cli~~ Oplmlj R. Glenn Anderson

1924-1981

Some 25 years ago, Glenn Anderson was instrumental in igniting "the sparks of change" that led to India's green revolution

in wheat and the modernization of agriculture throughout

Asia. Glenn was a dedicated and talented scientist,

teacher, and research administrator who inspired colleagues and

friends alike by his example. His personal and professional

quest became nothing less than the alleviation

of hunger and poverty indeveloping countries, and his enduring CIMMYT Files

legacy is a better life for millions of poor people.

It is in that spirit that we dedicate

this Report to R. Glenn Anderson.

(cover photo) Thomas Luba CIMMYT 1989 Annual Report Beyond Subsistence: New Optionsfor Asian Farmers

The productivity of

Asia's agriculture has

increased dramatically during

the past quarter century,

enabling many of the region's

poor to move beyond

subsistence. For the region

to move further along that

path, while conserving its

heavily used natural resources,

agricultural researchers wiHl

have to provide a steady

flow of new options for

Asian farmers.

ii* Scrgio Past~n 4'4v

II 40,7

"Not' m/

W/ opj~ . n this Annual Report we concentrate our attention

on Asia, the densely populated and extremely

diverse geographic expanse stretching from

Pakistan to the Philippines and from Indonesia to China.

CIMMYT and the Consultative Group for International

Agricultural Research (CGIAR) have long been

associated with agricultural progress in the region. The

CGIAR's efforts in Asia, indeed the efforts of its

antecedents, are closely linked with the

well-documented success of the "green revolution."

In part due to that success, the region today offers

new challenges and new opportunities.

Kathryn ElScScr 3 CIMMYT's continuing interest in Asia million to maize. These figures contrast give rise to new opportunities for rests on the importance there of maize dramatically with other regions, where progress. Coping with the pressures and wheat and the number of poor much smaller areas are found. Other placed by a growing population on an people who stand to gain from ir- regions also have far fewer poor people. already intensely used natural resource proved technologies. That interest is About half of the world's 5.2 billion base will tax our various capacities. Yet intensified by the critical need to both people live in Asia and, according to in CIMMYT we are convinced that sustain and build upon productivity recent estimates by the World Bank, productivity increasing technologies gains made through past research while more than half of the Earth's 950 that also protect the environment can be preserving the region's natural resource million impoverished people reside in devised. That belief is reflected in the base. Meeting such challenges will the region. Even though population thematic phrase found on the cover of require careful long range planning and growth rates are slowing in Asia, the this Report--' beyond subsistence: new the effective allocation of research population is still expected to double by options for Asian farmers." resources. about 2025. Asia, then, was selected as the center­ piece for this Annual Report because of its enormous demands for maize and wheat, demands augmented by rising Some of Asia's national programs are among the strongest incomes and population; because of the urgent need to cope with the stresses agricul­ the developing world. Their strength and experience, imposed by already intensive in ture; and because of the opporturities that exist to collaborate with the staff of coupled with new orientations in our own work, give rise well developed national programs.

!o new opportunities for progress. Improving Agricultural Productivity

In his guest editorial (Point of View, The management and staff of the Center Few now disput the value of Asia's pages 10-17), Dr. Vernon Ruttan regularly assess their work, whether for agricuitural progress during the past concerns himself with the primary Asia or for other regions of the Third quarter century. Improvements in constraints affecting agricultural World, in the context of the institution's productivity have promoted economic productivity in Asia and elsewhere in strategic plan. The plan itself was a growth and rising incomes. For the developing world. He notes that, major subject of our 1987 Annual agriculture to continue making its while conventional technology will Report. Oae consequence of such contributions, however, the sector's remain the primary source of growth assessments has been a clarification of output must continue to rise, and the until well into the next century, for the key issues. An example of the latter was resources used to produce maize and longer term we must find other sources contained in our 1988 Anna. il Report, wheat must become ever more produc- for improving productivity. He is which focused on the conservation and tive. We at CIMMYT are concerned by particularly concerned with organiza­ utilization of our genetic resources. We recent evidence suggesting that yield tional issues and with creating more used that forum to describe policies increases for wheat appear to be effective institutional mechanisms for guiding our efforts to conserve such slowing; there are even disturbing bringing science to bear on the chal­ resources and to ensure their indications of declining productivity in lenges facing agriculture. distribution, some areas. And while the productive potential of maize has grown steadily CIMMYT shares many of his concerns, over the years, the maize "revolution" particularly as they relate to increasing The 1989 Theme in Asia (with the exception of tcinperate the leverage, and hence the impact, of China) is still to come. our work. We are convinced, for Our focus on Asia in this Report also example, that national programs will be emerges from issues addressed in the We believe that agricultural science has better served by the Center concentrat­ strategic plan, especially those affecting much to offer under these circum- ing more of its resources on research CIMMYT's priorities. The significance stances. Fortunately, some of the relative to direct forms of sup,,ct, and of Asia to the Center is undeniable. region's national programs are among by a refocusing of its research to ' Asian countries devote som: 60 million the strongest in the developing world, include more "upstream" activities. hectares to wheat and another 37 Their strength and experience, coupled with new ofientations in our own work,

4 Comments from Management National programs are themselves giving more attention to commodity altering relative responsibilities. Certain requesting that we implement such sector issues and to investigating of our support operations are being changes. Accordingly, our breeders are research resource allocations and bolstered as well. We have, for ex­ now giving greater attention to such impacts. ample, established a biotechnology activities as the development of special laboratory at our headquarters in trait and source materials. Our patholo- To facilitate such shifts and to help Mexico. Its staff engage in a range of gists ate focusing more on identifying ensure their utility to clients, we are activities designed to capitalize on the genetic mechanisms for btter disease expanding our relationships with efficiencies being offered by new resistance and evaluating their heritabil- developed country centers of excellence techniques developed elsewhere, ity. Our agronomists are concentraiing through various kinds of collaborative especially the use of genetic probes to more of their energies on strategic crop research. We are also expanding our expedite germplasm improvement for management issues affecting entire crop collaborative work with national specific traits. They are adapting those production systems (e.g., Asia's rice/ program clients, in some cases formaliz., techniques to CIMMYT's circum­ wheat rotation). And our economists are ing such relationships and dramatically stances and, where relevant, for transfer to advanced national programs. We are also giving greater attention to commu­ nicating with peers, for example 2 through refereed journals, aoid we are reorienting some of our training to Sappeal more to the advanced needs of mid-career scientists.

S- Among the reasons for making these and other changes is an abiding concern for the efficient use of our resources. Collaborative work in which partici­ pants each contribute according to their relative strengths enhances both efficiency and effectiveness. Decentrali­ zation to national programs of introduc­ tory crop management training is another example of our quest for efficiency. This fre,:s CIMMYT 7F resources for other applications more in line with our comparative advantage X. :and the needs of our clients. The new biotechnology techniques referred to earlier will significantly reduce the cost of our germplasm improvement work and, eventually, that of advanced national programs. Thus, efficiency considerations help guide our hand as

The Enzyme Linked Immunosorbant Assay (ELISA) is an effective technique for identifying isolates of barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV), a ubiquitous disease of wheat. Resistance to BYDV is generally isolate specific, and epidemiological surveys are necessary to determine the specific resistance required in improved germplasm. For a survey of the isolates prevalent in Mexico, Monica Mezzalama (an associate scientist inthe Wheat Program) uses an ELISA reader to identify BYDV isolates in sap extracted from wheat leaves. 5 CIMMYT responds to the changing addition of an Audit Committee having efforts. To help with that, we estab­ needs of clietnts. And in all of this, three members, all drawn from the lished several committees charged with doing the right thing contributes most to Executive and Finance Committee. the responsibility of monitoring the our pursuit of efficiency. Our strategic major elements of CIMMYT's environ­ plan supports that pursuit well. After being endorsed by the CGIAR in ment. The function of these committees May, we published our strategic plan is to keep our strategic plan "ever (Toward the 21st Century: CIMMYT's green" and to enable the Center to Highlights from 1989 Strategy) and used the strategic effectively adapt to changing directions presented there as the basis circumstances. In addition to the research and support for developing our five year budget, activities described later in this Report itself approved by the CGIAR during Two important collaborative research (pages 34-55), a number of other note- International Centers' Week in October efforts were initiated during the year worthy events took place during the 1989. In addition to approval by TAC and initial planning for a third was year. We completed the administrative and the CGIAR of our planned activities completed. One project, being done in restructuring of the Center, increasing and expenditures, our planning and conjunction with Cornell University the authority of the Deputy Director budgeting methodologies were them- (USA) and funded by the government of General of Research and adding selves well received. The Netherlands and the Australian decision points within the Maize, Council for International Agricultural Wheat, and Economics Programs While implementing the ideas contained Research (ACIAR), involves the themselves. The structure of the Board in cur plan and budget we want to development of RFLP maps of the ot Trustees was also changed with the ensue the continued relevancy of our wheat genome. A second project, also

The 1980s have been characterized by volatile world grain markets and widespread policy/reforms, trends that have heightened the need for timely information on maize and wheat economies. Such information is increasingly necessary for effective research resource allocation both at CIMMY-I and innational programs. For that reason, CIMMYT economists now give greater attention to commodity sector studies at the global, regional, and national levels. 6 Comments from Management funded by the Dutch, involves the position. His replacement as DDG/ than last year. These and other points University of Missouri (USA) and Administration and Finance is Dr. arc discussed more fully in the financial centers on the use of maize RFLPs in Claudio Cafati, who earned his PhD in highlights section of this Report (pages the pursuit of multiple borer resistance plant pathology, breeding, and genetics 56-59). (see page 37). As CIMMYT's biotech- iii 1979 from Michigan State University nology lab comes up to speed, we will (USA). Dr. Cafati served sime 17 years shift most aspects of this research to on the agriculture faculty of the C nclusion Mexico. A third project, this one University ofChile (tis professor of :nvolvinz us in collaboration with the plant pathology and breeding), 6 years Intemrntional Rice Research Institute as director of amajer experiment station Returning to the Asian theme, and anumber of national programs in for the Chilean National Agricultural CIMMYT's activities are influenced by Asia, will address factors affecting Reseaich Institute (INIA) and, from our perceptions of the complex chal­ productivity in the vast area devoted to 1986 until joining CIMMYT in early lenges we and our national program rice/wheat rot,.tions (see page 26). We 1990, as General Manger of INIA colleagues face, by the opportunities are currently negotiating financial itself. While Dr. Cafati is well known that abound, and by the availability of support for this effort. fcr his research, his work will draw funding. Indeed, we perceive many more heavily on his considerable more research opportunities than we do Responding to the demands for higher experience in research administration, sources of funding to pursue them. level training, we initiated specialized Population and income projections for training in 1989 aimed at mid-career the region indicate a rapidly growing sciei , s from developing couniry Financial Circumstances demand for maize and wheat during the national programs. Our first such course coming decades. While a fuller ran seven weeks and focused on During 1Q89 the increasing value of the exploitation of current technologies research program design for maize dollar against other currencies was the appears adequate to meet anticipated agronomists. The course drew 20 single most important factor affecting demand to the turn of the century, participants representing II countries, the Center's financial performance, beginning about then farmers in the and concentrated on data analysis, reducing the dollar value of pledges region will have to start implementing statistical techniques, and computer from several key donors. This influence new, sustainable, productivity enhanc­ applications, all in the cGntext of on- was complicated by the reduced but still ing techno!ogies. Otherwise, the 'arm rese arch. Planning and registration significant effect of high inflation projected growth in demand will result for a similar course in wheat during combined with 1relatively stable peso/ in disconcerting increases in food and early 1990 was completed as well. dollar exchange rate, increasing our feed grain imports. The views of our costs in Mexico. Other noteworthy guest essayist, Dr. Ruttan, reinforce the factors include major expenditures on notion that new sources of agricultural Changes in Senior the recently completed biotechnology productivity are needed. CIMMYT's laboratory and large accounts receivable activities reflect our own conviction that Management balances for several doiors. Together we must seek new approaches to these factors reduced our year-end cash technology generation to help meet Two important changes occurred among balances to levels corsiderably lower Asia's complex requirements. senior management. In mid-year Dr. Roger Rowe, who joined CIMMYT at the beginning of 1989 as Deputy Director General of Administration and Finance, was appointed as DDG/ Research. The move gives Dr. Rowe the opportunity to return to direct participa­ tion in the research arena and gives CIMMYT the benefit of his substantial experience in this recently expanded Donald L. Winkelmann Director General

7 CIMMYT and the CGIAR

The year 1966 was a

propitious one for

founding an international

agricultural research center.

The eyes of the world had

turned to the populous

countries of.South Asia and

beheld agricultural

production hovering at

subsistence levels. The

survival of millions

depended on the annual

success of the cereal crops.

That same year CIMMYT

came into being.

8 Thomas Luba Recognizing the imminent danger to Consu'tative Group for International and developing country government aid their citizens, the governments of India Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Our agencies, international and regional and Pakistan independently established mission is to help the poor of develop- organizations, and private foundations. emergency programs designed to ing (ountriesby increasing the produc-. sharply increase domestic food produc- tivity of resources committed to maize The CGIAR is committed to agricultural tion. In doing so they sought advice and and wheat, whether in research or on the research and related activities that are guidance from the scientific and farm. We do this primarily through international in scope, of enduring development communities. Some of the worldwide programs aimed at improv- importance, and in which its centers individuals they censulted were then ing germplasm and delivering it to Third have a distinct cost advantage. The working foi the newly formed World national programs; they, in turn, system's Technical Advisory Commit­ CIMMYT. Thanks largely to two either incorporate these materials into tee, which consists of prominent decades of collaborative research their own breeding programs or release scientists from around the world, between Mexico's Ministry of Agricul- them directly to farmers. Our work identifies and articulates these activities. ture and CIMMYT's predecessor reaches beyond germplasm as well. We Since its inception, the system has organization, the Rockefeller 'oonda- produce new scientific knowledge and emphasized work oriented toward tions Office of Special Studies, help irtformation, generate and adapt improving the well-being of the poor in from Mexico was available. The research procedures, conduct training in developing countries. Recently, concern semidwarf wheat varieties generated by Mexico and abroad, and consult with about the ability of these countries to that joint research had been tested for national programs about their work. sustain agricultural development in several years in both India and Pakistan, ways consonant with the preservation of but they had not yet been widely All this is in keeping with the primary their natural resources has come to the adopted by farmers. Part of the problem concerns of the CGIAR. This system, fore. Centers are seeking technological was that improved seed was not which was formed in 1971, is a innovations designed to improve the available in sufficient quantities. consortium of donors and research productivity of marginal environments, Mexico, asked to provide seed, was able organizations cosponsored by the Food and the CG is encouraging them to shift to ship 18,000 t to India and 42,000 t to and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of their efforts toward strategic research Pakistan. These modem varieties, in the United Nations, the International and away from tie adaptive work that combination with appropriate manage- Bank for Reconstruction and Develop- has characterized many past endeavors. ment practices recommended by the ment (World Bank), and the United The system has also given special national research and extension Nations Development Programme emphasis to research directed toward systems, made it possible to avert (UNDP). Funds comb from some 40 helping sub-Saharan Africa improve its impending food shortages. More than different donors, including developed agricultural productivity. that, they boosted yields far beyond anyone's expectations and were largely responsible for the bumper crops produced in subsequent years.

