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A “Kaleidoscope of Noble Pictures” (1: 389) Suggests, As I Argued Earlier, That “THE PERENNIAL DRAMAS OF THE EAST” Representations of the Middle East in the Writing and Art of Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Holman Hunt by DEANNA VICTORIA MASON A thesis submitted to the Department of English in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada June, 2009 Copyright © Deanna Victoria Mason, 2009 Abstract This dissertation studies depictions of the Middle East in the works of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. My discussion focuses on two prominent members of the Brotherhood— Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Holman Hunt—and utilizes an interdisciplinary approach that examines the poetry, prose, unpublished correspondence and journals, sketches, watercolours, and oil paintings that they produced prior to 1856. I argue that Rossetti and Hunt make use of the Middle East as a repository for and reflection of the ambiguities and ambivalences of their own positions as avant-garde artists and authors. Chapters Two and Three focus on the work of Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Chapter Two examines Rossetti’s juvenilia in order to trace the ways in which the young author- artist uses the Middle East as a platform from which to work out the interplay between narrative and image, the conceptualization of the role of the author and artist, and the use of realistically depicted elements in religious painting. Chapter Three continues this discussion of Rossetti through an investigation of the 1850 edition of his poem “The Burden of Nineveh,” which centres on an encounter with an ancient Assyrian statue, and I argue that Rossetti links this artifact to the P. R. B. and uses it to critique the artistic ideals of mid-nineteenth-century England. The next two chapters shift to an investigation of William Holman Hunt’s first visit to the Middle East in 1854-6, a journey that became a focal point of the author- artist’s career. Chapter Four makes extensive use of Hunt’s unpublished diaries and letters from his sojourn in the Holy Land to destabilize the widespread conception of the artist as a staunch imperialist and the foremost English religious painter of the nineteenth century. Building on this foundation, Chapter Five looks back to the three months that ii Hunt spent in Egypt in 1854 and investigates the ways in which the complex experiences that the author-artist describes in his unpublished letters from this period filter into the watercolours, sketches, and oil paintings that he executed in Egypt. iii Acknowledgments I would like first to thank my supervisor, Chris Bongie, for his commitment to this project, generosity with his knowledge, and lightning-quick turnaround times. Working with him has, I hope, made me a better scholar. I am also grateful to my second reader, Maggie Berg, a fellow lover of the Pre-Raphaelites who has shown great interest in this project from the time when it was nothing more than a proposal. I owe a debt of gratitude, as well, to Scott-Morgan Straker, who is not on my committee but whose generous advice and guidance came at a critical time. Finally, without the wonderful year-long graduate seminar on the Pre-Raphaelites organized by my external examiner David Bentley at the University of Western Ontario in 2000-2001, this project would never have come into existence, so I thank him for being the conduit through which the members of the P. R. B. have enriched my life with the beauty of their work. The Queen’s University School of Graduate Studies and Research generously funded a three-week research trip to the John Rylands University Library, Manchester, in 2005, and the time that I spent there—happily ensconced among William Holman Hunt’s diaries and letters—was an unforgettable experience and a source of re-inspiration. The friends that I made in the graduate program helped to make even the worst days more bearable and the best days a lot more fun. Sandy Bugeja and Adriana Hetram, in particular, have played important roles in my life—and at my wedding; I still miss our old Thursday “office hours.” I also want to thank my family—Murray and Victoria Mason, Beatriz Duarte, Bill and Paula Alakas, Will Alakas, and the big Alakas and Mason clans in Welland and Nottingham. I know that what I’ve been doing for the last few years hasn’t always been iv clear, but thank you for commiserating with me anyways! And to those of you who read various conference papers and chapters in an effort to find out exactly what I’ve been up to for all this time, thank you for your interest and your encouragement. My dear little friend Calliope Francesca deserves my gratitude (as well as many treats) for her devoted companionship through many, many stressful days and long nights of work. I am fortunate to have her