STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF CAMBODIA’S TOURISM SECTOR

Baseline Assessment

August 2007 (Draft)

The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank, or its Board of Governors or the governments they represent.

The Asian Development Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequences of their use.

Use of the term “country” does not imply any judgment by the author or the Asian Development Bank as to the legal or other status of any territorial entity.

CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ...... 4 LIST OF FIGURES ...... 5 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS...... 6 1. INTRODUCTION...... 8 2. COUNTRY GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES ...... 8 2.1 Geographical Area...... 8 2.2 Climate...... 8 2.3 Population and Livelihoods...... 10 2.4 Country Economy ...... 10 3. NORTHEASTERN AND SOUTHWESTERN AREA...... 11 3.1 Northeastern Area ...... 11 3.2 Southwestern Area ...... 12 3.3 Demographics...... 12 3.4 Education...... 13 3.5 Tourism and Recreation...... 14 4. EXISTING ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS...... 15 4.1 Biodiversity ...... 15 4.1.1 Flora and Fauna ...... 15 4.1.2 Forest Cover...... 15 4.1.3 Mangroves...... 16 4.1.4 Seabed Grass...... 19 4.1.5 Coral Reefs...... 19 4.2 Protected Areas ...... 20 4.3 Biodiversity Management Regions in Cambodia...... 25 4.4 Solid and Liquid Waste...... 25 4.5 Noise and Air Quality ...... 26 4.6 Climate Change...... 27 4.7 Water Quality ...... 27 4.7.1 Freshwater Quality ...... 27 4.7.2 Marine Water Quality...... 31 5. INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK...... 34 5.1 Policies, Strategies, and Plans ...... 34 5.2 Legal Framework...... 38 Baseline Environmental Assessment for Northeastern and Southwestern Area

5.2.1 Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia, 1993...... 39 5.2.2 Royal Decree on Protection of Protected Areas, 1993...... 39 5.2.3 Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management, 1996 ...... 39 5.2.4 Law on Fisheries, 2006 ...... 40 5.2.5 Sub-decree on Environmental Impact Assessment Process, 1999 ...... 41 5.2.6 Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control, 1999...... 41 5.2.7 Sub-decree on Solid Waste Management, 1999...... 42 5.2.8 Sub-decree on Air Pollution and Noise Disturbance Control, 2000 ...... 43 5.2.9 Inter-Ministry Regulation of Interior and Environment Solid Waste and Refuse Management throughout Provinces and Cities in Cambodia, 2003...... 44 5.2.10 Prakas/Circular on Guideline for Conducting Environmental Impact Assessment Report, 2000...... 44 REFERENCES...... 45

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.4a Average Monthly Income in Cambodia’s Coastal Zone (1999)...... 11 Table 3.3a Total Population (2005), Population Density (2005), and Annual Population Growth (1998- 2005) ...... 12 Table 3.4a Number of Schools and Students (2004) ...... 13 Table 3.4b Literate Population in the Northeastern and Southwestern Areas, 1998 ...... 13 Table 3.5a Tourist Attractions and Resources...... 14 Table 4.1a Forest Cover in the Northeastern and Southwestern Areas ...... 16 Table 4.2a Protected Areas in Cambodia’s Northeastern Area ...... 21 Table 4.4a Solid Waste Generated by Households and Markets in 2005...... 26 Table 4.6a Baseline and Projection of GHG Emissions and Removals by Sectors (Gigagram) ...... 27 Table 4.7a Mean and Median Values for Total Suspended Solids and Total Phosphorus...... 27 Table 4.7b Mean Composition of River Waters of the World, Asia, and three Sites on the Mekong. Data for the World and Asia from Wetzel (1983)...... 28

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.2a Mean Rainfall in Cambodia (1984-1998) ...... 9 Figure 2.2b Annual Mean Rainfall in the Northeastern Area (1994-2004) ...... 9 Figure 2.2c Annual Mean Rainfall in the Southwestern Area (1994-2004)...... 10 Figure 2.4a Real GDP Growth Rate 2000-2011 (Percentage Change) ...... 11 Figure 4.1a Change in Mangrove Distribution from 1993 to1997 ...... 17 Figure 4.1b Change in Mangrove Distribution from 1997 to 2002 ...... 17 Figure 4.1c Change in Mangrove Distribution from 2002 to 2005 ...... 18 Figure 4.1d Seabed Grass Distribution in the Coastal Waters...... 18 Figure 4.1e Coral Distribution in the Coastal Waters ...... 19 Figure 4.1f Seabed Grass Distribution in Cambodia’s Coastal Zone...... 20 Figure 4.2a Cambodia’s Protected Areas...... 24 Figure 4.2b Cambodia’s Biodiversity Regions...... 24 Figure 4.7a Marine Water Sampling Stations in Cambodia’s Coastal Zone (2004-2007)...... 28 Figure 4.7b Comparison of Total Suspended Solid during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l) ...... 29 Figure 4.7c Comparison of Dissolved Oxygen during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l) ...... 30 Figure 4.7d Comparison of Biological Oxygen Demand during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l)...... 30 Figure 4.7e Comparison of Total Phosphorus during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006- 2007 (mg/l) ...... 31 Figure 4.7f Comparison of Total Suspended Solid during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l) ...... 32 Figure 4.7g Comparison of Dissolved Oxygen during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l) ...... 32 Figure 4.7h Comparison of Biological Oxygen Demand during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l)...... 33 Figure 4.7i Comparison of Total Phosphorus during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006- 2007 (mg/l) ...... 34

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ADB : Asian Development Bank APIP : Agricultural Productivity Improvement Program BOD : Biological Oxygen Demand CCU : Coastal Coordination Unit CEP : Core Environment Program

CH4 : Methane CIDSE : International Cooperation for Development and Solidarity

CO2 : Carbon Dioxide DNCP : Department for Nature Conservation and Protection DO : Dissolved Oxygen EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment EOC : Environment Operations Center FA : Forest Administration GAP : Governance Action Plan GDP : Gross Domestic Product GEF : Global Environmental Facility Gg : Gigagram GHGs : Greenhouse GMS : Greater Mekong Subregion ICEM : International Centre for Environmental Management LUCF : Land Use Change and Forestry MAFF : Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries MEF : Ministry of Economy and Finance MIME : Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy MLMUPC : Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction MoE : Ministry of Environment MoEYS : Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport MoI : Ministry of Interior MoP : Ministry of Planning MoT : Ministry of Tourism MoWRAM : Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology MRC : Mekong River Commission MUA : Multiple Use Areas

N2O : Nitrous Oxide NBSAP : National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan NCSC : National Coastal Steering Committee NE : Northeastern NEAP : National Environmental Action Plan NIS : National Institute of Statistics NP : National Parliament NPRS : National Poverty Reduction Strategy NWRP : National Water Resources Policy PA : Protected Area PL : Protected Landscapes RETA : Regional Technical Assistance RGC : Royal Government of Cambodia SEA : Strategic Environmental Assessment SEDP II : Second Socioeconomic Development Plan, 2001 – 2005

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SEILA : Social Economic Improvement Agency Program SW : Southwestern TP : Total Phosphorus TSS : Total Suspended Solid UNDP : United Nations Development Program UNEP : United Nations for Environment Program USD : United States Dollar WGE : Working Group on Environment WS : Wildlife Sanctuaries WTO : World Trade Organization WWF : World Wild Fund for Nature

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1. INTRODUCTION

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is supporting improved environmental management in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) through the Core Environment Program (CEP), which is being undertaken on behalf of the GMS Working Group on Environment (WGE) by the Environment Operations Center (EOC) in Bangkok. Introduction of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) into GMS countries to improve the environmental assessment of policies, plans, and programs is the objective of Component 1. A rapid SEA will be prepared for the tourism sector in Cambodia, focusing on the national tourism strategy and on two geographic areas (northeastern and southwestern) are focused. The northeastern area includes such provinces as Kratie, Mondulkiri, Rattanakiri, and Stung Treng; while the southwestern area consists of Kampot, Koh Kong, Sihanoukville, and Kep.

This report describes baseline information regarding the physical and biological environment for the two geographic areas. It is from this baseline that the impacts of the policies, plans and programs for the tourism sector in these two areas will be assessed and on which the mitigation efforts will need to be focused. The information has been drawn from published literature (secondary data) from both national and provincial line agencies as well as international and national organizations.

2. COUNTRY GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES

2.1 GEOGRAPHICAL AREA

Cambodia covers an area of 181,035 km2. Most of the country consists of a low-lying alluvial plain that occupies the central part of the country. To the southeast of the plain lies the delta of the Mekong River. To the east of the plain, ranges of undulating hills separate Cambodia from Vietnam. To the southwest a mountain range, the Chuor Phnum Krâvanh, fringes the plain and forms a physical barrier along the country's coast (RGC, 2007).

2.2 CLIMATE

Cambodia has a tropical monsoon climate. December and January are the coolest months, while March and April are the hottest. The country's rainy season extends from May to October. Average annual rainfall is about 1,400 mm on the central plain and increases to as much as 3,800 mm in the mountains and along the coast. The average annual temperature is about 27°C. Annual mean rainfall in the northeastern and southwestern areas is higher than in other areas throughout the country (Figure 2.2a).