This early experience galvanized the young Center, helping to establish not only its institutional culture but the tone and direction of international agricul­ tural research done by others. CIMMYT is one of 13 autonomous, international, nonprofit agricultural research and training centers sponsored by the

Location of the 13 International agricultural research centers supported by tho Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) 9 N4N

IY4 Constraints on Agricultural Production in Asia:

Into the 21st Century

In the closing years of the 20th century, we are completing

one of the most remarkable transitions in the history of

agriculture. Prior to this century, nearly all increases in food

production resulted from the cultivation of new land.

By the first decade of the next century, nearly all increases in

food production must come from higher yields. This

transition from a resource-based to a science-based system of

agriculture has occurred rapidly. Most developing

countries have been caught up in this transformation since

mid-century, and those of East, Southeast, and South Asia

have proceeded further along this path than many other

Third World countries.

Vernon W. Ruttan, Regents Professor University ofMinnesota, USA Gcne Helel 11 By the mid-1960s,'it had become As the new technology was introduced, The Asian adoption pattern is consistent obvious that increases in cultivated area it provoked concern that the resulting with worldwide trends: semidwarf could no longer provide the primary gains would become a source of wheat and rice varieties have been source ofgrowth in food production in inequity in income distribution and con- adopted much more slowly in areas Asia. It was also obvious that growth tribute to polarization in rural communi- where rainfall remains a serious would have to come from increased use ties. Critics of the Green Revolution ar- constraint on the response to other of a new set of highly productive g'ied that large farmers and landlords technical inputs (Tablu I). In fact, I inputs--new crop varieties, fertilizer, would monopolize the new technology, believe it is unlikely that in the next and irrigation water. with the consequence that employment several decades productivity growth in opportunities would be reduced and the rainfed upland areas of Asia will Since then, much has been accom- wage rates would decline, expand at a rate that will generate plished. Agricultu'.al development satisfactory rates of growth of either throughout most of Asia is a major Experience has confounded these con- agricultural production or employment. success story: during the 1970s and cers. Neither farm size nor tenure has The most likely prospect is that dispari­ 1980s, real growth in agricultural gross represented a serious constraint on the ties in income between these and the domestic product in Asia's developing adoption of modem varieties and the ef- more favored areas will continue to countries has averaged upwards of 3% ficient use of available inputs. High widen (Byerlee 1989). per year (Vyas and James 1988). Strong yielding varieties did not stimulate the national agricultural research programs introduction of labor displacing machin­ were established in a number of coun- ery. In fact, substantial increases in New Sources tries and reinforced by a network of demand for labor occurred in areas that of Growth Needed international agricultural institutes. This rapidly adopted the new crop technol­ system has successfully generated a ogy (Hayami and Ruttan 1985). Historical trends in production and con­ stream of increasingly more productive sumption of the major food grains could varieties of wheat, rice, and maize, as Where distribution of income has easily be taken as evidence that one well as sorghum and millet and a widened, it has usually been in less should not be excessively concerned number of other minor crops (Ruttan well-endowed areas to which the new about the capacity of the worlds' 1986). technology was not well adapted, rather farmers to meet future food demands. than in more favored areas where World wheat prices, for example, The gap between yields in Asia and adoption was rapid. Among the corrected for inflation, have declined those obtained in the most advanced countries of Asia, the share of cultivated since the middle of the last century countries of the developed world has area devoted to rainfed agriculture (Figure 1). Rice prices have also narrowed substantially. In more favored ranges from less than one-l'ourth in declined, suggesting that productivity areas, farm-level yields approximate Pakistan to over three-fourths in growth in cereal crops has more than those achieved on experiment stations Thailand and several other Southeast compensated for the rapid growth in (Byerlee 1989; Pingali 1989). Rice, Asian countries. With relatively few demand, particularly since World wheat, and maize yields in favored exceptions, these areas have been War I. areas, particularly in east Asia, ap- bypassed by the advances in agricultural proach or exceed levels achieved in technology that contributed to produc- As we look toward the future, however, some developed countries. In the tivity growth in more favored areas. the sources of productivity growth are advanced districts of the Punjab of not as apparent as they were a quarter of India, for example, farmers' wheat and rice yields surpass 4 t/ha. The rapid adoption of the new crop production technology confounded the pessimistic Table 1. Percentage adoption of semidwarf wheat, by moisture regime, projections of those who viewed Asian developing and developed countries and the world, 1980s farmers as excessively bound by custom and tradition. Between the early 1960s All and the early 1980s, the percentage of Irrigated >500 300-500 <300 areas wheat area under irrigation rose from 50% to 72% in India and from 66% to Developing 91 60 45 21 62 83% in Pakistan. During this same period, fertilizer use per hectare of Developed 96 37 50 na 40 cultivated land expanded by over 10% per year, reaching about World 92 42 47 21 49 80 kg/ha (Byerlee 1989). Source: CIMMYT files. na =not applicable.

12 Point of View a century ago. The demands that Asian capita income will be more rapid Even the most optimistic projectiors societies will place on their agricultural growth in demand for maize and other suggest an unfavorable trade-off producers from population growth and feed crops than for wheat and rice. between self-sufficiency and the prices growth in per capita consumption aris- During the next several decades, growth at which food and feed grains will ing out of higher income will be exceed- in food and feed demand arising from become available to consumers and pro­ ingly high. Population growth rates are growth in population and income will ducers of animal products. If food and expected to decline substantially during run in the 3-4% per year range. Most feed grain prices are to remain near the first quarter of the next century Asian countries will experience a present levels it is likely that imports (Table 2). But per capita incomes are doubling o'7 food demand before the end will need to rise substantially for several expected to increase by upwards of 3% of the second decade of the next important countries in the region. If per year. The effect of growth in per century. food and feed grain imports are to be held at recent levels, prices paid to do- inestic Table 2. Population and growthi rates producers and, by implication, in Asia, 1987-2025 prices to consumers will have to rise substantially in most countries (Barker South Southeast East All and Herdt 1985; Byerlee 1989). Asia Asia Asia Asia It seems apparent that Population 1987 (millions) the gains in agri- 1,024 412 1,11 i 2,546 cultural production required over the Population 2000 (millions) 1,328 525 1,317 3,170 next quarter century will be achieved Population growth rate, 1987-2000 with much greater difficulty than in the (%/yr) 2.0 i.9 1.3 1.7 immediate past. Increasing the yield Population 2025 (millions) 1,892 707 1,584 4,183 potential of cereal crops that experi- Population growth rate, 2000-2025 enced rapid yield gains in the past is (%/yr) 1.4 1.2 0.7 1.1 already proving difficult. The incre- Source: CIMMYT files, mental response to additional fertilizer use has declined. Expanding irrigated area has become more costly. Mainte­ 1982-84 US$/It nance research, the research required to 800 prevent yields from declining, is rising as a share of the research effort (Pluck­ nett and Smith 1986). The institutional capacity to respond to these concerns is limited, even in countries with the most effective national research systems. In­ deed, during the 1980s many develop­ ing countries have struggled to maintain the agricultural research capacity established during the 1960s and 1970s. It is possible that within another decade advances in basic knowledge will create new opportunities for improving agricultural technology that will reverse the urgency of some of these concerns. Institutionalization of private sector 100 agricultural research capacity in some countries of the rcgion, particularly India, Thailand, and the Philippines, is beginning 0 to complement public sector capacity (Pray 1983). Advances 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 in 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1960 1980 molecular biology and genetic engineer­ 1970 ing are occurring rapidly. But the date Figure 1.Real wheat prices since the mid-1800s. when these promising advances will be translated into productive Source: US Bureau of Census. technologies 1975. Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to seems to be receding. 1970. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce (for data 1860-1960). US Department of Agriculture. n.d. Agricultural Outlook. Washington, DC: USDA (for data 1961-,3).

13 The following general conclusions, maintenance and increasing the propor- Efforts to institutionalize agricultural from a consultation among agricultural tion used to produce usal le animal research capacity in developing scientists and economists in June 1989,1 products. countries must be intensified. Crop and are particularly relevant to the future of animal productivity in most developing agriculture in the developing countries Severe physiological constraints limit countries remain well below potentially of Asia. continued improvement along these feasible levels. Access to the conven­ conventional paihs. These constraints tional sources of productivity growth Advances in conventional technology are most severe in areas that have from advances in plant breeding, will remain the primary source of already achieved the highest levels of agronomy, and soil and water manage­ growth in crop and animalproduction productivity--as in Western Europe, ment will require the institutionalization over the next quarter century. Almost North America, and parts of East Asia. of substantial agricultural research all increases in agriculti-! :,roduction The impact of these constraints can be capacity for each crop or animal species over the next several decades must measured in term. of declining incre- of economic significance in each continue to come from further intensifi- mental yield increases from higher country. In a large number of develop­ cation of agricultural production; im- levels of fertilizer application, and a ing countries this capacity is just provemenis from conventional plant and reduction in the incremental savings in beginning to be put in place. Further­ animal breeding; and more intensive labor inputs from the use of larger and more, a number of countries whose and efficient use of technical inputs, more powerful mechanical equipment. research capabilities grew substantially including chemical fertilizers and pest Should the incremental returns to in the 1960s and 1970s have seen that control chemicals, agricultural research also decline, that capacity wane in the 1980s. Countries will impose a higher priority on that do not acquire adequate agricultural Productivity gains from conventional efficiency in the organization of research capacity will be unable to meet sources are likely to come in smaller in- research and on the allocation of the demands placed on their farmers as crements than in the past. If they are to research resources. a result of growth in population and be realized, higher plant populations per income. unit area, new tillage practices, im- A reorientation of the way we organize proved pest and disease control, more agriculturalresearch will be necessary There are substantialpossibilities for precise application of plant nutrients, to realize the opportunities for techni- developing sustainable agricultural and advances in soil and water manage- cal change opened up by advances in production systems in a number of ment will be needed. Gains from these microbiology and biochemistry. fragile resource areas. Research sources will require closer articulation Advances in basic science, particularly underway in the tropical rain forests of between the suppliers and users of new in molecular biology and biochemistry, Latin America and the semiarid tropics knowledge and new technology. These continue to open up new possibilities of Africa and Asia suggests the sources of yield gains are extremely for supplementing traditional sources of possibility of developing sustainable knowledge and information intensive, growth in plant and animal productivity, agricultural systems with substantially Consequently, extending the results of ranging from the transfer of growth enhanced productivity even in unfavor­ research will become an increasingly hormones into fish to the conversion of able environments. It is unlikely, and important source of growth in crop and lignocellulose into edible plant and perhaps undesirable, that all of these animal productivity, animal products. areas become important components of the global food supply system. But Advances in conventional technology Realizing thcse possibilities will require enhanced productivity is important to will be inadequate to sustain the a reorganization of agricultural research those who reside in these areas now and demands that will be placed on agricul- systems. An increasing share of the new in the future. Hence research on soil and ture as we move into the second decade knowledge generated by research will water management and farming systems ofthe next century and beyond. reach producers in the form of proprie- for these areas should be intensified. Increased crop yields have come about tary products or services. This means primarily by raising the ratio of.grain to that incentives must be created to draw Substantial basic biological research straw rather than by increasing total dry substantially more private sector and training capacity needs to be matter production. Improvements in resources into agricultural research, established in the tropical developing animal feed efficiency have come by Public sector research will have to in- countries. A series of basic biological decreasing the proportion of feed creasingly move from a "little science" research agendas important for applied consumed that is devoted to animal to a "big science" mode of organiza- research and technology development tion. In the absence of more focused for tropical agriculture presently re­ basic research by both the public and ceive, and are likely to continue to re­ 1 Biological and Technical Constraints on private sectors, it seems likely that the ceive, inadequate attention in the devel­ Crop andAnimal Productivity, a prvtesectors it sesieltat the ce ieqate eion The aevel­ meeting sponsored by the Rockefeller promised gains in agricultural produc- oped temperate regions. There is also a Foundation and the University of tivity from biotechnology will continue need for closer articulation between Minnesota (Ruttan, 1989). to recede. training in applied science and technol­

