 the ship was called Grieve's election was overturned. In 1885 he was re upon to assist the community of Musgrave Harbour elected and appointed by Robert Thorburn to the se when it was threatened by forest fire. It transported 760 nior cabinet post of Receiver General. However, people from the area to safety on Fogo Island. After 20 accepting the office required that he resign his seat years in the coastal service, the ship was taken over by and run in a by-election. This time Noonan was de the federal Department of Fisheries. As a patrol boat it feated by Alfred B. Morine qv, whom he had handily helped to enforce fisheries regulations within defeated in the general election. Noonan was subse Canada's 200-mile limit. In 1980 theNonia passed into quently appointed assistant collector of customs at St. private ownership. J.P. Andrieux (1984), Belliveau et John's and served in this position until he was pen al (1992), Harry Bruce (1977). ACB sioned in 1897. He died at St. John's on December 19, 1898. James Hiller (1980), H.M. Mosdell (1923), NONOSBAWSUT (?-1819). Beothuk leader. Married DNLB (1990), Newfoundland Historical Society (A.B. Demasduit qv. Born Newfoundland. Sometimes re Morine). RHC ferred to as Chief Nonosbawsut, his position is better described as that of headman. On January 24, 1811, he NORDCO. See OCEANS RESEARCH AND DEVEL was one of a group of Beothuk who met David Buchan OPMENT CORPORATION, NEWFOUNDLAND. qv at Red Indian Lake. Buchan left two marines at the NORMA AND GLADYS. One of the last Newfoundland native camp while he, Nonosbawsut and three other schooners, the Norma and Gladys was built in 1945 by Beothuk went to retrieve a cache of presents Buchan Captain Henry Stone of Monroe, Trinity Bay. Con had left behind. As they travelled, Nonosbawsut be structed of local birch, the vessel measured 93 feet in came suspicious, fearing that they would be taken length and had a displacement of 133 tons. The Norma hostage. Before reaching the cache, Nonosbawsut and and Gladys was named after the two daughters of its two others fled, and convinced the rest of the group first captain, Allen Tucker. The ship prosecuted the that the intentions of Buchan were hostile. The two Labrador *floater qv fishery from 1945 to 1951, when marines were beheaded, and the camp dispersed. it was purchased by Captain Charles Kean of Brook In March 1819, John Peyton Jr. qv led another expe field, Bonavista Bay for use in the coasting trade. In dition, authorized by Governor Charles Hamilton to 1973 the provincial government acquired the vessel, recover property stolen from fishing stations in the with financial assistance from the National Museums Bay of Exploits and to establish relations with the of Canada, for use as a "floating museum". In 1974- Beothuk. On March 5, the party surprised a small 75 the Norma and Gladys went on a year-long voyage group at Red Indian Lake who attempted to escape. to foreign ports to highlight Canada's concern for the Peyton captured a woman, Demasduit. Nonosbawsut oceans of the world. The ship also visited many parts approached the party holding the tip of a pine branch, of the Province, but because of mounting expenses a symbol of peace, and through words and gestures and the ship's dubious seaworthiness it was berthed asked Peyton to release his wife. When Peyton re at Grand Bank in 1981. It remained open to visitors fused, a scuffle broke out and Nonosbawsut was shot until 1984, when it was sold to Sail Labrador Ltd., and killed. His body was placed in a sepulchre, later to for use as a tour boat. On October 27, 1984, the ship be joined by that of Demasduit and their infant child. took on water and, its pumps failing, later sank in In 1828, the sepulchre was found by William Placentia Bay. The Norma and Gladys (n.d.), Centre Cormack, who removed the skulls and some of the grave goods, Nonosbawsut's skull eventually finding its way to the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh. D.B. Fardy (1988), J.P. Howley (1915). ACB NOONAN, JAMES LYONS (1823-1898). Merchant; politician. Born Nova Scotia. Married (1) Mary Ann Wills; (2) Sarah (Gaden) Lewis. Noonan, a customs officer working out of Halifax, married the daughter of a St. John's merchant in 1853. In 1856 he was appointed to the customs establishment at St. John's, but shortly thereafter moved to Greenspond as agent for the St. John's firm of Brooking and Co. In 1869 Brooking's was actively involved in oppos ing confederation with Canada. Noonan was elected MHA for Bonavista Bay as an Anti-confederate and served as C.F. Bennett's Colonial Secretary from 1871 to 1873. In 1873 he was defeated in a bid for reelec tion, but was appointed to a position with customs by Bennett. He subsequently ran several times unsuccess- Norma and Gladys NORMAN, JAMES 95 for Newfoundland Studies (ships file, Norma and loss of the British cruiser H.M.S. Raleigh qv near Point Gladys. JAMES WADE Armour, Labrador in August 1922, and was involved in rescue operations. He retired at the age of 72 and NORMAL SCHOOL. See MEMORIAL UNIVER died at Bay Roberts on April 27, 1932. W.J. Chafe SITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND. (letter, Apr. 1992), Frank G. Mercer (letters Apr.-May, NORMAN BAY (pop. 1986, 56). A Labrador fishing 1992), John Parsons (1970), DN (May 11, 1932), St. community, Norman Bay lies in an extension of Martin Matthews Church, Bay Roberts (parish records). Bay, approximately 30 km northeast of Charlottetown JOHN PARSONS qv by boat. Prior to Confederation, Norman Bay was a winter place for the fishing stations of Snug Harbour and Venison Tickle qqv. When southeast Labrador fishing stations were being encouraged to resettle in the 1960s, the Ward family of Snug Harbour resisted pressures to move to Charlottetown or another larger community and instead made Norman Bay their home. The community first appears in the Census in 1961, with a population of 18. The Wards were later joined by one or two other families and continued to follow the practice of dispersing for the summer fishery to premises on the outer coast. Reliant for most services on Charlottetown, in later years the use of speedboats and longliners has enabled residents to spend more of the year at Norman Bay. Alluring Labrador (1980), Census (1961-1986), Newfoundland Historical Soci ety (Norman Bay). RHC James Norman NORMAN, JAMES (1869-1955). Educator. Born Bay Roberts, son of Azariah and Ellen (Sparkes) Norman. Educated Bay Roberts Academy; Central Training School, St. John's. Married Bessie Walsh. In 1891 Norman was appointed teacher and lay reader at the large one-room school at Coley's Point, where he taught for almost 50 years. During the first 15 years he was the only teacher and at one time had under his tutelage 121 pupils. In 1911 a new three-room school was built and Norman became principal. During his years as a teacher he kept a daily diary which was still Captain Henry and Mrs. Norman extant in 1992. Among the hundreds of students in the NORMAN, HENRY (1858-1932). Mariner. Born Bay Bay Roberts-Co1ey' s Point area who were in his Roberts, son of Jethro and Susannah (Mercer) Norman. classes or tutored by Norman were Samuel A.B. Mer Educated Bay Roberts. Married (1) Ellen Cave; (2) cer, William H. Edgar Mercer, V.C. Sparkes, Robert Ethel Woolridge. Norman began his seafaring life at D. Pepper and Ted Russell qqv. the age of 18 as master of the Perfect, owned by the An outstanding lay preacher who, in the absence of Bay Roberts firm of Azariah and Charles Dawe qv. For the clergyman, performed most priestly duties, he was a number of years he was engaged in the Labrador also superintendent of the Sunday school classes in fishery fo.r this firm. In the early 1900s he joined the the area, as well as an active Mason and Orangeman. marine section of the Reid Newfoundland Co. as mas When he retired from teaching Bishop C.W. White ter, and for 15 years was captain of the Sagona qv on offered to ordain him as a Church of England priest the Humbermouth-Battle Harbour run. He also served but Norman, advanced in years, declined the offer. on the Home, the Argyle, the Prospera and the Glen W.H. Greenland (funeral eulogy, Mar. 26, 1955), R.A. coe. It was Norman who first officially reported the Parsons (1958), Hilda Norman Stick (letter, Mar. 96 NORMAN, NATHAN 1992), DN (Mar. 31, 1955), NTA Journal (May 1955). JOHN PARSONS NORMAN, NATHAN (1809-1884). Mariner. Born Brigus. Educated Brigus. Married Elizabeth Munden. Norman had his first command at the age of 21 as master of a schooner in the coasting trade. He became involved in the seal and Labrador fisheries and by the mid-1800s was one of the most successful Labrador planters, acquiring premises at Indian Harbour qv from a relative, John Leamon qv. He is credited with having explored much of the coast north of Cape Harrison, opening up new fishing grounds for Newfoundland "floaters". In 1857 be was appointed the first Justice of the Peace for Labrador. In 1878 Norman was elected MHA for Port de Grave as a supporter of William V. Whiteway, and served one term. Around 1880 he sold Indian Harbour to Job Brothers. He died at Brigus on September 6, 1884. P.W. Browne (1909), Nicholas Smith (1936), DCB XI. RHC NORMAN'S COVE-LONG COVE (inc 1970; pop. 1991, 1054). Norman's Cove-Long Cove is a munici Norman's Cove pality in the bottom of Trinity Bay. Norman's Cove, Very shortly after the community was founded it on the west side of Chapel Arm, is one of the oldest was visited by Archdeacon Edward Wix and by geolo communities in the bottom of the Bay. Long Cove, gist J.B. Jukes. Wix noted that, in addition to the few west of Norman's Cove, around Chapel Head, was families at Norman's Cove, there were about 70 men settled largely by people from Norman's Cove. from New Harbour at winter work at Little Gut. Jukes In the 1700s Chapel Arm was being visited by win recorded that Norman's Cove people were supplied by ter crews from Trinity. The east side of the Arm was a merchant at New Harbour (likely Charles Newhook) most often frequented for cutting ships' timbers- the and that there was a path into the woods, presumed to area known as Little Gut- but the bottom of the Arm, follow an ancient Beothuk trail, which connected Trin the site of the community of Chapel Arm qv in 1992, ity and Placentia bays. (Wix was less certain about the was also frequented. Originally most winter work was existence of this trail, having become lost in attempt done by employees of the Lester-Garland firm, to cut ing to walk from Long Harbour, Placentia Bay.) Jukes timber for shipbuilding at Trinity. By the early 1800s spoke with "an Englishman named Temple", and ships were being built at New Harbour qv (about 10 wrote that there was a small schooner in the stocks at km northeast of Norman's Cove) by shipwright the time of his visit, presumably being built by James Charles Newhook qv. Working under Newhook was a Newhook. brother, James, who by 1826 had begun a shipyard at The fishery in the area was poor and inshore fisher Norman's Cove (which by some accounts is said to men of Norman's Cove generally ranged over the en take its name from the Newhook family, who were of tire "bottom" from Bay Bulls Arm (Sunnyside) to French Norman stock). Dildo. More important in the early commercial life of James Newhook is said by that family to have been the community were the small shipyards run by the the first settler of Norman's Cove. However, another Newhooks and the Smiths, who were involved in the family claims to have settled before Newhook, George coasting trade and Labrador fishery in a small way by Temple having come there directly from England. the late 1800s. Others from the community went to Given that Newhook probably was at Norman's Cove New Harbour by boat and then walked to Bay Roberts seasonally for almost a decade before moving his or Spaniard's Bay, to be supplied as Labrador fisher household, there is likely truth in both claims. The men by Conception Bay merchants. By 1874 there community appears in the first Census in 1836, with a were 147 people at Norman's Cove, which figure population of 37. In 1992 Newhook was the most probably includes Chapel Arm as well. Long Cove is common family name at both Long Cove and first noted in the parish records of New Harbour in Norman's Cove, while Temple was also present in 1881 and first appears in the Census in 1884. The both places. Other common family names of Norman's Callan family was first recorded at Long Cove in 1886 Cove include descendants of fishermen who came and probably originated at one of the Conception Bay from New Harbour or Chance Cove (Cooper and Labrador fishing ports. Callan was still a common Piercy) and settled after marrying Temple's daughters family name in 1992 and has been recorded virtually or were connected by early marriages to the New nowhere else in Newfoundland. hooks (Smith and Thorne). The Whites are said to When the railway was built from Whitbourne have come from Trinity to work at the Newhook ship through Dildo and on to Harbour Grace in the 1880s, yard. ties were supplied by crews from Norman's Cove. In NORRIS ARM 97 the 1890s, when the railway crossed the Isthmus of Church of England central high school was built at Avalon (passing about 8 km inland from the bottom ?f Norman's Cove in 1959 and was later extended, with Chapel Arm) work in cutting ties and ingeneral rail the formation of integrated school boards, to serve the way labour increased. By 1901 there were 206 people area from Chapel Arm to Thornlea. J.B. Jukes (1842), at Norman's Cove, and 41 at Long Cove. The first Selby Piercey (1969), Bridget Power (MHG 103-B-2- Church of England school/chapel at Norman's Cove 4 7), E.R. Seary ( 1977), Edward Wix (1836), Census was built in 1877, and a church was constructed by (1836-1991), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory 1884. Like the Smith family business and trading ves (1871), Archives (VS 62), Newfoundland Historical sels, the church, served by the clergyman from New Society (Norman's Cove). RHC Harbour, also served the communities of Chapel Arm NORRIS ARM (inc. 1971; pop. 1991, 1089). The com and Long Cove. By 1901 there was also a Methodist munity of Norris Arm is located at the bottom of the church, which was served by the minister from the Bay of Exploits, on the southeastern side of an inlet of "railway mission" at Whitbourne. the same name. On the opposite shore is the commu In the 1920s and early 1930s, as both the summer nity of Norris Arm North qv (also known as Al Labrador fishery and fall and winter ship building derburn). The inlet of Norris Arm is identified on ended, more of the men of Norman's Cove and Long Captain David Buchan's 1811 map of the Exploits Cove found work elsewhere (often of a temporary or River, which also notes a salmon station just west of seasonal nature) on the railway, in cutting pulpwood at Norris Arm, at what is now known as Upper Sandy Terra Nova or in general labour. One important source Point or Beaton's Point. of employment in the 1920s and 1930s was in r_oad The Norris Arm area is known to have been fre construction. What became known as the Cabot Htgh quented by the Beothuk, and by the mid-1800s there way was built through the community in 1929, provid were also several Micmac in the area. Next came trap ing a rough road connection to New Harbour ~nd pers and woodcutters, fall and winter, from older set Conception Bay- later being extended to Clarenvtlle tlements farther out the Bay of Exploits. The Beaton and the Bonavista Peninsula. Work in road construc family were living at the mouth of the Exploits by tion continued after Confederation and was probably 1871 and it may be that they were the one family the largest single source of employment until the Elec recorded as farming at Norris Arm in the 1884 and tric Reduction Company (ERCO) phosphorous plant 1891 Census, although a farmer by the name of at Long Harbour was built, beginning in 1966. At McCloudy was recorded there in 1894 and the about the same time the introduction of longliners led Menchenton family was living at Norris Arm by the many people to leave the fishery altogether, for there mid-1880s. Norris Arm received its first substantial was some alternate employment available and it did influx of settlers in the 1890s, when the area's timber not seem that investment in new fisheries technology stands were attracting lumbermen. By 1901 (pop. 83) was justified. Eventually facilities for longliners were two sawmills employing 50 loggers were operating. built at Long Cove, along with a community wharf and The first mill was owned by the New Land Lumber stage, and in the 1990s most people in the area in Co. (later the Central Forest Co.), the second by Harry volved in the fishery were based in Long Cove. A An early sawmilling venture at Norris Arm 98 NORRIS ARM NORTH (ALDERBURN) J. Crowe qv, who eventually acquired most of the travel for loggers. After the Robert Bond bridge was area's mills. In the early 1900s Crowe sold most tim built across the Exploits River (beginning in 1958) ber rights near Norris Arm to the A.E. Reed Co. pulp there was also a road link with Grand Falls, Bishop's mill at Bishop's Falls, and the rights were later pur Falls and Botwood, the service centres for the lower chased by the AND Company at Grand Falls. In turn Bay of Exploits. A number of families from Exploits the Reed Company sold the Norris Arm sawmill to and other communities further out the Bay resettled to Saunders and Howell in 1913. Norris Arm in the 1950s and 1960s. Many were em In the early 1900s Norris Arm was something of a ployed in two major construction projects in the area boom town. For a while, before Lewisporte was devel - the Bond bridge and a hydro-electric generating oped, it was the only port in Notre Dame Bay reached station at nearby Rattling Brook. Norris Arm also pro by the railway, and the opening of the Grand Falls mill vided a central location for those working on highway resulted in extensive pulpwood cutting in the immedi construction throughout Newfoundland in the early ate area. People flocked to the area from the islands of 1960s. After 1960 Roman Catholic high school stu Notre Dame Bay (particularly Exploits, Burnt Islands dents attended school in Grand Falls while integrated and Joe Batts Arm on Fogo Island) as well as from students went to Lewisporte. Later all Roman Catholic Mint Brook qv, where a large sawmilling operation students attended Carmel Collegiate in Norris Arm. was forced to close by a fire in 1907. Thus by 1921 the The region was hit by difficult economic times in population of Norris Arm (south) had increased to the late 1970s and 1980s, and many Norris Arm resi 394. There were 53 loggers and others employed by dents were obliged to leave. The situation still had not the railway and as shop workers, government workers, improved much by 1991, by which time the population farmers, fishermen and teachers. The 1911 Census had declined dramatically from a peak of about 1400 listed two people born in Scotland, eight in the British in the mid-1970s. Handcock and Sanger (1981), J.R. Colonies and 11 others born outside Newfoundland Smallwood (1941), Catherine Stroud (MHG 41-B-1- (probably including two shopkeepers of Lebanese ori 65), Census (1881-1991), DNLB (1990), McAlpine's gin, the Hemeons and Bashas). Other family names Newfoundland Directory (1894), Newfoundland Di included Budgell, Burt, Elliot, Foss, Freake, Gate rectory 1936 (1936), Statistics: Federal-Provincial house, Goodyear, Goulding, Haytor, Hynes, Manuel, Resettlement Program (1975?). BWC Perry, Poole, Purchase, Robinson, Rowsell, Seabright, Smith, Taylor, Walker and Walsh. By 1911 members of NORRIS ARM NORTH (ALDERBURN) (pop. 1986, the largest religious denominations, the Roman Cath 275). A lumbering community on the northern shore of olics and Methodists, had each built a church and Norris Arm, an estuary at the bottom of the Bay of school. The Church of England also had a school and Exploits. Original settlement of this area occurred in church by 1921. the late 1800s, and the two communities established on Although the Saunders and Howell sawmill relo both sides of the estuary were known as Norris Arm cated to Roddickton in the 1930s the community con South and North. By the 1930s, however, Norris Arm tinued to grow, largely on the strength of the North had been officially renamed Alderburn to avoid pulpwood operations, the railway providing easy post office confusion, and that name has been used by Looking across Norris Ann towards Norris Ann North NORRIS POINT 99 Census enumerators since 1945, although residents have continued to use the original name. By 1921, when the Census first listed the communi ties separately, 176 people resided at Norris Arm North. Local tradition has it that the Menchenton fam ily was one of the earliest there. By the 1930s other family names were Beason, Beaton, Connor, Dwyer, Flynn, Freeman, Harvey, Head, Higgins, Hollett, Hynes, Kennedy, Langdon, Locke, McDonald, Owen, Pearce, Ryan, Saunders and Witt. As was the case at Norris Arm (South), most residents had relocated from communities further out the Bay of Exploits. The area's main attraction was a booming lumber industry. In addition to two early sawmills on the south side, three smaller mills operated on the north side. As the population increased on the south side, where there was a railway station from the mid-1890s, more and Norris Point in the early 1900s more people chose to settle at Norris Arm North as the northern side of Bonne Bay. The community, at the well. The primary employer was the AND Company, foothills of the Long Range Mountains, takes its name which employed loggers cutting pulpwood for the from a point of land which projects well out into Bonne Grand Falls paper mill. The population of Norris Arm Bay, forming a protected harbour to the east. In 1784 North continued to increase until peaking at 397 in Captain James Cook visited this "snug harbour for 1961. By the end of the next decade, however, with the small vessels'', which he referred to as North Point. It whole region experiencing economic hard times, the may be that Norris Point is simply a corruption of this community's population declined. name, although local tradition has it that both Norris Originally Norris Arm North's predominant reli Point and Neddy's Harbour (long considered a sepa gious denomination was Methodist, but the Church of rate community, on the east side of the harbour across England, Salvation Army and Roman Catholic faiths from the Point) were named after trapper Neddy Nor were also represented. The religious makeup remained ris, who lived there sometime in the 1790s. (An Eng unchanged until the arrival of the Pentecostal Assem lish captain at Norris Point in the late 1700s did report blies in the 1930s, which eventually became the dom encountering an Englishman ''dressed as a Red inant church. Over the years residents had to cross to Indian" who attempted to trade salmon with his crew). the south side by boat for services such as those pro Long before this time the Norris Point area was home vided by schools and churches. In 1992 many services to Maritime Archaic and Palaeo-Eskimo peoples. Be were obtained in larger centres such as Lewisporte, tween about 4500 to 3000 years ago and 21 00 to 1400 Botwood and Grand Falls. E.R. Seary ( 1977), Cather years ago respectively, these aboriginal groups lived ine Stroud (MHG 41-B-1-65), J.R. Smallwood (1941), in a small area at the end of the community known as Census (1921-1986), Newfoundland Directory 1936 Donovan's Point. They probably relied on much the (1936). BWC same resources as did later settlers - salmon, trout and seal - and travelled from Norris Point to other NORRIS,JAMES (1851-1924). Merchant. Born St. hunting and fishing areas further up Bonne Bay. John's, son of James and Kate (Dollard) Norris. Mar The migratory fishery was never carried out on a ried Mary Ann Dower. Norris moved to the tiny Notre large scale at Norris Point, but French fishermen occa Dame Bay community of Three Arms qv with his sionally frequented the area. The first permanent Eng parents at an early age. By 1871 he had established lish settler was William Humber, who arrived in 1833 himself in business at Three Arms, building a schooner and lived at Wild (or Whale) Cove, north and west of with which he traded with other communities in the the Point. There were also a group of Micmac who Green Bay area. Norris built a thriving village at Three frequented the area of Deer Arm, east of Neddy's Arms, where he was involved in shipbuilding and Harbour. The Humber family were to be the sole year sawmilling and also had a small Roman Catholic round inhabitants for the next 25 years, until two chapel built. He later supplied crews from nearby com fishermen named Harding and Smith of Burnt Islands, munities to the Labrador fishery and the French Shore on the southwest coast, decided to settle after calling fishery, establishing branches at Conche and at Neddy's Harbour on their way to the Labrador fish Coachman's Cove, which were later run by his sons, ery. After 1850, the population of Bonne Bay grew, John and Bernard. His eldest son, Stephen, was killed people attracted by the abundant resources of lobster in France while serving as a lieutenant with the Royal and herring. New families at Norris Point in the 1870s Newfoundland Regiment. C.F. Poole (interview, Feb. included families from the Heart's Content-Winterton 1992), Roy Skanes (1978), ET (Dec. 8, 1924), Ar area of Trinity Bay (Bugdens, Hiscocks and Clarks), chives (P8/A/15; VS 92). RHC the Carbonear area (Howells, Kennedys and Laings), NORRIS POINT (inc. 1960, pop. 1991, 927). Norris the southwest coast (Galliots and Neils) and St. John's Point, noted for its scenic beauty, is a community on Island (Caines and Organs). Most of these people 100 NORSEDISCOVERY Norris Point and Gros Mome as seen from Woody Point probably became familiar with Norris Point while en the establishment of Gros Morne National Park in gaged in the Labrador fishery and were attracted by 1973 tourism has come to play a more central role in Bonne Bay's potential in herring and lobster, although the local