Cambodia is influenced by the tropical monsoons with pronounced wet and dry seasons. According to the Ministry of Tourism (MoT, 2007), there are four seasonal variations as follows:

• Cool dry season typically occurring from November to February with an average temperature between 200C and 280C; • Dry hot season occurring from March to May with an average temperature from 300C to 350C; • Rainy season occurring from June to August with an average temperature from 220C to 300C; and • Cool wet season occurring from September to October with an average temperature from 250C to 300C. Baseline Environmental Assessment for Northeastern and Southwestern Area

A report by the MoT, a month of January of the year is a peak season of tourists visiting in Cambodia. It is a cool dry season with suitable temperature throughout the country.

Figure 2.2a Mean Rainfall in Cambodia (1984-1998)

Source: NIS, 2005.

Figure 2.2b Annual Mean Rainfall in the Northeastern Area (1994-2004)

3,000 m m , l l 2,500 a f n i a R 2,000 ean of M 1,500 nnual A 1,000 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Year Kratie Rattanakiri Stung Treng

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Figure 2.2c Annual Mean Rainfall in the Southwestern Area (1994-2004)

4,000 m 3,500 m , l l a f n

i 3,000 a R 2,500

ean of 2,000 M l

1,500 nnua A 1,000 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Year Kampot Koh Kong Sihanoukville

Total annual mean of rainfall is between 1,000 mm and 1,500 mm with the heaviest fall in the southeast of the country. The annual mean of rainfall in the southwest part of the country ranges between 2,500 mm and 5,000 mm (NIS, 2003, pp. 5-6). The annual mean rainfalls in the northeastern and southwestern areas are provided in Figure 2.2b & c below.

The relative humidity in the country is high at night throughout the year, which usually exceeds 90%. During the daytime in the dry season, the humidity decreases down to 50%.

2.3 POPULATION AND LIVELIHOODS

2.4 COUNTRY ECONOMY

Cambodia’s gross domestic product (GDP) grew by an average 6.8% per year from 1999 to 2002, compared with 5.6% per year from 1995 to 1998. However, GDP growth has been in decline since its peak of 10.8% in 1999, and the figure for 2003 was 5.2% (ADB, 2005). The existing sources of economic growth in Cambodia are agricultural, garment and tourism sector. There are no precise data and information pertaining to GDP by sector and province.

According to NIS (2003), the mean monthly income of Cambodian households increased an average 15.6% a year from USD42.32 in 1993/94 to USD100.82 in 1999 (USD1 = 4,000 Riels). The monthly income of rural households increased an average 15.7% a year, while the monthly income of other urban households other than Phnom Penh increased an average 11.8%. The main sources of income for Cambodia’s coastal zone are provided in Table 2.4a.

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Table 2.4a Average Monthly Income in Cambodia’s Coastal Zone (1999)

Main Source Cambodia Coastal Zone

Value, USD Per Cent Value, USD Per Cent

Self employment 60.50 60.00 62.75 63.15 Wage employment 20.92 20.75 14.99 15.08 Others 19.41 19.25 21.63 21.77 Source: NIS, 1999

Economic performance in 2007 was expected 8.5%, lower than 2006 due mainly to the slow down of garment sector. The accession of Viet Nam into WTO, ending the special safeguard and restricted of China by importers on clothing products and economic recession in US reflects growing concern about Cambodian garment sector (Figure 2.4a).

Figure 2.4a Real GDP Growth Rate 2000-2011 (Percentage Change)

Source: MEF, 2007.

3. NORTHEASTERN AND SOUTHWESTERN AREA

3.1 NORTHEASTERN AREA

The northeastern area consists of Kratie, Mondulkiri, Rattanakiri, and Stung Treng provinces, which cover areas of 11,094 km2, 14,288 km2, 10,782 km2, and 11,092 km2 respectively. The northeastern area borders Lao PDR, Vietnam, Kampong Thom, Kampong Cham, and Preah Vihear provinces. The area is under-developed although it does have tourism and hydropower potential. These two sectors will be significant contributors to the national and provincial economy.

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3.2 SOUTHWESTERN AREA

The southwestern area consists of Kampot and Koh Kong provinces, and Sihanoukville and Kep municipal areas (also known as the K4 area), which cover areas of 7,873 km2, 11,160 km2, 868 km2, and 336 km2 respectively. The southwestern coastal area has a coastline of 435 km, located on the Gulf of Thailand, bordered by Thailand and Vietnam. Tourism in this area has increasingly improved from year to year.

3.3 DEMOGRAPHICS

The total population in the northeastern area was approximately 561,778 with a density of 12 persons per square kilometers in 2005 and annual population growth of approximately 2.8% for the period of 1998 to 2005. Kratie province had the largest population in 2005 in comparison to the others provinces. While the total population in the southwestern area was approximately 584,367 with a density of 46 persons per square kilometers in 2005 and annual population growth of approximately 1.3% for the period of 1998 to 2005. Kampot province had the largest population in 2005 in comparison to the others coastal provinces. The details of population in the two areas are provided in Table 3.3a.

Table 3.3a Total Population (2005), Population Density (2005), and Annual Population Growth (1998-2005)

Province Provincial Total Population Population 2020 Area (km2) Population Density Growth Persons Persons per Annual %, km2 1998-2005 Northeastern Area Kratie 11,094 290,695 26 1.49 477,000 Mondulkiri 14,288 49,612 3 7.58 72,000 Rattanakiri 10,782 125,456 12 4.73 205,000 Stung Treng 11,092 96,015 9 2.63 169,000 Sub-total 47,256 561,778 923,000 Southwestern Area Kampot 7,873 584,367 74 1.51 808,000 Kep 336 34,660 103 2.99 74,000 Koh Kong 11,160 131,663 12 -0.05 354,000 Sihanoukville 868 170,592 197 1.37 369,000 Sub-total 20,237 921,282 1,605,000 Source: Seila Program, 2005, and NIS, 1999.

Population growth rates for the two areas have been increasing steadily since 1998, except for Koh Kong, where the rate has decreased slightly (about -0.05%). Of the four provinces, Kampot has the largest population (approximately 584,367persons in 2005). The total population in each province is presented in Table 3.3a.

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3.4 EDUCATION

The total number of schools in the northeastern and southwestern areas was about 636 and 648 respectively. Kampot has the largest schools and students compared to other provinces in the two areas, followed by Kratie province (Table 3.4a).

Table 3.4a Number of Schools and Students (2004)

Province School1 Enrolment, persons

Urban Area Rural Area Male Female

Northeastern Area Kratie 82 195 38,641 33,945 Mondulkiri 11 63 5,337 4,288 Rattanakiri 19 116 12,240 8,338 Stung Treng 28 122 12,789 11,198 Sub-total 140 496 69,007 57,769 Southwestern Area Kampot 23 401 91,452 76,004 Kep 31 0 5,104 4,470 Koh Kong 10 99 17,024 14,617 Sihanoukville 84 0 25,847 21,891 Sub-total 148 500 139,427 116,982 Source: MoEYS, 2005.

Table 3.4b Literate Population in the Northeastern and Southwestern Areas, 1998

Province Population Aged above 7 Literate Population (persons) (persons) Male Female Male Female

Northeastern Area Kratie 103,331 107,154 69,931 59,540 Mondulkiri 12,380 12,104 5,330 2,697 Rattanakiri 35,584 37,335 11,376 5,724 Stung Treng 30,958 32,203 17,334 13,249 Southwestern Area Kampot 198,211 222,653 135,229 114,491 Koh Kong 53,332 51,016 34,817 22,605 Sihanoukville 60,998 63,574 44,532 35,380 Source: NIS, 1999.

The literacy rate in each province is provided in the Table 3.4b. It is highest in Kampot compared to other provinces. The male literacy rate is generally much higher than female literacy rate.

1 This includes pre-school, primary school, and college, except lower and upper secondary schools.

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3.5 TOURISM AND RECREATION

The northeastern and southwestern areas in Cambodia play a vital role in tourism alongside the outstanding World Heritage Site of Angkor Wat Temple in Siem Riep province. Predictably warm weather, beautiful beaches, unique flora, wildlife, fish, and distinctive cultures are major tourism attractions. For instance, Kampie resort (Kampie Irrawaddy Dolphin Resort, located in Kratie province), is one of the most popular resorts in the northeast, where thousands of tourists from various countries visit.

The main tourist attractions and resources in the coastal provinces are presented in Table 3.5a below.

Table 3.5a Tourist Attractions and Resources

Area Attractions Natural Resources Potential Uses & Activities

Kampot Preah Ambel • Beaches • boat trips • swimming • food and drink service • hire of resting areas • ancillary services Preah Tnol • Mangrove forest • canoeing • bird watching Kep Koh Tonsay • forests • corals • homestay • seagrass beds • guided walks • • water activities (i.e. snorkeling) Thmei Village • bird watching • mangrove walk • fishing • Mangrove forest • seafood Ongkao Village • swimming • Beaches • food and drink service Ream Phnom Samathik • evergreen forest National (Meditation • large rock Park Mountain) • boulders • guided walks • medicinal plants • relaxing O Toul Creek • creek • guided walks • evergreen forest • swimming • • relaxing Prek Teuk Sap • river • canoeing • mangrove forest • bird watching • melaleuca forest • boat trips • birdlife • guided walks Main Beach • beach • swimming • evergreen & • relaxing melaleuca forest • guided walks from river to beach Koh Thmei • mangrove forest • camping • evergreen forest • swimming • beach • walking/hiking

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Area Attractions Natural Resources Potential Uses & Activities

• hills • river Koh Ses • coral reef • swimming • beach • snorkeling • mangrove & • diving evergreen forest • walking/hiking Koh Kyorng • selling products • tours around parts of the village • fishing village • fishing using traditional methods Forests • evergreen forest • hills • Walking/hiking Koh Kong Preak Krasaop • canoeing Wildlife Sanctuary • bird watching/wildlife • watching • mangrove • village visits Source: NCSC, 2007b.

