Masters of the Steppe: the Impact of the Scythians and Later Nomad Societies of Eurasia
Proceedings of a conference held at the British Museum, 27-29 October 2017
Edited by Svetlana V. Pankova and St John Simpson
Archaeopress Archaeology Archaeopress Publishing Ltd Summertown Pavilion 18-24 Middle Way Summertown Oxford OX2 7LG www.archaeopress.com
ISBN 978-1-78969-647-9 ISBN 978-1-78969-648-6 (e-Pdf)
© Archaeopress and the individual authors 2020
Cover illustration: Petroglyphs from the post-Scythian period at Moiseikha mountain on the right bank of the Yenisey, Minusinsk Basin (photograph: E. Miklashevich)
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owners. This book is available direct from Archaeopress or from our website www.archaeopress.com 7KHUR\DO6F\WKLDQ$OH[DQGURSRONXUJDQEDVHGRQQHZUHVHDUFKGDWDRI² ...... 444 Sergei Polin, Marina Daragan
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-LDQJ 0\VWHULRXVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVRIWKH6F\WKLDQFXOWXUHVLQWKHWKDQGUGFHQWXULHV%& ...... 522 P. I. Shulga (WFKHGRUEOHDFKHG"7UDGHGRUFRSLHG" &RPPHQWVRQWKHGDWLQJDQGGLVWULEXWLRQRIDGLVWLQFWLYHW\SH RIGHFRUDWHGFDUQHOLDQEHDGIRXQGIURP,QGLDWR(XUDVLDIURPWKHHDUO\VWPLOOHQQLXP%& WRWKHHDUO\PHGLHYDOSHULRG ...... 525 St John Simpson ,QKRFVLJQRYLQFHV WKHYLFWRU\RIWKH6F\WKLDQVRYHUWKHRIIVSULQJRIWKHLUVODYHVDVDPDQLIHVWDWLRQ RIGLYLQHSURYLGHQFH +HURGRWXV7KH+LVWRULHV>@ ...... 544 Nikolay Yu. Smirnov 7HVWLQJ+HURGRWXV OHDWKHUVSHFLHVLGHQWLILFDWLRQRI6F\WKLDQTXLYHUVXVLQJQHZVFLHQWLILFPHWKRGV ...... 551 Luke Spindler, Margarita Gleba, Marina Daragan, Matthew Collins 6DGGOHVRIWKH+XQ6DUPDWLDQSHULRG ...... 561 Elena V. Stepanova 7KHZRRGHQFRPERIWKH¶JROGHQODG\· DQHZEDWWOHLPDJHIURPWKH7DNVDLNXUJDQ ZHVWHUQ.D]DNKVWDQ ...... 588 Lâtife Summerer, Yana Lukpanova )LQGVIURPWKH1RLQ8ODNXUJDQVDWDQH[KLELWLRQLQ%HUOLQLQ EDVHGRQPDWHULDOVIURP WKHDUFKLYHRIWKH5XVVLDQ$FDGHP\RI6FLHQFHV,QVWLWXWHRIWKH+LVWRU\RI0DWHULDO&XOWXUH ...... 605 Natalia A. Sutiagina, Daria A. Kukina 7KH6F\WKLDQHPSLUH UHDVVHVVLQJVWHSSHSRZHUIURPZHVWHUQDQGHDVWHUQSHUVSHFWLYHV ...... 616 Timothy Taylor, Christine M. Havlicek, Christopher I. Beckwith $QWHQQDHRI6F\WKLDQDNLQDNDL IURPDEVWUDFWLRQWRUHDOLVPWKHUHDQGEDFNDJDLQ ...... 627 Denis Topal 6HWWOHGUDWKHUWKDQVDGGOHG6F\WKLDQV WKHHDVWHUQPRVW6DNDV ...... 643 Burzine Waghmar iii Finds from the Noin-Ula kurgans at an exhibition in Berlin in 1929 (based on materials from the archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of the History of Material Culture) Natalia A. Sutiagina,1 Daria A. Kukina2 Abstract The discovery in 1924/25 of Xiongnu burials in the mountains of Noin-Ula in northern Mongolia caused a revolution in the knowledge of Russian and foreign researchers about the art, diplomacy and politics of ancient China. The exhibition of ancient Chinese art in Berlin was the first time that the Noin-Ula collection had been shown in Europe. For the first time European scholars were able to read the inscriptions on the Chinese cup which determined the dating of the kurgans. Photographs of the artefacts taken during the preparations for the exhibition enable us to reconstruct some of the archaeological complexes. The material in this article provides information about the initial stage of international museum collaboration in the Soviet state.3 Keywords: Noin-Ula; ancient Chinese art; lacquered cup; foreign exhibition; archaeological complexes Introduction123 kurgans excavated at Noin-Ula appeared in European publications in the form of translations and rehashes Among the most outstanding archaeological discoveries of Kozlov’s articles and short analytical articles.6 in the first half of the 20th century were the rich burials Letters with requests to inspect the archaeological of the nobility of the Xiongnu in the mountains of Noin- materials from Mongolia, requests for photographs Ula in northern Mongolia. The burials were excavated of the artefacts and for the publication of the finds by the Mongolia-Tibetan Expedition led by Pyotr Kozlov arrived from various European countries. However, in 1924–1925. Several