economy. Paul Bishop (197-), J.K. Hiller there was continued involvement in the Labrador fish (1972), Hutchings and Beuhler (1984), Edgar Mudge ery. Norris Point was first recorded separately in Cen (197-), Census (1884-1986), McAlpine's Newfound sus records in 1884, with 93 people (and a further 33 land Directory (1894). ACB at Wild Cove and Humber Valley). In the next two decades the population increased dramatically, to 315 NORSE DISCOVERY. There have been many claims in 1891 (including 71 listed separately in Neddy's for pre-Columbian contact between societies of the Harbour, where the most common family names his Old World and the Americas. Only one, that of the torically have been Major, Maynard and Reid). Norse voyages to Vinland, has been substantiated. In By this time several lobster factories were operating retrospect, the Norse discovery of America at the be in Norris Point, and salmon was pickled and tinned. ginning of the tenth century AD was an almost inevi Most people were originally supplied by traders out of table outcome of a dramatic historical phenomenon Halifax, although by 1894 there was a general dealer, which occurred some two centuries earlier. In the late John Squires, at Norris Point and several others di eighth century AD, various Norse-speaking seafaring rectly across the Bay, at Woody Point qv. By 1935 groups in Denmark and southern Scandinavia began to Norris Point was quite a substantial community, num raid and plunder beyond their borders on an ever bering 525 people (including Wild Cove and Neddy's expanding front. In the following century, kingdoms Harbour). Many were working part of the year in pulp and communities along the entire western seaboard of wood cutting for the Corner Brook paper mill and at Europe and even as far afield as the Mediterranean Deer Lake. The Bonne Bay Cottage Hospital opened at came to fear the sight of the high-prowed langskips Norris Point in 1939, but Woody Point remained the (longships) nosing along their shores and up their riv major centre for most other services. ers. The victims knew these raiders by a variety of Continuing a process that began with the opening of names, such as Northmen, Danes, Rus, or simply the Corner Brook mill, in the early 1940s the people of "heathens", but most commonly as "Vikings" (from Bonne Bay began to seek wage employment elsewhere West Norse vikingr: "pirate" or "raider"). in Newfoundland, or in Canada. The population of However, for other aspects of the overall phenome Norris Point declined, but again increased dramati non of Norse-expansion, the term "Viking" is inap cally from the 1950s. Most new arrivals were families propriate. Even in the early ninth century AD, many from smaller communities in Bonne Bay, such as groups had begun to shift from raiding to colonization Gad's Harbour, Lomond and Stanleyville qqv, or from and Norse communities were established in the Ork fishing communities on the coast to the north. Many of ney and Shetland Islands and in parts of Scotland, these people moved prior to the government's first Ireland, England and northern France. In the north resettlement program in 1954. Between 1951 and 1961 Atlantic, Norse emigrants colonized northern Scandi the population of Norris Point more than doubled, and navia, the Faroes and Iceland. In addition, Norse mer reached more than 1000 people a decade later. Since chants established an extensive and lucrative trade NORSE DISCOVERY 101 network to the east down the Dnieper and Volga river this reason, they named the spot Kjalarness valleys to the Black and Caspian seas, thereby tapping ("Keelness"). Continuing further east, Thorvald's the rich trade resources of the Byzantine and Islamic party slew a small group of native people or empires. While furs, walrus ivory, slaves and other Skraelings whom they found hiding under skin boats. merchandise flowed east, Islamic silver, Chinese silk In a counter attack by the natives, Thorvald was killed. and other Asian luxury goods flowed west. The one After burying his body at Kjalarness, his crew spent thing the Norse found in short supply was new land. another winter in Leifsbudir before returning to Greenland. In the following year, Thorstein Eiriksson THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. Sometime left Greenland to retrieve his brother's body, but failed between AD 900 and 930, Gunnbjorn Ulf-Krakuson, a to find Vinland and died shortly after returning home. Norwegian sailor outward bound from Ireland but The next voyage probably took place in AD 1009 driven northwest into the Atlantic by storms, made the when the Norwegian, Thorfinn Karlsefni, who had first sighting of southern Greenland. In 978, the initial married Thorstein's widow, Gudrid, took a party of 60 attempt by the Icelandic Norse community to settle men and five women to Leifsbudir. The larger size of this new land ended in disaster. A second attempt in the expedition, the fact that cattle were taken, and the 981 by Eirik raudi (Erik the Red), exiled first from two-year long stay all suggest a real attempt at coloni Norway and then from Iceland, led to the successful zation. However, although amicable trading relation colonization of Greenland's southwest coast. ships were initially established with the Skraelings, Shortly thereafter, in 986, *Bjarni Herjolfsson qv subsequent misunderstandings led to further violence and his crew, en route from Iceland to the new colony, and, in the spring of 1011, Karlsefni returned to were blown off course and became the first known Greenland with a cargo of timber, vines, grapes and Europeans to sight the shores of North America. traded pelts. Though he did not actually land, Bjarni's reports of a The last of the Vinland voyages described in the well-wooded land to the west must have greatly in sagas began in the year after Karlsefni's return to trigued the timber-poor Greenlanders. Greenland. This was a joint venture apparently be Fifteen years later in 1001, Eirik's son, Leif, set out tween the daughter of Eirik raudi, Freydis, who sup with a crew of 35 to retrace Bjarni's voyage. Leif's plied one ship and two Norwegian brothers, Helgi and first landfall was an inhospitable region he named Finnbogi, who supplied another. With a total comple Helluland ("Flatstone Land") since from the shore to ment of at least 65 men and perhaps 10 women, the the glaciers behind there was nothing but great slabs two ships set out for Leifsbudir. Dissension between of rock. Continuing south, the Greenlanders came to the two groups broke out from the start and culmi Markland ("Forest Land"), a well-wooded, low-lying nated in the slaughter of all the Norwegians. In the land which sloped gently down to white sandy spring of AD 1013, the remnants of the ill-fated expe beaches. The expedition then ran before a north-east dition returned to Greenland. wind for two more days before steering a westerly It should not be supposed that longships, strictly course into a sound between an island and a headland coastal vessels, were used for these voyages. For jutting out to the north. Here they beached their ship transporting cargo and for sailing in more open wa in extensive shallows, established their camp, ters, the Norse used a type of ship called a "knarr". Leifsbudir ("Leif's booths"), and wintered over. The These were single-masted, broad-beamed craft with land is described in highly favourable terms. There higher gunwales and a deeper draught than a longship. was abundant salmon, forests, pasturage and wild They were driven by one large rectangular sail of cereal grain. The presence of wild grapes inspired the woollen cloth and steered by a long rudder fixed to the naming of the area Vinland ("Wine Land"). In winter, starboard quarter. the sun rose earlier and set later than in Greenland and the season was frost-free. The expedition returned to THE SOURCES. The sources of our knowledge for Greenland in the spring of 1002 with a full cargo of the Norse voyages comprise Norse sagas, late medi timber and grapes. eval maps, and modern archaeology. The two most In the following decade, at least four other expedi important written sources concerning the Norse voy tions sailed from Greenland to Vinland. In 1003, ages to North America are the Groenlendinga saga Leif's brother, Thorvald, sailed to the Vinland settle (The Greenlanders' Saga) and Eiriks saga raudi (Erik ment with a crew of 30. After a winter at Leifsbudir, the Red's Saga). These began as oral traditions more Thorvald dispatched a group to spend the summer or less contemporary with the events they describe but exploring the coast to the west of the settlement in the exist now only in the form of later written recensions. ship's boat. Returning in the fall, the group reported So many and profound are the differences and contra that the coast to the west had white sandy beaches and dictions between these two sources, however, that it is a well-wooded hinterland. In the following year, 1005, impossible to reconcile them completely. Most schol Thorvald took the ship and traced the coast an unspec ars now agree that the Groenlendinga saga, on which ified distance east and then north of Leifsbudir before the above brief account of the voyages is based, is the being driven ashore by a storm. There, the Greenland more reliable of the two. While the testimony of Eiriks ers were obliged to make camp for some considerable saga should not be ignored, it is a heavily edited time while they repaired the vessel's broken keel. For document which omits some voyages, conflates 102 NORSE DISCOVERY Reconstructed Norse dwellings at L'Anse aux Meadows others, attributes the accidental discovery of Vinland ern Labrador, and that Markland is southern Labrador. to Leif Eiriksson and abounds with fantastic incidents However, given the inconsistencies of the two sagas, and demonstrably later embellishments. there is little consensus on the location of Vinland. Two early maps identify Vinland in relation to other Sun sightings, sailing schedules, environmental and North Atlantic landmasses. One dates to AD 1590 and is topographical indicators, descriptions of aboriginal the work of the Icelandic cartographer, Sigurdur Ste peoples, references to wild grapes, wild grain, and an fansson. The other was drawn by the Danish Bishop abundance of salmon in the rivers all have been ad Hans Poulson Resen in 1605. Both bear important an duced in support of a wide range of suggested loca notations by their authors and, apparently, are indepen tions for Vinland, stretching from Newfoundland to dently derived from a common, though much earlier, Florida with favoured groupings in the Nova Scotia/ Norse source. (The now notorious "Vinland map", New Brunswick/Maine area. published by Yale University Press in 1965 and pur Both the Stefansson and Resen maps clearly iden portedly dating to 1440, is a demonstrable forgery.) tify an elongated northward-pointing promontory as The archaeological evidence for the Vinland voy the "Promontorium Winlandiae". Despite exaggera ages comes primarily from the Norse settlement at tions of coastal topography and the need for a consis L'Anse aux Meadows qv on the tip of the Great North tent three-degree correction in longitude in the ern Peninsula. The site was discovered in 1960 by Stefansson map, there can be no doubt that the prom Helge Ingstad qv, the Norwegian explorer. Archaeo ontory in question is the Great Northern Peninsula of logical excavations from 1961 to 1968 were directed Newfoundland. As early as 1912 Newfoundland histo at the site by Anne Stine Ingstad qv and further exca rian W.A. Munn qv pointed to this area as the probable vations between 1973 and 1976 were carried out by location of Leifsbudir and his thesis seemed vindi Parks Canada. Three large house structures were iden cated by the discovery and excavation of the L'Anse tified along with several smaller features including aux Meadows site. work sheds and a smithy. The excavations yielded few However, there is good reason to believe that L'Anse Norse artifacts. However, a ringed-pin of a type which aux Meadows, though indisputably Norse, is not the first appears in Viking Ireland, a typically Norse soap main settlement of Leifsbudir (Wallace: 1986; Brown). stone spindle whorl, the smithy and the ore formed The specific description of the site in the from local bog iron, the plans of the houses, the shape Groenlendinga saga is plainly inconsistent with the set and placement of the hearths and the sod-wall methods ting of L'Anse aux Meadows. The saga informs us that of construction leave no question about their Norse the ship ran aground in shallows so extensive that at low origins. Numerous radiocarbon samples provide a tide it was difficult to see the sea from the boat. At high mean date for the Norse occupation of the site of AD tide, the Norse were able to refloat their vessel, bring it 990 (+30/-15). up a river and anchor it in a lake. However, scientific investigations at Epaves Bay show that, at the time of THE TOPONYMS AND THEIR LOCATIONS. Most the Norse settlement, sea level was between half to one scholars agree that Helluland is either Baffin Island metre higher than today, which would make the limited or, more likely, the Torngat Mountain region of north- shallows of the bay even less extensive than at present. NORSE DISCOVERY 103 Furthermore, there is no evidence that Black Duck Brook could ever have accommodated any craft, no matter how shallow its draft. In addition, the Parks Canada excavations call into question the functional interpretation of the site. Leifsbudir was a domestic settlement repeatedly visited over 12 years by a cumu lative total of around 200 Norse. The L'Anse aux Mead ows site shows few of the archaeological characteristics expected of such a settlement. For these reasons, Wallace argues that L'Anse aux Meadows was a briefly occupied transit and ship repair station at the entrance to the region of Yinland proper, the southern and west em reaches of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Indeed, the references to wild grapes, wild grain and frost-free summers persuade many scholars that, while the Great Northern Peninsula may have been considered part of Yinland, the country the Norse de scribed around Leifsbudir must be located further south. However, these arguments remain without any archaeological corroboration. The discovery of an eleventh century Norse coin in the excavation of a late prehistoric Indian site in Maine cannot be construed as Stefansson 's map evidence of a Norse presence there (Bourque). Signif It can be argued that the only credible source for this icant quantities of Ramah chert from northern Labra persistent belief that the Strait of Belle Isle was a dor were also recovered and the coin may have closed fjord must be an ancient Norse tradition arising travelled down the same trade route. Thus its presence from the Vinland voyages. This implies that the Norse in Maine gives no indication as to the actual point of never penetrated far enough into the Strait of Belle Isle contact between the Norse and aboriginal Americans. to recognize that it was connected to the Gulf and open Nor can the references to wild grapes, wild grain and ocean. Leifsbudir and the rest of the area of Yinland "frost-free" winters at Leifsbudir be used to establish would therefore be located somewhere along the north a northern limit to the location of Yinland and the shore of the Gulf relatively close to the Strait of Belle Norse settlement. It is known that the Norse voyages Isle. While the exact position of Leifsbudir remains occurred in a period in which climatic conditions were uncertain, it is impossible specifically to identify the slightly warmer than at present. However, micro various "Skraeling" groups encountered by the Norse. climatic variation for any particular area and any par The ancestral populations of the Beothuk, Micmac and ticular year cannot be reliably inferred. Hence, wild Naskapi-Montagnais are all possible candidates. How grapes, wild grain and "frost-free" winters could have ever, it is highly unlikely that they were Dorset Palaeo occurred as far north as the Strait of Belle Isle and Eskimo who, by this stage, had withdrawn to northern Newfoundland. In fact, five hundred years later, in Labrador and the Ungava Bay region. somewhat cooler conditions, Jacques Cartier reported an abundance of wild grapes on both shores of the St. SUBSEQUENT CONTACTS. Apparently, it was be Lawrence and a wild grain resembling oats or rye yond the limited resources of the small Greenland growing in the Baie des Chaleurs on the Gaspe Penin communities to maintain a permanent foothold in Yin sula and on several islands in the Gulf (Jones). land. It is clear, however, that sporadic Norse contact What has been insufficiently stressed in the debate with North America continued. The evidence is scanty over the location of Yinland is the testimony of the but hardly surprising. Despite the risk of conflict with Stefansson and Resen maps. Both clearly identify the the Skraelings, Yinland would have remained an im Great Northern Peninsula as the Promontory of Yin portant and directly accessible source of timber, pelts, land and the Stefansson map unambiguously identifies wild grain, wild grapes and other items. The entry in southern Labrador as "Skraelinge Land". Both map the Icelandic Annals for the year AD 1121 reports that makers were aware of the explorations of Jacques Car the bishop of Greenland "went in search of Vinland". tier of the Strait of Belle Isle and the Gulf of St. The entry for the year 1347 records the arrival of a Lawrence in 1534-35, which demonstrated that New Greenlandic ship returning from Markland which had foundland was an island. Resen awkwardly incorpo been storm-driven to Iceland. Moreover excavation of rates into his map Cartier's delineation of the the Norse communities in Greenland have also yielded top'ography of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Stefansson a number of items, including pieces of larch wood, a explicitly notes in reference to the Yinland Promon lump of anthracite, a flint arrowhead, and specimens tory that "from more recent accounts I deduce that it of the plant lridace Sisyrhynchium angustifolium, is separated from America by either a strait or a bay". which are all of North American origin. Despite this, both map makers continue to depict the In the last 60 years a growing number of items of peninsula joined to the mainland. Norse manufacture has been discovered in the high 104 NORTH ARM, BAY OF ISLANDS Arctic usually in direct conjunction with Thule Es flights. Linkages were established with groups who kimo sites in the Ellesmere Island region. Relative and were protesting similar activities in other provinces absolute dates suggest a time range for this material and countries. The NATO Base proposal was with between the early 13th and mid 14th-centuries. The drawn, the military publication Jane's Defence items most likely reflect trade contact with the Green Weekly attributing the decision, at least in part, to land Norse settlements rather than a Norse presence in the opposition; but the low-level flights continued. the high Arctic itself (McGhee). The many other Although in 1992 NAPO was no longer active, na claims for the existence of Norse ruins, Norse inscrip tives and groups in Newfoundland and elsewhere con tions (runes), and Norse material culture in North tinued to call for an end to the flights. Geoff Carre America from as far afield as Minnesota and Ontario (interview, July 1992); Update (Fall 1989); Peace Edu are all either fraudulent or mistaken (Wallace: 1982). cation Centre (NAPO files). PEGGY KRACHUN Bourque and Cox (1981), Stuart C. Brown (1989), Anne S. lngstad (1985), Helge Ingstad (1985), Gwyn NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION Jones (1986), Magnusson and Palsson (1965), Robert (NATO). This organization was formed by 12 North McGhee (1984), Farley Mowat (1965), B. Schoenback American and western European nations in 1949 in (1974), Schoenback et al (1976), Birgitta Wallace response to the changed political order which followed (1977; 1982; 1986). STUART C. BROWN World War II. Canada joined NATO in April 1949. There had been a large American military presence in NORTH ARM, BAY OF ISLANDS (pop. 1921, 17). The Newfoundland and Labrador during the War and a most densely settled part of the Bay of Islands has small part of the establishment was maintained always been Humber Arm. Prior to the opening of the through NATO, the air base at Goose Bay in particular pulp and paper mill at Corner Brook in 1925, however, seen as a vital part of North Atlantic defence, espe there were also a few scattered families living on either cially during the Korean War of the 1950s. In the side of the mouth of North Arm: Crab Brook on the mid-1980s the organization proposed to build a low north and North Arm on the south side. These were level flying training centre at Goose Bay for crews of largely cod and herring fishermen from Woods Island NATO member nations. The proposal was criticised by and Lark Harbour, some of whom probably spent only the Innu qv and by several peace groups who began a a few seasons at North Arm. North Arm first appears civil disobedience campaign. By the summer of 1990 in the Census in 1884, when it and Goose Arm qv had and the end of the Cold War NATO had decided not to a combined population of 28 (previously a single Cen build the centre. Howard Langille (1990), N.A. T. 0. in sus listing was given for the whole Bay of Islands). Labrador/Quebec (Summer 1990). ACB Later enumerations recorded only two to three families at North Arm and "Crab's", with the highest popula NORTH BAY (pop. 1966, 3). A resettled lumbering and tion recorded being the 17 people there in 1921 - 14 shipbuilding community, North Bay was located at the at North Arm and three at Crab Brook. In that year head of North Bay, an extension of La Poile Bay. The there was a family of Williamses at Crab Brook, while extremities of La Poile Bay- North Bay and East Bay at North Arm there were Royles (from Woods Island) - are narrow, steep-sided arms which have histori and two families recently arrived from Labrador (the cally been winter places of the fishing communities O'Tooles and Pikes). With the increasing availabil near the mouth of the Bay: East Point, La Poile, Little ity of wage labour in the Corner Brook area these Bay and West Point. people probably left shortly thereafter, although some The earliest evidence of permanent settlement in fishermen from the Lark Harbour area continued to North Bay comes in the 1857 Census, which listed a maintain seasonal premises for the herring and lobster single family of 10 people at North West Cove- on fisheries. Census (1884-1945), Archives (A-7-2/Q). the west side of North Bay about five miles out, at the JEAN GRAHAMIRHC mouth of North West Brook. In that year the census NORTH ATLANTIC PEACE ORGANIZATION taker also noted nine houses in North Bay "unoccu (NAPO). Formed in 1986, NAPO had a dual purpose: pied while the winter fishery continues". North Bay to impede the installation of a North Atlantic Treaty does not appear separately in the Census until 1891, Organization (NATO) base in Labrador, and to pro with a family of eight, as well as 18 at North West test low-level training flights and mock nuclear Cove and 13 at East Bay. The year-round settlers at strikes by the Dutch, German and British air forces North Bay were probably the Strickland and Farrell in Goose Bay. While NAPO's concern was with the families from West Point, who operated a sawmill on military aspects of the flights, it also supported the the La Poile River and were engaged in boat building Innu Nation's qv charges of environmental damage and fur trapping. By 1921 there were 27 people at and land rights violations. Activities included a North Bay and 25 at East Bay (Stricklands, Farrens, letter-writing campaign to governments of NATO McDonalds and Upwards). There were two families of countries, and an unsuccessful attempt in 1989 to Taylors at North West Cove (pop. 11), and another have low-level flights conducted over St. John's as family of Taylors fished at Dolman's Cove, a broad a demonstration of the noise and discomfort. In 1988 cove which lies between North Bay and East Bay (pop. a request from NAPO prompted the Canadian Peace 9). The Taylors, however, moved to La Poile shortly Alliance to facilitate a national campaign against the thereafter. NORTH HARBOUR, PLACENTIA BAY 105 From the 1930s North Bay became the major centre 1921 all 25 people in North Boat Harbour were of southwest coast skiff-building - locally, skiffs Woodfords. Four Woodward boats were fishing from were decked, two-masted fishing boats of 10-20 tons the harbour, mainly for cod, and harp seals were - and the Farrell family the acknowledged masters of hunted in the early spring. Since 1905 virtually all of the trade. By 1935 North Bay recorded a population of North Boat Harbour people have been descendants of 51. East Bay last appears in the Census in 1945, with Joseph Woodward, with the family names Woodward a population of 13, while North Bay had 44 people as or Laing. late as 1961. Soon thereafter the people began to The nearest community of any size, Cook's Harbour leave, with most resettling to Rose Blanche and a few qv (only about 10 km to the east overland, but a longer to La Poile. The last family left in the winter of 1967- and often hazardous journey by sea), has provided 68, for Rose Blanche. In 1992 both Max Strickland most services for the people of North Boat Harbour. In and Jack Farrell had small seasonal sawmills at North Cook's Harbour are schools, stores and a small fish Bay and there were several summer cabins further out plant. Other services were available at St. Anthony. the Bay, at Barasway. Allan Evans (1992), James Tay Many people were still engaged in the inshore fishery lor (interview, Aug. 1992), Census (1857-1966), in 1991, and a few milch cows were kept. Edgar Federal-Provincial Resettlement Program: Statistics Mudge (197-), E.R. Seary (1959; 1977), P.A. Thornton (1975?), List of Electors (1962), Archives (A-7-1). RHC (1979), NQ (Spring 1912), Sailing Directions: New foundland (1980), Archives (A-7-2). ACB NORTH BOAT HARBOUR (pop. 1986, 90). North Boat Harbour is a small fishing settlement on the Great NORTH HARBOUR, PLACENTIA BAY (pop. 1986, Northern Peninsula, southwest of Cape Norman. A 144). Located at the bottom of Placentia Bay, North marshy flat and barrens surround the rocky shore of Harbour is immediately adjacent to Goose Cove qv Boat Harbour, which was noted and probably named in (pop. 1986, 231), which is often considered to be a part 1770 by James Cook. The name reflects its use by of it. small vessels as a shelter from westerly winds. Although the present-day population of North Har "North" has been added to the name in more recent bour are largely descendants of settlers who arrived in times to distinguish it from Boat Harbour, Placentia the late 1800s, there were a few people at the Harbour Bay. from at least the 1840s. In 1992 North Harbour (and The first recorded settlers at North Boat Harbour, in Goose Cove) were located on the west side of the long, the 1870s, were families named Butt and Bradbury, shallow harbour, but local tradition has it that it was probably from the Harbour Grace-Carbonear area. the east side that was originally settled. It is probable There were 21 people in 1884 and 10 in 1891. It is not that the earliest settlers became familiar with the likely that there was much of a "permanent" popula Harbour in the course of winter woods work from tion until the arrival of the Woodward family in the islands further out the Bay, such as Sound Island qv. early 1900s. About 1905 Rosanna Woodward of Seal The community first appears in the Census in 1845, Islands (off Flower's Cove), who had been a servant at with a population of 36. Lovell's Newfoundland Direc North Boat Harbour in the 1890s, encouraged her tory (1871) notes the presence of fishermen named brother and father to move to the now-abandoned Adams, Bennett, Emberley, Hayse and Power, en harbour from the Flower's Cove area. In 1912 W.W. gaged in some farming and the salmon fishery as well Blackall reported meeting an Englishman, Joe as the cod fishery. None of these family names are Woodford (sic), at North Boat Harbour, and reported recorded there in the twentieth century, but the nearest that he could play the fiddle "like a wizard"(NQ fishing ground - Emberley's Shoal, just inside the Spring 1912). He was probably the Joseph Woodward eastern headland of the harbour - presumably com who had come to Flower's Cove from England. In memorates one of the earliest settlers. North Boat Harbour 106 NORTH HARBOUR, ST. MARY'S BAY both sides of a long, narrow inlet of that name. It was probably settled in the late 1700s or early 1800s by the Power family, who moved from St. Mary's. By the 1820s there were a few families settled on the west side of North Harbour: some at Patrick's Point (where the Flin~ River flows into the harbour), and the Ryan famtly at Cape Dog, just outside the harbour's mouth. North Harbour is somewhat removed from the best cod fishing grounds, further out the Bay, but offered wood lands, good hunting grounds in the barrens to the west and access to several salmon rivers. It is likely that the fertile soil in the river valleys was the original impetus for settlement: there were 57 acres cultivated in 1836 and for most of the nineteenth century North Harbou; reported more farmers than fishermen. The community North Harbour, Placentia Bay, 1991 appears in the first Census in 1836, with five families and a total of 22 people at North Harbour and Cape The "first" settler of North Harbour is said locally Dog. By 1845 there were 33 people enumerated at to have been Elijah Hollett, who built a winter house North Harbour, 19 at Patrick's Point and 17 at Cape on the west side of the Harbour in 1889. The Holletts Dog. were soon joined by other families, some moving While the harbour is open to southwest winds it is across the Isthmus of Avalon from Trinity Bay (family clear of dangers beyond its shores, and is sheltered names Dean, Loder and Reid), others from Sound Is enough to have been a refuge for many vessels in the land (Baileys, Brinstons, Eddys and Gilberts) and past. In 1992 longliners fishing on grounds south of Spe~cer's Cove (Bakers and Rodways). From 25 peo St. Mary's Bay often raced to North Harbour for shel ple m 1891 the community grew to 89 in 1901, at ter when storms approached, their south coast home which time there were also 44 people at Baker's Cove. ports being too exposed. Some sawmilling and boat Just west of the entrance to North Harbour, Baker's building was carried out at Cape Dog and Dog Bay Cove does not appear in subsequent enumerations. from the 1870s. North Harbour was home to Captain Bakers Cove was a Roman Catholic community (fam Thomas Bonia qv and family from the 1890s (Bonia ily names Culleton and Hayse), while in its second was a coastal boat captain, MHA for Placentia and St. incarnation North Harbour was exclusively Protestant. Mary's from 1900 to 1908 and later Inspector of Out Quite distant from most fishing grounds, North port Roads). North Harbour was the western terminus Harbour relied on sawmilling, cutting cooperage and for packet boats across St. Mary's Bay and a road was small boat building to supplement incomes from the built connecting North Harbour with the main road fishery. In the early 1900s most families of North between Placentia and St. Mary's bays, from Colinet Harbour dealt with merchants at Harbour Buffett or to Placentia. By 1884 the community supported 94 Placentia, and some were engaged in the western boat people and a Roman Catholic church, with some set fishery off Cape St. Mary's out of those ports. Later, tlement occurring on the east side of the harbour. The many people dealt with the firm of W. W. Wareham at Ryans moved in to North Harbour over the years, and Spencer's Cove, which opened a branch at North by 1891 there were only seven people at Cape Dog Harbour in about 1940. With a strong tradition of (which last appeared in the Census in 1921, when two woods work, from the 1930s many North Harbour men sawmill workers lived there). By 1921 there were 153 were engaged in cutting pulpwood at Terra Nova and people at North Harbour, chiefly engaged in the Glenwood or working on the American bases during World War II. From the 1960s, when mechanization began to reduce the number of jobs in the woods, many found employment elsewhere in general labour ~nd highway construction. Involvement in the fishery mcreased once more, in part because of an influx of people from resettled communities on the islands of Placentia Bay. In the early 1970s a new road was built connecting the community to the Burin Peninsula highway and the local service centre at Swift Current. Howard C. Brown (1985), Wesley Manning (MHG 41-B-1-74), E.R. Seary (1977), Frank Slade (MHG 41-B-1-75), Census (1845-1986), List of Electors (1900; 1962), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory (1871), Archives (A-7-2). RHC NORTH HARBOUR, ST. MARY'S BAY (pop. 1986, 166). North Harbour is a fishing community located on North Harbour, St. Mary's Bay NORTH RIVER, CONCEPTION BAY 107 inshore fishery and small farming. The dominant fam It is probable that the Gut and the valley of the ily names were Power, Bonia and Ryan. Other family North River as far inland as The Pond That Feeds the names, still present in the community in 1992, were Brook were early sites of winter houses for fishing Walsh (also formerly of Cape Dog), Tremblett, Single communities on the Port de Grave peninsula. The first ton and Linehan (once the dominant family name of year-round settlers were probably fishermen of Irish John's Pond qv, a resettled fishing community con descent who moved inland from Port de Grave to cul nected by road to the east side of North Harbour). tivate gardens. By 1840 there were enough settlers to Despite its appearance as a fishing community, only justify the establishment of a Roman Catholic school a few residents made a good living from the fishery by at North River, and as waterfront property at Clarke's the early 1990s. By 1992 most people commuted to Beach became limited more people settled from that work elsewhere. Women worked at fish plants in St. community. In 1857 the combined population of Joseph's and Admiral's Beach, and some men were Hall's Town and North River was 335, with Roman employed with St. John's construction firms. Since Catholic families tending to settle in North River and their own school closed around 1970 North Harbour Protestants (most notably the Hall family) further in children of all grades have been bused about 40 km to land. All Hallows Roman Catholic Church was built at Mount Carmel. The predominantly Roman Catholic North River by at least 1874, and later St. Thomas' community has its own church, Sacred Heart, but after Church was built to accommodate a growing Church the 1980s it shared a parish priest with St. Joseph's of England congregation. In 1906 a Roman Catholic parish. Theresa Bonia (interview, Nov. 1991), John parish was established at North River, which had pre Mannion (1976), Dolarosa Nash (interview, Nov. viously been part of the Brigus parish. 1991), E.R. Seary (1977), Census (1836-1986), ET By the 1860s many people were combining farming (Oct. 28, 1989), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory with the Labrador fishery out of Port de Grave and (1871), McAlpine's Newfoundland Directory (1894), Bay Roberts. After the turn of the century some men Archives (A-7-1). KAW took jobs on Bell Island or elsewhere, but the popula tion remained relatively stable at about 400 people. NORTH POLE. See POLAR EXPLORATION. Since the 1960s there has been some increase of pop NORTH RIVER, CONCEPTION BAY (inc. 1964; ulation from the number of people who have retired to pop. 1991, 542). Traditionally a fishing and agricul the area and from the "dormitory" population com tural community, North River is located southwest of muting to jobs as far away as Carbonear and St. Clarke's Beach qv, Conception Bay. The settlement John's. There were no full-time farmers by the mid- extends along the northwest bank of the river of the 1980s and few people were directly involved in the same name, and includes Hall's Town qv, south of fishery. All Hallows Elementary School continued to what was formerly Fillier' s Bridge, further inland serve the community, but after 1974 high school stu along the river valley. Historically, what is now North dents attended school in Brigus. Early family names River was more usually known as Northern Gut, while of North River still common in 1992 include Brad the post office name, North Valley, also appears on bury, Fillier, Hall, Hanlon, Morgan, Morrissey, New some maps. ell, Power and Snow. M.C. Rideout (interview, Oct. North River at about the time of Confederation 108 NORTH RIVER, SANDWICH BAY Cartwright. In the mid-1960s the remaining people of West Bay were resettled to North River, but within a few years these had moved to Cartwright as well, although some continued to have summer premises at North River. Lawrence Jackson (1982), Them Days (Jan. 1991; Jan. 1992), Archives (A-7-4/36). RHC NORTH STAR CEMENT LTD. See CEMENT LIMITED, NORTH STAR. NORTH STAR AND ST. JOHN'S, NEWFOUND LAND NEWS. This newspaper began publication August 3, 1872 as the St. John's News. It was the intention of the editor and proprietor Robert Winton to continue the St. John's Daily News which had sus pended publication in 1870. It was printed three times a week for several months in 1873 before returning to An early view ofNorthern Gut, by William Gosse qv a weekly format and adopting the title North Star and 1992), E.R. Seary (1977), James Snow (interview, St. John's, Newfoundland News. Initially perceived as Oct. 1992), Census (1857-1991), DA (Mar.-Apr. a Protestant paper, the North Star became less openly 1986), JHA (1841), List of Electors (1962; 1988). ACB sectarian with time, though editorial opinions contin NORTH RIVER, SANDWICH BAY (pop. 1956, 24). ued to mirror those of the St. John's Daily News. A resettled fishing community and "winter place", Winton repeatedly criticized the policies of Charles North River was located on the north bank of the river Bennett. The paper supported William Whiteway and of the same name, which flows into Sandwich Bay qv the proposed railway across the Island. The North Star on its north side. It was first noted as a settled site in claimed to have the largest circulation of any paper in the winter of 1863-64, when the family of Charles Newfoundland, but folded in 1881. Suzanne Ellison Williams was living there. The Williams family lived (1988), Ian McDonald (1969?). ACB there in the winters for several generations, staying for NORTH VALLEY. See NORTH RIVER, CONCEP the spring salmon fishery and fishing for cod at loca TION BAY. tions further out the Bay and at West Bay qv, to the north. By 1901 there was a population of 20 people, NORTH WEST ARM (pop. 1951, 160). A resettled mostly members of the Williams family, but during the fishing community in northern Bonavista Bay, North influenza epidemic of 1918-19 more than half the pop West Arm was located on the southwest side of a long ulation died. In 1921 and 1935 the population of North indraft of the same name, directly across from River was recorded as five people, a single family of Valleyfield. The former site of North West Arm is Williamses. This increased gradually to the 24 people within the municipal boundary of the rural district of in 1956, but soon thereafter most were resettled to Badger's Quay-Valleyfield-Pool's Island qv. Charles,- Bill and Mercer Davis at North River, Sandwich Bay NORTH WEST BROOK 109 North West Arm was inhabited for only about 75 area, providing some additional employment and years, from about 1880. At that time the rise of the opening the adjacent country to logging. Although the Labrador fishery out of northern Bonavista Bay led railway did not follow the coast in this area a station people from some of the more remote islands and the to service Southwest Arm, Northern Bight, was lo booming centres of Pool's Island and Greenspond to cated 5 km inland and connected to Black Brook by an found new communities on the mainland to the west. access road. A few other families arrived in the area to North West Arm had been frequented by island resi take advantage of the employment created by the rail dents cutting wood for fuel, and with the rise of the way and woods work, notably the Norris family from Labrador fishery some schooners were built there. Grates Cove at Black Brook and the Burseys and Viv Families to move in to North West Arm in the 1880s ians (respectively from Thoroughfare and Old Bona and 1890s included the Burrys, Strattons and Welchers venture) at North West Brook. from Greenspond, Keans and Sturges from Flowers By 1921 the two communities had a combined pop Island and Attwoods and Knees from Pool's Island. ulation of 83, 45 of them residents of Black Brook. By The first Census record of North West Arm is from this time there was little fishing, and in the 1930s all 1891 and notes a population of 77 (which probably fishing ceased. Lumbering continued to be the major includes residents of what is now Valleyfield). employer, while after Confederation employment in The community does not appear in the Census sepa highways construction and at Clarenville became in rately from Valleyfield until 1921 when, out of a pop creasingly important. (The Trans-Canada Highway ulation of 143, almost half spent the summer at the passes just behind and above North West Brook, mak Labrador in 15 schooners sailing out of North West ing the community centrally located for highways Arm and Valleyfield. Most families continued to be workers, while the hilly terrain in the area has meant supplied out of Pool's Island and Greens pond and also that this stretch of the highway has required frequent participated in the spring seal hunt out of those ports. maintenance and upgrading.) In the late 1920s and the 1930s the decline of the The last year that North West Brook and Black Labrador fishery led many to seek work elsewhere. Brook were each recorded was in 1951, when 37 of the Although the firm of Monroe Fishery Products estab combined population of 87 were at Black Brook. lished a fish plant at nearby South West Island in 1930 Shortly thereafter there was a considerable influx of to process local catches, North West Arm was not people from communities farther out the Arm as high particularly well situated for the inshore fishery. By ways construction began to gear up, and by 1956 there the late 1930s the Labrador fishery had all but disap were 176 people. Many of the new arrivals built peared and the major means of employment was pulp homes on land between the two brooks with the result wood cutting at Indian Bay. North West Arm never had that the two communities "ran together" and the name its own school, relying on Valleyfield or Pool's Island North West Brook was applied to both. The population for most services. A Pentecostal church was built there had further increased to 243 in 1961, by which time in 1951, but was later moved across the Arm to highway and other construction had outstripped both Valleyfield. Most families moved across in 1954, with the railway and logging as the major employer. In Joseph Welcher being the last to move, in 1956. Bur 1990 a cement plant and sand and gravel operation ton and Burton (1971), John Feltham (1992), Census were built in the valley of North West Brook in antic (1891-1951 ), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory ipation of further highway reconstruction and the (1871). RHC building of an oil drilling platform at Bull Arm, about 25 km south. In recent years most new home construc NORTH WEST BROOK (pop. 1986, 317). The unin tion in the community has occurred along the highway corporated community of North West Brook is located leading to Little Heart's Ease and Southport, above at the head of Southwest Arm, Trinity Bay, about 15 Black Brook. km south of Clarenville. As with other communities in Southwest Arm, the area was probably used for winter woods work by people from older communities in Trinity Bay for some years prior to permanent settle ment. Settlement first occurred at the mouths of two streams which empty into the head of the Arm: North West Brook on the north side and Black Brook to the south. The Baker family (formerly of Heart's Ease) were probably at Black Brook by the early 1870s, while the Sopers moved to North West Brook from the Dildo area in the 1880s. The two tiny communities first appeared separately in the Census in 1891, with a population of21 at Black Brook and 20 at North West Brook. Most people were employed in the inshore fishery, supplemented by lumbering, and one crew of eight fished on the Labra dor. Soon thereafter railway construction reached the North West Brook 110 NORTH WEST COVE, LA POILE BAY While the Baker family were adherents of the largely and for many years by Orkneymen, who were Church of England, most other early settlers were recruited during the economic difficulties in Scotland Methodists and there were two small churches built in brought about by the collapse of the kelp industry and the late 1880s and early 1900s. In later years there has the enclosure of much of the arable land for sheep also been a small Pentecostal congregation at North farming. Permanent settlement in the area was encour West Brook. In 1986 the local school was closed and aged by the Hudson's Bay Company. Many Company since that time students have been bused to Claren employees, such as Malcolm McLean, Mersai ville, which provided most other services. E.R. Seary Michelin and John Montague qqv, remained in the (1977), Census (1884-1986), DA (Nov.-Dec. 1986), area when their contracts came to an end, becoming List of Electors (1962; 1966), Archives (A-7-2/M). RHC trappers and thus fur suppliers to their former employ ers. Many of the common family names, including NORTH WEST COVE, LA POILE BAY. See NORTH Baikie, Campbell, McLean and Montague reflect the BAY. Scottish presence. An influential figure in the devel NORTH WEST RIVER (inc. 1958; pop. 1991, 528). opment of North West River was Donald A. Smith qv The town of North West River is located on Hamilton (later Lord Strathcona), Hudson's Bay factor at North Inlet in central Labrador, 32 km northeast of Happy West River and Rigolet from 1848 to 1868. Under his Valley-Goose Bay qv. Before the construction of the direction North West River became the regional military base at Goose Bay in 1941 North West River centre. He was responsible for innovations such as the was the largest settlement on the shores of Hamilton practice of canning salmon, the initiation of experi Inlet, and for many years was a centre for trade, edu ments in keeping livestock and gardening, and general cation and medical services in central Labrador. improvement in the trapping and fishing economy. Local tradition suggests that the first European set Smith also acted as Justice of the Peace, performed tlers to establish themselves in Hamilton Inlet were marriages and baptisms and practised basic medicine. William Phippard qv and John Newhook, who arrived The later history of North West River and other in the area c.1788 and married Inuit women. Europe Labrador communities was shaped by the Interna ans continued to settle in the area until gradually the tional *Grenfell Association qv, which provided med "settler" qv population (European and mixed-race ical, educational and other services to the isolated Labradorians) was the dominant group, the Inuit hav regions of Labrador and northern Newfoundland. In ing removed to the north coast with the encourage the winter of 1912 Dr. Harry Paddon qv moved the ment of the Moravian Mission and the Innu having Grenfell Association hospital serving Hamilton Inlet relocated to the forested interior. The first known from Indian Harbour to Mud Lake qv, and in 1916 it trader at North West River was Louis Fornel qv, an was relocated to North West River. The hospital con independent trader from Quebec who set up a post in tinued to be the centre of medical treatment for Labra 1742. Other independent traders had establishments in dor for many years before its importance declined the area until1836, when a Hudson's Bay Company qv with the provincial government's assumption of re post was established under the direction of John sponsibility for health and education in Labrador. The McLean qv of Fort Chimo. The post was staffed North West River hospital closed in 1983. In 1992 the Hudson's Bay Company Premises at North West River NORTH WEST RIVER 111 community was served by a clinic. In addition to med Goose Bay settlements. A bridge across the Goose ical services, the Grenfell Association provided edu River was built in 1960, and a cable car linked the cation for the children of Labrador. The first school north and south sides of North West River from 1961 was opened at North West River in 1926 and was until 1979, when a bridge was built by the Brinex called the Yale School in honour of the many IGA Corporation in anticipation of a road to be constructed volunteers who were Yale students. The following to Makkovik for a prospective uranium mine. The year a dormitory was erected for students from Mud issue of replacing the cable car with a bridge caused Lake, Grand Lake and Mulligan. Previously these concern in the community about the possible effects of scattered communities had been served by itinerant more contact with the outside world, but because of teachers for a couple of months each year. Gradually the need to commute to Goose Bay for employment more distant settlements also began sending their chil the bridge was considered a necessity. The link to the dren to North West River. The boarding facilities were opposite side of the river increased at least the possi operated until 1980. Other employment projects and bility of contact with the settlement of Sheshatshit qv services established by the Grenfell Association in on the south side of the River. This community (its cluded co-operative stores, lumber mills, craft pro name means "a narrow place") is populated by the grams, cattle farms, greenhouses, portable libraries, Innu qv, formerly known as Naskapi-Montagnais, a orphanages and nursing homes. The presence of the nomadic people who came to the banks of the river in Association was a dominant force in the area until it summer to bring their furs to the Hudson's Bay Com handed over control of health and education to the pany post. government of Newfoundland and Labrador in 1981. After Confederation there was a massive increase in The Association and its members, such as Drs. Harry government influence in Labrador. In 1956 the Innu of and W.A. Paddon qv had taken direct interest in the Sheshatshit came under the terms of a federal-provincial spiritual life of the people. More formal religious ob agreement for education and health care. Soon after, servances in North West River began when the Rev. the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs opened Lester Burry qv became a resident minister in 1930. an office in Sheshatshit and the first permanent house Although trapping was the main source of income in was built in the community. Although many Innu con the area for the first 40 years of the twentieth century, tinued to spend time in the country, and still did in the fur trade was already in decline and alternative 1992, a permanent community had been formed. It sources of income were sought - in logging, mineral was considered part of North West River until 1979 exploration and hydro-electric projects. North West when the residents of Sheshatshit chose to become a River also became the starting point for voyages of separate community. J.P. Crump (1988), W.A. Paddon exploration into the interior undertaken by visitors (1989), Evelyn Plaice (1987), Gordon W. Thomas such as the ill-fated Leonidas Hubbard qv. But most (1987), Happy Valley-Goose Bay Regional Profile In important to the economy was the construction of the cluding North West River and Mud Lake, Labrador military base at Goose Bay in 1941. North West River (1976), Them Days (Vol. 1 #4), Them Days Labrador is by two rivers from the Happy Valley- Archive (PL 84-78). MARTHA MACDONALD North West River, from the cable car 112 NORTHCLIFF, LORD NORTHCLIFF, LORD. See HARMSWORTH, AR record of a regular fishery for some years after the THUR. abandonment of the French Shore commenced in the late 1800s, but it appears likely that the Pine family NORTHCOTT, ARCHELAUS ( 1894-1974 ). Busi remained. In the early 1900s fishing families from nessman; member of the National Convention. Born western Notre Dame Bay began to use Carouge as a Harbour Grace, son of Mary and Henry Northcott. station. These people referred to the summer station as Educated Lewisporte; Halifax. Northcott studied ar Crouse Harbour, and by 1911 (pop. 5) Census enumer chitecture, but became a ators were using the name. Separate listings for the general merchant at two communities in the harbour were not given until Lewisporte, operating a 1945 when 21 residents lived at Crouse Neck (South business whose exports in west Crouse) and 18 at Crouse Arm (Northeast cluded live lobsters, fresh Crouse). Residents of the latter community were the salmon and pickled fish. In Hurley, Joy, Pine and Wiseman families. June 1946 he was elected a Because the majority of families fishing out of delegate to the National Crouse did not live there year-round, there were never Convention. He voted enough settlers at Northeast Crouse to support a against the motion to have school, church or store. Such services were available confederation with Canada at Conche qv, just across the neck of land from South placed as an option on the west Crouse. In 1971 the population of Northeast referendum ballot, and re- Crouse was 43. But a road was built as far as Conche mained a supporter of re- Arch Northcott, 1946 in 1969, and shortly thereafter residents, under the sponsible government after resettlement program, began relocating to Conche and the Convention. Michael Harrington (letter, Mar. Englee. By 1981 only the Chaytor family remained 1990), DN (Aug. 12, 1974), DNLB (1990), ET (Aug. year-round. Northeast Crouse, however, has continued 12, 1974), Newfoundland Who's Who (1952). KAW to be fished in the summer. Maggie Colbourne (inter NORTHEAST CROUSE (pop. 1976, 22). A resettled view, June 1991 ), H.A. Innis ( 1940), Census (1874- fishing community and summer station on the east 1976), DA (Apr. 1975), JHA (1872; 1873), List of coast of the Great Northern Peninsula, at the northern Electors (1946), Statistics: Federal-Provincial Reset entrance to Cape Rouge Harbour. Named by Jacques tlement Program (1975). BWC Cartier in 1534 for its reddish cliffs, the harbour was NORTHERN ARM (inc. 1972; pop. 1991, 391). A known as Carouge during the 1700s when it was a community on the western shore of the Bay of Ex major base for the French migratory fishery, eight ploits, just north of Botwood qv. Northern Arm Brook vessels taking 20,150 quintals of cod there in 1768 (see flows into the Bay at Muddy Hole, a tidal pool pro CAPE ROUGE). tected by Evans Point. Northern Arm was probably The earliest Census reference to permanent settle visited by a number of families from Exploits, Burnt ment of the Northeast Crouse area occurred in 1874, Islands qv for the spring salmon fishery and winter when five Roman Catholic families were reported at woods work from the mid-1800s. In about 1877 Ed Rouge Harbour. Of the 28 settlers at least four - ward Evans and family, of Exploits, moved there and Timothy and Thomas Pine, a Mrs. Sweetland and a established a shipyard. Northern Arm offered fertile Mrs. Ensley- lived at Northeast Crouse. At that time land for gardens as well as forests for fuel and ship one of the men was engaged as gardien of the French building. It had attracted 109 settlers by 1884, when fishing premises during the off-season. There is_little the community first appeared in Census records. Most of the early settlers were families of Exploits, includ ing the Balls, Langdons and Manuels, or relatives of Evans from Western Bay, Conception Bay. Probably most people first came to Northern Arm as winter employees of the Evanses, settling permanently after the family began building and outfitting vessels for the Labrador fishery. Although Northern Arm was somewhat remote from local cod fishing grounds, the combination of the Lab rador fishery, growing vegetables for sale to Exploits and other headland fishing communities (two resi dents reported their occupation as farming in 18~4) and shipbuilding made Northern Arm an attractive site. By 1891 the community had 220 residents. In the 1890s forestry expanded in the area. In addition to local mills supplying ships timbers there were major sawmills nearby at Botwood, Norris Arm and Point Northeast Crouse Leamington. John Purchase established a shipyard at NORTHERN BAY 113 The Evans family shipyard at Northern Arm Northern Arm at about this time, although the local beach, since the early 1970s the site of Northern Bay shipyards suffered a setback in 1905 when a forest fire Sands provincial park. Quite exposed, especially to destroyed much timber. But shortly thereafter the es northeasterly gales, Northern Bay has been the scene tablishment of a paper mill at Grand Falls created a of many wrecks. In 1775, for example, numerous crew boom in employment in the Bay of Exploits. In addi members from West Country vessels are said to have tion to construction of the company town, work was been drowned at Northern Bay Sands, while the available in cutting pulpwood or at the mill's shipping Rothesay qv was wrecked there in 1863. Although port of Botwood. In 1921 the largest local employers historically most fishing premises have been located at were two small sawmills, employing a total of 14 beaches on the north side, Isaac's Cove and Long people. Eight people were farmers and seven were Beach among them, in 1992 people who still fished for shipwrights. The majority of the 237 residents were a living kept their boats at nearby Ochre Pit Cove qv. employed in the Labrador fishery or as loggers. Most It is likely that some West Country firms had seasonal early residents were of the Methodist faith and had premises at Northern Bay from the mid-1700s. Two early built a school and church by 1911. The Salvation fishing servants were named Moore(s) and Hogan, later Army was established at Northern Arm in the early family names of Northern Bay, Hogan being the most 1900s, and the Pentecostal Assemblies in the 1930s. common name in the community in 1992. According to Despite a slowdown in the economy in the 1970s local tradition permanent settlement dates from 1801, and 1980s, the population of Northern Arm increased when two Irish fishermen named Cummins and Fogarty as residents from smaller centres were attracted by purchased premises from John Webb of Harbour Grace; residential land near Botwood, the major service however English and Irish immigrants were settling the centre for the area. In 1992 many Northern Arm resi North Shore in the 1700s. (Lawrence Coughlan's church dents worked in the service and construction indus at Blackhead, built in the winter of 1768-69, could hold tries, some commuting as far as Grand Falls, Bishop's 400 people.) Northern Bay was settled by both Irish and Falls or even Gander. Calvin Evans has written an English: in addition to Cummins, Fogarty, Hogan and account of that family's activities in Northern Arm, Moores early family names include Buckler, Butler, with a particular emphasis on shipbuilding: For Love Dale, Duggan, Fogarty, Hinchey, Howell, Johnson, of a Woman (1992). Calvin Evans (letter, July 1991; Puddester and Tobin. To the north, Long Beach - in 1992), Clifford Evans (MHG 41-B-1-70), Census more recent times considered a part of Northern Bay (1884-1986), DA (Oct. 1983), Newfoundland Direc was mainly Irish Catholic (family names Layman, Mc tory 1936 (1936), Archives (A-7-2). BWC Carthy, Mullaly, Johnson, O'Flaherty, Steele and Wood fine) as was nearby Gull Island qv. Family names of Gull NORTHERN BAY (pop. 1986, 326). Northern Bay is Island common in Northern Bay in 1992 included on the North Shore of Conception Bay (that is, the Delaney and Doyle. A few people also settled on what is portion of the western side of the Bay between Salmon termed the South Side of Northern Bay, near Fox Point, Cove and Bay de Verde) and is located chiefly along a where family names were Hogan, Jacobs and Woodrow. series of low cliffs on the north side of a broad, open Northern Bay was a community of 203 people by the first cove. At the head of Northern Bay is a wide sandy Census in 1836. The population rose to 272 in 1845- at 114 NORTHERN BIGHT Northern Bay which time there were also 42 people recorded at Long involved in the new fresh fish business as vessel own- Beach - and to more than 400 people in the 1880s. ers or fishermen. With the development of the crab People of Northern Bay and Long Beach fished local fishery in the late 1970s more residents found work in grounds for cod and salmon, and in later years some the processing plants, but catches fell after 1985. fished for cod to the north, as far away as Baccalieu Clarke Dale (1983), Brendan Mullaly (MHG 41-B-1- Tickle. Men and occasionally women went to the Labra- 71), E. O'Flaherty (1969), Patrick O'Flaherty (inter- dor fishery; men also went to the spring seal hunt in view, Oct. 1992), E.R. Seary (1977), Ellen Woodrow vesselsoutofHarbourGraceandSt.John's. (MHG 41-B-1-72), Census (1836-1986), DA (Dec. The collapse of the Muon firm and other important 1980), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory (1871), New- Harbour Grace merchant houses in the late 1800s led foundland Historical Society (Northern Bay). ACB to a drastic decline in the Labrador fishery from the NORTHERN BIGHT (pop. 1891, 8). The site of a tiny North Shore in the early 1900s, and subsequently to abandoned fishing community, Northern (or Noder) increased competition in the local shore fishery. In Bight is a broad, steep-sided cove near the tip of the creasingly Northern Bay fishermen dealt with local Bonavista Peninsula, between Elliston and Little Cat merchants, such as Hinchey's in Northern Bay and alina. The area was probably fished by the Pearce Tucker's at Burnt Point. Some of the slack was taken family of Elliston prior to 1869, when it was first up by an increased emphasis on agriculture. Farming recorded in the Census with a population offour. These had always been important in Northern Bay - the people were likely the family of Charlie Pearce and March family were farming more or less full time lived on the bank above a small cove, known as from the 1860s - but by 1901 a large number of Charlie's Cove, the only site in the Bight where it is livestock were being kept and there were 260 acres possible to haul a boat out of the water. Although under cultivation, chiefly in hay. In 1911 the local Charlie Pearce was the only inhabitant whose name Agricultural Society had 152 members. But the con survives, local tradition has it that a family from Bona tinued decline in the shore fishery led to an exodus vista lived at Northern Bight for a few years. This is from the community in the 1920s and 1930s, largely to born out by the 1874 and 1884 Census which record two New England, but also to Cape Breton. Northern Bay, families totalling 14 by the later year. The community Long Beach and Gull Island constituted something of an Irish Catholic enclave in a generally Protestant area. In 1838 the Catholic parish of Northern Bay was established, and a church and school were built under the direction of Father Bernard Duffy by the early 1840s. When Father Edward J. O'Brien qv began his long service to the parish in 1915 he had a new school built, and in 1924 a new church was consecrated (lo cated in what has historically been considered part of Long Beach). Meanwhile, the Methodist congregation had built a school/chapel by 1845 and a church by 1869. In 1992 Northern Bay was still a predominantly Roman Catholic community, its church and Corpus Christi elementary and high schools also being used by Catholics in the surrounding area. After the opening of fish plants at Old Perlican and Bay de Verde in the 1960s a number of people found employment as plant workers, and a few became Charlie's Cove and Charlie's Long Point, Northern Bight NORTHERN PEN 115 last appeared in the Census in 1891, and with the death rot). In 1992 the prevailing theory was that the north of "old Charlie" soon afterward the community was ern lights are solar wind particles, which collide with abandoned. In later years, with the advent of marine oxygen and nitrogen in the earth's upper atmosphere, engines for inshore fishermen, fishing grounds at causing the gases to emit light, the colour depending Northern Bight were increasingly fished by crews out on the height at which the collision occurs. While of Little Catalina. Ivy Dalton (interview, June 1992), auroral physics bas made great advances even in the H.C. Murray (1979), Clarence Pearce (interview, July past 30 years, the northern lights have retained the 1992), Census (1869-1891). RHC interest of poets and artists as well. A Labrador Inuit NORTHERN BIGHT, TRINITY BAY. See HILLVIEW. legend explains the lights in this way: NORTHERN HARBOUR (pop. 1901, 39). An aban The ends of the land and sea are bounded by an doned fishing community in the Bay of Exploits, on the immense abyss, over which a narrow and danger outer western shore of the New Bay Peninsula southeast ous pathway leads to the heavenly regions. The sky of Fortune Harbour qv. The community was located in is a great dome of hard material arched over the a small, well-protected basin on the north side of a body earth. There is a hole in it through which the spirits of water identified as North Harbour on modern maps. pass to the true heavens. Only the spirits of those With good access to headland fishing grounds, the har who have died a voluntary or violent death, and the bour was likely used by crews out of Exploits, Burnt raven, have been over this pathway. The spirits Islands qv for some years before the first residents were who live there light torches to guide the feet of new reported - 39 people in 1857. Most of the family arrivals. This is the light of the aurora. names of Northern Harbour - Downton, Hutchings, Brekke and Egeland (1983), Eatber (1980), Falck Lacey, Luff, Sibley and Stride - are associated with Ytter (1985), Robert Gathorne-Hardy (1963), TCE Exploits, the usual source of supplies and site of the (1988). KAW nearest Methodist church. There was a school at North ern Harbour by 1884, and tradition among the Downton NORTHERN PEN. The Northern Pen was founded at family has it that Edward Downton (resident in 1869) St. Anthony on March 5, 1980 by Bernard Bromley. originally arrived in the community as a teacher. By Published in St. Anthony, the weekly serves the Great 1884 the population of Northern Harbour was 59. But Northern Peninsula and southern Labrador, and until probably not long after that some families left, perhaps 1990 was edited by Bromley, who was succeeded by because of the limited protection from heavy seas in the Allan Bock. It was produced by Bebb Publications, St. outer barbour. In 1894 there were only five families, Anthony, and printed in Grand Falls. In tabloid form three of them with the family name Sibley. By 1911 no until 1985, it has since been printed in the larger, one was left, although some families may have contin broadsheet form. In 1992 it was one of few indepen ued to use the barbour seasonally. In 1992 Northern dent newspapers on the Island. Covering issues and Harbour was accessible overland by a trail from south events from a regional perspective, it received awards east Fortune Harbour. E.R. Seary (1977), Census for Best Front Page of 1985, the Best Christmas (1857-1901), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory (1871), McAlpine's Directory ( 1894-95), Sailing Directions: Newfoundland (1986). awe 0 NorJ!!i!!!L~!! NORTHERN LIGHTS. The northern lights, or aurora borealis, for so long defying explanation, have been ~~~~ployed Anchor Pt. ::;;;;:J;;~, frustratio~ called creation's most spectacular way of preserving the scientist's soul. The name aurora borealis (from Aurora, Roman goddess of dawn, and the Latin boreale or northern) is thought to have originated with the seventeenth-century Italian scientist Galileo. Labrador is situated in an area of high auroral fre quency, with lights visible in many areas more than 100 nights annually, while on the Island the aurora can often be seen more than 30 nights a year. Occurring in an oval band about 500-1000 km wide with the north geomagnetic pole at its centre, the aurora form lumi nous arcs, bands, patches, veils and rays that range Anchor Pomt teen from predominant greens and golds to splendid dis ·--lulled.... 111 nush Edition of 198 8 and the Best Historical Article for the last-named publisher issuing papers into 1992 1990. Staff members have also received individual under long-time editor Iris Brett. While it published a awards for their work. In 1992, the Northern Pen had considerable amount of American syndicated filler ma a circulation of about 6500 locally, as well as subscrip terial, the paper's news and editorial content forged a tions across Newfoundland and other parts of Canada. strong voice over the years, speaking out on Labrador Francis Reardon (interview, Dec. 1991). ACB issues. From the start, the distribution of government money and projects was an editorial bone of conten NORTHERN PENINSULA. See GREAT NORTH tion, staff and contributing writers alike alleging that ERN PENINSULA. Labrador was left out of every effort to shore up the NORTHERN RANGER. There have been two New economy and spirits of the Province. Regarding the foundland coastal boats with the name Northern move of the proposed Labrador chip mill to Stephen Ranger. The first was built by Fleming and Ferguson ville in 1968, Happy Valley's deputy mayor echoed of Paisley, Scotland in 1936. The 1366-ton vessel was what would be a familiar refrain in the paper, stating purchased by the Newfoundland Railway for the north that he was "convinced that the Premier's intention is eastern Newfoundland and southern Labrador service. to drain the wealthy land of Labrador for the remainder It could carry 120 passengers as well as freight, and of the province.'' replaced the Prospera and the Sagona qqv. The North The paper's protests were usually eloquent and di ern Ranger was to serve northeastern Newfoundland rect. The road from Goose Bay to Churchill Falls, and southern Labrador for the next 30 years. Its regular claimed one writer in 1969, was "so bad many rabbits route from St. John's took it to Twillingate and White come to the edge and will not take a chance on cross Bay via Conception, Trinity, Bonavista and Notre ing." In 1992 writers were still complaining that de Dame bays; north to Battle Harbour and Blanc Sablon velopment projects proposed for Labrador would and then south along the St. Barbe coast to Corner never be approved by government unless they were Brook. The route became a popular one for tourists. foreign "megaprojects" promising to disrupt the envi After 1949 ownership was assumed by Canadian N a ronment. The paper also committed itself to commu tiona!. The Northern Ranger was retired in 1966 and nity news that revolved around social issues, printing sold for scrap. such stories as how to have input in government funded symposiums on family violence, and the prob lem of old people afraid to walk outside because of the high number of reckless snowmobile operators. In 1992 the paper ran more advertisements than most newspapers do for a variety of birth control devices such as female condoms and five-year hormonal arm implants. While the look of the paper, with its entertainment section and liberal peppering of syndicated filler, was anything but revolutionary, the Northern Reporter did carry enough strong content on local issues to make it a significant regional voice. Suzanne Ellison (1988), Northern Reporter (passim). KAW NORTHERN WILD RAISIN. See RAISIN, NORTH ERN WILD. The first Northern Ranger at Harbour Deep NORTHWEST ISLANDS (pop. 1966, 6). The tiny set Twenty years later the M. V. Northern Ranger was tlement of Northwest Islands in Hamilton Inlet was one built at the Port Weller Dry Docks in St. Catharine's, of the many scattered communities inhabited by Lab Ontario. With a crew of 26, the new ship could accom rador settlers who made a living by hunting, trapping modate 136 passengers and general cargo. It replaced and fishing. In spite of the plural form used in its name, the aging Bonavista and began on the Lewisporte to the community of Northwest Islands was situated on Nain run. Under the command of Captain Tom Lake, only one island, located 25 km northeast of North West the new Northern Ranger served in the winters be River. tween Port aux Basques and Terrenceville. J.P. An The island is about one mile in length and thus drieux (1984), Belliveau et al (1992), Centre for affords little space for settlement. Thomas Blake, eldest son of Lydia Campbell qv, lived for a time at Newfoundland Studies (Northern Ranger). ACB Northwest Islands, as did some members of the Chaulk NORTHERN REPORTER. Established in 1965 as a and Baikie families. The most recent residents were two weekly independent regional paper, the Northern Re families of Baikies who had made Northwest Islands porter was published at Happy Valley-Goose Bay con their home for a couple of generations. Like other secutively by H. Brett, Strobe Enterprises, Bernard communities in the central and coastal regions of Heard, HIB Distributing, and Northern Reporter Ltd., Labrador, Northwest Islands was known as a "winter NORWAY 117 place", people moving to other areas in summer to age. It also incorporated contributions of local poetry fish cod. Northwest Islands never had a population of (much of it having religious messages) and substantial much over I 0 people. Children received education church news content that reflected the area's heavy through the services of an itinerant teacher or through Pentecostal population. As the paper continued into visits to nearby Mulligan qv. In 1992 there was only the 1990s it changed editors a number of times and one seasonal resident of Northwest Islands, Sherlock began to look more sophisticated, as Robinson-Blackmore Baikie, who spent part of the year on the island tend inserted more columns and photography from St. ing his trapline, but there were several summer cabins John's staff and freelancers. However its editors, who there. Sherlock Baikie (interview, Jan. 1992). Census included Tana Ryan and Tera Camus, and its staff (1901-1966). MARTHA MACDONALD remained primarily young residents of the paper's cir culation area and they retained a large measure of the NOR'WESTER. This community newspaper of north commitment to local news that had made the paper western Newfoundland began in 1964 as the Spring strong under its various names. Suzanne Ellison dale News and continued in 1971 as the Green Bay (1988), Green Bay News (passim), Nor'wester (pas News before becoming the Nor'wester in 1979. The sim), Springdale News (passim). KAW Springdale News was edited by Eileen Williamson and published every second Thursday by Blackmore Print NORTON, THOMAS (fl. 1844-1852). Chief Justice. ing Company in Grand Falls. Printed not on newsprint, Born Ireland. Married Augusta Sophia Abbony. Nor but on bond paper, it provided community news from ton was sent to Newfoundland from Ireland to replace Springdale and Roberts Arm along with some provin acting Chief Justice James Simms and thus became cial news and advertising. Its successor, under editor/ Newfoundland's first Roman Catholic Chief Justice. publisher Francis Hull, began more than a year after Though he spent only a few years in Newfoundland, he the first paper discontinued publication. It included was described by Judge Prowse as "a universal news from additional communities, including Baie favourite" and "an able, impartial judge [who was] a Verte, Harry's Harbour, King's Point, Miles Cove, most humorous and fascinating companion off the Jackson's Cove and Little Bay Islands. A former staff bench". Norton resigned as Chief Justice in 1847 and member with the Western Star in Corner Brook, Hull left to establish a law practice in London. He married determined the local news emphasis that would con in 1852 at the British Embassy in Paris. D.W. Prowse tinue in the paper after it became part of the Robinson (1895), J.R. Smallwood (1967), Courier (November Blackmore chain of community bulletins. 