14 Point of View ogy and training in basic biology. When average surface temperatures over the and other cultivated wetlands, and such institutes are esablished they will neit 30-60 years. And there continues biomass burning. Estimates of nitrous need to be more closely linked with to be great uncertainty about the oxide and methane sources have a very existing academic centers of research climatic changes that can be expected to fragile empirical base. Nevertheless, it and training than the agricultural occur at any particular date or location appears that agriculture and related land research institutes established by the in the future. It is almost certain, how- use could account for somewhere in the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations and ever, that the climatic changes will be neighborhood of 25% of radiative the CGIAR. accompanied by rises in the sea level, forcing (Figure 2). which will impinge particularly heavily on Southeast Asia's islands and greate, Constraints Alternative policy approaches to the on river deltas. Drier and more erTatic threat of global warming can be charac- Sustainable Growth climatic regimes can be expected in terized as preventionist or adaptionist. the interiors of South Asia and North A preventionist approach could involve As we look even further into the next America. As a partial offset some five policy options: (a) reduction in century, there is a growing concern analysts have suggested that higher CO2 fossil fuel use or capture of CO about the impact of a series 2 of resource levels may have a positive effect on emissions at the point of fossil fuel and environmental constraints that may yield (Rosenberg 1986). combustion; (b) reduction in the seriously impinge on the capacity to intensity of agricultural production; (c) sustain the growth in agricultural Most carbon dioxide emissions come reduction of biomass burning; (d) production that will be required in most from fossil fuel consumption. Carbon expansion of biomass production; and developing countries. A second dioxide accounts for roughly half of (e) conservation of energy. Of these, consultation on issues of resource and radiative forcing. Biomass burning, only energy efficiency and conservation environmental constraints on agricul- cultivated soils, natural soils, and are likely to make any significant con­ tural production that included scientists fertilizers account for close to half of tribution over the next generation. The. involved in studies of climatic change, nitrous oxide emissions. Most of the institutional infrastructure and resources agricultural scientists, and economists known sources of methane are a product required to make the other options work was held in late November 1989. of agricultural activities--principally en- do not yet exist and will not be in place teric fermentation in ruminant aniinals, rapidly enough. We will not be able to One set of concerns focused on the release of methane from rice production rely on a technological fix to the global impact of agricultural practices in areas warming problem. The fixes, whether making the most progress toward highly intensive systems of agricultural pro­ duction. These impacts include loss of soil resources due to erosion, waterlog- Nitrous oxide (N20) Trace gasses ging, and salinization; groundwater con­ tamination from plant nutrients and pesticides; and growing resistance of insects, weeds, and pathogens to present methods of control. If agriculture is Agriculture's Contribution forced to continue to expand into more 25.6% fragile environments, soil erosion and Fertilizers, desertification can be expected. cultivated natural Additional deforestation will intensify soils, biomass problems of soil loss, further degrade burning water quality, and contribute to the Ruminants, forcing of climatic change. rice paddies, biomass burning A second set of concerns stems from the impact of industrialization on global cli­ matic and other environmental changes La use (Reilly and Bucklin 1989). There can no conversion longer be any question that the accumu- (deforestation) lation of carbon dioxide (C0 2) and other Chlorofiuorocarbons (CFCs) greenhouse gasses--principally methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N20), and chlo­ rofluorocarbons (CFCs)--has set in Figure 2. Contributions to increases in radiative forcing in the 1990s. motion a process that will raise global Source: J.Reilly and R. Bucklin. 1989. Climate change and agriculture. World Agriculture Situation and Outlook Report. Washington, DC: USDA/ERS, WAS-55. 15 driven by preventionist of adaptionist Develop alternative landuse,farming absorbing CO2. The demand for land to strategies, must be both technological systems, andfood systems scenarios protect watersheds and produce biomass and institutional, for the 21st century. We must have a energy will also increase. clearer picture of the demands that are This forces me, although reluctantly, likely to be placed on agriculture over Strengthenthe capacityto monitorthe into an adaptionistapproach for the next century and of the ways in agriculturalsources andimpacts ofen­ assessing the implications of global which agricultural systems might be vironmentalchange. Even rudimentary climatic change for future agricultural able to meet such demand. World data on soil loss are almost comp'1tely research agendas. In this context, an population could rise from the present 5 unavailable in most developing adaptionist strategy implies the need to billion level to the 10-20 billion range. countries. The same point hol is, with move as rapidly as possible to design Income growth rate projections are even greater force, for groi,:,dwater and put in place the institutions needed similarly vague. The resources and pollution, salinization, 'pecies loss, and to remove the constraints that intensifi- technology we use to increase agricul- other problems. It ir time to design the cation of agricultural production tural production will depend on the elements of a comprehensive, agricul­ currently impose on sustainable likely constraints to resource availabil- turally related resource monitoring increases in agricultural production. If ity and on the rate at which knowledge system and to establish priorities for we are successful, we will be in a better grows. Advances in knowledge can implementation. Data on the effects of position to respond effectively as the permit us to obtain more from increas- environmental change on the health of world's climate changes. The implica- ingly scarce resources, thus reducing individuals and communities are even tions for research of the adaptionist ap- the resource constraints on commodity less adequate. proach are summarized below, production. Monitoring will require much closer collaboration between production­ oriented agricultural scientists, biologi­ [h cal scientists trained in ecology, and the The most favorable economic environment for achieving physical scientists traditionally con­ cemed with global climatic change. sustainable adaptation to resource and environmental Designtechnologiesand institutionsto achievemore efficient management of is characterized by rapid growth of income and surface andgroundwaterresources. constraints Global climatic change will have a major differential impact on water employment in the nonagricultural sector. availability, water demand, erosira, sal­ inization, and flooding. The develop­ ment and introduction of technologies and management systems that enhance water use efficiency represents a high Initiateamajorresearchprogramon Past application of advances in biologi- priority both because of near-term incentive-compatibleinstitutional cal and chemical technology, which constraints on water supplies and the design. A major source of the global substitute knowledge for land, and more distant possibility of seasonal and warming and environmental pollution advances in mechanical and engineering geographical shifts in water availability. problem is the lack of incentives for technology, which substitute knowledge The identification, breedipg, and intro­ individuals and public agencies to for labor, have been driven by declining duction of water-efficient crops for dry­ behave in ways compatible with societal energy prices. There will be strong in- land and saline environments is development--some might say survival. centives, by the early decades of the important to achieving greater water use The first research priority therefore is to next century, to improve energy efficiency. initiate a large-scale program of efficiency in agricultural production and research on the design of institutions utilization. Particular attention should Intensify research on environmentally capable of implementing incentive- be given to alternative and competing compatiblefarmingsystems. In compatible resource management uses of land. Land use transformation, agriculture, as in the energy field, a policies and programs. By incentive- from forest to agriculture, is presently number of technical and institutional compatible institutions I mean those contributing to radiative forcing through innovations could have both economic capable of achieving compatibility release of CO 2 and methane into the and environmental benefits. Among the between individual, organizational, and atmosphere. Conversion of low technical possibilities is the design of social objectives in resource intensity agricultural systems to forest new "third" or "fourth" generation management. has been proposed as a method of chemical, biorational, and biological pest management technologies. Another

16 Point of View is the design of land use technologies until well after mid-century that national In N.J. Rosenberg, W.E. Easterling III, and institutions that will re,'de erosion, and international salinization, and groundwater pollution. agricultural research P.R. Crosson, and J.Darmstadter (eds.), institutions became firmly established in Greenhouse Warming: Abatement and Adaptation.Washington, DC: Resources most Asian countries. The challenge in for the Future. 147-158. Reform agriculturalcommodity and the next century will be to design income supportpolicies. In both institutions that can ameliorate the Pingali, P. !989. Intensificationand developed and developing countries, negative environmental effects of agri- DiversificationofAsian Rice Farming producers' decisions related to land cultural and industrial intensification. Systems. International Rice Research Institute Agricultural Economics Paper management, farning systems, and use 88-41. Los Baflo, Phil;ppines: IRRI. of technical inputs are influenced by The capacity to achieve sustainable government price supports and subsi- growth in agricultural production and Plucknett, D.H., and NJ.H. Smith. 1986. dies, programs to promote or limit pro- income will also depend on changes in Sustaining agricultural yields. BioScience duction, and tax incentives and penal- the economic environment in which 36: 40-45. ties. It is increasingly important that Asian farmers find themselves. The Pray, C.E. 1983. Private agricultural research such ipterventions anticipate the most favorable economic environment inAsia. Food Policy8(2): 131-140. environmental consequences of result- for improving crop and animal produc­ ing decisions by land owners and tivity and for achieving sustainable Reilly, J., and R.Bucklin. 1989. Climate producers. adaptation to resource and environ- Change andAgriculture.World mental constraints is one characterized Agriculture Situation and Outlook Report. Washington, DC: USDA/ARS, Design alternativefoodsystems. The by rapid growth of income and employ- WAS-55.43-46. agricultural science community should ment in the nonagricultural sector. be prepared, by the second quarter of Rapid increases in demand, arising from Rogoff, M.H, and S.L. Rawlins. 1987. Food the next century, to contribute to the higher incomes rather than explosive BioSciencesecurity: A 37:technological 800-807. alternative. design of alternative ftlod systems. population growth, can generate Many of these alternatives will include patterns of demand that permit farmers Rosenberg, N.J. 1986. Climate, technology, plants other than the grain crops that to move out of continuous staple cereal climate change, and policy: The long run. now comprise a major share of the production and into diversified produc- InC.F. Runge (ed.), The Futureof the world's feed and food. Some will tion systems combining higher value North American Grainery:Politics, involve radical changes Economics, andResource Constraintsin in food crop and animal products. This option North AmericanAgriculture.Ames: Iowa resources (Rogoff and Rawlins 1987). would enable more fragile !ands to be State University Press. released from crop production and put to less intensive uses; it may also Ruttan, V.W. (ed.). 1989. Biologicaland Perspective generate the resources needed to invest AnimalTechnical Constraintson Crop and in the research and technologies critical Dialogue.St. Paul: University of My own perspective Productivity: on the future of for sustained agricultural growth. Minnesota, Department of Agricultural Asian agriculture is cautiously optimis- and Applied Economics. tic. The challenges posed by the Report tic.hcalnges o daniml p ­ constraints on crop and RRuttan, V.W. (ed.). 1990. on animal produc- References Environmental ConstraintsResourceon and tivity and by the resource and environ- SustainableGrowth in Agricultural mental constraints on sustainability Barker, R., and R. Herdt (with B.Rose). Production.St. Paul: University of should not be interpreted as a pessimis- 1985. The Rice Economy ofAsia. Minnesota, Department of Agricultural tic assessment. Asian agricultural Washington, DC: Resources for the and Applied Economics. (Forthcoming.) research institutions, the technology Future. Runtan, V.W. 1986. Toward aglobal supply industry, and farmers in the Byerle, D. 1989. Food for thought: agricultural research system: A personal region are much better equipped to Technological challenges in Asian view. ResearchPolicy 15:307-327. confront the challenges of the future agriculture in the 1990s. Paper prepared than the food crises of the past. for Conference of USAID Asian and Seckler, D., and R.K. Sampath. 1985. Near East Bureau's Agricultural and ProductionandPoverty in Indian Rural Development Officers, It cannot Rabat, Agriculture. International School for be emphasized too strongly, Morocco, 19-24 February 1989. Agricultural and Resource however, that Development the challenges are both Working Paper No. 1.Fort Collins, technical and institutional. The great in- Hayami, Y., and V.W. Ruttan. 1985. Colorado: ISARD. stitutional innovation of the 19th AgriculturalDevelopment: An century was "the invention of the JohnInternational Hopkins Perspective.University Baltimore: The Vyas, V.S., and W.E. James. 1988. Press. 41-72, Agricultural development in Asia: method of invention." The modern 255-328. Performance, issues and policy. In S. industrial research laboratory, the agri- Ichimura (ed.), ChallengeofAsian cultural experiment station, and the re- Jodha, N.S. 1989. Potential strategies for Developing Countries:Issues and search university were products of that adapting to greenhouse warming: Analysis.Tokyo: Asian Productivity institutional innovation. But it was not Perspectives from the developing world. Organization.

17 \

~ 49

I Beyond Subsistence: New Options for Asian Farmers

Imagine for a moment the circumstances faced

by Ram Asere Dube and Gabbu Baniya, subsistence farmers

living near Semari village in the teraiof southern

Nepal. Together they farm 1.7 hectares, producing five

different crops: wheat, mustard, linseed, and

lentil during the winter and rice during the summer. Even

at that, these farmers produce no marketable surplus;

they are just able to meet the needs of their families. Now

jump some 30 years into the future. The Dube and

Baniya families have grown considerably yet

their land holdings have not.

How are they to meet their needs?

Gene Hettcl 19 Review ofCIMMYT Programs

This brief profile illustrates the chal- improve, and that usually means India were evaluating the performance lenges facing farmers throughout Asia' increased consumption of animal of the new high yielding semidwarf in the coming decades. It also drives products. That results in higher demand wheats from Mexico. home the idea that science must for maize and other feed grains. In Asia contribute to opening productive population and income growth will The revolution in wheat-The impact of options for farmers in the region. Many combine in the coming decades to boost our work and that of our colleagues in in Asia and elsewhere will participate in the demand for food and feed by some Asia is perhaps best exemplified in this the c3mplex process of agricultural 3-4% per year. At that rate, demand will recollection by Dr. Norman Borlaug of develolment. Millions of farmers will double by 2020 (Point of View, page the arrival of the "green revolution" in implement sohitions to increasingly 13). India in March of 1968: difficult production problems, and thousands of extension specialists will These projections mean that Asia's be involved in reaching these farmers agricultural researchers and extension Even with our enthusiasm, we had with new technologies. This report, specialists will have to make a tremen- greatly underestimated the magnitude however, focuses on the work of dous effort in the coming years if ofthe wheat harvest in the Punjab, CIMMYT. It shows, by example, how farmers are to stay abreast of growing Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, our work for Asia relates to the region's domestic demand for food. Even if all where much ofthe new technology was problems and leads to new options for goes well, grain imports are likely to concentrated. Back then there were farmers. shortages of everything but wheat...laborfor harvesting, process­ ing, and moving the grain; jute bags; trucks; railroad cars; and storage and income will combine space...all were in short supply. When In Asia, changes in population the dust had settled and thefinal tally of the harvest had been made, it became to boost the demand for food and feed by some 3-4% per year. clear that an unexpectedfive million tons had suddenly been added to India's wheat supply. At that rate, demand will double by 2020.

The results of efforts in Asia by Dr. Borlaug and others--prominent among them Dr. Glenn Anderson, to whom this To better comprehend the importance of rise. In the face of other pressing needs, Annual Report is dedicated--graphically these efforts, consider the following: governments will have to invest illustrate the important contributions Some 2.6 billion people now live in additional resources in their agricultural made by germplasm improvement Asia, and according to the World Bank, systems and implement a range of research to past gains in cereal produc­ about 20% of them live in abject policies conducive to agricultural tivity and agricultural development (see poverty. Despite a promising downward development. The task is daunting, but Point of View, page 12, and the box, turn in population growth rates, when if past success is a reliable indication of Revisiting the Green Revolution in the year 2000 arrives there will still be what can be accomplished in the future, Wheat, page 22). Over 70% of Asia's over 500 million more people to feed in then much can be done to increase the wheatland is now devoted to semidwarf the region. By 2025 the Asian popula- long term productivity of Asia's varieties (Table 3). Nearly all irrigated tion will rise to about 4.2 billion (Table agriculture. wheat production environments in the 2, page 13), a level equal to the total region are sown to semidwarfs, and number of people that were on the entire during the 1980s they spread to all but planet little more than a decade ago. Per The Impact of CIMMYT's the most marginal rainfed areas. Even in capita incomes in the region are also Past Work in Asia the more marginal areas, however, projected to increase dramatically, on improved tall varieties are widely the order of 3% annually. When The Center's support ofAsian agricul- grown. The widespread use of improved incomes go up appreciably, diets tend to tural development actually predates wheat varieties, accompanied by CIMMYT's founding in 1966, going significant increases in the use of back to 1961 when the first national fertilizer and, where possible, irrigation program scientists from the region--all water, account for over 75% of the total Unless oftewise specified, "Asia" refers from Pakistan--came to Mexico for increase in wheat yields in Asia during lo the counties of South, Southeast, and practical training in wheat breeding and the past two decades. East Asia and excludes those west of pathology. By 1963 both Pakistan and Pakistan. 20 Bt. ond Subsistence: New Options for Asian Fanners The promise of maize--New maize the winter in India, for example--they temperate Himalaya region to the flood germplasm has so far been less widely have a substantial impact on production. prone lowland tropical areas of Uttar accepted in Asia than improved wheats Yet maize is often grown under less Pradesh and Bihar. (Table 3), although there are exceptions. favorable conditions, even where it is Several countries, such as Vietnam and the primary crop, and much of the In spite of these obstacles, maize Thailand (see box, The Public and higher yield potential of improved production has increased vigorously Private Sectors in Maize Germplasm varieties thus goes unrealized. A second over the past two decades (Table 3). A Development, page 24), have success- circumstance that complicates large share of the output in some fully promoted improved varieties, and germplasm improvement is the wide counitries, such as Nepal and the high yielding hybrids have been variety of environments in which Philippines, has contributed to food adopted throughout China. Where such farmers grow the crop. Indian scientists, supplies, and to some extent the crop materials are grown in favorable for example, must cater to five distinct has provided materials for various environments--under irrigation during maize zones that range from the industrial uses, including the production of starch and convenience foods. But a far more important source of demand for maize grain has been the steady Table 3. Maize and wheat statistics for the developing countries ofAsia expansion of livestock production, a trend that is creating many new Southeast opportunities for maize to contribute to South Asia East All the welfare of farm families and urban Asia and Pacific Asia Asia consumers. Maize The importance of people--Agricul- Area, 1986-88 (000 ha) 7,553 8,917 20,233 36,702 tural development is sometimes Yield, 1986-88 (t/ha) 1.3 1.7 3.9 2.8 discussed as if it were a mechanistic Production, 1986-88 (000 t) 9,524 15,054 78,009 102,785 process, devoid of human character or influence. We see it as quite Growth the reverse: in area, agriculture is, after all, a human 1961-65 to 1986-88 (%) 1.2 1.9 1.2 1.4 invention. Certainly, improved Growth in yield, germplasm made a vital contribution to 1961-65 to 1986-88 (%) 0.7 2.4 4.2 3.4 transforming Asia's agriculture. But Growth in production, agricultural progress in the region is 1961-65 to 1986-88 (%) 1.9 4.3 5.5 4.8 largely due to some 30 years of Percent area practical, creative, and unstinting work sown by thousands of national program to hybrids, 1988 11 6 74 44 scientists and extension specialists, as Percent area sown well as millions of farmers. CIMMYT to improved OPVs, 1988 42 32 0 17 has provided various kinds of training to Total, improved materials, 1988 53 38 74 61 nearly 2000 Asian scientists, and hundreds more have spent time with us Wheat in Mexico Area, 1986-88 (000 conducting research of ha) 31,623 0 29,827 61,450 interest to them and to the Center. The Yield, 1986-88 (t/ha) 1.9 0 3.0 2.4 experience gained through such Production, 1986-88 (000 t) 60,134 0 89,894 150,029 associations has helped create a dedicated cadre of maize and wheat Growth in area, scientists in the region who are versed 1965-67 to 1986-88 (%) 2.2 0 0.7 1.4 in the need for farm level impact and in Growth in yield, the importance of unhindered exchange 1965-67 to 1986-88 (%) 3.5 0 5.8 4.7 of experimental germplasm. Growth in production, 1965-67 to 1986-88 (%) 5.8 0 6.5 6.2 While Asia's agricultural progress has been impressive, the job is far from Percent area sown to complete; the work of national pro­ semidwarf wheats, mid-1980s 85 na 60 73 grams and CIMMYT continues. Our attention is shifting from initiating Source: Maize data are from CIMMYT World Maize Facts andTrends (forthcoming); technological change to increasing its wheat data are calculated using FAO data; percent area sown to semidwarf wheats from CIMMYT World Wheat FactsandTrends (1989). na = not applicable. 21 Review of CIMMYT Programs