4. EXISTING ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

4.1 BIODIVERSITY

4.1.1 Flora and Fauna According to the MoE (2004, pp. 133-136), large herbivorous species have been found in northeastern part of Cambodia, including Kouprey (Bos sauveli), Banteng (Bos javanicus), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Wild Water Buffalo (Bubalus arnee), Sambar Deer (Cervus unicolor), Eld's Deer (Cervus eldii), Hog Deer (Axis porcinus) and Barking Deer (Muntjac) (Tragulus javanicus). Populations of the predatory Tiger (Panthera tigris) and Leopard (Panthera pardus) are associated with these species.

Additionally, extensive intact natural habitats still exits to support a rich bird life. More than 530 bird species have been recorded for the country, and it is likely that the total number of species is even higher. Because of the richness in wetland areas, populations of a number of globally threatened water bird species still exist in Cambodia.

Recent surveys from north-eastern Cambodia have rediscovered the giant ibis (P. gigantean), white- shouldered ibis (Pseudibis davisoni), and the masked finfoot (Heliopais personata). Sarus crane (Grus antigone) have been observed to breed in far north-eastern Cambodia.

No precise assessment has been made with regard to the flora in Cambodia. Of between 12,000 and 15,000 species recorded for Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, 1254 useful plant species from Cambodia were described, and of which 29 were endemic for Cambodia (MoE, 2004, p. 135).

4.1.2 Forest Cover Since the early 1970s, Cambodia’s forest cover has decreased from over 70% of the total land area to 30-35% with accelerated decline occurring from 1992 (McAndrew et al., 2003) due to illegal exploitation at that time. Deforestation and conversion of forest lands to agriculture played an important role. As established earlier, Cambodia's forest cover declined from 73% in 1965 to

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approximately 59% in 1996. Logging spread into protected areas. For instance, a biodiversity survey (2000) of Cardamom Mountains, considered the richest biodiversity area in the country, confirmed that logging was taking place inside the protected areas (MoE & UNEP, 2006).

From 1993–1997, there was a significant change in the forest cover of the northeastern provinces. As can be seen from Table 4.1a, the forest cover in Kratie, Mondulkiri, Rattanakiri, and Stung Treng decreased significantly. According to the Forest Administration (FA, 2002 & 2004), the evergreen forests in the two areas have decreased between 1992/93 and 2002/2003. The forest cover in Rattanakiri decreased significantly (-2.66%) during 1992/93 and 1996/97 compared to other provinces in the northeastern area.

Table 4.1a Forest Cover in the Northeastern and Southwestern Areas

Province Evergreen Forest, % Deciduous Forest, % Other Forests, %

02/03 96/97 92/93 02/03 96/97 92/93 02/03 96/97 92/93 Northeastern Area Kratie 34.0 35.1 35.2 42.7 39.6 39.9 4.6 0.8 0.8 Mondulkiri 24.8 24.6 24.9 63.9 57.5 57.7 4.0 0.3 0.3 Rattanakiri 40.9 48.3 49.7 37.2 31.3 31.6 6.9 4.0 4.5 Stung Treng 48.3 48.6 48.9 38.3 38.6 39.3 3.7 0.6 0.6 Southwestern Area Kampot 31.1 29.7 29.6 16.4 14.4 15.1 3.0 3.8 4.6 Kep 10.8 - - - - - 18.7 - - Koh Kong 70.0 77.3 78.6 2.5 1.7 1.8 11.9 7.5 8.7 Sihanoukville 51.5 45.8 47.2 - 0.0 0.0 6.3 11.8 11.9 Source: FA, 2002 & 2004.

During 1993-2003, the forest cover in Koh Kong province was destroyed compared to the other provinces in the coastal area. The deciduous forest cover in Sihanoukville cannot be assessed as the data for 2002/03 was missing.

In conclusion, the evergreen and deciduous forest cover in the northeastern and southwestern area decreased during 1993-1997. The decreases differed from one province to another. However, the category of “other forests” cover has increased in most provinces of the two areas, save Sihanoukville.

4.1.3 Mangroves According to NCSC (2007a), it has been indicated that a significant reduction in the mangrove distribution has been found in Smach Meanchey, Kiri Sakor, Botum Sakor, Prey Nob, and Kampong Trach districts in the period from 1997 to 2002 (Figure 4.1a & b). In the period from 2002 to 2005, the decline was somewhat occurred in Mondul Seima and Koh Kong districts (Figure 4.1c).

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Figure 4.1a Change in Mangrove Distribution from 1993 to1997

Laos nd ila ha T Cambodia N mNะlsmI:a Mondul Seima am tn ie fต)aMg V Thmar Bang

# sตac;manCฝy Smach Meanchey ekaHkug Koh Kong

ERsGMbil buTumsaKr Srae Ambel KIrIsaKr Botum Sakor Kiri Sakor kMBg;sil a Kampong Seila QUkCMuKIrI Chhuk Chum Kiri

s wgh av GgมrCฝy Stueng hav  RBnb; kMBt Angkor Chey Prey Nob Kampot dgTg; # Dang Tong bna ymas # Banteay Meas mit Pa B # Existing Mangrove 1997 Mittakpheap kMBg;)ay Ekb # kMBg;Rtac Mangrove Disappeared from 1993 Kampong Bay Kep # Kampong Trach District Boundary 20 0 20 Kilometers dMNak;cegฅIr Damnak Chang'aeur Source: NCSC, 2007a.

Figure 4.1b Change in Mangrove Distribution from 1997 to 2002

Laos nd ila ha T Cambodia N mNะlsmI:a Mondul Seima am tn ie fต)aMg V Thmar Bang

# sตac;manCฝy Smach Meanchey ekaHkug Koh Kong

ERsGMbil buTumsaKr Srae Ambel KIrIsaKr Botum Sakor Kiri Sakor kMBg;sil a Kampong Seila QUkCMuKIrI Chhuk Chum Kiri

s wgh av GgมrCฝy Stueng hav  RBnb; kMBt Angkor Chey Prey Nob Kampot dgTg; # Dang Tong bn aymas # Banteay Meas mit PaB # Mittakpheap Existing Mangrove 2002 kMBg;)ay Ekb # kMBg;Rtac Mangrove Disappeared from 1997 Kampong Bay Kep # Kampong Trach District Boundary 20 0 20 Kilometers dMNak;cegฅIr Damnak Chang'aeur Source: NCSC, 2007a.

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Figure 4.1c Change in Mangrove Distribution from 2002 to 2005

Laos nd ila ha T Cambodia N mNะlsmI:a Mondul Seima am tn ie fต)aMg V Thmar Bang

# sตac;manCฝy Smach Meanchey ekaHkug Koh Kong

ERsGMbil buTumsaKr Srae Ambel KIrIsaKr Botum Sakor Kiri Sakor kMBg;sil a Kampong Seila QUkCMuKIrI Chhuk Chum Kiri

s wgh av GgมrCฝy Stueng hav  RBnb; kMBt Angkor Chey Prey Nob Kampot dgTg; # Dang Tong bna ymas # Banteay Meas mit Pa B # Mittakpheap Existing Mangrove 2005 kMBg;)ay Ekb # kMBg;Rtac Mangrove Disappeared from 2002 Kampong Bay Kep # Kampong Trach District Boundary 20 0 20 Kilometers dMNak;cegฅIr Damnak Chang'aeur Source: NCSC, 2007a.

Figure 4.1d Seabed Grass Distribution in the Coastal Waters

Source: NCSC, 2007a.

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Figure 4.1e Coral Distribution in the Coastal Waters

Source: NCSC, 2007a.

4.1.4 Seabed Grass Sea grass in Cambodia can be divided into two types: (i) Extensive sea grass meadows along the mainland; and (ii) Paths of seas grass interlinked with coral reefs around islands. Sea grass beds are vulnerable to impacts from two main sources: degradation of water quality and destructive fishing practices such as push nets and trawling in the sea grass beds. The change in water quality that affect the sea grasses is increasing siltation due to logging, increasing use of fertilizer and pesticides in the coastal agricultural areas and discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater (NCSC, 2007a).

Seabed grass occurs in sheltered estuaries in Cambodia, in the area between the Vietnamese island of Phu Quoc and the Kompot Bay in Cambodia. Seabed grass species include Enhalus acoroides, Cymodocea seradata, Syringodium isoetifolium, and Haloduel pinifolio (MoE, 1998).

A greatest area of seabed grass has been found in Kampot province (Figure 4.1d). No data and information regarding the changes in seabed grass distribution in the coastal province.