24, 1852). ACB The Nor 'wester, still under Hull's editorship, ex NORWAY. Norway occupies the westernmost part ofthe panded coverage to part of the Great Northern Penin Scandinavian peninsula, with an area of 323,878 square sula. It retained a commitment to local news, and kilometres. In 1990 it had a population of approxi published writing by local people who were not staff mately 4,246,000. Its coastal geography and relation members, and who were often young writers of school ship with the North Atlantic are quite comparable to those of Labrador and northern Newfoundland. Since the late eighteenth century, Norway has also been one of Newfoundland's strongest competitors in fisheries exports. In recent years Norway'.s experience in off nor' wester:-=- shore oil development has been intensively studied in Newfoundland. There have also been a few individuals Poverty level to increase; from Norway who have settled in Newfoundland and local area not immune Labrador- in 1992 two of the most numerous families in the Province who traced their origin to Norway were the Andersons at Makkovik qv and the Eversons of Flatrock qv. Individual Norwegians who have had long term involvement in the Newfoundland fisheries in clude businessman Olaf Olsen and civil servants Kjell Henriken and Adolfe Neilsen qqv. Norway had been a minor player in the international fish trade, but in the period following the Napoleonic Wars offered increasing competition to Newfoundland. Closer to European markets, Norwegian salt fish as well as "stockfish" (fish cured without salt) could reach buyers before shipments arrived from Newfoundland, and frequently undersold the New foundland product. There were several other advan tages enjoyed by Norway. The coast was free of ice early in the year and the fishing season was conse quently longer; the catch was cured by merchants, not by individual fishermen as in most of Newfoundland, 118 NORWAY A reconstruction ofa Norse ship at Olaf Olsen 's Marine Agencies in St. John 's so that a more uniform quality was ensured; and trans information on the fishery. His report, published in portation costs were kept low because the fish was 1921, indicated that Norway enjoyed tremendous ad cured and stored in only three ports: Bergen, vantages. Though methods of salting and splitting fish Kristiansund and Alesurd. As the main fishery around were similar in both countries, the heads and sound the Lofoten Islands grew, Norwegian cod began to bones of cod taken in the Norwegian fishery were not replace that from Newfoundland in the important discarded as they were in Newfoundland; they were Spanish port cities of Bilbao and Barcelona, and by sold for use in the production of fish meal, fertilizer 1875 Norwegian fish was making inroads into the and glue. Apart from cod, Norway also had extensive markets of Italy and Portugal. The 1880s were a pe herring, mackerel and hood seal fisheries. A large can riod of further expansion, though Newfoundland re ning industry produced sardines, salmon, crab, lobster mained the world's principal producer of salt fish. and cod roe for European markets, and direct transpor Poor fishing seasons and bad weather were not, of tation was facilitated by Norwegian steamship lines. course, unknown in Norway, and by the turn of the In the inter-war period, Newfoundland fish exports century the industry was in the midst of a depression. steadily lost ground to competitors in Norway, Iceland But this setback was temporary, recovery aided by the and the Faroe Islands. Unlike Newfoundland, Norway opening of new markets in Brazil and Cuba. By the imported large amounts of goods from countries which eve of World War I, the quantity of Norwegian fish bought salt fish: coffee from Brazil, hides from Argen exports was on a par with that of Newfoundland. Dur tina and olive oil and tomatoes from Italy. Many na ing the War, Norway made large profits which were tions preferred to barter such goods with Norway than later diverted, with government assistance, to the ex pay hard currency for Newfoundland fish. After World tension of the fishery. Operations were diversified, War II there was a steady decline in the Newfoundland equipment modernized and the overall quality of salt cod fishery. Despite some setbacks, Norway's cured fish improved. Improved techniques for extract centralized and more mechanized fishery managed to ing cod liver oil were also developed. By contrast, keep many of the advantages gained during the there was little government initiative in the New industry's boom years of the 1920s and 1930s. foundland fishery. Instead, government revenues were When the first Norwegian licences for offshore oil being used largely to service a growing foreign debt. development were issued in 1965 Norwegian fisher The first attempts to regulate the Newfoundland fish men, concerned about the possible effects of this de ery consciously borrowed from Norwegian models. velopment on the fishery, began an effective campaign Augustus W. Harvey qv made an extensive study of to have their concerns addressed. As a result, thorough the Norwegian industry in establishing the Newfound research was done on the relation between petroleum land Fisheries Commission and, later, the Department development and the fishery. Norway's response to of Marine and Fisheries. In 1888 Harvey was instru this issue was of special interest to Newfoundland, mental in the hiring of a Norwegian, Adolphe Nielsen, where similar offshore development plans were proposed. as Newfoundland's first superintendent of fisheries. By the mid-1980s, Norwegian industries were express In 1920 William F. Penney, the Speaker of the ing interest in participating in offshore development House of Assembly, was sent to Norway to gather technology in Newfoundland through joint ventures. NOSEWORTHY, JOSEPH WILLIAM 11.9 Norway and Newfoundland share many siniilarities in resources and industries. The association between the two areas has been characterized by intense com petition at times, but also by co-operation and the transfer of technology. In 1992 the government of Norway maintained an official consulate in St. John's. David Alexander (1977; 1983), Harold Innis (1940), R.A. Mackay (1946), W.F. Penney (1921), Shannon Ryan (1986), Them Days (Dec. 1977). ACB NOSEWORTHY,ARTHUREDWARD (1920- ). Electrician. Born Bryant's Cove, son of Herbert and Nellie (Taylor) Noseworthy. Educated St. John's. Mar ried Dorothy Grace Chafe. At age 14 Noseworthy went to work for the firm of Job Brothers, both in St. John's and on the Labrador. After working as an electrical apprentice with the Newfoundland Light and Power Company, in 1942 he joined Bowring Brothers, work ing on the Algerine, the Eagle and other ships in the firm's sealing fleet. He also became electrician for the Alexandra Theatre Company, after Sir Edgar Bowring sponsored the group in 1947. When Leslie Yeo (a Storm Rhythmic, by George Noseworthy former member of the Alexandra Company) returned Cove; George Noseworthy), Smallwood files (George to St. John's in 1951, Nose Noseworthy). KAW worthy also served as elec trician for the London The NOSEWORTHY, JACOB (1878-1955). Pentecostal atre Company at Bishop layman. Born St. John's. Married Marie Hudson. As a Feild College, from 1951 to young man Noseworthy emigrated to the United 1957. In 1954 Noseworthy States. After working for several years with the Green established his own electri Shipyards, he returned to St. John's where he worked cal contracting company, until retirement with Harvey and Company. He expe which at its peak employed rienced religious conversion during Victoria Booth over 400 people. His com Clibborn Demarest's 1919 evangelistic campaign in pany was involved in most St. John's, and sometime before 1925 joined the St. of the major construction John's Bethesda Mission qv, the first Pentecostal meet projects during the 1960s, ing place in Newfoundland. On November 19, 1925, Art Noseworthy including the building of a fifteen years after it began in Newfoundland, the Pen new campus for Memorial tecostal movement was granted denominational status University of Newfoundland, the ERCO plant at Long by the government. Noseworthy, along with farmer Harbour and the Come by Chance oil refinery. James Stanley and jeweller Robert C. English, helped Noseworthy's was the first company to use helicopters to frame the Memorandum of Association, and was one in Newfoundland in the construction of transmission of the signatories. Jennie E. Greene (letter, January 9, lines. M. 0. MORGAN 1983). BURTON K. JANES NOSEWORTHY,GEORGE (1929-1985). Artist. NOSEWORTHY, JOSEPH WILLIAM (1888-1956). Born New York of Newfoundland parents. Educated Educator; politician. Born Lewisporte, son of John and New York State University Institute of Applied Arts Mary (Woolfrey) Noseworthy. Educated Albert Col and Science; Art Students League, New York. After lege, Belleville; University of Toronto. Married Edna graduation he worked for 21 years as a designer/art DeLong. Noseworthy taught high school and worked director, and following a visit to Newfoundland in as a missionary in Labrador before moving to Ontario 1967 took up residence at Hibb's Cove, Conception to continue his education. He then taught high school Bay. His paintings depict the harmonies of in Toronto and York, served for seven years as presi Newfoundland's sea, wind, land and people, and have dent of the York Secondary School Teachers' Federa been exhibited across Canada. In Hibb' s Cove and tion and for a time as chairman of the finance other Conception Bay communities Noseworthy committee of the Canadian Teachers' Federation. founded an informal and innovative system of art and Noseworthy ran unsuccessfully for the Canadian music centres for children, encouraging them to ex parliament as a C.C.F. candidate in the 1940 general press themselves through art and music. In 1968 he election. He ran again in a by-election on February 9, also founded Newfoundland's first fisherman's mu 1942 and was elected in the riding of York South, seum, to which hundreds of artifacts were donated by defeating former Prime Minister Arthur Meighen, who people in the area. Noseworthy died suddenly at the had resigned from the senate to contest the election. age of 56. Newfoundland Historical Society (Hibb's During the campaign Noseworthy advocated a total 120 NOTRE DAME BAY war effort, with conscrip eludes these areas from Notre Dame Bay, which is tion of wealth, manpower defined as lying between Cape St. John and Farewell and industry; a partnership Head at the tip of the Port Albert Peninsula. between labour and govern The most westerly part of the Bay is Green Bay. The ment in all matters pertain next major inlet to the east is Little Bay, with Little ing to the war effort; Bay Islands lying offshore. Next is Halls Bay, with a greater social security and cluster of large islands off its eastern headland, in federal aid for education. cluding Sunday Cove Island, Pilley's Island, Long Is Later he advocated union land and Triton Island. South of these i.slands there are between Newfoundland and two small bays, which were uninhabited in 1992: Bad Canada. Noseworthy was ger Bay and Seal Bay; then a series of arms collec defeated in the general tively known as New Bay qv. The other major "inner" election of 1945, but was bay is the Bay of Exploits, in which there are numer re-elected in 1949 and J.W.Noseworthy ous islands and which extends far inland to the mouth 1953. He died during his third term, on April 1, 1956. of Newfoundland's longest river, the Exploits. This J.R. Smallwood (1975), Canadian Parliamentary river drains a major portion of the interior of the Is Guide (1943; 1946; 1950; 1954), Canadian Who's land of Newfoundland and provided access to the re Who 1952-54, ET (July 14, 1943), Globe and Mail sources of the country for both prehistoric native (Feb. 10, 1942; Apr. 2, 1956), New York Times Obitu peoples (most notably the Beothuk qv) and the early aries Index 1858-1968 (1969). LMS white settlers. The Exploits River and Red Indian Lake were the most important winter hunting grounds NOTRE DAME BAY. Notre Dame Bay is a broad bay of the Beothuk and also their major route to the coast of the northeast coast, its shoreline deeply indented in summer - although another important means of and the most irregular of any of Newfoundland's major access to coastal resources was through a tributary, bays. While the Bay's inner reaches- many of them Badger Brook, the Twin Lakes and on to Badger Bay also designated bays- are well-sheltered and thickly and the islands off Halls Bay. forested its headland and island fishing communities Some historians suggest that Portuguese explorer are exposed to the North Atlantic. The northwestern Gaspar *Corte-Real qv was the European "dis headland of the Bay is Cape St. John qv (locally, Cape coverer" of Notre Dame Bay and that it was he who John), but there is no general agreement as to which applied the name Green Bay (baia verde) to all of what headland forms the eastern extremity ofthe Bay. While was later known as Notre Dame Bay. The French were in some usages the Bay extends east to Cape Freels, the first European nation systematically to exploit the other common usages regard the eastern extremity to cod fishery of the outer Bay. In 1534 Jacques Cartier be either Long Point (Twillingate) or Fogo Head - visited Fogo and crossed the Bay, marking the begin delineations which put Fogo Island, Sir Charles Ham ning of a French migratory fishery centred on the ilton Sound and the Straight Shore qqv outside the Bay. harbours of Fogo and "Toulinguet". However, while The Sailing Directions: Newfoundland (1986) also ex- the French recognized the advantages of these two Springdale and Halls Bay NOTRE DAME BAY 121 harbours, they do not seem to have penetrated the Bay English, with the only sizable enclave of Irish Roman to any great extent. In 1696 Abbe Jean Baudoin esti Catholics being at Fortune Harbour (as well as Tilting, mated that there were 150 men and 14 boats fishing if eastern Fogo Island is considered to be a part of the seasonally out of Twillingate and Fogo, and this is Bay.) The Slade firm, in addition to being the largest probably representative of the seventeenth century establishment at Twillingate, was also interested in French fishing effort in the area. While Notre Dame other resources such as furs and salmon. This drew Bay was included within the French Shore qv from Slade's agents down into the Bay of Exploits and to a 1713 to 1783, the French did not effectively enforce lesser extent into western Notre Dame Bay (particu their monopoly south of Cape St. John during this larly Halls Bay). John Cartwright in the course of time. It is notable that despite the French name ("bay exploring the Exploits River in 1766 noted that be of our Lady") of the Bay there are fewer toponyms of yond Fogo and Twillingate French origin in "Noter Dame" Bay than anywhere there is no cod fishery, and consequently there else along the Newfoundland coastline, the most nota are no inhabitants within the very extreme verge ble exception being Twillingate. of these islands; but they are often visited by the It was Twillingate Harbour (and, to a lesser extent, boats that carry the salmon fishers. . into the Fogo) that was the base for the expansion of the Eng respective bays (cited in Howley). lish West Country fishery, and eventually settlement, into Notre Dame Bay. Despite the Bay's coming The exploration of Notre Dame Bay was largely within the boundaries of the French Shore in 1713, by undertaken by these trappers and salmon fishers, a 1732 there were English migratory fishermen fre pioneering story which is left largely untold- in part, quenting Twillingate and it was estimated that there perhaps, because a major feature of the process was were 143 English wintering there in 1738. By this time the denial of coastal resources to the Beothuk and the the French fishery had shifted its emphasis to the eventual disappearance of this people. By 1775 north of Cape St. John. Possessing a good harbour for salmon fisherman John Peyton Sr. qv was established access to cod, seals and to the emerging *Labrador at the mouth of the Exploits, as was Matthew Ward at fishery qv, Twillingate became a major fishing station New Bay River and Thomas Rowsell at Halls Bay. for West Country merchants such as John Slade qv of A change in the boundary of the French Shore in Poole, who from the 1750s built up substantial shore 1783 to make its eastern limit Cape St. John rather premises there. The origins of the population of Notre than Cape Freels recognized English occupation of Dame Bay are almost exclusively West Country Notre Dame Bay. However, it was not until the NOTRE DAME BAY ,. ~·~ •• FAREWELL(>~V· , HEAD 122 NOTRE DAME BAY change in the treaty shore that English settlement West Country merchants of Twillingate and Fogo had began to spread from Twillingate to outpost settle used these harbours as a base for expanding their ments on the headlands of New World Island fishing interests farther north, by-passing the French (Moreton's Harbour and Herring Neck), on Exploits, "Petit Nord" to establish bases in Labrador. The ex Burnt Islands and on the western "Cape Shore" of the panding Labrador fishery in the early 1800s played an Bay (Nippers Harbour and Round Harbour). By the important part in the expansion of settlement into early 1800s the salmon fishermen and trappers had Notre Dame Bay, as schooner-building led many to begun the process of carving out their own winter in the inner parts of the Bay and eventually to "plantations" at a few harbours in the west, such as settlement of coves some distance from the prime Leading Tickles, Ward's Harbour (now Beaumont headland fishing grounds. By the 1860s this process North) and Little Bay Islands. By the 1820s the was well under way, and by its peak in the 1880s and Beothuk had all but disappeared - from disease, 1890s the Labrador fishery employed nearly 2000 exclusion from the resources of the coast or from a Notre Dame Bay men. deliberate policy of the pioneers. Settlement and the When railway construction began in the 1880s the cod fishery spread into the Bay from Twillingate in ultimate goal of politicians and entrepreneurs was to the 1820s and 1830s. By 1845 there were about 5000 provide an overland connection between the "old" people in the Bay (including Fogo, but excluding the centre of Newfoundland commerce and industry on rest of Fogo Island and Hamilton Sound), half of the Avalon Peninsula and the "copper boom" areas to these living at Fogo harbour or on the Twillingate the north. A contract was signed in 1889 to construct Islands. By 1857 there were more than 7000 people the "Hall's Bay Railway". But, by the time the rail living throughout the Bay, although there were still way touched on Notre Dame Bay in 1893 (at Norris only about 500 living west of Exploits. Arm), the decision had already been made to by-pass One small western fishing station - recorded in Halls Bay and continue across the interior to the west the 1857 Census with a population of 17 - was Tilt coast at the Bay of Islands. The mining boom had Cove, about 15 km southwest of Cape St. John. It was already begun to fade: Pilley's Island closed for the in that year that prospector Smith McKay qv discov first time in 1899 and Little Bay followed in 1901. ered a copper body at Tilt Cove, Newfoundland's first Although Tilt Cove continued until 1917, the rerout significant mining operation beginning there in 1864. ing of the railway from Halls Bay was symptomatic of This was the start of the "copper boom" in western a decision that the railway would be an instrument to Notre Dame Bay. Soon there were more than 1000 encourage development in the interior, most im people (miners and their families) living at Tilt Cove, mediately in forestry. The development of a sawmill coming from all over Newfoundland. Other signifi ing industry in Notre Dame Bay had begun in the cant mineral discoveries soon followed, notably at mid-1800s. By the 1890s there were several important Little Bay (copper) and at Pilley's Island (pyrite). By lumber mills- at Point Leamington, Botwood, Norris 1891 there were more than 17,000 people living in the Arm and Campbellton- and entrepreneurs were en Bay, supported by more than 1000 miners and 3000 deavouring to consolidate timber holdings in the Ex fishermen. Slightly more than half of the fishermen ploits River system with a view to developing a major were engaged in the inshore fishery, with the remain lumber industry. The first large-scale enterprises at der in the Labrador fishery. From the late 1700s the tracted by railway access to the interior were the lum ber mills of Lewis Miller qv. Although Miller's interest quickly faded, he was successful in having a branch railway built and a deepwater port established at Lewisporte. In 1905 the British Harmsworth inter ests established the Anglo-Newfoundland Develop ment (A.N.D.) Company to begin construction of a pulp mill at Grand Falls. The start up of the Grand Falls mill in 1909 dramatically affected all of Notre Dame Bay. People flocked there, at first to work in construction of the townsite and later for jobs at the mill and in related industries. Just as important were the huge number of seasonal jobs which became avail able in the lumber camps, an important source of win ter work for the fishing communities. Other new towns, populated largely by baymen, sprang up around the pulp mill at Bishop's Falls, the woods division headquarters at Badger and the paper-shipping port at Botwood (which was connected to Grand Falls by a company railway). This tradition of woods work also made Notre Dame Bay one of the major sources of labour for the construction and supply of the paper Twillingate harbour mill at Corner Brook after 1923. NOTRE DAME BAY 123 Tilt Cove, from an old postcard As the eyes of Notre Dame Bay were increasingly Bay districts formed the heart of support for the turned to the interior in the early 1900s there were Liberal/Union party. Nearly 75% of voters in also major changes taking place in the fishery. The Twillingate and Green Bay districts supported con Labrador fishery began to decline, employing only federation with Canada on the second referendum about 800 people and 100 vessels from Twillingate ballot in 1948, and after Confederation both districts district in 1911 and approximately half the numbers consistently returned Liberals with large majorities 10 years later. The Labrador fishery all but disap until the end of the Smallwood era in 1972. (In the peared in the late 1930s. Some of the slack was taken provincial election of that year Progressive Conserva up by a new inshore fishery for lobster and by a tive A. Brian Peckford broke the Liberal stronghold migratory fishery to the French Shore - the Grey on Notre Dame Bay with a victory in Green Bay Islands and the adjacent coast, from Englee to district.) Quirpon. But for much of Notre Dame Bay the course The resettlement program of the 1960s had less of the twentieth century has continued the trend to effect on settlement patterns in Notre Dame Bay than wards inland resources. A major base metal mine was in many other parts of the Province. A few of the more opened at Buchans in 1928, fostering continued min remote communities of the Cape Shore were reset eral exploration and leading to the opening or reopen tled, as were Exploits and other island communities ing of several mines in the 1950s. Logging was the in the Bay of Exploits. The building of the Trans-Can major source of wage employment until the 1960s, ada Highway in the late 1950s and early 1960s when jobs were lost to mechanization. While the local brought a further overland connection between Notre inshore fishery has continued to decline, the avail Dame Bay and the east and west coasts and, unlike ability of unemployment insurance for fishermen the railway, did not by-pass the western section of the since the 1950s has enabled many to continue in this Bay. By 1958 the Highway had connected Springdale industry. to the Province's road system, and it was also in that Politically Notre Dame Bay has been the most con year that the Exploits River was spanned by the Rob sistently Liberal area in Newfoundland from the days ert Bond bridge. Once the Trans-Canada Highway when Robert Bond represented the constituency of was completed, providing road links to the island Twillingate in the early 1900s. The *Fishermen's Pro communities of Notre Dame Bay became a priority. tective Union (FPU) qv was founded at Herring Neck Causeways were completed to New World Island and in 1908, and through the 1920s Twillingate and Green Pilley's Island in 1965, Triton Island in 1968, 124 NOTRE DAME JUNCTION Twillingate Islands in 1973 and to Sunday Cove Is land in 1974. Since the 1960s Notre Dame Bay has been a microcosm of the economic problems facing the Province as a whole. Employment in forest indus tries has steadily declined, with the mechanization of cutting and the deficiencies of an aging pulp and paper mill at Grand Falls. The second mining boom in Green Bay had subsided by the 1970s, although the expansion of mineral exploration and mining did so lidify the position of Springdale as a service and distribution centre for that part of the Bay. In 1991 the three largest towns in Notre Dame Bay, all with populations between 3000 and 4000, were service centres at the "bottoms of the Bay" - Lewisporte, Botwood and Springdale. In some respects, however, the major service centre for Notre Dame Bay was the inland town of Grand Falls-Windsor (pop. 14,693), Station agent Dwyer at Notre Dame Junction itself reeling from shutdowns and layoffs at the pulp NOTRE DAME JUNCTION (pop. 1976, 8). A railway and paper mill. Outside the service centres the largest depot in central Newfoundland, Notre Dame Junction fishing communities in the Bay have remained was established in 1898, when the Reid Newfoundland Twillingate and Fogo, where major fresh-frozen fish Company began construction of a branch line to plants were located from the 1960s. Other develop Lewisporte qv. It quickly developed into a major rail ments in the inshore/nearshore fishery have included way stop, as Lewisporte became the principal transpor the introduction of longliners and the development of tation and communications connection to northern a fishery for alternate species such as capelin, squid Newfoundland and Labrador. Only the station master and lumpfish. Although by 1990 it was apparent that was reported at the depot in 1901, when it was first Bay stocks of cod and other species were almost ex listed in the Census, but 27 people were there by 1935, hausted, many people were hopeful that Notre Dame including several section men and their families. The Bay's complex of islands, bays and tickles afforded Junction assumed particular importance in the late an environment favourable to ventures in aquacul 1930s, with Lewisporte supplying the air base under ture. E. James Candow (1989), Handcock and Sanger construction at Gander. The building of the highway (1981), C. Grant Head (1976), Harold Horwood through the area in the 1950s made for a second junc (1969), J.P. Howley (1915), Wendy Martin (1983), tion, south of the railway station. Here a restaurant, the A.R. Penney (1988), Gerald Penney (1988), Amy Traveller's Comfort, was built. It burned in the mid- Lousie Peyton (1982), Alonzo Rideout (interview, 1960s and was replaced by a motel, gas bar and cabins Aug. 1992), A.K. Snelgrove (1931), Census (1836- owned by the Woolfrey family of Lewisporte. 