The Green Revolution in Wheat: 25 Years Later momentum, and from developing the region's agricultural resources to preserving their productivity. In the Recently Dr. Norman Borlaug travelled to context of these changing perspectives, India and Pakistan to review progress and some have begun to question the extent potential in wheat research and development. to which research should concentrate on While there he met on several occasions improving germplasm relative to other with many of the agricultural scientists, potential investments (Point of View, admin;strators, cducators, and policy- page 14). Although we are cognizant of makers--some 50 individuals in all--who such concerns, our strategy emphasizes initaedads-smetindAida's "gnalnew approaches to research that initiated and sustained Asia's "green complement and extend the impact of revolution" in wheat production over the our germplasm improvement work. past 25 years. Far from just reminiscing, these colleagues and long-time friends analyzed events that ultimately transformed the agricultural iandscape of Asia, took stock of the current situation in wheat research and development, and assessed the New Approaches to prospects for progress during the hext two decades. Highlights of their discussions Research follow: CIMMYT's primary activity isclearly 0 Mexican semidwarf wheat varieties and higher yield production technologies-- plant breeding, and our main products introduced and strongly promoted during the mid-1960s--did much more than stave are obviously improved maize and off widespread famine in India and Pakistan. They transformed South Asia's wheat germplasm. Our continuing traditional, resource-based agriculture to a modem, science-based food production emphasis on this research and these system. products reflects an enduring belief that better varieties are an effective means of economic and social raising the productivity of agricultural * The green revolution in wheat demonstrates the enormous resources in developing countries. ifunesThe benefits that can accrue when appropriate government policies are backed by well- emphasis on duvity about priorities and how we focused research. It gave credibility to agricultural research and motivated major decisions new investments to develop national and international agricultural research and our national program colleagues systems. can most effectively allocate research resources. In general terms, CIMMYT * Borlaug and his CIMMYT colleagues (R.Glenn Anderson in India; Ignacio is shifting its emphasis toward basic and Narvaez in Pakistan) brought more than improved wheat germplasm and crop strategic forms of research and away management practices to South Asia. Their philosophy of interdisciplinary team- from direct participation in the applied work, their orientation to dynamic field research programs, and their emphasis on and adaptive work needed to promote the practical needs of small-scale farmers became models for national research farm-level adoption of new technologies organizations throughout the region. (see Comments from Management, page 5). This fundamental change is occurring for several reasons. The mever ore * To maintain current levels of self-sufficiency in wheat production, South Asian obcive fo is central to our rationale, as is farmers must increase output to 95 million tons (MT) by 2000 and 130 MT by efficient 2010. Since little additional land is likely to be available for wheat production, the observation made by Dr. Vernon virtually all additional output must come from higher yields. Ruttan (Point of View, page 12) that new sources of productivity growth * Production needs for 2000 can be met using existing technology. Reaching the must be developed. production target for 2010 will be much more difficult, underscoring the urgent need to slow population growth and to improve the effectiveness of technology CIMMYT's regional programs, in Asia delivery systems. and elsewhere, figure prominently in our effort to become more efficient and institutional difficulties. to search for new sources of growth. 0 National wheat research systems are facing increasing When we first implemented the concept Research budgets are declining in real terms, political expediency is subverting of regional programs back in the early wer thelp rational policy decisions, and serious underinvestment in rural education is of7regiour primras national research programs, reducing the ability of farmers to adopt more complex but sustainable high-yield strengthen production systems. These trends must be reversed and the entire technology improve communication between the generation and transfer system made more dynamic and effective if the momentum Center's headquarters in Mexico and its of the past 25 years is to maintained. 22 Bcyond Sul istence: New Options for Asian Farmers national program clients, and to do a lights, page 59). Bilateral project offices Challenges to Asia's better job of assessing the germplasm are located in Dhaka, Bangladesh (with Agriculture products developed in Mexico. Since funding from CIDA--the Canadian then, the means to those t-nds and, in International Development Agency) and Asian agriculture faces several compel­ some cases, the ends tiiemselves have in Islamabad, Pakistan (with funding ling challenges. Ways must be found to changed. For example, over the years from USAID--the US Agency for both sustain the gains in productivity we have moved some of our research International Development). The United that Asian farmers have already made away from headquarters to locations Nations Development Programie and to realize more of the potential that where breeding for specific biotic and (UNDP) supports the work of a wheat current technologies have ^o offer. abiotic stresses not prevalent in Mexico crop improvement specialist for the Another challenge is to devise technolo­ can be accomplished more efficiently. warmer marginal environments of gies that permit even more intensive use Our research on downy mildew Southeast Asia, and our core funded of available land while maintaining resistance in maize, being done by regional staff work out of offices in overall productivity. And a third is to be CIMMYT regional staff in Thailand in Nepal (Kathmandu) and Thailand successful in meeting these first two conjunction with the Thai national (Bangkok). challenges while preserving, and program, illustrates this strategy.

Our growing emphasis on strategic research offers numerous opportunities for further strengthening national programs through collaborative research while multiplying the impact of CIMMYT's work in Asia. Examples include our regional wheat pathologist's epidemiological studies of the rusts of wheat in Asia and the planned CIMMYT/IRRl/national program crop management research on factors affecting the productivity of the region's vast rice/wheat rotation. Not only do such approaches add to the efficiency of research, they are vital to the develop­ ment of new sources of growth, enabling us to more effectively identify and resolve major constraints to improved productivity.

Due to the importance of regional programs in meeting the Center's objectives in Asia, CIMM YT maintains four offices there, staffed by nine senior scientists: four crop improvement specialists, three agronomists, and two economists. Financial support for much of their work comes from special project donations, though a significant portion of the Center's core funds are invested as well (see Financial High-

Agood example of decentralized germplasm improvement research is the work being done by CIMMYT's maize regional staff in conjunction with the Thai national program. Four adapted maize populations, all with resistance to downy mildew, are being developed to provide new sources of resistance for national programs in the region.

23 Review ofCIMMYT Programs

The Public and Private Sectors in Maize Germplasm improving if possible, the longer term Improvement productivity of the region's natural resources.

That task is further complicated by the Though still problematic in many developing countries, relationships between the question of how limited research public and private sectors in maize germplasm improvement can be cooperative resources should be targeted. To what and productive, as is the case in Thailand. There the two have managed to extent, for example, should CIMMYT achieve a mutual understanding of their distinct but overlapping roles and of the concentrate on further improving the advantages to be gained from cooperation. productivity of favored areas relative to marginal production environments? The benefits derived by the private sector from public maize research in Thailand There are differences of opinion. Many are considerable. By developing and releasing improved varieties, such as feel that substantial investments must be maize scientists have provided made in research oriented toward Suwan- I and Nakhon Sawan- 1,public sector marginal environments, either because highly marketable products for local agribusiness firms, whose sales complement growing demand for cereals will force the seed distribution efforts of public institutions. Moreover, widespread adoption more production into such areas or of these improved varieties by farmers has helped create a favorable environment because of a perception that relatively for various multinational seed companies, and area planted to their hybrid maize more poor people live in them. Others is gradually expanding. In seeking to develop better adapted, more competitive see a larger role for research oriented products, some companies are drawing heavily on the national program and toward the productivity of favorable CIMMYT's stocks of improved germplasm. Several are also employing the environments. And, of course, some methodology by which Thai and CIMMYT scientists improve the resistance of believe that we must do more of both. their materials to downy mildew, an important disease of maize. For the next 10 to 15 years, favored Some argue that national programs should be remunerated for their services to environments will receive much of CIMMYT's attention, primarily because the private sector. Sujin Jinahyon, vice rector of Thailand's Kasetsart University, teuof's aditiona aricur will capture 25% or more of the seed suggests that, since the private sector output, especially of food and feed market within 10 years, it makes sense for the university to gear some of its grains, must come from tese areas. We that the productivity problems maize research to the development of gene pools and inbred lines for sale to feel private companies. Public institutions might also produce final product hybrids presented by marginal environments are for smaller seed companies that cannot afford to invest heavily in research and especially difficult and the probability development. The public sector, says Taweesak Pulam, manager of Pioneer of near term success in research is low. Overseas Corporation in Thailand, could thereby help "provide farmers with We also believe that technological additional options and maintain pric.s at a fair level." progress in favored areas brings benefits to those living elsewhere through lower The Thai example shows that cooperation between public and private sector insti- food prices for poor consumers, tutions must be based on strcngth and mutual respect. In general, national "srillovers," and labor migrat;on. A programs must have an independent agenda determined by, among other things, better understanding these complex the needs of poor farmers. If sufficiently strong, such programs can cooperate onhps nde efereserch information about reors eied infany rac with the private sector and still provide an objective source of resources are shifted in any dramatic seed company products. In Thailand, cooperative maize yield trials are conducted fashion to riskier and potentially less each year to determine the relative performance of germplasm available from the rewarding undertakings. public and private sectors, and staff from the Department of Agriculture monitor seed production fields to ensure that quality standards are being met. These and other services are what establishes the credibility of government maize research- Increasing the Momentum of ers as public servants. They also demonstrate how such complementary Productivity Gains relationships benefit all concerned. The significance of the challenges to Asia's agriculture varies by crop. Relative to wheat, for example, the most immediate problem appears to be the slowing of productivity growth in those countries that were early beneficiaries

24 Beyond Subsistence: New Options for Asian Farmers of modem varieties. Maize researchers, Because improved wheat varieties are crop loss and the need to use expensive on the other hand, are aware they must now widely used in Asia, some people and potentially hazardous forms of overcome the key constraints to have the mistaken impression that the chemical control. Not to diminish the adoption of improved varieties if they wheat breeders' job is essentially done. importance of other diseases, by far the are to build upon recent gains .n Fortunately, the breeders in CIMMYT most threatening productivity, to wheat production in and in the region's national programs do Asia are the three rusts. The causal not agree. Since the advent of semi- organisms--obligate parasites--are A slowing of gains in wheat yields--In dwarf wheats, and the attendant large highly mutable, and resistant varieties India and Pakistan the rate at which jumps in productivity, breeders have generally become susceptible to attack wheat yields have been increasing steadily added about I%per year to not long after widespread cultivation. slowed significantly during the past yield potential in favored environments CIMMYT's Wheat Program conse­ decade (Table 4). At least two key (gains under less favorable circum- quently invests considerable resources elements appear to be at work here. First, farmers in the major wheat producing areas have already adopted Zh most of the newer technologies and The enhanced disease resistance of CIMMYT wheat their management skills are such that they capture much of the potential these technologies have to offer; indeed, germplasm lends stability to production, reducing both the risk much of what remains may not be economically recoverable. There are, of of crop loss and the need to use expensive and potentially course, notable exceptions to this circumstance. In some large favored areas, such as Pakistan's irrigated hazardous forms of chemical control. Punjab and eastern India, wheat yields remain low (about 2 t/ha) relative to potential even though farmers use stances are roughly half that). They in breeding research directed at staying improved wheat varieties and modest to have also improved yield stability by ahead of these mutating pathogens. high levels of fertilizer. Higher yields greatly increasing disease resistance and Even more important, the Program is are possible from existing varieties by adding tolerance to certain abiotic aggressively engaged in the search for through improved crop and resource stresses, such as drought (see Wheat durable resistance to them. management. Second, such factors as Research, page 43). soil salinity, micronutrient problems, With respect to stem rust (Puccinia soil structure and health, poor stand Although higher yield potential graninis), this search has already establishment, and worsening weed propelled the semidwarf wheats across proven successful. Durable resistance, problems appear to be adversely Asia, their enhanced resistance to conferred largely by the Sr2 gene, has affecting productivity in some key disease is arguably an even more protected CIMMYT-derived bread production systems. important trait, lending stability to wheats from stem rust epidemics for production and reducing both the risk of some 20 years. We now have encourag­ ing evidence (see Wheat Research, page 41) that similarly durable resistance may be possible against leaf rust (P. Table 4. Changes in growth rates of yields in the major wheat producing recondita).As for stripe rust (P. countries of Asia striiformis),recent indications are that sources of durable partial resistance Annual growth rate in wheat yields (%) exist. The search will continue, especially for durable resistance to leaf Country 1951-66 1967-77 1978-88 rust.sown Throughout Asia large areas are to susceptible varieties and, should the right conditions prevail at the India 2.09 4.42 2.84 right time, serious epidemics of leaf rust could occur. Farmers need new Pakistan 0.85 options 4.95 1.39 to guard against this eventuality.