thousand artefacts were found in permissions were granted reluctantly: the matter of the ancient tombs, including those made by Chinese the future storage of the artefacts was being decided, it masters. The materials discovered in northern Mongolia was necessary to fulfil the obligations to the Mongolian immediately attracted the attention of Russian and side, and a catalogue of the finds was in preparation. foreign archaeologists, orientalists and art historians. Pyotr Kozlov, a brilliant orator and popularist, gave The great scientific importance of the archaeological a great deal of information about the excavations in 4 monuments discovered in the mountains of Noin-Ula reports to various scientific gatherings and in print. and the desire to see materials from the excavations led However, contrary to established tradition, he did German specialists from the Society of East Asian Art not write a final account at the end of the expedition. to submit an official proposal to the USSR government Instead ‘Short Accounts of the Expedition for the to take part in an exhibition of Ancient Chinese art in Exploration of Northern Mongolia in Connection with Berlin in 1929. There is virtually no mention of this the Mongolia-Tibetan Expedition of P.K. Kozlov’ were exhibition in Soviet scientific literature,7 though it was published: a short summary of the explorations and a unique opportunity to show the artefacts from the a few photographs of the most attractive finds.5 The Noin-Ula kurgans in Europe before they became part absence of a full scientific account of the discoveries of the permanent collection of the State Hermitage made, which completely changed scholars’ concepts Museum. There are documents in the Manuscript of the ancient history of central Asia, caused a certain Department of the Institute of the History of Material tension in scientific circles. Information about the Culture of the Russian Academy of Science (henceforth IHMC RAS) which fully reflect the preparations for ૮ Oriental Department, The State Hermitage Museum, 34 Dvortsovaya nab., St. Petersburg, Russia, 190000; email: na.sutiagina@ the exhibition: correspondence between scientific gmail.com institutions and government bodies, lists of exhibits ૮ Institute of the History of Material Culture, Russian Academy of with their numbers in the Book of Acquisitions of Sciences, 18 Dvortsovaya nab., St. Petersburg, Russia, 191186; email: [email protected] the State Academy of the History of Material Culture, ૮ The study was supported by the Russian Academy of Sciences papers concerning the restoration of artefacts and their Foundation for Basic Research (Project No. 0184-2018-0002, awarded transportation to Germany. There are photographs of to D.A. Kukina) and the RFBR and MECSS (Project No. 20-59-44005, awarded to N.A. Sutiagina). ૮Kozlov 1925: 7–11; 1926: 51–56; 1928: 1–4; Yusupova 2011: 24–41. ૮Yetts 1926ã; 1926E. ૮.UDWNL\H2WFK\RW\1925. ૮Bernshtam 1951: 33; Sutiagina and Kukina 2017. 0ජྦྷྸเྑྦྷགྸຢเྦྷྸเོོเ $ྑทຢජเགོྑเྦྷྦྷ : 605–615 605 1$6ྸජງ༧ජ'$.༧ජ objects taken during the mounting of the exhibition in incomplete and suffer from gaps if we were to be Berlin in the Photographic Department of the Scientific unable to give an idea of the exceptional research Archive of the IHMC RAS.8 work in this field in the USSR. The main purpose of this paper is to bring these archival Above all, it is the excavations of Kozlov and his documents into the academic domain. The inventories colleagues in Mongolia which interest us in this and photographs of the artefacts make it possible to regard. They have aroused enormous interest imagine the original appearance of the finds and to throughout the world and have proved a historical amend and reconstruct the archaeological complexes and economic link between the West and the Far that have been partly confused in the course of the East of which we previously had no idea. The finds subsequent treatment of the collection. Some objects are currently being processed in the Academy of featured in the 1929 photographs