4.1.5 Coral Reefs According to the NCSC (2007a), coral reefs were reported from almost all areas around islands of the coast of Cambodia. Little has been known about the distribution, composition or health of these. Main continuing treats to the coral reef habitats are amongst others over-fishing, use of dynamite, other illegal fishing practices, harvest of coral reefs for trade, and degradation of water quality.

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Figure 4.1f Seabed Grass Distribution in Cambodia’s Coastal Zone

4.2 PROTECTED AREAS

A Royal Decree on "The Protected Natural Areas" was issued on November 01, 1993, which was empowered the Royal Government of Cambodia to lead, manage, plan and develop national protected area system, including protection of environment, land, forests, wetlands and coastal zone. There are 23 protected areas, covering an area of 3,273,200 hectares (18 % of Cambodia's total area). Up to 2002, Forest Administration (FA) has defined additional 1,346,225 ha (7.5% of the country’s total area) as conservation areas. The total protected natural area was up to 25.5% of the country’s total area. In 2003, there was an amendment to the protected area, reducing its surface area from 3,273,200 ha to 3,194,471 ha (17.64 % of the total area of the country). The total natural protected area has therefore been down to 25.14 % of the total area of the country (MoE, 2005, p. 116).

There are currently two major institutions responsible for the planning and implementation of the national system of protected areas in Cambodia, including (i) Department for Nature Conservation and Protection (DNCP) of the Ministry of Environment; and (ii) Forestry Administration (FA) within the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.

In 2003, the DNCP had 97 staff working in the 5 main offices at the national level. Other 525 staff members were deployed in 59 protected areas units or one staff for more than 6,000 hectares. The number of staff assigned to each protected area ranged from 7 to 35 staff depending on the need and remoteness of the protected area. Some protected area units had set up an efficient organizational structure, including sections for administration, patrolling and enforcement, environmental and tourism education. The provincial and municipal departments of environment are under the direct control of MoE and are responsible for implementing environmental policy, preventing violations in protected areas and preparing proposals for the creation of new protected areas and extension of existing areas in cooperation with relevant departments (ICEM, 2003, p. 57).

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Most staff are paid by the government with an average salary of USD 20 per month while others are paid by other international and national organizations in which they have projects involving the protected area.

The protected areas are facing a number of problems such as illegal logging, collection of fuel-wood, non-timber forest product collections, habitat degradation, and disturbance resulting from human activities. These issues can be best addressed through the development and implementation of management underpinned by the participation of local communities and authorities.

Table 4.2a Protected Areas in Cambodia’s Northeastern Area

Name Area, ha Province Some Unique Characteristics

National Parks (NP) Kirirom NP 35,000 Koh Kong and High elevation pine forest with large Kampong Speu mammals including elephants. Bokor NP 140,000 Kampot High elevation Sphagnum bogs, Podocarpus forest with large mammals including tigers, elephant, and Sun Bear. Kep NP 5,000 Kampot Secondary lowland evergreen forest. Ream NP 21,000 Kampong Sam Secondary lowland evergreen forest with some mangrove forest plus two islands. Botum Sakor NP 171,250 Koh Kong Lowland evergreen forest heavily degraded by illegal logging, mangrove forest, and the only coastal Dacrydium/Podocarpus swamp forest in Cambodia. Virachey NP 332,500 Stung Treng, A high altitude forest in northeast Cambodia Rattanakiri with a different set of biogeographic influences than in the Southwest. An important habitat for several threatened species, including tiger, elephant, and douc langur. Koulen NP 37,500 Siem Reap Located in catchment area of Siem Reap stream. It is an important historic area. Wildlife Sanctuaries (WS) Aural WS 253,750 Koh Kong, High mountain (1,743 m) in Cambodia with a Pursat, wide diversity of vegetation ranging from dry Kampong Dipterocarpus/Podocarpus forest to medium Chhnang altitude evergreen forest. Peam Krasaop WS 23,750 Koh Kong Most important mangrove forests in Cambodia and possibly the most extensive within the Gulf of Thailand. Phnom Samkos WS 333,750 Koh Kong High altitude area with a wide diversity of forest types. Supports a range of threatened birds in the area.

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Name Area, ha Province Some Unique Characteristics

Roniem Daun Sam 40,021 Battambang Lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen WS forest of unknown condition. Kulen Promtep WS 402,500 Siem Reap, The largest area in the protected areas Preah Vihear system intended to protect wildlife. The principal habitats are lowland open dipterocarp forest (which historically held a high density of kouprey), lowland evergreen/semi-evergreen forest, and the largest swamp in northern Cambodia. Very important for large water birds such as Giant Ibis and Sarus Cranes. Boeng Per WS 242,500 Preah Vihear, A previous wildlife sanctuary, it reportedly has Siem Reap, good populations of wild cattle and deer. The Kampong Thom area has some important archeological sites. Lomphat WS 250,000 Mondulkiri, The area comprises mostly evergreen forest Rattanakiri on basaltic soils, grassy glades, open deciduous forest, mixed deciduous forest, pockets of evergreen/semi-evergreen forest, revering habitats and small wetlands. Banteng and Asian wild dog are present and elephants migrate to the area at certain times of the year. Also a breeding ground for sarus crane. Phnom Prich WS 222,500 Mondulkiri, The habitats in this area is similar to those at Kratie Lomphat – mostly evergreen forest on basaltic soils, grassy glades, open deciduous forest, mixed deciduous forest, reverie habitats and small wetlands. Phnom Namlear 47,500 Mondulkiri Mainly evergreen forest which harbors the WS Green Peafowl, Germain’s Peacock Pheasant, Great Hornbill. Snuol WS 135,000 Kratie Consists mostly of logged evergreen forest on a heavily dissected plateau. Protected Landscapes (PL) Angkor PL 10,800 Koh Kong This mostly forested area includes the Angkor temple complex, perhaps the single-most important archaeological/cultural site in southeast Asia. Banteay Chhmar 81,200 Banteay The area was included for its sites, including PL Meanchey an important temple site. Preah Vihear PL 5,000 Preah Vihear The area was included for its archaeological/cultural value, it includes an important temple.

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Name Area, ha Province Some Unique Characteristics

Multiple-use Areas (MUA) Dong Peng MUA 27,700 Koh Kong Lowland coastal wetlands – mostly mangrove and melaleuca swamp forest. Samlaut MUA 60,000 Battambang An evergreen forest area within the watershed of the Sangke river. It has been

denuded by mining operations causing severe erosion and increased sedimentation of the river, which flows into the Tonle Sap Lake. Tonle Sap MUA 316,250 Kampong Long-standing icthyological reserve. Great Chhang, biological, hydrological and cultural/economic Kampong Thom importance. Protected Forest Trapang Thmor 12,650 Banteay Meanchey Preah Vihia 190,027 Preah Vihear Zoo and Tamoa 1,200 Takeo wildlife Saving Center Neang Nuon (hard 13 Preah Vihear wood) Seed Plantation Seed Plantation 117 Kampong Thom Mondulkiri 429,438 Mondulkiri Seima Joint 305,440 Mondulkiri, Conservation Area Kratie Kbal Chhay 6,027 Kampong Som Kravaign Mountain 401,313 Koh Kong, Pursat, Kampong Speu

Source: MoE, 2005.

Notes:

• National Parks: Natural and scenic area of significance for their scientific, education and recreational values. • Wildlife Sanctuaries: Natural areas where possess some outstanding ecosystems, features and/or species of flora, and/or fauna of natural scientific importance which require protection for their perpetuation.

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Figure 4.2a Cambodia’s Protected Areas

Source: ICEM, 2003.

Figure 4.2b Cambodia’s Biodiversity Regions

Source: ICEM, 2003.

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• Multiple-Use Areas: Areas that provide for the sustainable use of water resources, timber, wildlife, fish, pasture, and recreation with the conservation of nature primarily oriented to support these economic activities.

4.3 BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT REGIONS IN CAMBODIA

As being stated by ICEM (2003, p. 29), biodiversity management regions in Cambodia was identified and divided into seven regions as following (Figure 4.2b):

• South-western Coastal Ranges and Marine Waters: Wet tropical forest including the Cardamom and Elephant Ranges, coastal formations and marine areas generally associated with sandstones. The area has low population densities and is dominated by natural and modified landscapes used for forestry, marine fisheries and the maintenance of biological diversity. Principal ethnic groups living in this area are the Khmer, Pear, Chong and Sóach. • Northern Plains: Lowland dry evergreen and associated deciduous forests on sandstones. The region has low population densities and natural and modified landscapes used for forestry, the maintenance of biological diversity, and limited agriculture. Ethnic groups living in this area include Khmer, Pear, Kouy and Stieng. • North-eastern Forests: Lowland deciduous forests and limited dry evergreen forest generally associated with sandstones and basalts respectively. The area has low population densities and is dominated by natural and modified landscapes used for forestry, the maintenance of biological diversity, and limited agriculture. Ethnic groups living in this area include the Tampoun, Brao, Rhade, Stieng and Khmer. • Kampong Cham: Remnant dry evergreen forests associated with basalts. High population densities and extensive agriculture, plantations and limited forestry. Principal ethnic groups living in this area are the Khmer and Cham. • Mekong Delta Region: Characterized by very high population density, these alluvial areas are heavily dominated by agriculture and semi-natural wetlands. Ethnic groups living in this area include Khmer, Cham and some Vietnamese. • Tonle Sap Floodplain: This extensive alluvial plain is characterized by unique flooded forest and swamp forests, much of which has been subject to degrading influences. Ethnic groups living in this area are Khmer, Cham and some Vietnamese. • North-western region: The Pailin area features lowland evergreen and deciduous forests associated with limestone outcrops. The people living this area are generally Khmer with small numbers of Burmese migrants working in the gem fields. Population densities are higher on the fertile lowland soils of the Battambang Plain, which is highly productive for agriculture.