China 1.37 5.94 5.87 Regional wheat staff are engaged in a number of activities that address Asia's Source: Calculated using FAO data. vulnerability, not only to the rusts of

25 Review ofCIMMYT Programs

wheat, but also to other sources of yield Other research aimed at improving the growing the mixture. Moreover, the instability. They are urging government stability of wheat yields points to the mixture appears to provide greater yield decision makers to give a higher priority use of varietal mixtures as an effective stability across environments. Future to the multiplication and release of option tor farmers. A three-year study trials will go beyond testing the efficacy newer rust-resistant varieties and to of varietal mixtures, cosponsored by the of the mixtures strategy to examine extension strategies ,imed at preventing United Kingdom's Overseas Develop- alternative varietal mixtures themselves. epidemics. Regional staff are working ment Administration and CIMMYT, with Indian wheat pathologists to was concluded in 1989. Preliminary Still another way to reduce wheat enhance the national program's capacity assessments of experimental results production risks is to ensure the for analyzing rust races. Such work indicates that this may be acost- availability of new varieties to replace requires special skills and facilities, as effective strategy for enhancing stability those that have become susceptible to well as a network of trained people for across environments and over time. mutating pathogens. In Pakistan recent collecting samples. In a related effort, Trials were grown in anumber of diagnostic surveys involving econo­ regional wheat pathologists are helping locations in India, Pakistan, and Nepal. mists and bioiogical scientists focused, to broaden the array of germplasm Over all environments, the mean yield for the first time, on identifying sources being screened by supporting aregional of the three-variety mixture (widely of wheat seed used by farmers and on disease trap nursery. Compiled in'India, grown commercial cultivars were used) how they manage their seed once they this nursery is now sent annually to all was about the same as the mean yield of have it. Subsequent surveys identified wheat producing countries in the region. each of the component varieties grown those varieties that are actually planted Its purpose is to identify the emergence separately, which is to say that there and explored farners' motives for of new races of rust. appears to be no yield penalty for changing varieties. Researchers identified the need for policies that would enable Pakistan's research and seed systems to improve farmer access " to new varieties and made specific 0 recommendations toward that end. Such work illustrates how social scientists can help identify important problems and highlights the need for effective policies that enhance farm level adoption of newer technologies.

Productivity of the rice/wheat rotation--Some 30% of South Asia's 32 million ha of wheat are sown in rotation with rice. It has long been believed that this rotation could be made more productive; only recently has concern emerged about declining productivity in some areas. Diagnostic surveys have been done at various times during the past decade. The three most recent surveys, focused on rice and wheat in the terai of Nepal and on wheat in the teraiof Uttar Pradesh in India, were conducted jointly by CIMMYT, IRRI, and national program staff. Like others before them, these surveys were

Recent surveys have provided Insights into farmers' sources of wheat seed and how they manage itbetween cycles. Clay urns, such as this one on afarm inthe teralof Nepal, are commonly used for storing grain throughout the region. 26 Beyond Subsistence: New Options for Asian Farmers designed to identify constraints to asse3sing the likelihood of adoption by in cooperative research for developing improved productivity; they differed farmers. Social scientists will play an varieties resistant to the downy mildew from previous efforts, however, in .hat important role in assessing alternative disease; these have been released to they were conducted by rice and wheat technologies, whether for the rice/wheat farmers in some Asian countries and specialists representing a broad range of rotation project or other such ventures used by researchers as sources of disciplines (agronomy, anthropology, (see Economic, Q rarch, page 47). resistance in others. In an effort to economics, entomology, extension, Since long term research will be guard against a breakdown of resis­ pathology, and plant breeding). Initial required to develop such technologies, tance in previous materials and to findings indicate that the productivity of research managers will need reliable provide germplasm with even more the rice-wheat system may indeed be information to justify on-going financial desirable agronomic traits, regional declining, at least in certain areas. Some support. Finally, resource preserving staff are developing four new maize farmers say that yields of one or both technologies will often be more complex populations with stable resistance to crops are decreasing, and long term than existing modes of production, downy mildew. fertilizer trials on experiment stations implying a fairly steep learning curve for would seem to corroborate their belief, farmers. Social scientists can help by They have also begun to concentrate on factoring ways to reduce farmers' abiotic stresses occurring in the less CIMMYT and IRRI have proposed a "learning costs" into research and favored environments where maize five-year collaborative research is extension strategies. often grown. Working with researchers project--involving a number of research- in Indonesia, for example, Center staff ers from national programs in addition Increasing the momentum in maize-- are screening germplasm for tolerance to CIMMYT and IRRI staff--that will During the next 10 years, demand for to high soil aluminum concentrations, seek to address near term productivity maize in Asia is projected to grow at and in China and Thailand they have constraints and longer term sustain- about 3.8% annually, largely because of established research partnerships for ability issues relited to the rotation, the rising demand for feed. To keep developing drought tolerant According to the plan developed in late pace, national programs are attempting germplasm. Regional staff are explor­ 1989, within three years of project to reach beyond existing varieties to ing similar opportunities for coopera­ initiation (scheduled for September establish a new generation of improved tive research on stalk rot, turcicum leaf 1990) the major constraints to farm materials. CIMMYT's regional maize blight, and stem borers. In addition to level productivity should be identified staff and researchers at headquarters are their own breeding projects, they will and research designed to overcome supporting these efforts in various ways, help target germplasm emerging from them well along. As indicated by the mainly by shaping a wide selection of research at headquarters, including new composition of the survey teams, germplasm to the major environmental materials adapted to the highlands and research will be interdisciplinary and, circumstances in Asia. One of our main subtropics (see Maize Research, although appropriate germplasni will no contributions so far has been to engage page 35). doubt play a part in raising productivity, strategic and applied crop management research will provide the key to opening options for farmers (see box, Crop Management Research in Asia, page 28).

On-farm testing and evaluation of new technologies will be an integral part of the project, and the analysis of costs and benefits will be indispensable for

Diagnostic surveys focused on Identifying constraints to Improving the productivity of South Asia's rice/wheat rotation are conducted jointly by CIMMYT, the International Rice Research Institute, and national programs. Jesse Dubin (left), CIMMYT's regional wheat pathologist, and H.P. Bimb (center), awheat pathologist for Nepal's National Wheat Development Program, here examine asample from a farmer's rice field.

27 Review of CIMMYT Programs

Crop Management Research in Asia

Asia's diverse farming systems offer numerous opportunities for techniques differ for the two research endeavors. To demon­ the more productive use of soil, water, and other natural strate how this framework can be applied, our regional maize resources. Crop management research provides an effective agronomist is collaborating with Thailand's Department of means of identifying and dealing with farmers' production Agriculture and Department of Agricultural Extension to problems, thereby increasing agricultural productivity. To be investigate zinc deficiencies on the Ta Kli soil series in Nakhon most effective, crop management research requires a farming Sawan and Petchabun provinces. systems perspective, as well as an integrated, multidisciplinary, problem-solving approach to the research. Biological scientists, On-farm research is one way among many to increase the economists, extension specialists, and farmers all need to be effectiveness and efficiency of crop management research. A involved. more fundamental means is to improve priority setting, so as to ensure that the right research is being undertaken. To guide Crop management research is normally quite site-specific, and such decision making, both CIMMYT and national programs hence falls under the purview of national programs. Still, need better information. Toward that end two important CIMMYT agronomists and economists have often assisted activities are now underway. The Center's regional maize national programs as they developed practical solutions to agronomist recently initiated a long term strategic research specific maize and wheat pr,-Auction problems. At the same project in cooperation with selected Asian programs aimed at time, Center staff have provided training in effective research gathering reliable production statistics, detailed information methodologies, such as on- farm research, and have encouraged characterizing production environments, and profiles of current a multidisciplinary approach to this work. As national program production technologies. A second effort, more fully described efforts have become more effective in this area, CIMMYT's on pages 26-27, involves the multidisciplinary rice/wheat diag­ work has acquired a broader, more strategic character, address- nostic surveys recently conducted in Pakistan, Nepal, and India. ing issues of regional importance. Yet this strategic research The purpose of these surveys is !o determine the extent to requires a strong sense of what is happening in farmers' fields; which the productivity of this system may be declining, and to hence the continuing importance of farm-level research. provide basic information for the proposed research project on the rice/wheat cropping system of South Asia involving The efforts of CIMMYT and others to strengthen national CIMMYT, IRRI, and national programs. These strategic program capacity in crop management research, and in on-farm efforts, backed by solid, site-specific agronomic research by research specifically, are now paying handsome dividends, national programs, illustrate the type of crop management Maize researchers at the University of Southern Mindanao in the research we believe is needed to achieve more intensive, Philippipes, for example, have conducted collaborative on-farm sustainable agricultural production in Asia. research with CIMMYT on the management of "aguingay" (Rotboellia cochichinensis), aweed that can cause severe losses. In India, the National Coordinated Maize Program will soon begin training of maize agronomists in on-farm research 0 and will include these procedures as an integral part of the overall crop management research strategy. And in Thailand and Pakistan, crop management research on planting wheat after rice with zero tillage has yielded results that may prove useful in other parts of Asia.

While the importance of crop management research is generally acknowledged by national programs in Asia, a farming systems perspective to the work is sometimes difficult to maintain. To provide a more effective framework for such research, CIMMYT's Bangkok-based regional maize agronomist and regional economist developed a model that outlines the func­ tional steps of an integrated research program. Careful distinc­ tion is made between the research needed to define a problem Boron deficiency Inintensively cropped soils has been linked to floret and the research required to solve it. Although the same or sterility inwheat. CIMMYT's regional wheat agronomist, Peter Hobbs similar sources of information may be used, such as farmer (left), occasionally consults with Thai researchers who are seeking surveys and on-farm trials, the objectives and analytical better methods of Identifying boron deficiency. 28 Beyond Subsistence: New Options for Asian Farmers Better germplasm prod-tcts are essential complex interactions between insect Such multidisciplinary research has to sustaining the momentum of maize, attack early in the maize growing generated a base of information that can but other constraints must be sur- season, plant stand management, and be used by government decision mounted as well. In Pakistan, for lodging in Indonesia. In the course of makers, researchers, and extension example, maize is a staple food in the these joint efforts, CIMMYT staff gain specialists to fashion policies, new north and an important fodder and grain insights into factors constraining technologies, and delivery strategies crop in Central Punjab, but average productivity, and their national program consonant with the realities faced by yields in the country remain low, at 1.2 colleagues gain experience and facility farmers. The utility of that information t/ha. Pakistani scientists have long with a range of research methodologies, is increasingly recognized throughout believed that several factors, in addition to a lack of varieties adapted to cooler environments, slow the adoption of improved varieties and management practices. Seed production problems, okeep pace with rapidly growing demand for maize, dual uses of maize for grain and fodder, and limited access by farmers to markets and inputs all appear important. national programs are attempting to establish a new generation A detailed formal survey of maize in the country's major growing environments, initiated in 1989 by maize researchers of improved materials. CIMMYT staff support these efforts by from the National Agricultural Research Centre (NARC) and CIMMYT's economics staff in the region, appears to shaping a wide selection of germplasm to the major support the national program view. When the final results are synthesized, environments of Asia. researchers and policy makers will have a complete picture of maize in Pakistan: production zones and systems; yields; detailed marketing and price informa­ tion; farmers' maize growing practices, l including the levels of inputs they use; how and when farmers obtain new seed; which varieties farmers prefer, and why; and how maize grain and by-products are used.

The research in Pakistan is agood example of the work done throughout Asia. Over the years, we have collabo­ rated with the farming systems research programs of several countries, espe­ cially Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines. This work, incorporating the expertise of specialists in different commodities and disciplines, has included efforts to understand farmers' reluctance to use fertilizer on maize in Thailand; difficulties associated with weed control in the Philippines; and the

Farmers use maize for fodder as well as for grain in Pakistan and other Asian countries, a fact that may be slowing the adoption of varieties that have been selected more for their high yield potential than for total blomass production.

29 Review of CIMMYT Programs national research systems (see box, An maturing variety, which will generally Southeast Asia, for example, is a new Interview with Amir Muhammed, produce more than the early maturing and somewhat controversial region for page 33). one. wheat research and production. Our research there, currently supported by The case of winter maize in Vietnam UNDP, focuses on wheat for the Intensifying Crop Production argues compellingly for better meeting warmer, more marginal areas. in Asia one germplasm need that is evident CIMMYT regional wheat staff and their throughout the region. High yielding, national program colleagues believe the Clearly, many of CIMMYT's activities early maturing maize germplasm would prospects are good for developing in Asia focus on sustaining the momen- offer advantages in many of Asia's appropriate genotypes and management tum of productivity gains already complex cropping systems. In addition practices. achieved and on realizing more ot the to enabling farmers to intensify produc­ potential offered by modem varieties tion, it can contribute to maize yield With the exception of Myanmar and farming methods. As important as stability through drought escape. To (Burma), little area in the region is this may be, resources are also commit- help national programs begin realizing currently devoted to commercial wheat ted to the difficult task of intensifying these possibilities, regional maize staff production. However, there appears to crop production where possible. We do are developing two dew early maturing be potential for growth, particularly in this basically in two ways: by develop- populations (two of the four downy the rainfed uplands. Thailand and the ing new genotypes for national pro- mildew resistant materials mentioned Philippines, even though they do not grams to use as they create varieties that previously), and increased emphasis has grow much wheat at present, are precisely fit the tight spaces available been given to this category of enthusiastically conducting research. for them in complex cropping systems germplasm in the breeding work at Some of their work focuses on such and by complementing that effort with headquarters. problems as boron deficiency and spot strategic crop management research blotch (Helminthosporiumsativum), a aimed at understanding the variables at Expanding into new areas--Just as potentially devastating disease of wheat work in those systems. maize is moving into areas where it has in warmer, humid climates. Solutions to not been grown before, so too is wheat, these problems may be applicable in Germplasm to fit complex systems-- The genetic diversity of maize, coupled some traditional wheat areas as well. Using the improved germplasm with farmer ingenuity, facilitates such Other potential benefits include currently available, some national maize movement. Despite the evident ingenu- resistance to sclerotium wilt (Sclerotium programs are showing extraordinary ity of wheat farmers in the region, rolfsii) and heat tolerance. ingenuity in finding ways to intensify however, moving this crop into new the production of complex cropping areas is proving more difficult. Even so, While it appears technically feasible to systems. In Vietnam, for example, wheat is now being grown in some grow wheat in parts of Southeast Asia, it scientists have successfully promoted unlikely places, at least on an experi- may not be profitable to do so--at least transplanting of maize seedlings for mental basis, not now. With high irrigation costs, low production in the winter season after yields, and/or competing uses of land, rice harvest, where previously fields the argument in favor of domestic wheat were left fallow until the next rice ,production is currently difficult to make. planting. In 1988 winter maize was But varietal improvement and crop sown to some 140,000 ha in the Hanoi o management research could alter the area, with an average yield of 3.2 t/ha. profitability of growing wheat in these Transplanting maize is a labor intensive environments. Thai economists are operation, but farmers will readily make analyzing the economics of producing this investment if the net gain is wheat locally, now and in the future. attractive; they are naturally less The objective of the study is to provide inclined to do so if it is not. Researchers guidance to researchers and policy hope to provide a new option, one that makers as they establish priorities for will make the system more flexible, by research and development. introducing improved early maturing maize germplasm. Farmers will then have the choice of growing high yielding varieties that can be sown Bangladesh has greatly expanded its Irrigation inrecent years, bringing water to directly and still mature before the next an additional 300,000 ha of previously rice planting, or they may opt for unirrigated land. Although essential to the transplanting an improved, later country's food production program, there is growing concern about the environmental effects of this expansion. 30 Beyond Subsistence: New Options forAsian Farmers Sustaining Long cropping, erosion, and irrigation are certainly one aspect of change that must Term Resource Productivity even now exacting a toll on these be accommodated is the inevitable resources, growth in demand for food and feed. Increasing the momentum of productiv­ ity improvements, realizing more from The Technical Advisory Committee CIMMYT's general strategies and our currently available technologies, and (TAC) of the CGIAR observes that specific activities and products, all of intensifying cropping patterns are key to "sustainable agriculture should involve which are aimed at meeting that meeting Asia's projected agricultural the successful management of resources growing demand, reflect consideration demand to 2020 (Point of View, page for agriculture to satisfy changing of sustainability issues. To begin with, 14). But meeting the region's needs for human needs while maintaining or the Center's emphasis on increasing food and feed after that will depend on enhancing the quality of the environ- resource productivity helps ensure a sustaining the long term productivity of ment and conserving natural re- sustainability orientation to our work. already heavily used natural resources, sources." While the phrase "changing Because of that emphasis, we avoid especially soil and water. Multiple human needs" is open to interpretation, practices that will mine the natural resource base upon which the future productivity of agriculture rests. We also believe that our strategic focus on increasing productivity in favored Th environments will help ease the The ability to meet Asia's needs for food and feed after 2020 pressure on areas less suitable to agriculture. will depend on sustaining the long term productivity of already As for more specific activities and products, the following illustrate how our work relates to heavily used natural resources, sustaining natural especially soil and water. resources, whether in Asia or elsewhere. Research on diseases and insects, for example, some of which was described earlier, is yielding resistant germplasm that reduces the need for costly and W environmentally risky forms of chemi- J cal control. Similarly, some of our improved materials appear to be more efficient in the uptake and utilization of inputs, especially water and nitrogen. We are working with others to under­ stand the mechanisms involved and to further enhance those efficiencies. Our efforts to conserve genetic resources (see CIMMYT /988 Annual Report: Delivering Diversity) rest on the important role these resources play in germplasm improvement research; we are conserving today that which may be needed to improve agricultural produc­ tivity tomorrow. Finally, agronomists, economists, and breeders are jointly developing minimum tillage practices (combined with crop residue retention) designed to reduce the risk of soil erosion. Such tillage systems engender