are little known as the History of Material Culture in Leningrad. Those they were not included in the general publications of that would be most appropriate for our exhibition materials from the Noin-Ula excavations,9 are not are purely Chinese objects which reveal hitherto tied to any particular kurgan or have been erroneously unknown aspects of Chinese material culture. attributed. The information we have obtained broadens our knowledge of the history of the study, storage and Above all, we are interested in the report of the display of the Noin-Ula collection, the composition exploration of Mongolia arising from Pyotr Kozlov’s of the complexes and the external appearance of the expedition. finds. In addition, these materials are interesting for a study of how international exhibitions were organised Figures 12, 13, 1510 in the Soviet Union in the 1920s. Table 1 below. Tables 2, 3, 6, 7 The 1929 Berlin exhibition These items are easily transported and are not liable A letter of 16th July 1928 informed the People’s to breakage. We would cover all the expenses of a Commissariat for Education of the RSFSR that an Soviet representative nominated by you to accom- exhibition of Ancient Chinese art was being planned for pany these items to Berlin. We would particularly January to April 1929 in the Prussian Academy of Arts welcome either the Academy’s Secretary Mr. Old- in Berlin. The organisers requested artefacts from the enburg, who is our Corresponding Member, or Mr. kurgans in the mountains of Noin-Ula to be included in Borovka, who is a Fellow of our Society. the display: Apart from that, of course, the artefacts will be fully ‘The Society of East Asian Art is planning to insured during transportation and at the exhibition. organise a large-scale exhibition of Ancient Chinese The return transportation could be accompanied by art in the winter of 1929, approximately from 15/I a courier from the Russian Embassy or a member of to 15/IV. Leading collectors from Germany and staff of the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs. other European and non-European countries will be taking part. The exhibition is intended to provide We therefore apply to you with a formal request to a review of new discoveries in Chinese art in the agree to the provision of the abovementioned items past 25 years. To a known degree it will represent for the exhibition. instructive coverage of what has been achieved in this field all over the world in that time. Please accept, most respected President, the expression of our profound respect …’11 The exhibition will be organised jointly with the State Academy of Arts in the Academy’s exhibition At that time the materials from Noin-Ula brought from halls in Pariser Platz, not far from the USSR Embassy. Mongolia by Pyotr Kozlov’s expedition were kept in the The venue is totally safe from fire risk, is guarded Repository of Antiquities at the State Academy of the around the clock as a state building and provides History of Material Culture: they had been accepted a reliable fortress for the appropriate display of for storage there by 1925 and were in the Repository valuable items. The Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Prussian Ministry of Science, Art and Public ૮These numbers of plates and figures are noted according to .UDWNL\H Education is providing financial support for the 2WFK\RW\ 1925. The German scientists could operate only this exhibition. Our exhibition would, unfortunately, be information during the preparation of the exhibition so they wrote the numbers of all objects they wanted to exhibit in official letter published here entirely. ૮ Photographic Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC ૮ Manuscript Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC RAS O.759. RAS: On the study of the collections of the Mongolian-Tibetan ૮ Trever 1932; Umehara 1960; Lubo-Lesnichenko 1961; Rudenko ([SHGLWLRQ RI )RQGV ,QYHQWRU\ )LOH S¬ DQG 1962D. reverse. 