1991), DCB IV (John Slade), Sailing Directions: When G.P. Dwyer came to the Junction as station Newfoundland (1986), Archives (MG 232/1). RHC agent in 1964, in addition to a dwelling for the agent and his family there was a operators' car and a camp for the use of sectionmen. In the 1970s when down grading of the railway was begun most residents either retired or were relocated to other railway centres. In 1984 Notre Dame Junction was one of 33 stations closed and Dwyer retired to Lewisporte. The motel was purchased in 1981 by evangelist Brother Claude Gagnon and converted into the "Miracle Temple" (see HOLY GHOST MIRACLE REVIVAL TEMPLE INC.). In 1992 the original railway station was still standing, off the main road between the highway junc tion and Lewisporte. W.J. Chafe (1987), G.P. Dwyer (letter, Nov. 1992). Census (1901-1976), List of Elec tors (1928), Statistics: Federal-Provincial Resettle ment Program (1975?). BWC NOVA SCOTIA. The province of Nova Scotia is sepa rated from Newfoundland by the Cabot Strait qv which, at its narrowest point, is 89 km wide. Nova Scotia and Newfoundland share a common reliance on resources of the sea, and the proximity of the two areas has long facilitated the migration and movements of Summer fishing premises at Exploits various peoples across the Cabot Strait. NOVA SCOTIA 125 There is some debate over whether Cape Breton Is rectly with Newfoundland fishermen, using Canso land or Bonavista was the site of John Cabot's qv first (Canseau) as a base. Though relatively large numbers landfall in 1497 (or, indeed, somewhere else alto of Nova Scotians came to the Banks and the Labrador gether). In any case, both Nova Scotia and Newfound fisheries in the 1700s and 1800s, few were to settle on land were known to European fishermen at an early the Island or in Labrador. Settlement in Newfound date. The Micmac qv were, of course, already estab land was still officially prohibited for both English lished in Nova Scotia in Cabot's time, though it is and French. In 1728 the Board of Trade, under the uncertain whether they had crossed over to Newfound influence of the West Country traders, proposed that land in the prehistoric period. By 1605 the French had all residents of the Island be removed to the colony of built a small settlement, Port Royal, on peninsular Nova Scotia, where settlement was permitted. This Nova Scotia. French-English rivalries in Nova Scotia suggestion, however, was never implemented. were intense, as they were in Newfoundland, but the The late 1700s saw the beginnings of a wave of tide turned in favour of English colonial government migration to Nova Scotia as large numbers of Irish, after the establishment of Halifax in 1749. The French often indentured servants in the fishery, began making English wars of the early 1700s culminated in the their way to Halifax. The cheapest Atlantic passages Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. In this treaty France ceded were to Newfoundland, making the Island a stopping claims to Acadia (peninsular Nova Scotia and most of place for many on their way to the mainland. Most New Brunswick) and Placentia in return for Cape spent only a short time in Newfoundland, their names Breton (lie Royale), Prince Edward Island (lie St. and numbers not recorded. As early as 1797 a Roman Jean), the Magdalen Islands (les lles de la Madeleine) Catholic priest in Halifax noted that most of the Irish and fishing rights along the Newfoundland French in his congregation had come from Placentia. A few Shore qv. The French military garrison at Placentia was had spent considerable time in Newfoundland and moved to English Harbour, Cape Breton and the town Labrador before moving to Nova Scotia. James Fitz and fortress of Louisbourg were founded there. Per gerald, for example, moved with his family to haps several hundred resident French fishermen from Louisbourg in 1809 after spending 26 years on the Placentia and the Burin Peninsula (Chapeau Rouge) as Labrador coast. Nova Scotia itself became a stopping well as a significant number of transient French fisher place in this Irish migration. Its governor John Went men were relocated to the new colony of Ile Royale. worth complained in 1806 of the numbers of "useless One of the earliest significant movements of people Irishmen who pass annually from Newfoundland from Nova Scotia to Newfoundland began in this pe through this province, where some of them remain riod, as French traders began transporting Micmac one, two or perhaps three years, and then proceed trappers to the Island. From Cape Ray and elsewhere onward to the United States" (cited in Punch). After in southwestern Newfoundland, Micmac travelled 1815 the movement of English and Irish across the along inland waterways as far as White Bay and Notre Cabot Strait to Nova Scotia increased. Following the Dame Bay. Generally they returned to Nova Scotia at famine, fires and harsh winter of 1817-18, some 1100 the end of each fur trapping season, but over time people were transported to Nova Scotia ( or returned small groups stayed on the Island. They eventually to Ireland) to ease conditions in Newfoundland. Be established themselves in small communities in cen tween 1815 and 1838 nearly 1800 arrivals from the tral and western Newfoundland. In the 1720s and Island were recorded in Nova Scotia, 1500 of these 1730s Cape Ray became an alternate, though officially landing in Halifax. Others, including branches of the discouraged, base for fishermen at Ile Royale. An of Ryan, Murphy and Coady families, landed in Cape ficial order from the Colony's governor forbade Breton. Many Newfoundlanders, especially from the French captains from going to Cape Ray, but in 1723 southwest coast, travelled to Nova Scotia and Prince at least two vessels with 30 men made the trip. Cape Edward Island seasonally to work as agricultural Ray continued to attract French fishermen into the labourers when the fishery was poor, and a few of 1740s as they avoided government regulations and these labourers settled permanently. No authoritative enjoyed a more profitable fishery. French traders even estimate exists of the total number of immigrants to began making Cape Ray a regular stop on the voyage Nova Scotia during the early 1800s and, partly be to Louisbourg. Several Frenchmen returned to Cape cause some moved on to Canada or the United States, Breton to marry and brought their wives to the Cape even family names are not always known. Ray area. The colonial governor made several unsuc The uncertainty of land tenure in Cape Breton in the cessful attempts to end the practice, even forbidding 1820s and the promise of free land on the west coast such marriages and trying to prevent the women from encouraged movement in the other direction across the leaving to join their husbands. Cabot Strait. Large numbers of Acadians and Gaelic In the late eighteenth century, commercial links speaking Scots, especially from Inverness County and between Nova Scotia and Newfoundland were estab Antigonish, began moving to western Newfoundland. lished. Liverpool, on the south shore of Nova Scotia After mid-century, many Acadian families began set became an important shipbuilding and mercantile tling inner St. George's Bay qv and the Port au Port town and traders such as Simeon Perkins qv began Peninsula qv. Acadian settlers often intermarried with acting as intermediaries in the New England trade. the French along the French Shore and with Micmac Some New England traders conducted business di- already settled in the area. Scottish settlers also 126 NOV A SCOTIA Bankers at Lunenburg established themselves at Port au Port and St. George's The large numbers of Nova Scotians in western Bay as well as in the Codroy Valley qv. These settlers Newfoundland fostered strong mercantile ties with - Maclsaacs, MacDonalds, Gillises and Campbells Halifax firms. Experienced in both the ship building - generally came as groups of related families and and lobster industries, Nova Scotian merchants suc often intermarried (Ommer). In the Bay of Islands cessfully competed with New England and British region, Scottish settlers were generally Presbyterians merchants in western Newfoundland. St. John's mer from peninsular Nova Scotia. Most of the Acadian and chants delayed their involvement in the area until after Scottish settlers had been farmers in Nova Scotia, and 1865 largely because of the distance from the capital, were attracted to western Newfoundland by its fertile the sparseness of settlement on the west coast and the soil and probably by the region's physical similarity to presence of French vessels. West coast residents gen Nova Scotia. They brought not only their knowledge erally felt stronger ties to Halifax than to St. John's. of agriculture, but also seed and livestock. When confronted with a proposed tax on provisions After 1860 large supplies of herring, used for bait as imported from Nova Scotia around 1850, some resi well as for human consumption, attracted more fisher dents pointed out that while they had close connec men and settlers from Nova Scotia. A sawmill near tions with Nova Scotia they did not even have political what would become the town of Comer Brook was representation in St. John's. built by Halifax entrepreneurs in 1865, bringing a Halifax merchants depended to a large degree on number of loggers from the southern shore of Nova Nova Scotian managers who had moved to Newfound Scotia. A few Nova Scotia families, such as the land. Some of the merchant families involved in this Nicholses, also began farming root crops and live trade were the Anguins at Birchy Cove (Curling), Car stock near Corner Brook and Deer Lake (see ters and Petipas at Summerside and Haliburtons at NICHOLSVILLE). The lobster industry, initially Woody Point. At Summerside they also built schooners dominated by Nova Scotia businessmen and capital, for the trade. As the Halifax merchants were willing to brought more settlers after 1880. A Mr. Romkey of deal in cash, rather than credit, residents often preferred Nova Scotia is said to have been the first to establish to trade with them. Local fishermen occasionally trav a successful lobster factory on the coast, at St. Barbe elled directly to Nova Scotia to trade and buy provisions. Bay in 1873. This factory was later sold to the Nova By 1888 James Farquahar and Company of Halifax Scotia firm of Forest and Shearer, which then opened were running a direct steamer link for freight and similar factories in Brig Bay and Port Saunders. passengers between Halifax and Sandy Point, Birchy NTA JOURNAL 127 Cove and Woody Point. Agricultural products from opposed by Liberal candidates Furey and George Nova Scotia were imported to the west coast and other Hogsett qv. Hogsett and Furey had the support of parts of Newfoundland, notably St. John's. In the Bishop Dalton, while Nowlan and Byrne were sup 1860s James Pitts qv of St. John's imported apples, ported by other priests in the district. With both sides beef, butter and other goods from Antigonish, claiming the label of Liberal, public opinion on the Bayfield and Sydney. matter was also divided. There were riots in the Harb Nova Scotia and Newfoundland have shared a sim our Main area on election day and an unclear election ilar maritime economy since the early days of the result. migratory fishery. Reliance on fish exports has some When Hogsett and Furey tried to take seats in the times placed the two regions in competition with one House of Assembly at the opening of the session they another. The salt fish industry began to develop in were forced to leave. This resulted in further violence Nova Scotia in the late 1700s, with exports mainly to among the crowd outside the Colonial Building. The the Caribbean. Nova Scotia in fact dominated the salt mob destroyed property, much of it belonging to fish trade to the British, Spanish and French West friends and relatives of Nowlan and Byrne. Before Indies until around 1850. The port of Halifax became peace was restored three people were killed by garri a distribution centre for large fish export firms which sons called in to contain the violence. Sporadic vio drew their supplies from Nova Scotia, the Gaspe re lence continued to occur in Harbour Main and the gion and Newfoundland. Exporting a significant quan surrounding area. A select committee of the House of tity of Newfoundland fish, Nova Scotia was in direct Assembly later ruled in favour of Nowlan and Byrne. competition with Newfoundland. But the Nova Sco Hogsett and Furey claimed the seat in the election of tian salt fish trade began to decline after the 1880s and 1865, but Nowlan was elected to the House of Assem again in the early twentieth century. In the latter part bly three more times: in 1873, 1874 and 1878, as a of the century there have been occasional disputes supporter of the party of Charles F. Bennett. Gertrude between Nova Scotia and Newfoundland over fishing Crosbie (1985), H.M. Mosdell (1923), D.W. Prowse grounds and the allocation of fish quotas. (1895), DNLB (1990), ET (Nov. 30, 1896). LMS The seal fishery off Newfoundland's coast had re ceived sporadic interest in Nova Scotia, especially NOWLAN'S HARBOUR (pop. 1891, 14). An aban Cape Breton, since the early nineteenth century. In doned fishing community, Nowlan's Harbour is lo 1843, 22 vessels from Cheticamp and Margaree Har cated in St. Michael's Bay, Labrador on the north shore bour took 10,000 seals. In the mid-1880s, Farquahar of Square Island qv. Nowlan's Harbour probably takes and Company began sending sealing vessels from Hal its name from the Nowlan family of Brigus, who were ifax, employing crews from St. John's and Port aux involved in the Labrador fishery out of that port from Basques, and continued to sail from Newfoundland the rnid-1800s. The tiny community first appears in the ports to the seal fishery until 1921. In the 1950s the Census in 1874 with a population of nine and there Karlsen Shipping Company Limited revived the Nova were never more than two families recorded there. Scotian interest in sealing. Up to the 1970s there were According to P.W. Browne, these were people of Irish often more vessels from Nova Scotia than from New descent from Conception Bay, all of whom were rela foundland (Candow). The Halifax vessels generally tives of the chief planter, Captain Fitzgerald. Nowlan's employed Newfoundland crews and often paid better Harbour does not appear in the Census after 1891, but wages than Island merchants. The creation of seal likely continued to be a summer fishing station through quotas after 1971 led to an informal agreement be the early 1900s. P.W. Browne (1909), Census (1874- tween the provinces that the catch would be shared 1891). RHC equally. After about 1900 the development of coal and steel NTA JOURNAL. The first issue of the NTA Journal industries in Cape Breton attracted many Newfound dates from c.1908 and coincided with a renewed inter landers. The influx was such that in 1911 there were est in the Newfoundland *Teachers' Association qv. 5000 Newfoundland-born people living in Cape Founded and edited by St. John's teacher Philip G. Breton and Victoria counties. B.A. Balcom (1984), Butler, the monthly journal consisted initially of little James Candow (1989), P.K. Devine ([1936]), Harold more than advertisements, a two-page editorial and, as Innis (1940), R.G. Lounsbury (1934), W.S. McNutt a supplement, a copy of Canadian Teacher magazine. (1965), John Mannion (1977), Rosemary Ommer Gradually the Journal developed its own style, pub (1973), D.W. Prowse (1895), Terrence Punch (1981), lishing lesson plans, professional advice, news about Shannon Ryan (1986), Census. ACB innovations in educational methods and discussion of student problems. The small booklet with glossy pages NOVELISTS. See LITERATURE. and a one- or two-colour cover continued to run adver NOWLAN, PATRICK (1827?-1896). Merchant; politi tisements. One notice was directed to teachers who cian. Born Brigus. Married Anne Mandeville. A trader wished to supplement their income by selling subscrip and vessel owner at Brigus, Nowlan was elected MHA tions to the Evening Telegram. "Many in your profes for the two-member riding of Harbour Main in 1859 as sion have been doing so for years,'' ran the 1950 a Liberal, with Charles Furey qv. During the election advertisement, perhaps indicating the level of of 1861 he ran with Thomas Byrne, but the two were teachers' salaries at the time. 128 NTESINAN bunters and trappers were denied access to traditional lands. Property and game laws also restricted access to land, as did hydro-electric and mining projects. In the 1980s the Innu began to protest low-level military flights over Quebec and Labrador, claiming that they further disrupted traditional land use. Innu leaders in 1992 continued to press the aboriginal claim to Ntesinan. See also INNU; INNU NATION. Henrikson et al (1976), ET (Oct. 1, 1991), Statement of the Naskapi-Montagnais Innu Association (1979). ACB NUGENT, JOHN VALENTINE (1796-1874). Educa tor; politician; journalist. Born Waterford, Ireland. Married Ellen Maria Creedon. After studying law in Ireland (and becoming so vociferous in politics that his enemies were later to charge that he had been forced to leave), Nugent arrived in St. John's in 1833 and opened a private school. A liberal with a prolific pen, TRI Nlwrot,rlrtULA.~ "'J"E.ACHI'JIS:• ASSOCJATIOM IAIIl.tJU«l he was soon charged by Protestant merchants with J.I.QI'MOtlNT III()Ab inciting religious rivalry. Refused admission to the bar soon after his arrival, he believed himself to be a victim of that same rivalry. During the 1830s he wrote The NTA Journal was published with varying fre many unsigned letters to the Newfoundland Patriot, quency in later years, and from about 1956 was occa whose editor later claimed that they had been respon sionally supplemented by the NTA Bulletin. In the sible for a great deal of animosity between Catholics early 1960s the Journal was reduced to five issues and Protestants. yearly, while the NTA Bulletin became a monthly and In 1836 Nugent was elected by acclamation to the was expanded to include more Association news House of Assembly for Placentia and St. Mary's and, items, while the Journal concentrated on articles of a after that election was invalidated, was re-elected the professional nature. In 1985 the Journal underwent a following year. He quickly assumed a leadership role format change and was retitled Professional Develop among the more radical members of the Assembly, ment Journal. The NTA Bulletin was subsequently re further inflaming relations between the Assembly and named The Bulletin. In a new magazine style that Council. In 1838 he accom- nevertheless retained the monochromatic cover and panied Patrick Morris and tone of the original paper, the Journal continued to William Carson qqv to Lon examine the challenges faced by teachers. The NTA don to seek Chief Justice Library in St. John's has early issues of the NTA Jour Henry Boulton's removal nal in its collection (the earliest dated 1911) and a from the Council. On his re virtually complete collection of issues from the mid- turn he was appointed solic 1930s. Harry Cuff (1985), NTA Journal (passim), Pro itor to the House of fessional Development Journal (passim). KAW/ACB Assembly. During the elec NTESINAN. Ntesinan ("our land") is the Innu horne tion campaign in 1842 he land of the Quebec-Labrador peninsula. It covers a vast was arrested for default of area from Quebec's north shore to the northern coasts payment of libel damages, of Labrador and Ungava Bay. The Innu claim to this but bail was provided by region has resulted in disputes with government, busi liberal friends. He sat in the J.V. Nugent ness and military agencies over jurisdiction and land Amalgamated Legislature use. The native claim is based on two major premises: from 1842 to 1848. Meanwhile he continued his work an aboriginal population existed in Labrador prior to as an educator, and in 1844 became Newfoundland's the arrival of Europeans and the Innu people are de first Inspector of Schools (an appointment the conser scended from this population. Aboriginal title was vative Times roundly denounced as favouritism). never ceded to Canada or Newfoundland. Shortly thereafter Nugent helped to establish the St. In the historic period, lnnu land use has been altered John's Academy on Monkstown Road, becoming head by the establishment of religious missions, trading of the Roman Catholic division. posts and the influx of European and Newfoundland Nugent became editor of the Newfoundland Vindica settlers. Traditionally, Innu groups were mobile, ex tor qv in the 1840s and subsequently of the Newfound ploiting seasonal resources such as caribou, but mis land Indicator qv, papers sympathetic to Irish sionaries and traders encouraged them to settle. Catholics. He was defeated in the 1848 general elec European settlers often misunderstood Innu patterns tion in the district of St. John's. In 1856 he was ap of land use and considered Labrador to be a 'free zone' pointed Sheriff of the Central District, a position he for settlement and trapping. As a result, many native held until three years before his death. Gertrude E. NURSING 129 Gunn (1966), H.M. Mosdell (1974), D.W. Prowse NURSE, JAMES (1843-1927). Clergyman. Born Nor (1895), J.R. Smallwood (1975), DCB X, DNLB (1990). folk, England. A Methodist local preacher for several KAW years in England, he volunteered for overseas service in 1872 and was posted to Newfoundland. His pro NUGENT, MARY JOSEPH (1799-1847). Roman bationship was served as an assistant at Gower Street Catholic religious. Born Waterford, Ireland. Maria (St. John's) and at Channel. His first circuit after his Nugent joined the Ursuline convent in Waterford, but ordination and marriage in 1876 was at Green's Har illness compelled her to leave the convent just before bour, where, we are told, there being" ... to Green's her family came to Newfoundland. Her health im Harbour only a path . . . Mr. Nurse and his bride proved, and soon after her arrival in St. John's in 1833 walked four miles of it through the woods to their first she entered the newly established Presentation Con parsonage" (Johnson). Thereafter he held pastorates vent. A return of her illness obliged her to leave before at Grand Bank, Burin, Exploits, Bonavista, Carbonear, taking her vows, and she spent six years at the home Heart's Content, Old Perlican, Brigus and Topsail. For of her brother, John V. Nugent qv. When the Sisters of many years he was journal secretary of the Conference, Mercy came to Newfoundland in 1842, Nugent entered and president in 1891-92. HeretiredatTopsailin 1912, their congregation, becoming the first Sister of Mercy but was induced to continue as part-time minister there to be professed outside Great Britain and taking the until age and poor health forced him to relinquish his name Sister Mary Joseph. The following year two duties in 1920. He died at Topsail on September 12, Mercy sisters returned to Ireland, leaving Nugent and 1927. D.W. Johnson ([1925]), Charles Lench (1916), her sister-in-law, Mary Francis Creedon qv, to teach at DN (Sept.l3, 1927). DAVID G. PITT Our Lady of Mercy School. She died in 1847 after contracting typhus during an epidemic. Sister M. NURSING. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Williamina Hogan (1986), M.F. Howley (1888), DCB in Newfoundland nursing was rarely viewed as a career VIII, DNLB (1990). KAW to be pursued from choice. Nursing care was seen as a logical extension of a woman's domestic role, and was NUGENT,MARYVINCENT (1830-1884). Roman normally provided in the home. Any help beyond that Catholic religious. Born Waterford, Ireland, daughter came from women in the community who were recog of Ellen Maria (Creedon) and John Valentine Nugent nized as having a special talent in tending the sick. qv. Agnes Nugent came to St. John's from Waterford They seldom were paid. In rare instances when nursing in 1833. At 18 she joined the Sisters of Mercy, as had provided women with a means of support - Mary her aunts M. Joseph Nugent and M. Francis Creedon Whelan, for example, was listed as a nurse in the St. qqv before her. She adopted the religious name Sister John's census of 1794-95 -it was usually because Mary Vincent. When the Orphanage of the Immaculate widowhood or some other misfortune had forced them Conception opened on Military Road in 1854, Mother to take up the work. Most were employed in the homes Vincent became its director. Upon the transfer of the of their patients and had little education or training institution to the former Franciscan monastery at Bel beyond their experience, though sometimes they re vedere in 1859 she accompanied the children and spent ceived instructions from attending doctors. A few more than 30 years there. Sister M. Williamina Hogan women in St. John's operated private nursing homes, (1986), DNLB (1990). KAW to which doctors could refer their patients and attend NUNNS, JOSEPH (? -1937). Soldier. Nunns came to them there. Newfoundland from England and worked for many The St. John's Hospital at Riverhead had opened in years in the music department of Ayre and Sons Ltd., 1814 as a charitable institution for the sick poor. At later marrying a Miss Barnes of St. John's. A promi the beginning both males and females composed its nent sportsman and freemason, he received a commis nursing staff. The attendants had little education, sion as lieutenant in the Newfoundland Regiment on came from working class backgrounds, and very fre September 24, 1914. He was drafted to the British quently began their hospital careers simply because as Expeditionary Force on August 20, 1915 and on Janu recovered patients they had been asked to stay on. ary 10, 1916 was promoted to the rank of captain. They were nurses as well as domestics, resembling Nunns was wounded at *Beaumont Hamel qv on domestics in outlook, expectations and pay. In 1869 July 1, 1916. After he recovered he returned to the medical superintendent Dr. Charles Crowdy deplored front on January 9, but was again evacuated to hospi his inability to enforce the hospital's policy of em tal on March 13. He was awarded the Military Cross ploying as nurses only women who could read and on October 9, 1917 for courageous leadership at write, for the majority of applicants could do neither. Broembeek. He led his company with great skill in the He started night classes to teach these skills so that first attack, capturing all his objectives, and repelled when the nurses gave medicines they could at least numerous counterattacks over several hours. He re read the directions on the bottle. In 1855 the St. John's turned to Newfoundland in December 1918, but later Hospital had become government-owned and oper moved to England and died at Paignton, Devon. Rich ated, its mandate to serve all of Newfoundland. ard Cramm (1923), G.W.L. Nicholson (1964), DN For over 30 years (1860-1893) the Cowan sisters, (Feb. 25, 1937), ET (Feb. 23, 1937), Archives (RNR Janet followed by Agnes, were matrons of "Book of Officers"). JAMES MOORE Newfoundland's only general hospital, in charge of 130 NURSING housekeeping and nursing care. Neither had any for Beyond the nursing care provided at home by family mal nurses' training. but the Cowans came from a members, knowledgeable neighbours and practical prosperous and literate middle-class family and chose nurses, and at hospital by untrained lay attendants, nursing as a vocation. From 1857 to 1860 Janet was care was also provided by nuns. In 1842 employed as the head female attendant at the Hospital Newfoundland's Roman Catholic bishop, Michael An for Mental Diseases (in 1992 the Waterford Hospital), thony Fleming, had introduced the *Sisters of Mercy where she was trained in accordance with the exacting qv from Ireland, where they had a tradition of tending standards of Dr. Henry Hunt Stabb qv, its physician the sick at home and in hospital. It was Fleming's in-charge. As matron of the St. John's Hospital she intention to add a hospital to the Mercy Convent in St. trained Agnes, 20 years her junior, to be her assistant. John's. Tending victims of a typhus epidemic at the St. The Cowans, along with the rest of the staff, lived in John's Hospital in 1847, Sister M. Joseph Nugent qv the basement of the hospital, where living conditions contracted the disease and died, abruptly halting were extremely bad. Working conditions were worse: Fleming's plans. In St. John's dreadful epidemics of in the mid-1860s it was said that conditions were so infectious diseases, like typhus, smallpox and Asiatic harmful that, "of the whole number of nurses attacked cholera, were a feature of nineteenth century life. Dur by fever, from time to time, about fifty per cent have ing the cholera epidemic of 1854 Bishop Fleming ob died" (JHA 1866). In 1865 Janet died of tuberculosis, served how his Sisters of Mercy: and Agnes became matron at the age of 25. She was From daylight till dark, and often through the paid £34 (roughly $170) a year. Her staff included a night, ... worked indefatigably. No part of the sub-matron (£18), six or seven women who worked on city slums was too dark or too filthy for them. the wards (£14 ), two washerwomen, two cooks, a male They entered the houses of the plague-stricken 'keeper' and a messenger. The number of patients ad when all others had abandoned them, lighting the mitted from all parts of the Colony was 700 in 1868, fires and preparing some humble food; scrubbing 474 had 'fever': over 100 died. By the early 1870s the and cleaning up the little tenements; dressing and St. John's Hospital had become so hopelessly infected washing the sick; and, finally, carrying the dead that it was relocated to the former military hospital on bodies to the coffins, which were placed at the Forest Road, becoming the new General Hospital, doors on the streets by fearful officials where Agnes Cowan enjoyed a long if not distin (Howley). guished nursing and administrative career. Medical officers Crowdy and Henry Shea noted in an 1883 The work of religious women established a conspicu report the yearly increasing difficulty of securing an ous precedent for trained nursing. But it was the work adequate supply of women to work on the wards, de of military nurses- American nurses in the Civil War spite their being offered wages "considerably above" and British nurses during the Crimean War - that the average paid to domestic servants (JHA 1884). paved the way for the acceptance of nursing as a re spectable occupation for middle-class women in a male-dominated medical world. In 1860 the British nurse Florence Nightingale founded the pioneer training school for nurses at St. Thomas' Hospital in London, on which subsequent hospital training schools were modelled. The first training schools in North America were founded in 1873-74. At the time, general hospitals were just be ginning to evolve from the relatively uncomplicated welfare institutions for the sick poor that existed in the nineteenth century to the complex diagnostic and treatment centres for the sick of all classes that exist today. Health care was on its way to becoming more scientific, and moving from the home to the hospital. Central to this evolution was the ability of the hospital to draw on an adequate work force- nurses who were educated, disciplined, knowledgeable and skilled. In 1893 matron Agnes Cowan died (also of tubercu losis) at the General Hospital in St. John's. She was replaced by the seamstress, Lizzie Morgan, and thus the question of introducing trained nurses to the hos pital first arose. Visiting surgeon Herbert Rendell qv conceded in an 1894 report that no matter how kind and willing the hospital's present untrained nurses were, they probably did "as much harm as good" (Archives GN 2/22/A). He recommended that the hos Mary M. Southcott pital employ a qualified nurse from abroad and initiate NURSING 131 a training program. And there were other forces at foundland women of good background. Now work. In 1893 the first two qualified nurses to work in Southcott aimed for the professional recognition that Newfoundland, British Grenfell nurses Ada Carward nurses' registration would imply. This, for Newfound ine and Cecilia Williams, made an appearance in St. land nurses, would be an elusive goal. The Newfound John's. The demand for community nurses was grow land government had in previous years, and with little ing. Lady O'Brien, wife of Governor Sir Terence hesitation on its part, provided the traditionally male O'Brien, saw a need for trained nurses because of the dominated medical, dental and pharmaceutical profes diphtheria epidemic that had raged in St. John's since sions with legislation constituting the Newfoundland 1888. In 1891 she arranged places for three, and po medical, dental and pharmacy boards. These were the tentially six, Newfoundland women at hospital train regulatory bodies entitled to establish the educational ing schools in the United States. Charlotte Collings, standards, training and certification requirements for an English woman, was in fact the first qualified nurse membership in their respective professions, and to to work at the General Hospital. The government hired develop their own code of ethics, logical requirements her as matron in 1894 as a result of Rendell's telling for any professional group. In 1907 the Canadian Na comments. Within the space of the next 10 years the tional Association of Nurses (forerunner of the Cana position was filled by three qualified Newfoundland dian Nurses' Association) had been formed to lobby nurses, Margaret Rendell, Ida Campbell and Lucy for nurses' registration, improved educational pro Hannaford. But it was Mary Southcott qv, a native of grams and uniform training standards in the hospital St. John's who had qualified at the London Hospital in schools. Gradually Nurses' Acts were passed in all the 1901 who, in 1903, finally founded the General Hos provinces, beginning with Nova Scotia in 1910. In pital School of Nursing. That year Southcott became June 1913 about 30 nurses met in Southcott's sitting the hospital's first superintendent of nurses and nurs room to form the Graduate Nurses' Association ing, responsible for a nursing staff of 13, none of them (GNA), of which she was elected president. While the trained. She selected two of these and two others to GNA could have formed the nucleus of a regulatory make up her first nursing class. All four completed body similar to the medical, dentistry and pharmacy their three-year diploma course in 1906. boards, allowing for nurses' registration and for The hospital schools that dominated the first cen nurses to set nursing standards, this was not permitted. tury of nursing were almost exclusively designed to Nursing had not yet shed its domestic origins; it was provide hospitals with a ready supply of cheap labour not yet viewed as a profession. Except for the estab with which to staff and run their wards. Thus what the lishment of a nurses' roster where GNA-approved General Hospital offered was more like a paid appren nurses available for private duty work could register ticeship than schooling, providing little in the nature their names, the GNA seems to have achieved little of of academic content, a great deal in the nature of hard real importance in the immediately following years. ward work. New students entering the program were By the early 1920s it had lapsed. required to have the equivalent of grade 10 or better, Mary Southcott's medical superintendent beginning or else to pass an entrance examination, and they were in 1909 was Dr. L.E. Keegan qv. The two were force to be young women (only women were accepted) ful personalities who held highly opposing views of under 30. They worked 12-hour shifts on the wards how their hospital should be run. While Southcott before attending informal evening lectures in four adhered to Nightingale's view that nurses should con subjects - anatomy and physiology, general, surgical trol nurses and all matters related to nursing, Keegan and medical nursing - taught mainly by Southcott, thought that nurses should be answerable to him. In some by the medical staff. Students were paid $48 in 1914 these differences came to a head. The govern their first year, $72 in their second and $100 in their ment appointed a Royal Commission to look into the third. They then sat for examinations set by physi hospital's affairs. The commissioners sided with cians. The Newfoundland government, which was still Keegan, and Southcott was fired. She established a running the hospital, was eager to avail itself of this private maternity and children's hospital on King's relatively cheap pool of labour, and, therefore, until Bridge Road, then Monkstown Road. Following the 1910 was unwilling to offer nurses who had completed inquiry, the legislature passed the General Hospital their training more than the $100 paid to third-year Act of 1915, under which the medical superintendent students. Then staff nurses received an additional $60 was responsible for all nurses in key positions, while a year. Sisters, nurses in charge of one or more wards, the nursing superintendent was responsible for only received $240; Southcott and Hannaford $540. In nurses on the wards. keeping with Nightingale's nursing philosophy, Southcott's successor in 1916 was Myra Taylor qv, Southcott required of her nurses high standards of a Newfoundlander, trained at the General Hospital, both personal and professional conduct: in addition to who had both studied and worked in London. Nurses being orderly and disciplined, they were to be temper at the time were demanding that greater emphasis be ate, morally upright and chaste. Nurses - students placed on the academic content of the nursing curricu and staff - lived on the third floor of the hospital lum, but hospital administrators continued to see stu until a nurses' residence was opened in 1912. dent nurses as cheap hospital labour. Changes to the The General Hospital's training school transformed curriculum, therefore, were not easily introduced, and nursing into a respectable occupation for single New- no attention was paid to demands that nurses be 132 NURSING equipped for private duty nursing and public health sister-in-law, Adelaide Nutting, was a professor of work. But with hospitals improving their medical nursing at Columbia University and one of the princi technology, nursing specialization - operating room, pal architects of the modern nursing profession in the anaesthesiology, radiology, administration - was be United States, and with her help he recruited public ginning to occur. Taylor expanded the curriculum in health nurses from New York to get the service off the 1917 to include training in orthopaedics, nursing eth ground. They started prenatal and postnatal visiting in ics and infectious diseases. During World War I a St. John's. The work was soon taken over by the number of Newfoundland nurses, regulars and VADs, Women's Patriotic Association, which became the served overseas, and a number of military hospitals Child Welfare Association (CWA) in 1921. The city were established in St. John's. In the 1920s the num was divided into three, and later four, districts, each ber of student nurses remained fairly constant at 30 to having its own visiting nurse. The CWA employed in 35 a year. They still managed the General Hospital's 1924 a highly qualified nursing supervisor, Janet Hen wards and, like graduate nurses, still worked 12-hour derson, who had a health visitor's certificate from the shifts. There was no lack of applicants for the 10 Battersea Polytechnic, a midwifery certificate from openings a year. The departments under Keegan's con the Central Midwives Board of England and Wales and trol (the operating room, the X-ray department and the a certificate from the Sanitary Inspectors Examining dispensary) remained grossly overstaffed, while the Board of London. But most, if not all, nurses working number of ward nurses - Taylor's responsibility - under her (never more than three or four at a time) was "manifestly insufficient." This was noted in the were General Hospital graduates, a number of whom 1930 report of the Royal Commission on Health and had acquired maternity and public health nursing cer Public Charities, which found that of the 13 graduate tificates abroad. CWA nurses also staffed child wel nurses on staff Taylor was in charge of only four, plus fare clinics. 36 students. Furthermore, as a cost-cutting measure Nurses trained at the General Hospital were reluc Taylor had been functioning without a matron or an tant to work in the outports, where there were few assistant nursing superintendent since 1923. Her hospitals to employ them. Their training did not equip workload as a result was "much too onerous to be them to work in rural areas on their own. Yet in the assumed by or demanded of any single official" outports doctors were scarce, babies were delivered (Royal Commission on Health and Public Charities). with the help of untrained midwives (see MID As far as we know, Keegan made no effort to achieve WIFERY) and the lack of public health provision was legislation allowing for the registration of nurses appalling. Only in Labrador and northern Newfound trained at the General Hospital. He did, however, ar land, where health services were provided by the In range for several local nurses to pursue postgraduate ternational *Grenfell Association qv (IGA), had these training abroad, some with the aid of scholarships problems been attacked in any concerted way. In 1908 established by industrialist Harry J. Crowe qv. the Grenfell Mission had opened the first of its nurs The General Hospital remained the only training ing stations, at Forteau on the southern Labrador school until 1929. The Salvation Army Grace Mater coast, and more were later established. Nursing sta nity Hospital had been training maternity nurses since tions were located roughly midway between the 1923, but this was an 18-month program designed for Grenfell hospitals, had three or four beds plus a small midwives. When in 1929 the Grace Maternity Hospital dispensary, and provided maternity and emergency became the Grace General Hospital, Newfoundland's medical care. Normally they were staffed by British second school of nursing was opened, with a three nurse-midwives recruited by the IGA. Capable, re year diploma course. St. Clare's Mercy Hospital sourceful and independent, these women were actually opened its school in 1939, Western Memorial Hospital nurse-practitioners who provided a variety of medical in Corner Brook in 1969. The majority of General services, for their districts could cover 50 or more Hospital graduates who worked in Newfoundland - coastal miles within which they were responsible for those who did not emigrate or leave to raise families all health care. They also focused on hygiene, health -did private duty nursing in St. John's, where they education and nutrition, for in Dr. Wilfred Grenfell's found ample scope for their skills. Rarely did they eyes they were to be the agents of social change. Most work in outports, though many were born there. In St. had previous district or public health experience, and John's there was no district or visiting nursing service they were missionary-minded. Grenfell doctors made similar to the Victorian Order of Nurses, founded in rounds of the nursing stations by vessel in the sum Canada in 1897 to provide home nursing to the urban mertime, by dogteam in winter, but their visits were poor. Public health nursing, as opposed to district few and far between. It would not be an exaggeration nursing (the first providing a preventative service, the to say that the Grenfell Mission pioneered frontier or second a remedial one), evolved after that time, and outpost nursing. When Dalhousie University and Me gathered momentum during and after World War I. morial University subsequently established their out The community nursing service initiated by St. John's post nursing programs, the IGA provided much of the mayor W.G. Gosling qv in 1917 was essentially a training. preventative service, having as its primary object the In 1920 the Outport Nursing Committee was formed preservation of infant and maternal life through guid in St. John's by Lady Constance Harris qv, the gov ance and advice (see CHILD WELFARE). Gosling's ernor's wife, to provide rural areas without doctors NURSING 133 to be highly trained and skilled. Frequently they were required to travel long distances to reach their pa tients. Like Grenfell nurses, they did so in all types of weather and at all times of the year, for they had "missionary spirit" (Harris). NONIA supplied its nurses with dressings and drugs and guaranteed them salary of $900 a year, but they were to charge estab lished user-fees. It was hoped that fees would provide from two-thirds to three-quarters of the nurse's salary, in which case NONIA would provide the balance from its government grant and private NONIA funds. Oth erwise the district would likely lose its nurse, as many districts did. Between 1921 and 1934, 46 Nonia nurses, only five of them Newfoundlanders, were sta tioned in 29 rural communities for varying periods of time. They treated over 83,000 patients and made over 232,000 home visits, enjoying an extraordinary degree of autonomy. Yet few were employed at any one time - twelve in 1927, four in 1932 and eight in 1934. They were subject to no medical supervision or gov ernment control. Of all the concerns addressed by the Royal Commis sion on Health and Public Charities in 1930, it was the lack of health services in rural areas that troubled the commissioners most. In the country as a whole there were less than 100 doctors and a score of community Public health nurse and patient nurses to serve a population of 280,000, and these with nurse/midwives. Through the Overseas Nursing were concentrated in St. John's. In order to serve the Association in London Harris was able to recruit five outports the commissioners proposed the creation of a or six nurses. They were sent to Hodge's Cove and network of cottage hospitals having from two to four Hant's Harbour in Trinity Bay, Joe Batt's Arm on Fogo beds, each hospital to provide a dispensary for the Island, Rose Blanche and Bay L' Argent on the south local doctor and a home for the district nurse (more coast, Daniel's Harbour and Lower Island Cove. Myra like the district nursing stations). Nurses would be Grimsley, who had had several years' experience as a responsible for emergency medical care, early detec district nurse and midwife in England, and advanced tion and follow-up, midwifery, school health inspec training in operative midwifery and anaesthesia, went tions, instruction in proper child care, diet and to Daniel's Harbour. Her district stretched from Port hygiene, and many other similar services. In other au Choix to Sally's Cove, a portion of the coast closed words, they would combine both district (remedial) to shipping for as much as six months of the year. The and public health (preventative) functions. Thus they nearest doctor was 120 miles away in Corner Brook; would require training beyond what was provided in the nearest hospital at St. Anthony, a distance of 180 local hospital schools. Clearly the commissioners rec miles as the crow flies but as much as a week's jour ognized that nurses were an under-utilized health pro ney by dog sled or coastal steamer. The nearest dentist fession, envisioning them as the cornerstone of a new was in St. John's. Her consulting room had no indoor health system. The commissioners concluded: plumbing and no running water. Grimsley's contract was for two years. If the health of the people of Newfoundland is to By 1922-23 Lady Elsie Allardyce, Lady Harris' suc be properly guarded ... if the problems of tuber cessor, was running short of both nurses and funds. culosis and of diseases of malnutrition are to be She proposed, therefore, that the outport nursing ser solved ... if sanitary control is to be exercised vice adopt the strategy of the Highland Home Indus and water supplies safeguarded ... if the women tries, whereby rural women producing knitted and of the country are eventually to be guaranteed the woven goods at home contributed to the support of the services of safe and well-trained midwives and if family as well as the district nurse. Thus the New the children of the country are to be taught the foundland Outport *Nursing and Industrial Associa principles of healthfulness ... then must an ade tion qv (NONIA) was born. Like the nurses of the quate and competent force of nurses be placed in International Grenfell Association, the vast majority the field. of Nonia nurses were British. Unlike CWA nurses, The commissioners further advised that a Nurses' who were essentially public health nurses, Nonia nurses Act be passed providing for the registration of nurses were essentially independent nurse/practitioners, con trained in local hospital schools-a shameful omis centrating on acute health care and midwifery. Unable sion on the part of legislators to that date-and in to rely on the services of hospitals or doctors, they had clude uniform standards for training schools. A Public 134 NURSING Health Nurses' Act should also be passed giving gov nity and home care. By 1940 the Department of Public ernment the authority to establish a regular system of Health and Welfare employed 38 district nurses, in school health inspections and public health clinics. cluding those working in cottage hospitals, and 25 The ensuing Health and Public Welfare Act, 1931, as public health nurses, counting those with the Avalon devised by the commissioners was extremely com Health Unit. The following year the two nursing divi prehensive, but few of its provisions were im sions were reunited to form a single public health mediately carried through. It did, however, form the nursing service. By 1944 the service employed 96 basis for the Commission of Government's health policy. nurses, district as well as public health, over a quarter In February 1934 the Commission took office. In of whom were married and a number of whom worked June, eight Nania nurses became employees of the part-time. Following Confederation in 1949 the Prov new Department of Public Health and Welfare. Addi ince became eligible for grants-in-aid under the Fed tional district nurses were recruited until by the end of eral Health Program. These grants enabled many 1935 the department employed 26, and 54 by the end Newfoundland nurses to acquire postgraduate training of 1936. The superintendent of district nursing was in university schools of nursing in other parts of Can Lillian Whiteside, an experienced English district ada, and otherwise to upgrade themselves. nurse with midwifery training. She organized a six The Graduate Nurses Association had in the mean month course to be taken by all district nurses newly time been resurrected in 1934, and in 1935 was employed by the department, except those who had incorporated under the Companies Act. Under the Act, previous public health or district training. It offered a the GNA was recognized as the professional body to combination of theory and practice in the fields of which Newfoundland nurses belonged. Its objectives, home nursing, home confinements, antenatal and post as set out by the Act, were the maintenance of profes natal care, hygiene, school health, child welfare and sional standards and the encouragement of better edu communicable disease control. Those being sent to cational programs. While the Health and Public areas without doctors were taught how to administer Welfare Act of 1931 had duly provided for the regis anaesthetics, remove tonsils and pull teeth. In 1937 tration of nurses trained in local hospital schools, the department established a second nursing division, under pursuant regulations issued in 1937 it was the the public health nursing service, whose superinten responsibility of the Department of Public Health and dent was a Canadian, Syretha Squires. Public health Welfare, not the GNA, to establish the register and nurses freed district nurses to concentrate on mater- issue certificates. The register was nonetheless opened Workroom for the General Hospital operating room, c. 1945 NURSING 135 in May 1937. By the end of December 111 nurses were became involved in planning a school of medicine, registered, and the following year retroactive registra and it was anticipated that a University school of nurs tions continued to come in. Registrants included ing would become a part of the new health sciences nurses who had trained at the General Hospital and centre. In 1965 