Soil salinization due to inadequate drainage of irrigation water isadversely affecting agricultural productivity inparts of Pakistan and in some other Asian countries. 31 Review of CIMMYT Programs a range of biotic and abiotic stresses, View (pages 10-17), Dr. Ruttan makes of our current activities will continue, and new resitant genotypes will likely much of the need to reorient the including our Mexico-based training in be needed for them. As the range of organization of agricultural research and breeding, pathology, and experiment these examples illustrates, nearly all of intensify the institutionalization of station management, as well as in­ CIMMYT's work can be connected in research capacity in developing country courses on specific topics like meaningful ways to sustaining natural countries. Moreover, he calls for the seed production and data analysis. resources for future generations. At the creation of new institutions having Increasingly, certain advanced national heart of our thinking about this chal- closer linkages to developed country programs will assume responsibility for lenge is the notion, well formulated by centers of excellence than do, in his basic training in crop management others, that we do not inherit our natural opinion, the CGIAR-sponsored research. Various advanced courses are resources from our ancestors so much international centers. now being offered in Mexico aimed at as we borrow them from our children. midcareer scientists from developing Clearly, some of what Dr. Ruttan countries, giving them an opportunity to envisions is for others to ponder and refurbish skills and conduct specialized The Importance perhaps implement. As noted earlier, research relevant both to CIMMYT and ofInstitution Building CIMMYT has contributed to the their national programs. process of institution building in Asia The effectiveness with which the mainly by investing in people, and the Also noted earlier, we are seeking new national programs of Asia fulfill their payoff associated with those invest- forms of cooperation with national responsibilities in large measure will ments isevident in the region's agricul- programs. In some instances, that determine how well the region's farmers tural progress to date. We recognize, cooperation is taking the shape of are able to satisfy the agricultural however, that needs have changed and "research partnerships," in which demands of consumers. In his Point of that we must refocus our efforts. Some specific roles and responsibilities are

CIMMYT elite maize germplasm is sometimes used for agronomic trials, such as here at the Lumule Agricultural Centre InNepal. B.R. Sthapit, Chief Agronomist for the Lumule Centre, notes that even though EVT 17 is not well adapted to the local environment, useful agronomic data can be obtained from such trials. 32 Beyond Subsistence: New Options for Asian Farmers established according to the capabilities An Interview with Dr.Amir Muhammed of those involved. Participants learn from one another in the course of these - Pakistan - associations, adding to their respective stores of knowledge and to their Dr. Amir Muhammed has long been involved potential 1 research capacity. Examples of with agricultural development, notably as this approach include the recent Minister of Agriculture for Pakistan, then agreements between CIMMYT and the Chairman of the Pakistan Agricultural Research Thai Department of Agriculture (downy Council (PARC) for 12 years, and presently as a mildew resistance in maize), the member of the Technical Advisory Committee Chinese Academy of Agricultural of the CGIAR. We recently sought his views Sciences (fusarium head scab resistance on in wheat), China's Yunnan Academy of several key issues. Agricultural Sciences (drought tolerance in maize), and Punjab Agricultural What is the greatest challenge to Pakistani agricultural University (Kamal bunt resistance in research in the next decade? wheat). Several other research partner- In my view, the biggest problem is the gap between potential yields and those obtained ships with developing country national by farmers. We have shown through research that we can get yields three times as high programs have been established outside as the national average. So we have to do a careful analysis of the whole production Asia as well. enterprise, including economic factors, to determine how we can realize that potential. Improving agricultural production in Pakistan is now much more Finally, other forms of cooperation complex than planting improved seed and using more fertilizer. We don't have any more land, emphasize broader participation within population has increased tremendously, and we are basically an arid country where the international community of agricul- water is ultimately the limiting resource. tural scientists. Such cooperation often involves one or more developing What kinds of research will be needed to address these more complex problems? country programs and universities, as Farming systems research has come up as an important means of understanding how well as colleagues from sister institutes the small farmer really survives. In developed countries, farming has become a and from developed country centers of specialized profession undertaken by people who are often qualified to do other things. excellence. We have used this kind of But in the developing countries, farmers have little opportunity to move out of collaborative research to good effect in agriculture. Furthermore, in Pakistan over 60% of all farmers have small holdings and the past, and we will increasingly rely the approaches followed in developed countries can be seriously misleading, unless­ upon it in the future. An example from our scientists are sensitized to look at problems differently. Farmers have wheat, Asia is the planned CIMMYT/IRRI/ fodder, vegetables, maybe buffaloes, cows, chickens: what matters is that, at the end of national program rice/wheat project the day, with family labor and limited land and water resources, how much money has described earlier, which embodies key one hectare produced?. elements of this approach.

In efforts like these, the skills and And the role of commodity experts in that situation? knowledge of the participants combine The trouble with the commodity experts is that they only ask the farmer: What has in synergistic and mutually advan- been your wheat yield? What is your maize yield? They tend to evaluate the whole tageous ways. This quality characterizes system on that basis only. But if a farmer grew miracle wheat and put nothing else in many of CIMMYT's undertakings. We the field the rest of the year, he would probably be a miserable man compared to the strive to mobilize and combine the one who harvested two or three crops per year in a rotation. When it comes to actually experience, energies, and talents of practicing agriculture, the situation here is much more complex. And our scientists agricultural scientists around the world have to be sensitized to that. such that the end result of the total effort surpasses the simple sum of Has social science research improved the understanding of individual contributions. And in all of farmers' situation in Pakistan? our work, for Asia and for other regions, I would say so. For example, a few years ago the Agricultural Economics Research one common goal prevails, that of Unit (AERU) in Punjab interviewed fahners and made the startling revelation that 40% opening new options for farmers in of farmers were still using varieties susceptible to disease. No biological scientist had developing countries. actually taken the trouble of conducting a survey to see what farmers were doing. The social scientists did it and everybody's eyes sort of popped open. Since then the AERUs--there is one on the campus of each provincial agricultural research institute and one in Islamabad--have done more farming systems studies and other kinds of research, and Ithink we are entering a phase where the role of social science in agricultural research is really becoming appreciated. 33 M aize Research

A common concern of

scientists in national

maize programs is that,

although their academic

training has taught them how

to conduct research, it

has provided them with little

help in resolving the issue

of what research to conduct.

Difficult enough in a single

country, this question

is especially complicated for

CIMMYT's global

maize program.

Nathan Russcil 34 Maize Research For researchers in national programs Deep planting to tap residual mois- selection and in four populations (Tepoztoc­ at CIMMYT, the task of assigning ture--The first task of the program at toc 1-4), the materials emerge reliably research priorities has been made easier headquarters was to generate new hard from 20 by the work of cm and have improved ovr regional maize endosperm populations with improved specialists. Their agronomic traits. From these popula­ main contribution to plant type, agronomic traits, disease priority tions national programs can develop setting in developing countries resistance, and tolerance to various varieties or employ the inbred lines we has been to offer training in on-farm abiotic stresses. Now that a number of are deriving from them in hybrid research, which is critical for accurately good general purpose populations have development or as sources of the ability identifying farmers' problems, and to been developed for all of the major to emerge from deep planting. provide assistance in research planning. highland mega-environments, Through the their contacts with national program has also initiated various Highland materials for Africa and programs, regional staff have obtained prcjects for "fine tuning" the Asia--In addition to drawing upon valuable insights and data about the germplasm, so that it more closely experience in Mexico, where highland circumstances of maize production in meets farmers' requirements. One such maize has been grown for developing countries, which in turn thousands of project was inspired by a practice that years, we are developing have helped CIMMYT researchers new popula­ to Mexican farmers employ to permit tions determine what categories to meet the demands of farmers in of earlier planting of maize. In some areas germplasm Africa and Asia. These materials require require additional emphasis, of the country's highlands, they sow much greater lodging resistance than the which traits are still lacking in this immediately after the danger of frost weak rooted highland types of Mexico, germplasm, and what types cf training has passed, some 45-60 days before the because hilling iip and planting and other assistance national programs maize in rainy :5eason arrives, placing the seed the furrow, a need to conduct their germplasm measure Mexican farmers 10-25 cm deep in the soil's reserves of take to prevent development and root lodging, is not a crop management residual moisture with a shovel type research common practice of growers in Africa more effectively. Some of the instrument (called tepoztoctoc in the and Asia. In the higher latitudes in Asia, needs identified are being met by the indigenous Nahuatl language). The aim farmers regional staff themselves also need highland materials through of our breeding program was to retain cooperative that are photoperiod insensitive. For research projects in the capacity of Mexican highland these areas we have developed two developing countries. The following germplasm to emerge from deep populations (Himalaya Blanco and sections discuss work that illustrates planting while improving its agronomic Himalaya Amarillo) and are selecting particularly well how we adjust research traits, particularly lodging resistance, them for and related activities earliness, so that they can be according to What complicated the task is that information the grown in multiple cropping systems received through the sources of these improvements are involving wheat in the winter season. regional programs and other contacts nonhighland materials that will not with our clients, and some sections emerge if planted deeper than 13 cm. highlight the role of outreach staff in Nonetheless, after three cycles of Midaltitude Germplasm making those changes. Development Highland Germplasm Development Responding to the changing germplasm i needs of developing countries some­ D times requires the combination of a new initiative at In few areas have the adjustments been headquarters and a new breeding program outside Mexico. as dramatic as in our program for Depending on the resources improving highland maize. From 1978 available to us, these efforts may be carried out to 1985, the program was geared almost sequentially, as was the entirely to developing germplasm with case with highland maize, or simultaneously, as the soft floury and morocho grain types. is happening in our work on This allocation of resources was subtropical germplasm, much of which dictated primarily by a scarcity of we also classify as midaltitude maize. By the improved germplasm for the Andean zone, to which these types are unique. Transfer of the work to national programs in the region enabled us to Mexican reorient the breeding program at farmers' practice of deep planting headquarters toward hard endosperm into residual moisture a month before the start of the rainy season led germplasm, which is the preferred type CIMMYT's highland maize breeder to develop four new over 93% of the world's highland area. populations that emerge from deep planting and show improved agronomic traits. 35 Review of CIMMYT Programs early to mid-1980s, it was apparent that, productive environments. Our expecta- Corn Stunt Resistant while CIMMYT's lowland tropical tion is that, with a wider array of Germplasm for Latin materials were performing well improved germplasm, national pro- m fria throughout the developing world, the grams will be able to build on these America subtropical materials were not proving successes and hopefully repeat them in as useful to our cooperators in national the less favored areas. In only two cases (midaltitude and programs. The Maize Program was highland floury and morocho maize) has eventually able to shift more resources A dynamic breeding methodology-- the Maize Program set up breeding into subtropical maize improvement at In establishing a research program to projects outside Mexico to deal with headquarters and in 1985 established a supply new germplasm for the midalti- whole classes of germplasm. More midaltitude maize research station at tude ecologies, our staff introduced commonly, the aim of breeding research Harare in cooperation with the Univer- certain methodological innovations, in outreach has been to enhance the sity of Zimbabwe. Departing from CIMMYT's traditional adaptation and yield stability of elite approach of improving a more or less germplasm for a given region by Buildingon past experience in fixed set of populations over long improving its resistance to a disease that southern Africa--Location of this periods, they have developed a system poses serious problems in several facility in sub-Saharan Africa offered a in which many new populations are countries. number of advantages. The continent continually created from a large has some 6 million ha of midaltitude collection of elite germplasm. The The effectiveness of this approach is area (out of a developing world total of populations then undergo recurrent well illustrated by our cooperative work about 17 million ha of subtropical selection in a multistage program, in the Central America and Caribbean maize), and the site of the station is well where some are discarded and those region to develop germplasm with suited to selection for resistance to showing promise are put to various resistance to corn stunt (caused by various of the most prevalent midalti- uses, a process involving a huge volume Spiroplasina sp.), which occurs tude diseases as well as to maize streak of materials. The results of evaluations throughout Mesoamerica, the Carib­ virus, which is endemic in Africa. One conducted over several seasons show bean, and in Venezuela. During 1987 in attraction of the southern Africa region that some new populations are competi- Nicaragua, this disease was responsible in particular is that it has witnessed the tive with the excellent hybrids already for losses of up to 60% over a 12,000-ha development of efficient seed produc- available in Zimbabwe (see Table 5). area planted to susceptible hybrids, tion industries and some of the develop- As a start toward familiarizing col- whereas a tolerant variety, grown on ing world's most significant achieve- leagues in national programs with the some 2,000 ha, yielded twice as much ments in maize germplasm develop- products of this research, we have as susceptible genotypes. This variety, ment. In Zimbabwe, Zambia, and secured their assistance in evaluating Santa Rosa 8073, is the product of Malawi, effective use has been made of germp!asm and arranged for many of cooperation between CIMMYT and a fairly na. row genetic base to generate them to visit the midaltitude station. national programs during the 1970s and excellent hybrids mainly for the more was released in Nicaragua during 1985. In 1986 further work on this disease was initiated, in which S, recurrent selection and evaluation are being at practiced in four populations, two in the Table 5. Performance of new streak resistant populations developed with hybrids Dominican Republic and two in El CIMMYT's midaltitude research station in Zimbabwe, compared already available in the country Salvador and Nicaragua. The results of evaluations conducted after three cycles Yield Days to Common Ear of selection indicate that, although two Pedigree (t/ha) silk rust* rot (%) populations apparently have little genetic variation for corn stunt resis­ Hybrids: tance, the others have shown marked progress in both resistance and yield. SR52 8.6 77 3.0 5 Synthetic varieties and hybrids gener­ R201 7.9 70 4.0 !1 ated through this project have been released by national programs and seed Populations: companies in eight countries of the Pop62/Gwebi (I }TZMSR-W 8.6 77 2.2 6 region and are yearly planted to about EV7992/EVPOP43-SR 8.1 78 2.8 5regin0an ar EV7992/R201//EVSR 8.0 75 2.3 8

Note: Data from three locations in Zimbabwe. * Rated on a 1-9 scale, in which I = resistant and 9 = susceptible.