606 )༧สྦྷྑག༟ྸຢเ1ག༧8༊ජྑງජ༧ྦྷජྸජ༧เငຢคྸག༧༧%เྑ༊༧༧ of Antiquities until 1930, when the Repository of information about the planned exhibition was received Antiquities was liquidated and the artefacts from the in that institution only at the end of 1928. Members of Noin-Ula collection were temporarily transferred the Mongolian Commission of the USSR Academy of to the Ethnographic Department of the Russian Sciences were officially notified at the same time as the Museum.12 From 1931 the collection and accompanying Russian Geographical Society. documentation began to be relocated to the State Hermitage Museum.13 ‘The State Academy of the History of Material Culture has received a request from the Society of Grigory Borovka, who had been sent on the expedition East Asian Art to provide antiquities discovered by the Academy of Sciences in 1925, was at that time a during excavations in Mongolia for the exhibition of member of the Institute’s staff and, at the same time, Ancient Chinese art which the Society is organizing curator of the Hermitage’s Section of Hellenic-Scythian in Berlin. The Academy, in agreement with the Antiquities. A request from the Kremlin (No. 1255) to Department of Scientific Institutions of the USSR the Academy dated 9th August 1928 was addressed to Council of People’s Commissars, recognizes the him: desirability of acceding to the aforesaid request and asks you not to decline to notify whether there are ‘The Department of Scientific Institutions of the any obstacles from your standpoint to the despatch USSR Council of People’s Commissars encloses a of these items to Berlin for the exhibition to be held copy of a letter received from the Society of East approximately from 15.I to 15.IV 1929’.17 Asian Art in Berlin on the matter of the organisation of an exhibition of Ancient Chinese art in Berlin in Although it expressed some doubts regarding the winter 1929 and requests you to communicate your unfinished scientific processing of the collection, the decision in this matter…’.14 Russian Geographical Society nevertheless approved the display of the finds from Noin-Ula at the exhibition Shortly afterwards, on 18th August 1928, similar letters in Berlin, ‘where they will provide evidence of the were sent to the State Academy of the History of Material results of our extensive scientific work’.18 Culture and to the Russian Museum. A response to the request was required before 22nd August 1928.15 The When organisational matters had been agreed among decision of the Academy was prepared and despatched the scientific institutions a positive reply was sent to to the Department of Scientific Institutions on 20th Germany. At the very beginning of 1929 all the items August 1928: were ready for despatch to the People’s Commissariat of Foreign Affairs in Moscow and further transportation ‘The State Academy of the History of Material to Berlin.19 Grigory Borovka was sent to Germany Culture notifies that it finds it desirable to comply to accompany the items and to take part in scientific with the request of the Society of East Asian Art events devoted to the opening of the exhibition.20 to provide antiquities discovered by Kozlov’s expedition to Mongolia for the exhibition of Ancient A hundred of the most interesting and well-preserved Chinese art which the Society is organising in Berlin. artefacts, primarily of Chinese manufacture, were The Academy will take the necessary measures to selected for the exhibition. The list of exhibits was ensure the safe passage of the aforesaid materials to 21 16 drawn up in Russian and German. It indicated the Germany. N. Marr, President of the Academy’. titles and dimensions of the artefacts, from which kurgan they came and their inventory numbers in Despite the fact that Pyotr Kozlov’s expedition was organised by the Russian Geographical Society, ૮ Manuscript Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC RAS: On the despatch of artefacts from the collection of Pyotr ૮Manuscript Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC RAS: Kozlov’s Mongolian-Tibetan expedition for the exhibition in Berlin/ Commission for the Liquidation of the Repository of Antiquities Correspondence/Fonds 2/Inventory 1/File 86/1928–1929/p. 1. 