4.4 SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE

Waste collection systems are usually responsible by Provincial Department of Public Work and Transport for most provinces in Cambodia. Waste collections have sometime been contracted to private company. The wastes have been collected from households, markets, hospitals, and enterprises and disposed of at open dumping site. Sometimes, the wastes have been burned during the dry season.

Wastes are disposed of in open areas, roads, rivers, streams, and lakes, borrow pits, forest areas, and private properties. This contributes to unsanitary conditions in urban areas such as unpleasant smells,

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blockage of drains resulting in flooding, and rainwater run-off from refuse causing surface water pollution.

No data and information are available in terms of amount of wastes generated by each province in the northeastern area. The solid waste generation in the coastal provinces in 2005 is provided in Table 4.4a below.

Table 4.4a Solid Waste Generated by Households and Markets in 2005

Province/District Domestic Waste, Market Waste, Waste Amount tons/day tons/day kg/km2/day

Kampot Province 292.18 58.44 62 Angkor Chey 39.45 7.89 125 Banteay Meas 44.58 8.92 117 Chhuk 46.51 9.30 35 Chum Kiri 22.56 4.51 50 Dang Tong 26.24 5.25 83 Kampong Trach 45.01 9.00 129 Kampot 50.29 10.06 33 Kampong Bay 17.55 3.51 303 Koh Kong Province 65.83 13.17 5 Botum Sakor 9.85 1.97 8 Kiri Sakor 3.25 0.65 5 Kaoh Kong 4.10 0.82 3 Smach Mean Chey 12.82 2.56 128 Mondol Seima 6.15 1.23 4 Srae Ambel 19.30 3.86 8 Thma Bang 2.68 0.54 1 Kampong Seila 7.69 1.54 8 Sihanoukville 85.30 17.06 57 Mittakpheap 36.59 7.32 193 Prey Nob 42.33 8.47 36 Stueng Hav 6.37 1.27 48 Kep Municipality 17.33 3.47 99 Damnak Chang'aeur 11.61 2.32 103 Kep 5.72 1.14 92 Source: NCSC, 2007a.

Waste water systems in the two areas are very weak. They have not been maintained for a number of years. There are currently no waste water treatment facilities in the two areas. Wastewater from households, industries, and other sources has been discharged into public waterways, streams, and finally to the rivers and the sea without treatment. No precise information on waste water generation for the two areas.

4.5 NOISE AND AIR QUALITY

No measurements have been made of air and noise quality in the northeastern and southwestern areas. It has been observed that the air pollution sources in the two areas are likely to be road traffic and possibly maritime traffic in the southwestern area.

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4.6 CLIMATE CHANGE

Cambodia ratified the Convention on December 18, 1995 and the Convention entered into force on March 17, 1996. The base year of the Inventory used was 1994 and would cover three mandatory

greenhouse gases (GHGs): carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) for five major sectors: (i) Energy, (ii) Industrial Process, (iii) Agriculture, (iv) Waste, and (iv) Land Use Change and Forestry. The result of the inventory indicated that in 1994, Cambodia removed and emitted

64,850 and 59,708 Gg of CO2 equivalent, respectively. In 1994, Cambodia contributed about 74%, 18%, and 8% of CO2, CH4, and N2O equivalent emission respectively. Total emissions and removal by land use change and forestry (LUCF) are presented in Table 4.6a below. In conclusion, by 2020 a main source of greenhouse gas emissions would be LUCF among others.

Table 4.6a Baseline and Projection of GHG Emissions and Removals by Sectors (Gigagram)

Source/Sink 1994 2000 2010 2020

Emissions Energy 1,881 2,622 4,780 8,761 Industrial Processes 50 - - - Agriculture 10,560 12,030 17,789 26,821 Waste 273 331 425 523 LUCF 55,216 58,379 57,627 61,512 Total Emissions 67,980 73,362 80,621 97,617 Removal by LUCF -73,122 -67,118 -61,090 -53,769 Net Emissions -5,142 6,244 19,531 43,848 Source: MoE & UNDP-GEF, 2001.

4.7 WATER QUALITY

4.7.1 Freshwater Quality

Northeastern Area

According to MRC (2004, p. 23), the chemical composition at Kratie was remarkably similar to the mean composition of world river waters. The composition changes upstream, particularly between Kratie and Pakse, reflecting the influence of the large tributaries flowing in from eastern Cambodia which drain the Eastern Highlands. Concentrations of nitrogen were well below the world average. However, concentrations of total phosphorus were relatively high. These concentrations were almost certainly associated with suspended solids in the water.

Table 4.7a Mean and Median Values for Total Suspended Solids and Total Phosphorus

TSS, mg/l Total P, mg/l

Mean Median Mean Median Mekong (Chiang Saen) 397 222 0.06 0.05 Mekong (Pakse) 215 130 0.04 0.04 Mekong (Kratie) 122 74 0.02 0.02 Source: MRC, 2003.

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Table 4.7b Mean Composition of River Waters of the World, Asia, and three Sites on the Mekong. Data for the World and Asia from Wetzel (1983)

2+ 2+ + + 3+ 2- - - Source/Sink Ca Mg Na K Fe SO4 Cl SiO2 NO3 HCO3- 2- CO3 Asia 18.4 5.6 5.5 3.8 0.01 8.4 8.7 11.7 0.7 79 World Average 15 4.1 6.3 2.3 0.67 11.2 7.8 13.1 1 58 Mekong (Chiang 28 6.6 9.9 1.9 0.06 17.8 8.8 11.4 0.3 109 Saen) Mekong (Pakse) 23.1 4.6 6.7 1.6 0.18 17.1 8.0 12.2 0.1 83 Mekong (Kratie) 15.5 4.1 6.9 1.4 1.21 9.3 5.0 11.4 0.1 62 Source: MRC, 2003.

Southwestern Area

Water quality monitoring for coastal water has been conducted by a Coastal Coordination Unit (CCU) in the MoE from June 2004 to April 2007. The following are major parameters, including total suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, and total phosphorus that have been monitored by the CCU.

A location of coastal river and marine water sampling stations are provided in Figure 4.7a below.

Figure 4.7a Marine Water Sampling Stations in Cambodia’s Coastal Zone (2004-2007)

Source: NCSC, 2006.

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Total Suspended Solids (TSS):

According to the NCSC (2007c), in the period of 2006-2007, total suspended solids (TSS) have ranged from about 7 to 14 mg/l, except at the Prek Kampong Smach, Prek Trapeang Ropov, and Prek Kbal Romeas, where the concentrations were 20 mg/l, 18 mg/l, and 19 mg/l respectively. If compared to the last year’s values, they have slightly decreased. Anyway, the concentrations of TSS were not so high compared to the MoE’s Water Quality Standards for rivers indicating standard values between 25 mg/l to 100 mg/l.

Figure 4.7b Comparison of Total Suspended Solid during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005- 2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l)

TSS 50.0 40.0 30.0 /l

mg 20.0 10.0 0.0

o i t h y a ek m ap h c a s T ung o ac da u a Pa o ao S opov h B K me oh k Ta g T S R k To ng e oek Sm o Ro Ka r ng R on ng T ng oh l k P a o k a Pre mp a p nd p e ong Ka b a A r p k 2004-2005 Pre am P ape K Tr ek m r k Ka k Pre re ek Pr k K Ka k T Pr 2005-2006 re k re P Pre P P Pre 2006-2007

Source: NCSC, 2007c.

Dissolved Oxygen:

The concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the period of 2006-2007 ranged between 4.2 mg/l and 4.8 mg/l (NCSC, 2007c). The values of the DO during the period of 2006-2007 have been more or less similar to the previous periods of 2004-2005 and 2005-2006. The DO concentrations were in good condition if compared to the MoE’s Water Quality Standards for rivers, indicating values between 2.0 mg/l and 7.5 mg/l.

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Figure 4.7c Comparison of Dissolved Oxygen during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l)

Bottom DO 8.0

6.0

/l 4.0 mg 2.0

0.0

o i t h y a ek m ap h c a s T ung o ac da u a Pa o ao S opov h B K me oh k Ta g T S R k To ng e oek Sm o Ro Ka r ng R on ng T ng oh l k P a o k a Pre mp a p nd p e ong Ka b a A r p k 2004-2005 Pre am P ape K Tr ek m r k Ka k Pre re ek Pr k K Ka k T Pr 2005-2006 re k re P Pre P P Pre 2006-2007

Source: NCSC, 2007c.