36 Maize Research

Application of New Cooperation with other research somes in Tripsacun, establish their Biotechnology B h institutions--Achieving these advan- homology with those in maize, and tages, however, will be a long term eventually employ the probes in endeavor and initially a very expensive selecting for transfer of DNA from the Some traits, such as insect resistance one. To make the task somewhat more wild relative to maize. and tolerance to abiotic stresses, ten. to manageable, the Maize Program is be more difficult to develop through working on SWCB resistance as part of conventional plant breeding than a CIMMYT-European network that is disease resistance. In the hopes of studying the use of RFLPs in selecting The Changing Role of acquiring better tools for overcoming for quantitative traits. Currently, we are Agronomy Research particularly recalcitrant problems, the evaluating 80 inbred lines representing Maize Program is experimenting with CIMMYT's elite maize germplasm to Less numerous than staff engaged in two of various approaches encompassed determine their molecular allele type for germplasm development, maize by the term "biotechnology": restric- each of about 160 RFLP probes. About agronomists at CIMMYT have tended tion fragment length polymorphism half of this work was completed in to be less visible to groups outside the (RFLP) technology and to a lesser 1989. We are also increasing F lines Center and its network of cooperators. degree tissue culture (see Research (derived from populations formed by Concentrated almost exclusively in Support Services, page 53). regional and bilateral programs, they have supported research in developing countries mainly by immersing them- A selves A meeting in the adaptiv crop management of all CIMMYT maize agronomists marked the work of national programs and by sharing their experience through beginning of training and consultation. But since a new phase in which these staff will have a many national programs now have well developed programs of adaptive clearer identity as a disciplinary group. research, both the appearance and substance of our agronomists' work are starting to change. A meeting in 1989 of all CIMMYT maize agronomists marked the beginning of Focusing on insect resistance a new phase in and crossing resistant and susceptible lines) which these staff will have a much drought tolerance--We could have for RFLP analysis and field evaluation clearer identity as a disciplinary group, chosen to study any of various quantita- of each line's SWCB resistance, reinforced through periodic meetings, tive or polygenic traits, since a large Linkage analysis of the results will be information exchange, and coordination number of new molecular genetic conducted to determine relationships of agronomy and physiology research markers are now available that can be between the RFLP markers and from headquarters. used as tags for major genes determin- genomic segments responsible for ing these traits. But we decided to focus SWCB resistance. The Maize Program One of the principal tasks of agrono­ on resistance to southwestem corn borer is involved in a similar project on the mists in this first gathering was to study (SWCB) and anthesis-silking interval or genetic control of ASI in cooperation implications of the Center's strategic ASI (which appears to be important in with Mexico's Center for Research and plan, which calls for a major shift in developing drought tolerant maize), Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV). emphasis from adaptive research, because of the difficulty of selecting for leading directly to recommendations at these traits using conventional tech- In connection with the SWCB resis- the national level, to strategic research, niques and because, though quantita- tance work, we are investigating the use which addresses issues common to tively inherited, they are controlled by of maize RFLPs as genetic markers for various countries in a region. It was relatively few genes. In developing Tripsacunt, a wild relative of the crop apparent from the discussions that every SWCI, resistance, for example, which that may serve as a source of this and region has agronomic problems of appears to involve six to eight genes other important traits. Working with the international scope and that our staff are (current research in the Maize Program University of Minnesota, USA, we have already addressing some of these. In is expected to confirm this), we should used RFLP probes to detect in Trip- eastern Africa, for example, agrono­ be able to increase progress and reduce saturn molecular alleles not present in mists have embarked on a project for costs by prescreening the germplasm for subtropical maize that has been controlling the parasitic weed Siriga, resistance before conducting field hybridized with the wild species. With and staff in Central America began a evaluations and selecting for other these probes we will identify chromo- series of regional agronomy trials traits. during 1989 to develop technologies for

37 Review ofCIMMYT Programs

better management of volcanic and developing countries accomplish this results. They spent considerable time sloping soils. These and other projects task more effectively, the Maize practicing microcomputen analysis of covered during the meeting fall within a Program introduced in 1989 a special- agronomic trial data, and 13 stayed on special category of strategic research, ized seven-week course entitled for an extra week to further improve that which contributes to more sustain- "Research Program Design for Maize their computer skills. In addition to able and less environmentally destruc- Agronomists," intended mainly for these activities, participants scrutinized tive agricultural production. In the senior researchers with decision making case studies from Ghana and Pakistan, future this type of work is expected to responsibilities in national programs, and each developed and presented a eccupy a sizeable share of the approxi- and a six-week short course on maize research project for his or her home mately 25% of each agronomist's time improvement for heads of national country. devoted to strategic research, and it is breeding programs. probable that all crop management As one would expect from a group of investigations conducted by CIMMYT In the course for agronomists, 20 experienced researchers like this one, staff will be guided by a sustainability participants from I I countries worked the exchange of information and perspective, with particular emphasis on on diagnosis of field problems in three experience in their discussions was soil and water conservation, fertility distinct maize growing environments in especially lively and valuable. And in maintenance, and pest management. Mexico, where they spoke with farmers general participants were enthusiastic about agronomic and socioeconomic about the course. Half would have liked constraints of maize production. Based to extend it. One participant has already on the results of field surveys, the conducted a similar course in his own Advanced Training agronomists developed research plans program to disseminate the skills and for Experienced Scientists for two of the areas, giving special knowledge he acquired during his stay attention to the priorities of problems at CIMMYT. The diversity of maize production identified and to alternative solutions. environments in developing countries For each area the group developed field The course on maize improvement was makes the creation of successful trials to test these solutions at experi- designed to provide the 16 participants breeding and agronomy research ment stations or on farm. Using data (from as many countries) with an update programs a huge and difficult undertak- from previous trials, they addressed on recent advances in plant breeding ing. In a new effort to help scientists in both statistical and economic analysis of and to familiarize them with the current strategies of CIMMYT's maize breeding program. For that purpose we invited three scientists from US universities to give a series of lectures - on applied quantitative genetics and E developments in biotechnology, and our own staff gave overviews of their breeding approaches and of the new germplasm they are developing.

Fred Kanampin uf Kenya and Rachain Thiraporn of Thailand determine plant density ina farmer's field as part of an exerciso indiagnosing field problems. As a result of their experience inCIMMYT's new specialized course for maize agronomists, participants said they would give much more emphasis to field diagnosis inthe future. 38 An Overview of the Maize Program

Germplasm improvment Germplasm Laprovement (headquarters) (regional) The Program develops and improves awide These programs develop catelories of Z array of germplasm within the following germplasm or improve particular traits that categories: cannot be handled as effectively at headquarters. o Lowland tropical o Subtropical o Corn stun* resistance, Central America 0 Highland and the Caribbean • Quality protein maize (QPM) o Tolerance to aluminum, South America Germplasm products are distributed ih.'ough an international testkag system. * Downy mildew resistance, Southeast Asia

o CIMMYT/IITA cooperation, West Africa

0 Midallitude maize station, Zimbabwe

Support of germplasm improvement

These units contribute to germplasm improvement work at headquarters and to national breeding programs by providing germplasm, techniques, and information.

o Pathology * Entomology o Physiology o Germplasm bank * Wide crosses 0 Hybrid program

Support of national programs Regional programs--Identify the needs of national programs and strengthen their Training at headquarters--Courses on breeding and crop management research breeding and crop management research, capacity through consultation, training, and vising scientist fellowships, and pre- and workshops. postdoctoral fellowships. 0 Asia 0 Central America and the Caribbean e Eastern Africa o Middle East and North Africa o Southern Africa o South America

Bilater il programs--Strengthen research capacity in selected national programs through close collaboration over an extended period. Currently one such program in Ghana.

39 Wheat Research

While the record harvests

of India and Pakistan in

1988-89 bring pleasure to

CIMMYT's Wheat Program

*staff, the urge to celebrate

is tempered by our

knowledge of present and

future constraints to

improved productivity.

Sergio Paslin 40 Wheat Research The problems we face are analogous to Durable Resistance cause slow rusting; i.e., though the the pathogens that attack wheat; they variety displays a susceptible response, mutate into new and complex forms tdisease progress is slower than in a even as we fight them, and eliminating susceptible check variety. In several one can open the field to others. That For a small scale wheat grower in the CIMMYT genotypes, Lr-34 in combina­ fact has not altered certain basic Third World, stable yields are probably tion with two or three additive genes priorities of the Program: our central as critical as high yields. To understand retards disea., progress to the extent activity remains the development of why, simply consider the economic and that pathogen development by harvest is superior germplasm. But the ways in social consequences of plant disease negligible. which we obtain it and assure its utility epidemics there. With no access to the to clients have steadily grown more chemical controls, rapid variety Similar to stem rust resistance--Our sophisticated in response to the substitution, government support, and keen interest in this resistance source is complexity of the challenges we face. other aids that farmers in developed due in part to close analogies with the countries enjoy, a single disease case of the Sr2 complex for This is seen partly in a shift toward stem rust: outbreak can spell disaster, alone the Sr2 gene appears to confer the more strategic research and partly in a slow rusting characteristic; in conjunc­ re-evaluation of relationships with Leaf rust, caused by Pccinia recondita, tion with other genes it provides durable clients, international centers, and other is probably the most threatening wheat resistance and has protected CIMMYT scientific institutes. Examples of new disease in the developing world at derived cultivars from stem rust research directions include tracing present. Improved varieties, whose epidemics for more than 20 years. cytoplasm nrigin in pedigrees, studying disease resistance is often based on mechanisms of grain sprouting, and major, pathotype specific genes, Additional sources of resistance--We implementing new and powerful generally succumb to mutant virulant have identified varieties with partial, designs and analytical techniques for strains within ive to seven years after adult plant resistance bases that are international trials, to name a few. widespread adoption, sometimes distinct from those of Frontana. Pavon- Likewise, we seek more and more sooner. Thus, the identification of a 76 and its derivatives, for example, have collaborative arrangements where gene complex able to provide durable since 1976 been released in Mexico, outside expertise and our own skills resistance against diverse leaf rust races Algeria, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and blend to benefit all concerned. Several would constitute a major breakthrough. Australia without succumbing to a leaf such Program undertakings exist, rust epidemic. Genes from such sources including a new agreement with the In 1985 we began work with support could be used to create genetic diversity International Center for Agricultural from the German Agency for Technical around the Lr34 complex without Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) Cooperation (GTZ) to monitoi prevalent altering desrable phenotypic traits. to develop spring and facultative wheats races of the three rust diseases (stem, for the West Asia/North Africa Region, leaf, and stripe) and to study the We hope to impart a durable resistance talks with representatives from the genetics of leaf rust resistance. Even base to more of our emerging International Rice Research Institute though known major genes for leaf r':,t germplasm products. We are catalogu­ and the national programs of South Asia resistance were characterized in over ing undesignated genes for partial on a collaborative project to study the 100 cultivars, the research largely resistance and seeking RFLP markers to sustainability of rice-wheat cropping focijsed on the identification and aid in selecting new combinations. systems in the region, or research with genetic analysis of adult-plant partial Cornell University (New York, USA) to resistance in high yielding, broadly examine RFLP techniques for wheat adapted CIMMYT bread wheat Investigating the MIR and barley breeding (sr Research germplasm. We now have encouraging Support Services, p. >,. evidence that a number of our materials Translocation possess a complex, derived from the These enterprises illustrate in part a Brazilian cultivar Frontana, which Art outstanding achievement of the trend toward greater efficiency that is confers durable leaf rust resistance. Wheat Program was successfully congruent with guidelines in combining the diversity of two impor- CIMMYT's strategic plan and the Slow rusting--The resistance of certain tant genetic pools of wheat: winter and changinp needs of clients. Research to cultivars derived from CIMMYT spring habit types. Certain lines derived solve specific problems and generate Sermplasm has held up since the late from that blend--the Veerys--showed new understanding of our germplasm 1960s. Our findings suggest that the yield potentials that averaged 10% products has an important role in basis of this durability is the Lr34 gene higher thao those of the green revolu­ meeting those needs, as the following in combination with other minor tion semidwarfs. This and other superior reports show. resistance genes, a complex we have traced to Frontana. In Mexico the presence of Lr34 alone in a cultivar will

41 Review of CIMMYT Programs traits prompted the wide acceptance of This methodology will be applied as almost exclusively by humans, who Veery wheats among developing world well to other materials. In addition, the have very particular ideas about what is farmers. The source of their special IR rye chromosome has been intro- acceptable. The use intended for a given attributes, though, has received limited duced into the elite durum, Altar-84, for product thus cannot be ignored in attention in our Program, where by testing in the same way. Past studies at germplasm improvement work. tradition breeders strive first and CIMMYT have compared the yield foremost to deliver useful germplasm effect of the IB/I R in different genetic A case in point is that of improved swiftly to national programs. A rye- backgrounds, but work with isolines can varieties possessing the lB/I R translo­ wheat chromosome translocation, hopefully provide conclusive evidence cation. Under high speed mechanical known as IB/I R, is widely credited regarding the attributes associated with mixing, doughs from cultivars with the with conferring many of the Veerys' this translocation. translocation apparently become sticky, a property that impairs handling. As this bears directly on the utility of many of our products, program staff analyzed the R ecentc n with maintaining yields and ensuring quality characteristics of anumber of eB/IR wheats and compared sister lines with and without the translocation.

acceptable grain quality has led our researchers to A few lines with the translocation showed good breadmaking quality, and take a closer look at the presumed connection between some of them did not exhibit the sticky dough trait. The:ie findings suggest that the IB/R translocation and yield and quality, the IB/I Rtranslocation may not be categorically associated with poor dough handling characteristics and that additional factors, such as growing properties, but recent concern with 1B/IR and sticky dough--Although environment or genetic modifiers, play maintaining yields and ensuring increased grain yields are often seen as a large role. In future work, Program acceptable grain quality has led our the key to feeding the world's hungry, scientists will elucidate those factors researchers to take a closer look at that abundant i. -iests serve no purpose and how they interact to produce sticky presumed connection. unless consumers will use them. Wheat, dough. For the time being, our results unlike some other basic grains, is eaten suggest that breeders can develop Testing yield with "twins"--One !lne IB/I R materials that satisfy most of research seeks to confirm the role of quality criteria for breadmaking. the 1B/IR translocation in Veery yiolds. Our scientists are developing two Veery lines identical ineverylinesheticnasiaSolrc respect except E Synthetics as a Source that one will not possess the P of Variation translocation.