7UDQVIHUDFFRUGLQJWRGHHGV )RQGV,QYHQWRU\¬)LOH SS ૮ Manuscript Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC 19–20, 30 and reverse of p. 20 RAS: On the despatch of items from the collection of Pyotr Kozlov’s ૮Archive of the State Hermitage Museum, Direction and Scientific Mongolian-Tibetan expedition for the exhibition in Berlin: Section: Lists and deeds of transfer to the Hermitage of museum Correspondence/Fonds 2/Inventory 1/File 86/1928–1929/p. 8. items with noting in the inventory from institutions and private ૮ Manuscript Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC individuals/ Vol. 1/Fonds I/Inventory V/File 1191 (1)/1931/pp. 209– RAS: On the despatch of items from the collection of Pyotr Kozlov’s 23. Mongolian-Tibetan expedition for the exhibition in Berlin/ ૮Manuscript Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC RAS: Correspondence/Fonds 2/Inventory 1/File 86/1928–1929/p. 3. On the Study of the Collection from the Mongolian-Tibetan Expedition ૮ Archive of the State Hermitage Museum: Official file of G.I. RI )RQGV,QYHQWRU\¬)LOH¬ S¬ Borovko/19th September 1917–26th November 1930/Fonds I/ ૮Manuscript Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC RAS: Inventory 13/File 103/pp. 87, 88, 95. On the Study of the Collection from the Mongolian-Tibetan Expedition ૮ Manuscript Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC RI )RQGV,QYHQWRU\)LOH S¬ RAS: On the despatch of items from the collection of Pyotr Kozlov’s ૮Manuscript Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC RAS: Mongolian-Tibetan expedition for the exhibition in Berlin/ On the Study of the Collection from the Mongolian-Tibetan Expedition Correspondence/Fonds 2/Inventory 1/File 86/1928–1929/reverse of RI )RQGV,QYHQWRU\)LOH¬ S¬ pp. 4–5, 22–23. 607 1$6ྸජງ༧ජ'$.༧ජ the Repository of Antiquities where they were kept that time. Most of the items, primarily textiles, were restored before their despatch to Germany. The exhibition of ancient Chinese art was held in the Prussian Academy of Arts. The organisers provided one of the largest rooms in the building for the display of ancient artefacts from Mongolia. Articles, photographs and short annotations were published in a small catalogue entitled ‘Ausstellung Chinesischer Kunst’.22 This event in the cultural life of Germany and Europe was a huge success and received numerous positive reviews. Special attention was devoted to the finds of Pyotr Kozlov’s expedition at the exhibition.23 It was actually from this year that the materials became generally accessible for inspection and study and entered the European and world scientific domain. The exhibit that particularly attracted the attention of specialists was a Chinese lacquered cup from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’), with a hieroglyphic inscription. Earlier, in 1925, Professor Otto Kümmel had read the inscription on the bottom of the cup and was the first to suggest a translation of it – this enabled the cup to be dated to 2 BC.24 The opportunity to examine the find in Berlin enabled scholars to agree on the dating of the kurgans. Other finds that attracted attention were details of Chinese chariots (spokes of a canopy covered with dark Chinese lacquer and bronze terminals of various types) (Figure 1), silver and bronze harness details, the Figure 1. Details from the canopy of a chariot from the fragment of a bronze Chinese mirror, lacquered objects Kondratiev kurgan in the Tzurumte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O.759-46) (‘er bei’ cups with handles (Chinese ⪥ᮼ), coffin decorations and wooden details), leather ribbons/belts, artistic objects of jade and amber, wooden sculptures, ‘Upper’ kurgan (kurgan 6).25 However, the inventory silk ‘flags’ and a panel with festoons, silk cases for plaits, entry on the photograph and the documentation of fragments of the famous felt rug and fragments of a the collection shows that the fabric came from another velvet saddle cover. Attention was drawn