Biological Oxygen Demand:

Figure 4.7d Comparison of Biological Oxygen Demand during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l)

BOD 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 /l 4.0

mg 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0

o i k p t h a g e m ov ay s T o ch da uc a Pa un To Sa op o B e h Sa k ma o Ta Ro g e S R k Kh om k g n h T ong Ka o To g o p l R k Pre an d ong k n ang Pre m a p p e e Ka a An r po p k 2004-2005 Pre r P Ka ek am m ra k k Kb k T Pre re Pr k K Ka k T P 2005-2006 re k re Pre Pre P P Pre 2006-2007

Source: NCSC, 2007c.

The levels of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) during the period of 2006-2007 have been approximately 0.7mg/l. If compared to the previous years, the values of the BOD in the period of 2004-

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2005 were slightly highest, particularly at Prek Khdat station (approximately 6.0 mg/l). Compared to the MoE’s Water Quality Standards for fresh water of between 1 mg/l to 10 mg/l, the present levels does not look high.

Total Phosphorus:

The Total Phosphorus levels varied from about 0.007mg/l to about 0.015mg/l. As a comparison the MoE’s Water Quality Standards for lakes and reservoirs indicate standard values between 0.005 mg/l and 0.05 mg/l.

Figure 4.7e Comparison of Total Phosphorus during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l)

TP 0.06 0.05 0.04 /l 0.03

mg 0.02 0.01 0.00

o i t h y a ek m ap h c a s T ung o ac da u a Pa o ao S opov h B K me oh k Ta g T S R k To ng e oek Sm o Ro Ka r ng R on ng T ng oh l k P a o k a Pre mp a p nd p e ong Ka b a A r p k 2004-2005 Pre am P ape K Tr ek m r k Ka k Pre re ek Pr k K Ka k T Pr 2005-2006 re k re P Pre P P Pre 2006-2007

Source: NCSC, 2007c

4.7.2 Marine Water Quality Total Suspended Solids:

According to NCSC (2007c), the concentrations of TSS through the entire transect from Koh Kong 1 in the Northwest part of the monitoring area to Kep 6 in the Southeast part of the monitoring area have not been much different, ranging from 16 mg/l to 24 mg/l. If compared to the last year’s situation, the levels of concentration were low somewhat in most stations, except at Kep 6, the level of TSS concentration was considerably lower (from 44.5 mg/l down to 23.8 mg/l). This indicates that the water condition at Kep 6 has been gradually recovered to normal condition.

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Figure 4.7f Comparison of Total Suspended Solid during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005- 2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l)

TSS 50.0

40.0

30.0 /l

mg 20.0

10.0

0.0

1 5 6 g 2A 2B 3A 3B e 4 t p n e e ill o e o ng ng ill ill v K K o o v v k mp h K K u h h uk uk no Ka Ko o o no a K K a ano ih 2005-2006 ih ih S S S 2006-2007

Source: NCSC, 2007c

Dissolved Oxygen:

Figure 4.7g Comparison of Dissolved Oxygen during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l)

Bottom DO 8.0

6.0 l / 4.0 mg 2.0

0.0

1 5 6 g 2A 2B 3A 3B e 4 t p n e ill o e o ng ng e v K o o ill ill k mp K v v u h K K o h h uk uk n Ka Ko o o no a K K a ano h 2005-2006 ih ih Si S S 2006-2007

Source: NCSC, 2007c.

The values of the DO during the period of 2006-2007 have been more or less similar to the previous periods of 2004-2005 and 2005-2006 (ranged between 4.0 mg/l and 5.0 mg/l). The DO concentrations

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were in good condition if compared to the MoE’s Water Quality Standards for rivers, indicating values between 2.0 mg/l and 7.5 mg/l.

Biological Oxygen Demand:

The levels of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) during the period of 2006-2007 have been approximately 0.7 mg/l. If compared to the previous years, the values of the BOD have slightly decreased. Compared to the MoE’s Water Quality Standards for fresh water of between 1 mg/l to 10 mg/l, the present levels does not look high.

Figure 4.7h Comparison of Biological Oxygen Demand during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l)

BOD 3.5 3.0 2.5

/l 2.0

mg 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

1 A B 4 5 6 2 2 3A e p ng g g e 3B ll ot e o n n e i p K o o ill ill kv m K v v a K K ou oh h h uk uk n K K no a Ko Ko a ano h 2005-2006 ih ih Si S S 2006-2007

Source: NCSC, 2007c

Total Phosphorus:

The Total Phosphorus levels in the period of 2006-2007 varied from about 0.007 mg/l to about 0.015 mg/l. As a comparison the MoE’s Water Quality Standards for lakes and reservoirs, the present values are not exceeded, indicating standard values between 0.005 mg/l and 0.05 mg/l (NCSC, 2007c).

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Figure 4.7i Comparison of Total Phosphorus during the periods of 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 (mg/l)

TP 0.06 0.05 0.04 /l 0.03 mg 0.02 0.01 0.00

1 5 6 g 2A 2B 3A 3B e 4 t p n e e ill o e o ng ng ill ill v K K o o v v k mp h K K u h h uk uk no Ka Ko o o no a K K a ano ih 2005-2006 ih ih S S S 2006-2007

Source: NCSC, 2007c.

5. INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK

5.1 POLICIES, STRATEGIES, AND PLANS

A number of important national strategies and plans regarding the environmental management and natural resources conservation are summarized as follows:

• Rectangular Strategy 2003-2008 has good governance and implementation as its backbone and will be announced as soon as the new government is formed. The strategy has four pillars as following: (i) High economic growth and enhanced competitiveness; (ii) Job-creation; (iii) Improved social equity; and (iv) Increased public sector effectiveness.

The enabling environment for successful implementation includes:

(i) Peace, political stability and social order; (ii) Partnership with development agencies; (iii) Macroeconomic and financial stability; and (iv) Integration into the regional and world economy.

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The Rectangular Strategy identifies the following as the priority sectors: (i) Agriculture; (ii) Private sector development and employment; (iii) Physical infrastructure; and (iv) Human resource development.

• National Water Resources Policy (NWRP) was formulated in 2004 aiming at providing guidelines for efficient and effective water resources management, socio-economic development and welfare of the population and ensuring a sustainable environment. • Strategic Framework for the Water Sector followed on from ADB’s assistance in creating the National Water Sector Profile, and supported MOWRAM in the development of its strategy. • National Water Resources Strategy for Cambodia was formulated more or less contemporaneously with the Strategic Framework for the Water Sector with the support of the World Bank through its Agricultural Productivity Improvement Program (APIP). • Water Sector Roadmap summarizes RGC’s goals for the water sector as a basis for setting priorities and planning investment and development assistance. It lists a range of indicators for three areas of ‘water sector outcomes’ (water reforms, water resources management, water service delivery) and for specific sector outputs. • Second Socioeconomic Development Plan, 2001 – 2005 (SEDP II) is the Government’s principal strategy for economic growth and poverty reduction and includes a target to reduce the poverty headcount index from 36 to 31 percent in order to reduce poverty by half in fifteen years. • National Poverty Reduction Strategy 2003 –2005 (NPRS) has been prepared using SEDPII as its key building block. In it the priority poverty reduction actions include maintaining macroeconomic stability; improving rural livelihoods; expanding job opportunities; improving capabilities; strengthening institutions and improving governance; reducing vulnerability and strengthening social inclusion; promoting gender equity; and priority focus on people. • Governance Action Plan of April 2001 (GAP) was prepared by the Council for Administrative Reform and has as its main function the definition and relationship of public power and authority to management and control over societal resources. Crosscutting areas covered by GAP include public finance, civil service reform and anti-corruption, judicial and legal system reform, demobilization of armed forces and natural resource management. In the field of natural resource management, issues related to land, forestry and fisheries management are addressed as well as the social question of resource access. • National Environmental Action Plan 1998 – 2002 (NEAP) aims to integrate environmental concerns into economic activity and ensure future maintenance of the functional capacities of Cambodia’s ecosystems. NEAP adopts a precautionary approach, concentrating on environmental protection rather than the more difficult and costly post-impact rehabilitation. Priority areas of intervention are forestry policy, fisheries and agriculture in the Tonle Sap, coastal fisheries management, biodiversity conservation and protected areas, environmental education, energy development and urban waste management. • National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2002 (NBSAP) was created with a view towards integration of biodiversity conservation and sustainable natural resource use concepts

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into an overall poverty reduction strategy. NBSAP provides a framework for action at all levels that will enhance productivity, diversity and integrity of natural resources. Institutional Framework The government structure is based on three main levels of administration with the following areas of authority:

• Central Level: Coordination, resource allocation, annual work plans and budgets, Ministry services and policy formulation; • Provincial Level: Provincial investment fund, provincial program support, planning and budgeting, contract administration and support to Commune/Sangkat Councils; • Commune/Sangkat Level: Commune/Sangkat fund, commune/Sangkat planning system, project implementation.