a department of nursing was formed latterly at the Grace, some of whom were not active. within the faculty of arts, its first director Joyce Nevitt The majority were living in Newfoundland, but others qv. In September 1966, 38 students were admitted to lived away. They also included nurses who had trained the undergraduate degree program, either to the basic and were registered in other countries but who worked five-year program designed for entry-level students or in Newfoundland. By December 31, 1953, there were to the three-year program for post-RNs. At the time 961 names on the register. there were just three faculty members, but by 1972 the On January 1, 1954 the Association of Registered department had a faculty of 12. In 1974 the School of Nurses of Newfoundland (ARNN) came into being, Nursing became an autonomous unit within the Uni regulated by a new provincial Act. With this Act, New versity, its director reporting directly to the vice foundland nurses acquired at last the right to regulate president for professional schools. their own profession. Under the Act the ARNN ac The School of Nursing has since its inception ac quired all the rights and obligations of the former commodated both basic students and registered GN A, as well as the registering and licensing func nurses. It has overcome enormous developmental hur tions that were formerly the responsibility of the De dles. Perceptions that nursing had no place in the partment of Health. The ARNN was to promote the university system; that nursing was a simple, uncomp interests of nurses and improve professional standards. licated field with no need for a specified and tested The association hired an executive secretary and opened knowledge base; and that university nursing graduates an office. It established a board of examiners for RN made poor clinicians were all still existing in 1966. To candidates, appointed a school of nursing advisor and add to the difficulties, few nurse/educators were at elected a council. It became the provincial branch of that time being educated by the universities of Can the Canadian Nurses Association and formed local ada. Memorial University's School of Nursing has chapters in St. John's and Corner Brook. since then provided the local profession with leader That year, 1954, there were 673 provincially-registered ship in nursing and health care issues; it has chal nurses actively employed in Newfoundland, repre lenged the health care system as a whole in senting a nurse-to-population ratio of 1:588, less than constructive ways; and above all, it has played a lead half the ratio in Canada as a whole. Ten years later, in ing role in educating nurses for administrative and 1964, 1233 nurses were registered, of whom 1088 teaching positions and for community health roles. were actively employed. Another 150 had temporary A nine-month family practice nursing project de licences. Roughly 115 of those actively employed were signed to prepare registered nurses and BN graduates in the public health nursing service: approximately a to function as nurse/practitioners ran for two years. In third in St. John's, a third in other districts and a third 1974 the School offered a certification program in in cottage hospitals. Active registrations doubled community health nursing, which most public health again within the next eight years, but Newfoundland nurses took. This became a diploma program in 1976. nurses were still in short supply. The latest figures A diploma program in mental health nursing was also available, January 1990-March 1991, show 5,329 introduced. In 1978, in co-operation with *Grenfell active registrations and 462 inactive. Of the active Regional Health Services qv, a two-year diploma pro registrations, 96% of the nurses were working in New gram in community and primary health care and foundland: 71% regular full-time, 17% regular part nurse/midwifery, known as outpost nursing, began, time, 12% casual. Of the total - 2.2% of them male and was still offered in 1992. A graduate degree pro -55% worked in St. John's, 45% outside. gram introduced in 1981 began with students special In 1919 the University of British Columbia pio izing in mental health and psychiatric nursing and in neered a degree program for nurses, but for a long maternal child nursing. In 1992 the program included time it was the only one in Canada. A report on Cana all the major specialties. Continuing nursing educa dian nursing education in 1932 found that the hospital tion has always been an important part of the mandate training schools did not provide the needed level of of the School, and in 1990 a faculty position was education for competent nurses, nor did they equip dedicated to the distance education program. In 1992 nurses to work in non-institutional settings. A report it was anticipated that registered nurses across the issued in 1960 recommended that the Canadian Province would soon be offered the opportunity of Nurses' Association undertake a study of nursing edu studying towards their BN degree in their own region. cation across the country, envisioning that within ten In the first 25 years the University graduated 1016 years, in all but the Atlantic provinces, nursing educa nurses with bachelor of nursing degrees, 22 with tion would be carried out within the education system master's degrees and 290 with diploma certificates. - in universities and community colleges - no Funded research has grown, and scholarly publication longer in hospital training schools. The ARNN, in a has increased, indicating that faculty members are brief submitted in August 1963, asked the Memorial comfortable in the academic world. University of Newfoundland to establish a baccalaure Since 1966 it has generally been accepted in New ate program in nursing. The University soon thereafter foundland that nursing education programs would 136 NURSING AND INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATION, NEWFOUNDLAND OUTPORT move from the hospitals to the education system. In a (1990), E.R. Summers (1967), "A Brief History of the brief to the Newfoundland Royal Commission on Newfoundland and Labrador Nurses Union" (n.d.), Nursing Education chaired by Dr. Leonard A. Miller DCB XII (Agnes Cowan), Daily Colonist (June 18, qv the ARNN in 1973 endorsed such a move. The 1891), JHA (1866; 1870; 1884; 1915; 1922), Royal Commission agreed in principle. In 1982 the Canadian Commission on Health and Public Charities (1930), Nurses' Association adopted the position that by the "The Work of the Child Welfare Association" (BN II, year 2000 the minimum educational requirement for 1937), Archives (GN/2/5-file 153E; GN 2/22/A), As entry into the practice of nursing should be the com sociation of Registered Nurses of Newfoundland (His pletion of a BN degree. In the same year the ARNN torical Overview of Activities Related to the struck a committee to direct the transition of nursing Reorganization of the Future Nursing Education Sys education from the traditional diploma schools to the tem in Newfoundland, Apr. 1992), Department of Pub university setting. Other committe~s and a Task Force lic Health and Welfare (Nurses Register, 1937-1953), on Entry to Practice followed. Since 1990 the direc Memorial University of Newfoundland School of tors of the four hospital schools, the director of the Nursing (Draft of a history of the School of Nursing, University's School of Nursing and the ARNN's nurs 1966-1991). PATRICIA O'BRIEN ing education consultant have been working together to develop a collaborative curriculum that would pro NURSING AND INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATION, vide both a diploma and a degree program until such NEWFOUNDLAND OUTPORT (NONIA). The time as the ultimate goal - the phasing out of the Newfoundland Outport Nursing and Industrial Asso diploma programs - becomes feasible. In 1991 ap ciation (NONIA) was established in 1924 in re proximately 13% of Newfoundland nurses working in sponse to the problem of inadequate health care in a hospital setting had nursing degrees, and approxi the outports. The Association had its origins in the mately 5% of those who worked in nursing homes. Of Outport Nursing Committee, established by Lady nurses working in a community setting, about a third Constance Harris qv in 1920 as a means of improving had degrees. In educational institutions, the percent rural health care through the placement of qualified age with degrees had reached 80%. Nurses with diplo nurse/midwives in outport communities. Through the mas will have registration and licence protection once Overseas Nursing Committee, Harris procured the ser the new educational standard for beginning practice is vices of six English nurse/midwives who signed two put in place. Legislation in 1954 gave nurses the year contracts to provide nursing and midwifery means to control their profession, but not the means to services to rural communities. Government financial improve their wages or working conditions. Prior to assistance was to be supplemented by payments for 1970 the ARNN had annually submitted a brief to services received. cabinet seeking wage increases, to which the govern But the Committee soon faced serious problems. By ment had normally responded by granting an increase 1922 two of its members, including Lady Harris, and of $100 a year. In 1970 this did not happen, leading the four of the nurses had left Newfoundland and no ef ARNN to poll nurses on the question of collective forts had been made to replace them. Moreover be bargaining. The Association as a result became the cause of the poor economic conditions few outport bargaining agent for Newfoundland nurses with the residents could contribute to the support of the local Newfoundland Hospital Association and Treasury nurses. The wife of the new governor, Lady Elsie Board. In 1970 the first collective agreement was Allardyce, developed a self-supporting program. Her signed, the second in 1972. In 1973, however, the plan was that women would knit garments to be sold provincial legislature passed the Public Service (Col through a central depot run by volunteers. The profits lective Bargaining) Act which in effect rendered the would help the knitters - with the assistance of a ARNN as presently constituted ineligible to act as a government grant- to support the community nurse. bargaining agent, and nurses felt that a full-time bar Under Allardyce's leadership the Outport Nursing gaining representative was needed. The Association's Committee was reorganized and the scheme put in negotiating team advised that a union be set up, and in place. Wool and samples of Shetland garments-made 1974 a membership drive was launched. Since 1974 by Shetland women under a similar scheme-were nurses in Newfoundland have had two provincial orga first distributed in the Fortune Bay area by committee nizations to represent their interests - the ARNN and volunteers, who also gave instruction to the knitters. the Newfoundland and Labrador Nurses' Union. The Dr. Wilfred Grenfell provided a trained weaver, Min Union in 1992 represented approximately 3450 nie Pike, from the Grenfell Association, who went to nurses, and was responsible for negotiating five col Poole's Cove to teach weaving. By December 1923, lective agreements with five employers. It is affiliated six such industrial centres had been established. The with the National Federation of Nurses' Unions. See following January a public meeting was held to estab also HEALTH; HOSPITALS; MEDICINE. Margaret lish the aims and objectives of the organization. It was Earle (interview, 1992), H. Gordon Green (1974), decided that a volunteer association should be formed C.M. Harris (NQ vol. 21 #1, 1921), Heather Hawkins to administer the plan, and in April 1924 NONIA was (interview, 1992), Edgar House (1990), M.F. Howley officially established with Lady Allardyce as its first (1979), Leonard A. Miller (1974), F.L.N. Mitchell (BN president. NONIA became the symbol for the handi II, 1937), Joyce Nevitt (1978), Patricia 0' Brien crafts of the Association and its nurses became known NURSING AND INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATION, NEWFOUNDLAND OUTPORT 137 Retailing NON/A crafts at the St. John's outlet as Nania nurses. The aims of the Association were to Both the nursing and industrial branches of NONIA provide employment in outports where Nania nurses were quite successful through the 1920s. In its first were stationed so that people could pay a share of the year the Association had revenues of $25,000, includ- nurse's salary and to raise the standard of living in the ing the government grant. Nania nurses were paid an communities. annual salary of $900, while the Association also pur- The nurses hired by NONIA were almost all Eng- chased drugs and supplies and paid out $5300 to knit- Iish. NONIA required that its nurses be skilled and ters and weavers. In that year the Association had a highly trained in all aspects of medical care, includ- surplus of $3600 with which to open new centres. By ing midwifery; that they have the initiative to work July 1925, NONIA had 615 workers in 35 communi- independently of doctors and hospitals; and that they ties, and by 1926 employed 12 nurses. In 1925 it was be imbued with a missionary spirit. The nurses were decided that communities desiring the services of a hired through the Overseas Nursing Committee. Nania nurse should form a volunteer committee of at Through a liaison between the Overseas Nursing least five members, which would be responsible for Committee and its London branch, opened in 1925, the distribution of wool and patterns, the collection NONIA could ensure that nurses were carefully se- and delivery of products to the depot and the distribu- lected. The London branch also raised money, sup- tion of cheques to the workers. In all, between 1921 plied clothes for the nurses and collected second-hand and 1934 NONIA served 29 communities with nursing clothing for needy centres. Following the closure of care and treated over 83,000 cases. In 1934 the Com- NONIA's nursing branch in 1934 the London branch mission of Government decided to assume control became much smaller but continued in its charity over all nursing services in Newfoundland. The eight work for NONIA until 1949. Corner Brook opened a Nania nurses in Newfoundland at the time were branch of NONIA in 1926 to support a nurse at Port among the first nurses employed by the newly-formed Saunders. The International Pulp and Paper Company Department of Health and Welfare. donated a large showcase to the Glynmill Inn for the As the primary role of NONIA ended it became display and sale of NONIA goods, and the Inn became questionable whether the industrial branch would con- NONIA's headquarters in Corner Brook. The Inn was tinue. But under the guidance of Lady Walwyn, who the sales outlet for NONIA until 1967. Like the Lon- became president in 1935, NONIA began to expand its don branch, the Corner Brook branch raised funds for industrial operations. Of the eight nursing centres the Association. closed in 1934 all but two continued as industrial 138 NUTAK centres, and by September of the following year the NUTAK (pop. 1956, 122). Nutak was established in number had risen to 33. The quality of Nania goods 1928 as a trading post of the Hudson's Bay Company, improved as well, due in part to the exacting standards on the north side of Mouse Island Tickle - a narrow established by Marguerite Beckett, NONIA's depot passage which runs between the Okak Islands, in Okak manager from 1931 to 1940. Beckett visited all the Bay, about 120 km north of Nain. Nania centres and many craftspeople employed by the From 1776 to 1919 Inuit hunting, trapping and fish Association, offering criticism of the work and in ing in Okak Bay had traded with the Moravian mission specting all articles submitted for sale. NONIA be at Okak qv. However, the station was all but wiped out came known for its excellent work throughout by an influenza epidemic in 1918-19 and the Newfoundland, Canada and England. The Queen, who Moravians subsequently closed the mission. (A small purchased 27 yards of Nania tweed in 1937, allowed trading operation was re-established for the conve the Association to use the words "as supplied to Her nience of a few Inuit and settler families who came to Majesty the Queen" on its products. the Bay to take advantage of the resources of the land NONIA continued to expand, entering the wholesale and sea). In the mid-1920s the Moravians were gener field in 1956. This move required larger premises and ally trying to extricate themselves from trading rela in 1958 NONIA moved to 286 Water Street. In 1965 it tionships with the Inuit, and in 1926 leased their store merged with the handicraft shop of the Jubilee Guilds, at Nain to the Hudson's Bay Company. The H.B.C. acquiring that organization's stock, cash, equipment subsequently decided to open an outpost store in Okak and the services of a large number of knitters and Bay, choosing Nutak ("the new one") as their site. weavers. And the Association also began to sell prod From 1928 until the early 1940s N utak was merely ucts of other organizations. These included Interna an H.B.C. post, occupied only by a handful of Com tional Grenfell Association products, such as duffle pany employees (the Lyall family after 1934). The coats and Grenfell cloth items, and other Newfound Department of Natural Resources Labrador Services land and Labrador crafts such as pottery, wood carv Division assumed operation of the store in 1942. By ings, jewellery, toys and traditional souvenirs. NONIA this time several more Inuit families from areas to the set up a $500 scholarship in 1982 for a first year north had come to Okak Bay, and by 1945 the resident student in fibrecraft. In 1992 it had one shop, at 286 population at Nutak had increased to 66. Although Water Street, and employed approximately 300 knit there was no church, school or other services, apart ters and eight weavers. See also NURSING. Edgar from the store provided at Nutak, the government had House (1990), Joyce Nevitt (1978), Agnes M. Richard apparently decided to encourage a settled population (1989), Shirley A. Scott (1990), James R. Thoms and a revival of the local cod fishery. In the fall of (n.d.), Marilyn Woolridge (interview, Sept. 1992), 1948 the government moved the Innu band of Davis Among the Deep Sea Fishers (Apr. 1926), NQ (Christ Inlet to Nutak, hoping to provide access to better car mas 1921; Summer 1925; Summer 1935), A Short His ibou hunting and employment cutting wood for ship tory of Nonia (1963). LMS ment north to Hebron. In the summer of 1949 it was Nutak - NUTHATCHES 139 estimated that the population of Nutak and area was NUTBEEM, ROBERT WILLIAM (1927- ). Business 208, 87 of whom were Innu. However, the Innu were man; dog breeder; newspaper columnist. Born unfamiliar with local hunting grounds and had no tra Swindon, England, son of Frederick and Ellen (May dition of cod fishing. The next winter they decided to bin) Nutbeem. Educated London University. Married walk back to Davis Inlet, hoping to return to their Megan Moores. He came to Newfoundland in 1949 as traditional hunting grounds before spring breakup. a chief purser with the shipping company Furness, Virtually all the Innu had left Nutak by March of 1950, Withy and Co. In 1952 he beginning a two-month trek overland to Davis Inlet. joined North Eastern Fish There were approximately 40 Inuit and settler fami Industries of Harbour Grace lies remaining at Nutak, with no services other than the and was vice-president of Labrador Division store. A handful of children at the company until 1967. He tended boarding school at Nain. In the winter of 1953- and his wife have operated 54 a disagreement among rival factions erupted into a kennel at Harbour Grace violence and an Inuk was killed. Subsequently, a few and in 1974 were certified families were moved to North West River and the pro international judges of dogs vincial government began to give some attention to the by the Canadian Kennel Nutak "problem". At the Labrador Conference of Club. Since 1984 Nutbeem 1956 it was decided to resettle Nutak, although it was has written a weekly col acknowledged that most of the Inuit had no desire to umn, ''Dogberries and move. Subsequently, the store was closed and most of Cream'', for the Evening Bob Nutbeem the people were moved to Nain, with a few families Telegram. Megan Nutbeem being moved to North West River, Makkovik and He (interview, Sept. 1991), Who's Who Silver Anniver bron. Some of those resettled to Nain continued to live sary Edition (1975). JAMES WADE in Okak Bay during the summer, and this seasonal use . continued to 1992. Gary Baikie (interview, Aug. 1992), NUTHATCHES. There are about 30 species of birds in A.P. Dyke ( 1966), Harold Horwood (interview, Sept. the nuthatch family (Sittidae), although only a little 1992), E.P. Wheeler (1953), Our Footprints Are Every more than half of these are considered to be true where (1977), Them Days (Sept. 1976; Mar. 1982; Mar. nuthatches. They are small birds with short tails, com 1986), Archives (A-7-4/36; GN 56/2/111112). RHC pact bodies, relatively long bills, and long strong toes and claws. They are bluish-grey on the back, except for three species of the southern hemisphere which are green on the back. They all have contrasting lighter underparts. There are three species resident in Canada. The red-breasted nuthatch Sitta canadensis, the most widely distributed Canadian species, is the only species in Newfoundland. It usually resides and breeds on the same range, and is found throughout most of the boreal forest of Canada, and much of the western United States. In the east its range extends south into the Appalachians. In winter some birds ven ture south of their breeding range, especially if food is scarce. The red-breasted nuthatch may be distin guished by a white stripe over the eye, and by the rusty colour of the underparts. The top of the head is black, and there is a black stripe through the eye. The upper Megan Nutbeem body is slate-grey. Body shape and habits are similar NUTBEEM, MEGAN MARGUERITE (1927- ). Dog to those of other nuthatches. The name nuthatch was breeder. Born Carbonear, daughter of Silas W. and originally nutack, derived from the ability (especially Dorothy (Duff) Moores qqv. Educated Carbonear; in European species) to wedge a large nut in a crack or Havergal College, Toronto; Queen's University, crevice, and then open it by repeatedly hitting it with Kingston, Ontario; Brown's Commercial College, its bill. Besides seeds and nuts, nuthatches eat a great Montreal. Married Robert Nutbeem qv. Having devel many insects, spiders, and their eggs and larvae; and oped an early interest in Newfoundland dogs, in 1952 help to control a variety of insect pests, which they are she and her husband started Harbour Beem Kennels at able to catch on the wing. Harbour Grace. In 1959 she helped form the Concep Nuthatches are cavity nesters. The European species tion Bay Kennel Club and became its first president. usually finds a hole previously made by a woodpecker Certified as a Canadian Kennel Club all-breed judge in or a sand martin, and then plasters mud around the 1974, she was the youngest judge in Canada. Since that entrance to narrow it to a size suitable to itself. In time she has travelled extensively, judging dogs North America nuthatches may use a ready-made cav around the world. Megan Nutbeem (interview, Aug. ity, but more often they dig a nest for themselves out 1991). JAMES WADE of a partly rotten stump, post or tree trunk. The nest is 140 NUIT,JOHN and branches they seem to defy gravity. It appears not to matter whether they are head up or head down, or ·indeed upside down. They leap about in any direction, and come to rest in any position. Unlike woodpeckers, which use their stiff tails as a brace to help maintain an acrobatic stance, nuthatches use only their feet and claws. They are the only Newfoundland birds which will go head-first down a tree. Red-breasted nuthatches are easily attracted to feeders, by such common fare as sunflower seed and suet. They are especially welcome because of their amusing antics, handsome coloration, and a rather bold and curious personality which allows quite close observation. They often appear with chickadees, whose company they seem to enjoy. Bent (1964), Drimmer (1954), Peters and Burleigh (1951). JOHN HORWOOD Red-breasted nuthatch NUTT, JOHN (fl. 1620-1632). Pirate. Born Lymp lined with various soft materials such as grass, hair stone, Devon. Nutt served as a gunner in the navy and bits of bark. The red-breasted nuthatch has a curi before sailing to Newfoundland in 1620. He eventually ous habit of smearing the entrance of its nest with settled with his wife and children in Torbay. Nutt, pitch from coniferous trees. For reasons that are not along with other seamen, captured a French vessel and known, pitch is carried to the nest in the bills of both then commandeered two others. He seems to have paid parents from the time nest building begins until the his crew well, and is known to have warned others time the young leave. Nuthatches can be attracted to a when Sir John Eliot was looking for men to press into nesting box of exactly the right dimensions. Four to naval service. In 1623, Nutt wrote to Eliot, the Vice seven white eggs, about one-half inch long with red Admiral of Devon, agreeing to pay £500 in return for dish-brown spots, are laid, and hatch in 12 days. The a pardon. But his life was spared only when Sir George young are fed on small invertebrates, mostly insects. Calvert qv, later Lord Baltimore, intervened on his They fledge in two to three weeks. behalf. Nutt was subsequently pardoned, given £100 A high-pitched yank-yank is the most commonly compensation and saw Eliot jailed. Afterwards, as heard sound made by red-breasted nuthatches, but master of various ships, Nutt seems to have kept within they also make a variety of twittering sounds. The the law. In 1632, he delivered a similar pardon from observer of nuthatches cannot help but be amazed by the crown to his brother, Robert Nutt. DCB /, DNLB their remarkable agility. When hopping about on trees (1990). ACB