particularly burial. It was found during the excavation of kurgan to the numerous examples, totalling over 70 pieces, of 12/24 led by Sergey Teploukhov, along with other woollen and silk textiles. The display featured items items (Figures 2–5).26 The error in attribution probably of clothing, details of footwear, woollen embroidery occurred in the process of the transfer of artefacts to depicting horsemen and individual fragments of the State Hermitage Museum, as the correct kurgan is embroidery depicting men’s faces. The diversity of indicated in the catalogue of the collection compiled by Chinese silks found in the nomadic burials was reflected Kamilla Trever and in the research of Sueji Umehara.27 in the wide range of polychrome textiles, embroidery A photograph was also found of an amber artefact that and gauze on display. came from the Ballod kurgan (Figure 6). This tomb was excavated by Alexander Ballod in 1913. All of the The photographs of artefacts in the Photographic finds, including this amber piece, were despatched to Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC RAS the East Siberian Branch of the Russian Geographical not only show lists of exhibits but also provide important Society in Irkutsk according to the inventory attached information regarding the state of preservation of the to the package. Alexander Ballod enclosed a drawing finds in the late 1920s and the excavated kurgans where of this item in letters addressed to members of the they were found. One of the most famous examples of ancient Chinese art is a silk cloth depicting mountains, ૮Menshikova 2011: 30. birds, a tree and mushrooms (MP-1330). There is a ૮Photographic Department of the Scientific Archive of the IHMC: view in the literature that this textile was from the RAS O.759/Borovka G.I./Exhibition of Chinese Art in Berlin. State Hermitage Archive: Transfer to the Hermitage of museum items from various institutions and private individuals and their recording in ૮$XVVWHOOXQJ&KLQHVLVFKHU.XQVW . the Hermitage Museum’s inventory/Fonds I/Inventory V/File 1789 ૮Yetts 1929ã: 128, 133; 1929E: 337–39. (78)/1934/p. 112. ૮Yetts 1929D: 128. ૮Trever 1932: 35, pl. 15; Umehara 1960: 73, fig. 51. 608 )༧สྦྷྑག༟ྸຢเ1ག༧8༊ජྑງජ༧ྦྷජྸජ༧เငຢคྸག༧༧%เྑ༊༧༧ Figure 2. Fragment of silk fabric from kurgan 12/24 (Teploukhov’s) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-29) Figure 3. Fragments of silk fabric with embroidery from kurgan 12/24 (‘Teploukhov’s’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-30) Branch in Irkutsk and to the scientific institutions in St. Petersburg and Moscow.28 However, in 1929 the piece was in Leningrad among Pyotr Kozlov’s finds. Besides these well-known objects, the archive photographs also feature leather belts, fragments of Figure 4. Fragment of silk the famous felt rug before restoration and fragments of fabric with embroidery from fabrics from kurgans 6 (Figures 7–16), 23 and 25 (Figures kurgan 12/24 (‘Teploukhov’s’) 17–21). Most of the fabrics were studied and published in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula by Evgeny I. Lubo-Lesnichenko,29 unfortunately with (SA IHMC RAS Photographic no indication of the kurgans from which they came. Department Imp. O. 759-31) The photographs also show several finds from the ૮Sutiagina 2014: fig. 2: 6. ૮Lubo-Lesnichenko 1961. 609 1$6ྸජງ༧ජ'$.༧ජ Figure 5. Fragment of silk fabric with embroidery from kurgan 12/24 (‘Teploukhov’s’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-32) Figure 6. Amber artefact from the Ballod kurgan in the Tzurumte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-47) Figure 7. Fragments of ribbons from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’), Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-16) Figure 8. Fragment of felt rug with silk edging from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’), Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-4) 610 )༧สྦྷྑག༟ྸຢเ1ག༧8༊ජྑງජ༧ྦྷජྸජ༧เငຢคྸག༧༧%เྑ༊༧༧ Figure 9. Fragment of a silk sewn item with festoons from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-6) Figure 10. Fragment of a silk sewn item with festoons from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-20) Figure 11. Fragment of silk fabric with embroidery (tiger and dragon) from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-8) 611 1$6ྸජງ༧ජ'$.