The following are institutions/ministries involving in the management of environment protection and natural resources:

• Ministry of the Environment (MoE) was established in 1993. The MoE has the following duties and responsibilities: (i) Develop environmental policies in the spirit of sustainable country development and to implement the National and Regional Environmental Action Plans in collaboration with other concerned ministries; (ii) Prepare and implement environmental legal instruments to ensure sustainable development; (iii) Institute Environmental Impact Assessments of all proposed and on-going projects and activities, both public and private, and prepare proposals on processing procedures as well as to review the EIA process; (iv) Advise relevant ministries on the conservation, development, and management of natural resources including land, water, air, geology, ecology, mines, energy, oil and gas, stones and sand, gems, timber and non-timber forest products, wildlife, fishes, and fishery resources with sustainability; administer the Natural Protected Area systems in collaboration with the concerned ministries following the Royal Decree on the Creation and Designation of Natural Protected Areas of November1, 1993 and propose new areas to be included in the system; (v) Prepare inventories which describe the source, nature, and amount of pollutants such as liquid and solid waste, pollution, hazardous elements, smoke, noise, and vibration and take measures to prevent, reduce, and control the environmental pollution in collaboration with concerned ministries; (vi) Prepare inspection procedures on pollution sources and make a report on such offenses to competent institutions in collaboration with the concerned ministries. Enforce provisional fines and other provisions as stated in Chapter 9 of the Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management. (vii) Collect, analyze, and manage environmental data and prepare annual reports on the environmental situation in Cambodia. Provide information concerning its activities and environmental protection, natural resource management, and environmental situation to the public and encourage them to participate in the process;

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(viii) Prepare and conduct environmental education program at all levels, including local communities, in collaboration with concerned ministries, and national and international organizations; (ix) Initiate and prepare proposals to the Royal Government that fulfill international Agreements, Conventions, and Memoranda of Understanding related to Environmental Protection and to implement such international Conventions, Agreements, and Memoranda of Understandings; (x) Promote incentives for investment projects which facilitate environmental protection and nature conservation; and (xi) Cooperate with national and international organizations, non-governmental organizations, local communities, and other countries to ensure environmental protection in the Kingdom of Cambodia. • Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) plays an important role in planning and management of water and related natural resources through its three departments. The MAFF has the following duties and responsibilities:

(i) Prepare and implement agricultural development policies to promote the living standard of citizens; (ii) Participate in the preparation of policies for reform and use of land; (iii) Instruct and develop plans for agricultural development; (iv) Coordinate, follow up, and evaluate the policy implementation and agricultural development activities; (v) Monitor the evolution of natural resources of the agricultural field and facilitate such natural resource business to meet the needs of the Kingdom and maintain ecological equilibrium; (vi) Define provisions for governing, preserving, and protecting natural resources of the agricultural field and follow up its implementation; (vii) Conduct assessments and human resources training for participation in agricultural development by promoting the technical understanding and increasing the effective use of such resources; (viii) Provide advocacy and necessary technical guidance for farmers to promote agricultural production and productivity; (ix) Define policies and follow up the performance and promote and improve the functioning of vocational agencies and associations dealing with agriculture; (x) Research and disseminate scientific and economic technologies in all agricultural sectors; and (xi) Instruct on land development and land quality improvement and proper use of agricultural land, seedlings, breeding, chemical fertilizers, and agricultural chemicals based on the • Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MoWRAM) was created in 1999 as a reflection of the importance that RCG placed on water resource matters. Previously water issues were under the Directorate General of Irrigation, Meteorology and Hydrology in MAFF. The role and duties of MOWRAM are in general to conduct and manage the water resources of the Kingdom of Cambodia. Specifically, MOWRAM’s role is to:

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(i) Define the policies and strategic development of water resources in order to serve the exploitation, development and sustainable conservation at the national and international level consistent with the policy program of the Royal Government of Cambodia; (ii) Study and research the potential of available water resources, including surface, underground and atmospheric; (iii) Prepare the short, medium and long term plans for the exploitation, development and conservation of water resources and meteorology to serve the national economy and living standards of Cambodian people in cities and rural areas (iv) Manage and supervise all of the direct and indirect exploitations on water resources in a rational manner and to minimize water/flood related disasters; (v) Draft the water law, including major principles and regulations related to the management of water resources, and monitoring the enforcement of the law; (vi) Collect, compile and exploit meteorological and hydrological data to serve other sectors of the national society; (vii) Provide technical support and advise to the private sector, organizations, communities, and all people regarding the improvement and exploitation of water resources; (viii) Expand and provide new technologies and promote training; (ix) Strengthen and expand the national and international collaboration on water resources management and meteorology; and (x) Participate in the implementation of works by the Mekong River Commission consistent with the obligations of MoWRAM. • Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy (MIME) is responsible for water supply to provincial towns through its Directorate of Provincial Water Supply. Single-purpose schemes involving hydropower are also the responsibility of MIME. Allocation of areas of responsibility between MOWRAM and MIME is covered in an agreement concluded in March 1999 but this needs to be re-visited once the new Water Law is passed. • Ministry of Planning (MOP) has two main divisions – the General Directorate of Planning, and the National Institute of Statistics. The General Directorate of Planning comprises five departments: general planning, economics, social planning, investment, and international affairs. A major responsibility of this Directorate is the formulation of Socio Economic Development Plans. • Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction (MLMUPC) is the government agency with primary responsibility for land management, including policy and coordination of land registration and administration, land use planning, geodetic and cadastral surveying, mapping and property valuation. Actual implementation of land registration, administration of land transactions, collection of land taxes and land use planning are carried out by the provincial and municipal offices of MLMUPC.

5.2 LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Laws, regulations, standards, and guidelines related to environment protection and natural resources management are as follows:

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• Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia, 1993 • Royal Decree on Protection of Protected Areas, 1993 • Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management, 1996 • Law on Fisheries, 2006 • Sub-decree on Environmental Impact Assessment Process, 1999 • Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control, 1999 • Sub-decree on Solid Waste Management, 1999 • Sub-decree on Air Pollution and Noise Disturbance Control, 2000 • Regulation of Inter-Ministry of Interior and Environment Solid Waste and Refuse Management throughout Provinces and Cities in Cambodia, 2003 • Prakas/Circular on Guideline for Conducting Environmental Impact Assessment Report, 2000

5.2.1 Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia, 1993 As stated in the Article 59 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia which was adopted in 1993, the State is required to protect the environment and balance of abundant natural resources and establish a precise plan of management of land, water, air, wind, geology, ecological system, mines, energy, petrol and gas, rocks and sand, gems, forests and forest products, wildlife, fish and aquatic resources.

5.2.2 Royal Decree on Protection of Protected Areas, 1993 Under this royal decree, the MoE is empowered to manage and supervise the protected natural areas of the nation. These natural areas are as following:

• Natural Parks: Areas reserved for nature and scenic views to be protected for scientific, educational and entertainment purposes. • Wildlife Preserves: Natural areas preserved at their natural conditions in order to protect wildlife, vegetation and ecology balance. • Protected Scenic View Areas: Areas to be maintained as scenic views for pleasure and tourism. • Multi Purposes Areas: Areas necessary for the stability of the water, forestry, wildlife, and fisheries resource, for pleasure, and for the conservation of nature with a view of assuring economic development.

5.2.3 Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management, 1996 The law on environmental protection and natural resource management was promulgated by the King on December 24, 1996. The objectives of the law are as following:

• To protect and upgrade the environment quality and public health by means of prevention, reduction and control of pollution;

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• To make assessment on impacts to environment, before issuance of decisions by the royal government on all submitted proposed projects; • To ensure the rational and sustainable preservation, development, management and the use of the natural resources of the Kingdom of Cambodia; • To encourage and provide the possibility to the public to participate in the protection of environment and the management of the natural resources; and • To suppress those acts adversely affecting the environment.

The law describes the duties and authority of MoE, which, for many purposes, is requested to collaborate with other ministries and institutions. The law has provisions for:

• Environmental planning; • Environmental impact assessment (EIA); • Natural resources and environment management; • Environmental protection; • Monitoring, record keeping and inspection; and • Public participation and access to information.

5.2.4 Law on Fisheries, 2006 The law on fisheries was promulgated by the King on May 21, 2006. The purposes of the law are as following:

• Ensure sustainable management of fisheries and fishery-related resources; • Promote development of aquaculture, fisheries products, and fisheries processing; and • Conserve sustainably biodiversity throughout the country.

This law consists of seventeen chapters as the following:

• Chapter 1: General provisions • Chapter 2: Fisheries administration • Chapter 3: Fisheries boundaries • Chapter 4: Sustainability of fisheries management • Chapter 5: Fisheries protection and conservation • Chapter 6: Management of flooded and mangrove forests • Chapter 7: Management of fisheries exploitation • Chapter 8: Exploitation within freshwater fishing boundary • Chapter 9: Exploitation within maritime fishing boundary • Chapter 10: Management of aquaculture • Chapter 11: Fisheries communities

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• Chapter 12: Transportation and trade of fisheries products • Chapter 13: License • Chapter 14: Procedures for violation resolution • Chapter 15: Penalties • Chapter 16: Application of court • Chapter 17: Final provisions

5.2.5 Sub-decree on Environmental Impact Assessment Process, 1999 The purpose of this sub-decree is to: (i) determine an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for every private and public project or activity. The assessment shall be reviewed by the Ministry of Environment prior to submission to the Royal Government for a decision; (ii) determine the type and size of the proposed private and public projects and activities, including existing and ongoing activities subject to the process of EIA; and (iii) encourage public participation in the implementation of the EIA process and take into account their input and suggestions in the process of project approval.