to remind me of the things that really matter in life. I promise that I’ll have more time to play from now on! Finally, I want to thank my beloved husband, Brandon Alakas, who has stayed by my side and held my hand through all of the many fulfilling and painful moments of the Ph.D. program. You have been there to help me in so many ways each day, and I can honestly say that this dissertation would not have been finished without you. You truly are la mia anima gemella, and I dedicate this work to you with boundless gratitude and never-ending love. La nostra vita nuova comincia adesso! v Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgments iv Table of Contents vi List of Figures vii Chapter One: Introduction 1 Chapter Two: “Childish plays”: The Personal Uses of Orientalism 18 in Dante Gabriel Rossetti’s Juvenilia Chapter Three: Changing Traditions: Dante Gabriel Rossetti, the 88 Assyrian Bull, and “The Burden of Nineveh” Chapter Four: “I should have . cried like a child”: Anxiety and 159 Ambivalence in the 1854-6 Diaries and Letters of William Holman Hunt Chapter Five: “The dictator of his own terms”?: Constructions of 237 Selfhood, Identity, and Difference in William Holman Hunt’s 1854 Egyptian Letters and Paintings Conclusion 324 Works Cited 333 vi List of Figures Figure 1 D. G. Rossetti, Aladdin, or The wonderful Lamp, 1835. South African National Gallery. Reproduced from the Rossetti Archive. Figure 2 D. G. Rossetti, “The Genius threatening to kill the Merchant,” 1840. Private Collection. Reproduced from the Rossetti Archive. Figure 3 D. G. Rossetti, “The Genius about to kill the Princess of the Isle of Ebony,” 1840. State Historical Society of Iowa. Reproduced from the Rossetti Archive. Figure 4 D. G. Rossetti, “The Second Old Man’s surprise on discovering his Wife to be a Fairy,” 1840. Private Collection. Reproduced from the Rossetti Archive. Figure 5 D. G. Rossetti, “The 1st Calendar seized by order of the Vizier, who had usurped the crown,” 1840. Private Collection. Reproduced from the Rossetti Archive. Figure 6 D. G. Rossetti, “The Black overturning the Fish, in presence of the Sultan & Vizier,” 1840. Private Collection. Reproduced from the Rossetti Archive. Figure 7 D. G. Rossetti, The Girlhood of Mary Virgin, 1849. Tate Britain. Figure 8 D. G. Rossetti, “The Miraculous Draught of Fishes,” 1839. Private Collection. Reproduced from the Rossetti Archive. Figure 9 Raphael, The Miraculous Draught of Fishes, 1515-6. Her Majesty the Queen. Figure 10 D. G. Rossetti, Ecce Ancilla Domini!, 1850. Tate Britain. Figure 11 W. H. Hunt, Self-Portrait, 1875. Galleria degli Uffizi. Figure 12 W. H. Hunt, Cairo: Sunset on the Gebel Mokattum, 1857. Whitworth Art Gallery, University of Manchester. Reproduced from the Rossetti Archive. Figure 13 W. H. Hunt, A Street Scene in Cairo: The Lantern-Maker’s Courtship, 1861. Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery. Figure 14 W. H. Hunt, The Great Pyramid, 1854 (exh. 1906). Peter Nahum at the Leicester Galleries. vii Figure 15 W. H. Hunt, The Sphinx, Gizeh, Looking towards the Pyramids of Sakhara, 1854 (exh. 1856). Harris Museum and Art Gallery. Figure 16 W. H. Hunt, The Afterglow in Egypt, 1854-63 (exh. 1864). Southampton Art Gallery. Figure 17 D. G. Rossetti, The Beloved, 1866. Tate Britain. Figure 18 W. H. Hunt, The Shadow of Death, 1873. Manchester Art Gallery. viii Chapter One INTRODUCTION In 2008, the Tate Britain held an exhibition entitled The Lure of the East: British Orientalist Painting. In the catalogue and in the installations themselves, the organizers cited two central reasons for the existence of this exhibition: first, that the contemporary political climate made an understanding of Britain’s past relationship to the Middle East essential (Tromans, Lure),1 and second, that it was high time for “the first major museum exhibition to explore in any depth the British branch of . Orientalist painting” (Deuchar and Meyers 6). The numerous qualifiers—“the first major,” “to explore in any depth,” and “the British branch”—embedded in this statement are meant to highlight the originality of this exhibition, but they also suggest the extent to which the field of Orientalism in art has already been investigated. French Orientalist art, in particular, has garnered a great deal of scholarly attention, and one of this genre’s most famous works, Jean-Léon Gérôme’s The Snake Charmer (1880),2 is familiar to most literary critics through its placement on the cover of Edward Said’s groundbreaking 1978 study Orientalism. Moreover, another foundational text in the study of Orientalism in art, Linda Nochlin’s 1983 essay “The Imaginary Orient,” was written as a response to “the 1982 exhibition and catalogue Orientalism: The Near East in French Painting, 1800-1880” (Nochlin 33) and focuses on Gérôme and his predecessor Eugène Delacroix.
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