༧ජ Figure 12. Fragment of tulle with rhomboid ornament from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-9) Figure 13. Sewn fragments of silk fabrics with embroidery from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-15) Figure 14. Plait in a silk case with a small pouch from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-13) 612 )༧สྦྷྑག༟ྸຢเ1ག༧8༊ජྑງජ༧ྦྷජྸජ༧เငຢคྸག༧༧%เྑ༊༧༧ Figure 15. Artefact of patterned silk with a small pouch from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-26) Figure 16. Fragment of silk fabric from a silk artefact with a small pouch from kurgan 6 (‘Upper’) in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-27) Figure 17. Fragment of decorated silk fabric from kurgan 23 in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin- Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-33) Figure 18. Fragment of silk fabric with embroidery from kurgan 23 in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin- Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-34) 613 1$6ྸජງ༧ජ'$.༧ජ Figure 19. Fragment of silk fabric with embroidered decoration from kurgan 23 in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-35) Figure 20. Fragment of silk fabric from kurgan 25 in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-38) Figure 21. Fragment of silk fabric from kurgan 25 in the Sudzukte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-40) 614 )༧สྦྷྑག༟ྸຢเ1ག༧8༊ජྑງජ༧ྦྷජྸජ༧เငຢคྸག༧༧%เྑ༊༧༧ Figure 22. Fragment of silk fabric from the Kondratiev Figure 23. Pieces of harness from kurgan 49 in the kurgan in the Tzurumte Pass, Noin-Ula (SA IHMC RAS Sudzukte Pass. Excavations of Grigory Borovka in 1926 Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-44) (SA IHMC RAS Photographic Department Imp. O. 759-42) Kondratiev kurgan (Figures 1, 22). One shows a set of thorough study of the history of central Asia in the light harness from a kurgan excavated by Grigory Borovka of the latest archaeological discoveries. Despite the in 1926 (Figure 23). A sketch of one of the items was difficult political situation of the time they succeeded published by Sergey Rudenko,30 but the other pieces in creating conditions of maximum access to the remained unknown. collection for scholars and visitors. The very process of the organisation of international exhibitions in the Conclusion late 1920s is very apparent on the basis of this historical example: correspondence, lists of exhibits, conditions These materials enable us to view and re-assess the of storage and transportation – the initial stage of initial stage of research of one of the most outstanding what is now the norm for mounting exhibitions in a collections now kept in the reserves of the Oriental modern museum. Thanks to the archival documents Department of the State Hermitage Museum. The of the IHMC RAS it is possible to clarify and correct archival materials show how substantial and profound information about the provenance of the artefacts, was the appreciation of the very high scientific value their original appearance and completeness, and to see of the Xiongnu burials in the mountains of Noin-Ula. the enormous amount of work by several generations Soviet and European researchers realised the urgent of curators and restorers to ensure that the finds necessity of bringing as many artefacts as possible from the ancient kurgans of Noin-Ula now grace the from this collection into the scientific domain for a permanent display of the State Hermitage Museum. ૮Rudenko 1962D: 64, fig. 53. 615 Bibliography Primary sources Diodorus Siculus, 7KH $QWLTXLWLHV RI $VLD $ 7UDQVODWLRQ ZLWK 1RWHV RI %RRN ,, RI WKH /LEUDU\ RI +LVWRU\. New Aelian, +LVWRULFDO 0LVFHOODQ\ (Loeb Classical Library). 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