This sub-decree consists of eight chapters and one annex as the following:

• Chapter 1: General provisions • Chapter 2: Institutional responsibilities • Chapter 3: EIA requirements for proposed projects • Chapter 4: EIA review process for proposed projects • Chapter 5: EIA review process for existing projects • Chapter 6: Conditions for approving projects • Chapter 7: Penalties • Chapter 8: Final provisions - Annex 1: List of the projects requiring an IEIA or EIA

5.2.6 Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control, 1999 The purpose of this sub-decree is to regulate water pollution control in order to prevent and reduce the pollution of public water areas so that the protection of human health and the conservation of bio- diversity may be ensured.

This sub-decree consists of eight chapters and five annexes as the following:

• Chapter 1: General provisions • Chapter 2: Provisions on waste and hazardous discharge • Chapter 3: Effluent discharge permit • Chapter 4: Monitoring of pollution sources • Chapter 5: Water pollution monitoring in public water areas • Chapter 6: Inspection procedures

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• Chapter 7: Penalties • Chapter 8: Final provisions - Annex 1: Type of hazardous substances - Annex 2: Effluent standard for pollution sources discharging wastewater in public water areas or sewers - Annex 3: Type of pollution sources requiring permission from the MoE before discharging or transporting their wastewater - Annex 4: Water quality standard in public water areas for biodiversity conservation - Annex 5: Water quality standard in public water areas for public health protection

This sub-decree provides that standards for effluent discharge from any sources of pollution shall meet the requirements as specified in the Annex 2 of this sub-decree.

This sub-decree also strictly prohibits the discharge of waste water from any sources of pollution that is not consistent with the standards for effluent discharge as provided in the Article 4 and Article 5 of this sub-decree. The disposal of solid waste or any garbage or hazardous substances into public water areas or into public drainage system shall be strictly prohibited (Article 8). Article 8 of this sub-decree also provides that the storage or disposal of solid waste or any garbage and hazardous substances that lead to the pollution of water of the public water areas shall be strictly prohibited. Article 10 provides that the discharge or transport of wastewater from any sources of pollution to other places for any purpose is subject to prior permit from the MoE. Type of pollution sources requiring permission from the MOE is spelt out in Annex 3 of this sub-decree.

The sub-decree also specifies provisions regarding the inspection procedures conducted by an officer of the MoE in collaboration with the ministries concerned. Similarly, the penalty and punishment within the sub-decree are taken in accordance with the Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management.

5.2.7 Sub-decree on Solid Waste Management, 1999 The purpose of this Sub-decree is to regulate solid waste management in a proper technical manner and to provide safety precautions in order to ensure the protection of human health and the conservation of bio-diversity. This sub-decree consists of six chapters and one annex as the following:

• Chapter 1: General provisions • Chapter 2: Household waste management • Chapter 3: Hazardous waste management • Chapter 4: Monitoring and inspection of hazardous waste management • Chapter 5: Penalties • Chapter 6: Final provisions - Annex 1: Types of hazardous wastes

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This sub-decree also requires the owner of the hazardous waste to be responsible for properly temporary storage of hazardous waste in a safe manner. The owner of the hazardous waste is also required to provide quarterly report to the MoE, which includes the following information (Article 14):

• Type and amount of the waste; • Temporary storage method; and • Treatment or elimination method.

A definition of the hazardous waste under this sub-decree (Article 3) refers to radioactivity substances, explosive substances, toxic substances, inflammable substances, pathogenic substances, irritating substances, corrosive substances, oxidizing substances, or other chemical substances which may cause danger to human health and animal or damage plants, public property and the environment. The hazardous waste may be generated from dwelling houses, industries, agricultural activities, business and service activities, mining, etc.

5.2.8 Sub-decree on Air Pollution and Noise Disturbance Control, 2000 The purpose of this Sub-decree is to protect the quality of the environment quality and public health from pollutants and noise disturbance through monitoring, curbing and mitigating activities.

This sub-decree consists of eight chapters and annexes as the following:

• Chapter 1: General provisions • Chapter 2: Provisions on emission of air pollutants and noise • Chapter 3: Application for authorization • Chapter 4: Pollution source monitoring • Chapter 5: Monitoring of air quality • Chapter 6: Inspection procedures • Chapter 7: Penalty • Chapter 8: Final provisions - Annex 1: Ambient air quality standards - Annex 2: Maximum allowable concentration of hazardous substances in ambient air - Annex 3: Maximum allowable standard of pollution substance for immovable sources in ambient air - Annex 4: Gas emission standard of mobile source - Annex 5: Maximum standard of noise emission level allowable for vehicles on public roads - Annex 6: Maximum standard of noise level allowable in public and residential areas (dB(A)) - Annex 7: Noise control standard at workshop, factory and industry - Annex 8: Standard of sulfur, lead, benzene, and hydrocarbon permitted in fuel and coal

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This sub-decree strictly prohibits the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere which exceeds the standard stipulated in Annexes 3 and 4 of this sub-decree. This sub-decree strictly prohibits:

• Noise emission which exceeds the standard stipulated in Annexes 5, 6 and 7 of this sub- decree. • The discharge or leakage of various flammable substances, fuel oil, and radioactive or chemical substance into the atmosphere, water, and soil.

5.2.9 Inter-Ministry Regulation of Interior and Environment Solid Waste and Refuse Management throughout Provinces and Cities in Cambodia, 2003 Under Article 4 of this regulation prohibits the disposal of solid waste and refuse in/on any street, public area, rural area, market place, entertainment, and recreation area, river bank, coastal area, forest area, navigation, drain, irrigated canal, and water use area.

Article 7 of this regulation prohibits the disposal of solid waste and refuse in any private land for any purpose.

Under Article 9 states that the solid waste and refuse are not allowed to be burned at any areas even open dumpsite or landfill.

5.2.10 Prakas/Circular on Guideline for Conducting Environmental Impact Assessment Report, 2000 This prakas requires private individuals, private companies, joint-venture companies, public companies, ministries, and government agencies must prepare a report of environmental impact assessments for the proposed and existing projects or activities, as stated in the Appendix of Sub- Decree No. 72 ANK/BK of September 11, 1999 on the process of Environmental Impact Assessment and submit the report to the MOE for approval. It also states that the Department of Monitoring and Environmental Impact Assessment shall be responsible for developing guidelines for preparing a report of EIA.

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REFERENCES

ADB. (2005). Country strategy and program (2005 – 2009). Manila: Author DoPS. (2006). Agricultural statistics 2005-2006. Phnom Penh: MAFF FA. (2003). Forestry statistics. Phnom Penh: MAFF. FA. (2004). Forestry statistics. Phnom Penh: MAFF. FA. (2005). Forestry statistics. Phnom Penh: MAFF. ICEM. (2003). Cambodia national report on protected areas and development: Review of protected areas and development in the Lower Mekong River Region. Queensland: Author. McAndrew, J. P., Mam, S., Hong, K., & Ly, B. (2003). Indigenous adaptation to a decline in natural resources: The experience of two Phnong communes in northeast Cambodia. Phnom Penh: CIDSE (International Cooperation for Development and Solidarity). MEF. (2007). Economic growth rate, 2000-2011. Retrieved August 02, 2007, from http://www.mef.gov.kh MoE & MoI. (2003). Regulation of inter-ministry of interior and environment solid waste and refuse management throughout provinces and cities in Cambodia. Phnom Penh: Author. MoE & UNDP-GEF. (2001). National greenhouse gas inventory for 1994. Phnom Penh: MoE. MoE & UNEP. (2006). Cambodia national environmental performance assessment report. Phnom Penh: MoE & Project Secretariat UNEP Regional Resource Center for Asia and the Pacific. MOE. (1998). National Environmental Action Plan 1998 – 2002. Phnom Penh: Author. MoE. (2000). Prakas/Circular on guideline for conducting environmental impact assessment report. Phnom Penh: Author. MoE. (2005). State of environment report 2004. Phnom Penh: MoE & Danida. MRC. (2003). State of the basin report. Phnom Penh: Author. NCSC. (2007a). Environment and Socio-economy report. Phnom Penh: MoE & Danida. NCSC. (2007b). Strategy for eco-tourism development in Peam Krasaop wildlife sanctuary. Phnom Penh: MoE & Danida. NCSC. (2007c). Water Quality Monitoring Report, May 2004 – April 2007. Phnom Penh: MoE & Danida. NIS. (1999). General Population Census of Cambodia 1998. Phnom Penh: MoP. NIS. (2003). Statistical year book 2003. Phnom Penh: MoP. NIS. (2005). Statistical year book 2005. Phnom Penh: MoP. NP. (1993). Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia. Phnom Penh: Author. RGC. (1993). Royal Decree on protection of protected areas. Phnom Penh: Author. RGC. (1996). Law on environmental protection and natural resources. Phnom Penh: Author. RGC. (1999a). Sub-decree on solid waste management. Phnom Penh: Author. RGC. (1999b). Sub-decree on water pollution control. Phnom Penh: Author.

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RGC. (1999c). Sub-decree on environmental impact assessment process. Phnom Penh: Author. RGC. (2000). Sub-decree on air pollution and noise disturbance control. Phnom Penh: Author. RGC. (2007). Country’s land and resources. Retrieved August 02, 2007, from http://www.cambodia. gov.kh/unisql1/egov/english/country.land&resource.html

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