First, researchers crossed the Veery Since the time that farmers began to line, Seri-82 (released in Pakistan as select seed from superior genotypes for Pak-8 1), with Pavon-76, which does not use in future cycles, a breeder's job has have the translocation. By backcrossing been to "prod" mother nature to to Seri-82 several generations of combine her raw materials in novel progeny pos.,essing a IB, IB/IR ways. But while plant scientists have, at complement and then selfing the the service of humanity, become ever products of this combination, our more bold in manipulating genetic scientists are obtaining Seri derivatives material, nature is often still their best without the translocated rye chromo­ some. Chemical methodology and cytology are being used to verify the genetic makeup of the supposed isolines. The lines will be grown in Capitalizing on genetic diversity often carries yields compared with that a price tag. Years of conventional breeding trials and the may be needed to 'Weed out" the Seri-82. undesirable traits transferred along with useful ones in crosses of wheat with wild relatives such as Triticum tauschil.

42 V\heat Research teacher. In the following project, our Breeding for Tolerance to Doing so is not an easy task. Numerous researchers drew on her lessons to expand the variety of genetic resources Drought Stress and varied factors may contribute to drought--water available to breeders, input and distribution, relative humidity, soil structure and Global wheat productivity is directly status, temperature, agronomic prac- Since fall of 1987, Program staff have linked to moisture availability, and tices, etc. It is therefore difficult even to worked to develop synthetic bread developing country yields in irrigated define satisfactorily a drought stress wheats for use 1)as sources of resis- zones are more than four times those of environment. In addition, stress patterns tance or tolerance to a variety of the driest rainfed lands, where they vary greatly from site to site and across stresses and 2) in identifying molecular average only 0.6 t/ha. This fact acquires years at individual sites. Still, the gene markers. These lines are called great import when one realizes that 37% bottom line for a breeder is to develop synthetics because they are produced by of the developing world's wheat area is genotypes that are more productive with a process that imitates the natural semiarid, where moisture is the chief a fixed amount of water. cross--durum with a primitive grass production constraint. Dryland area in species (Triticum tauschii;formerly developing countries is not likely to A drought screening methodology-- Aegilops squarrosa)--whichin theory decrease, either, since desertification An enhanced version of that goal has led to the first bread wheat. It is affects millions of arable hectares each long been a part of our germplasm believed that, in the natural event, few year, and uncertain water supplies, high improvement work, though we pursued types of T. tauschiiwere involved, costs, and undesirable side effects have it initially more through screening than giving the resulting bread wheats a recently curtailed tht; spread of irriga- through actual breeding. In the Intema­ relatively narrow genetic base from that tion or led to reducing its use. The tional Spring Wheat Yield Nursery parent. CIMMYT researchers, however, above facts, together with a trend in (ISWYN) and the International Bread have produced about 150 synthetics by certain countries toward wheat farming Wheat Screening Nursery (IBWSN), using as many different T. tauschii in nontraditional areas, point up the both established in 1964 and continued parents, thus tapping into the genetic importance of developing germplasm today, germplasm developed under variability of that species. with tolerance to drought stress, optimum conditions was exposed to a range of screening environments, From within this collection, our scientists have identified materials with 1)good resistance to the pathogens responsible for a variety of diseases, including Kamal bunt, Helminthospo­ riumsativurn, and scab; 2) improved tolerance to abiotic stresses (e.g., saline soils); and 3) high levels of polymor­ phism (identified in the collaborative biotechnology project at Cornell University). This last characteristic should make them especially useful for RFLP mapping. Finally, by enhancing basic variability in wheat, the synthetics should prove a valuable source of materials for national program breeders.

Inline source Irrigation, water distribution decreases gradually as distance from the source increases. With modifications, this watering system can be used to simulate experimentally the drought stress patterns of a given production environment, thus allowing selection for specific traits associated with drought tolerance there. The approach necessitates multilocation testing, so that drought-related environmental factors not manageable on experiment station plots (such as soil type) are accounted for Inselection.

43 Review of CIMMYT Programs including drought conditions. In the even greater progress led our scientists independently functioning gene systems early 1970s, we began worldwide in the early 1980s to begin exposing and that breeders can select for each distribution of F2 materials with dryland segregating generations to drought separately in its respective environment. parentage. The eventual adoption of stress. We started targeting materials to Thus, it is possible to obtain germplasm semidwarf cultivars in many dryland a drought "mega-environment" and that is efficient under stress yet areas prompted the creation in 1976 of utilizing both optimum and stressed responsive at favorable moisture levels. the Drought Screening Nursery (DSN). environments in combinition for To further refine our methods, we selection, screening, and testing. Shuttle recently compared the efficiency of From testing to breeding--The above breeding, where alternate cycles of breeding under stress with that of methodology--breeding under optimum selection occur at environmentally breeding under optimum conditions. conditions and simply testing for distinct sites, was employed to improve drought tolerance--generated a number specific adaptation, thus broadening the Comparing irrigation and stress ofcultivars well suited for semiarid overall adaptation of the materials, methodologies--Our scientists chose zones (Marcos Juarez INTA in Argen- genotypes for the study according to tina, Kalyansona in India, Galvez-87 in As it stands today, our methodology is general selection criteria and then

Mexico, Pavon-76 and Barani-83 in based on the assumption that yield separated the F, seed of F2 individual Pakistan, and Sham-2 in Syria, to name under drought stress and favorable plants into two identical groups. a few). But the possibility of making water levels is associated with two Selection in successive generations within each group ensued under contrasting moisture environments (see Non-stress Moisture stress Selection method Figure 3). Grain yield of the F6-derived advanced lines from the two groups was evaluated in 1988 and 1989 under both F2 Individual plants full irrigation and terminal drought Cd. Obregon (27120'N. stress. In addition, subsamples of each 109*54'W, 38 masl, sandy group were tested both years under clay, November to May, full uniform water gradients generated by irrigation, reduced irrigation) line source sprinklers.

F3 F3 Modified bulk The results verify the suitability of Toluca (19016'N, Huamantla (19"19'N, breeding under optimum moisture 99035'W, 2640 97056'W, 2553 masl, conditions as was done in the past. masl, silty loam, loamy sand, May to However, additional gains in efficiency May to October, October, rainfed, appear possible through combining that rainfed, well watered) moisture stress) approach with selection for specific traits that enhance tolerance to this stress. Line source sprinkler irrigation F4 F4 Modified bulk would be useful here, since it can Cd. Obregon Cd. Obregon simulate the stress patterns of major target zones. Before starting work on traits, though, we need descriptions of F5 Head selection target environments based on parame­ Toluca ters, such as stress patterns and probability ranges, that predict drought incidence with more precision than do F6 Bulk harvest mere rainfall data. Cd. Obregon Data show that other components of Advanced lines improved agricultural technology-­ Huamantla fertilizer, chemical pest and disease I I controls, etc.--are crucial to increasing productivity in dryland areas. However, Advanced lines evaluated at Cd. until those inputs become readily Obregon in replicated yield trials under available to resource poor farmers, moisture stress and non-stress conditions improved germplasm is probably still their best option. Figure 3. Methodology for selecting wheat under non-stress and moisture stress conditions.

44 An Overview of the Wheat Program

Germplasm improvement (headquarters) Germplasm improvement (regional)

* Spring bread wheat * Winter wheat (Turkey) * Durum wheat * Warmer marginal environments * Tritieale (Paraguay, Southeast Asia) 0 Barley (ICARDA/CIMMYT) 0 Facultative wheat for West Asia/North Africa (CIMMYT/ICARDA) Industrial quality laboratory screens * Spring bread wheat for the drier areas of material for quality characteristics. West Asia/North Africa (CIMMYT/ ICARDA) International nursery system tests and 0 Spring durum wheat for the drier areas distributes germplasm, along with analyses of West Asia/North Africa (CIMMYT/ and interpretation of the tests, to ICARDA) cooperators.

Genetic resources

LID Germplasm bank maintains base and Uworking collections of cultivars, breeding materials, and wild relatives.

Wide crosses conducts interspecific and intergeneric hybridization to improve stress tolerance and resistance.

Germplasm enhancement incorporates useful traits into materials used in conventional wheat and triticale improvement.

Crop protection (headquarters) Crop protection (regional)

Pathology supports improvement work and 0 Stripe rust (Andean region) performs research on the epidemiology, 0 Leaf and head blights (Paraguay) host-parasite interaction, pathogen variation, * Disease surveillance (South Asia) and genetics of resistance for the rusts. septoria and helminthosporium diseases, and barley yellow dwarf.

Crop management (Leadquarters) Crop management (regional) - Supports nursery and station management. o Bilateral program (Bangladesh) determines conditions for selection and 0 Wheat agronomy (Paraguay) screening, performs on-farm trials, and 0 Wheat agronomy (E. Africa) conducts research on stress physiology, o Rice-wheat rotation (South Asia) agronomic management and pathology, and the agronomy of new materials from germplasm improvement.

Training (headquarters) Training (regional)

Includes in-service courses on improvement, Comprises seminars, courses, 0 crop management, pathology, and and direct consultation. experiment station management, as well as visiting scientist, post-, and predoctoral fellowships.

45 Economics Research

W hen CIMMYT's first

regional economists were

posted to Asia, Africa, and

Latin America at the end of the

1970s, they rarely encountered

other social scientists in

national agricultural research

programs. They specialized in

on-farm research -­ collaborating in research,

developing methods, and

offering training, mostly to

agronomists.

46 Kathryn Elsessr Economics Research At the end of the 1980s, circumstances Agronomic Research for Development research to solve those problems, and in the regions have changed with the (CIRAD), has conducted OFR on designing appropriate technological establishment of on-farm or fanning rainfed maize at five locations in the solutions. Mexican maize production systems research capacity in many lowland tropics since 1983. Results will have to rise by 25-33% to meet the national research programs. The from all five study areas were reviewed projected increase in demand from 1987 Economics Program's emphasis on in 1989 to determine whether the OFR to 2000. Since very little new land is training and consulting in on-farm approach had been successful and could available on which maize can be grown research (OFR) can now shift to the re- benefit more farmers if it were applied profitably, most of that increase can finement of OFR methods and the on a wider scale by agricultural only be obtained by improving maize exploration of other research issues, researchers in Mexico (OFR is one of yields. often in collaboration with social several approaches for raising agricul­ scientists--who are now present in tural production under evaluation by The projects described here are a strong greater numbers in national programs. INIFAP). endorsement of OFR's capacity to solve farmers' production problems To move forward with a fresh perspec- and, if In the OFR study areas, fertilizer and this success can be repeated at the tive on the tasks at hand, during 1989 improved maize varieties, along with national level, to stave off declines in the Program began to synthesize its herbicides, insecticides, and the use of maize self-sufficiency. However, to work to date in several areas, including tractors, had been adopted at a level address problems that are increasingly OFR. That process and some of our higher than the national average, but limiting farmers' maize yields, such as major research projects are Jiscussed in maize yields were still almost stagnant. declining soil fertility and inefficient the sections that follow. As OFR proceeded researchers uncov- use of moisture, OFR will have to go ered problems, mostly agronomic, that beyond purely adaptive research toward had previously gone unnoticed but were applied agronomic research. Success Synthesizing Experiences reducing the efficiency of the inputs also depends on training more research­ in OFR farmers used to grow maize. For ers in the practice--not merely the example, at La Fraylesca in the state of theory--of the OFR approach. Chiapas, farmers' maize yields were This year several studies of OFR limited by acid soils, low organic matter Toward more effective OFR in gathered together and assessed research content in the soil, soil compaction, and southern Africa--On an even wider results, indicated possibilities for weeds. scale, a review of OFR throughout improving the OFR approach, and noted southern Africa addressed three major the advantages to be gained from Between 1984 and 1988, researchers producer groups, each with its charac­ strengthening OFR capacity in national tested various technological solutions to teristic set of production practices: large research programs. For example, several the most important problems that were scale commercial farmers; medium years of OFR by Pakistani researchers, diagnosed. After comparing the scale cultivators who rely on animal in collaboration with CIMMYT staff, difference between the observed yield draft power for major farming opera­ formed the basis for a book describing increase from each techhology and the tions; and small scale, hand hoe the principal fanning systems of yield increase necessary to recover cultivators. The review examined the Pakistan and diagnosing major research farmers' investment in the technology, progress of OFR in amcliorating a priorities in those systems. In Ethiopia it appears that the most promising number of constraints faced by each OFR has been a rich source of farm options for farmers in La Fraylesca are group of producers and assessed the level data that, when compiled and to lime the soil and use a new herbicide; type and extent of the production gains analyzed, have given a clearer picture of farmers in the other areas would benefit that have been achieved. the socioeconomic constraints to maize from adopting drought tolerant and and wheat production throughout the earlier maturing maize varieties, as well For example, maize production country. Two especially detailed as seed treatment against soil pests (see practices and input levels traditionally retrospective studies of OFR in Mexico Table 6). have been developed under the assump­ and eastern and southern Africa are tion that farmers will plant early, but highlighted below. The experience of researchers in La recently OFR has shown that many Fraylesca and the other study areas farmers in southern Africa are con­ Toward more focused OFR in demonstrates that the challenge of strained to plant late and suffer reduced Mexico--Mexico's National Institute of increasing maize production is institu- grain yields. Results of this research Forestry, Agriculture, and Livestock tional as well as technical. The research suggest that much work remains to be Research (INIFAP), with the collabora- system would benefit from developing done in developing maize germplasm tion of CIMMYT and France's Center stronger, more effective mechanisms for and practices specifically for later for International Cooperation in diagnosing farmers' problems in planting. specific locations in major niaize growing regions, setting priorities for

47 Review of CIMMYT Programs

The study of OFR in southern Africa Future work in OFR--Together, these of technology. We will also become concludes that, although OFR has overviews of OFR have given the more involved in long term, on-farm improved the understanding of farmers' Economics Program a better perspective studies to analyze technologies that help circumstances, the impact on maize on where to focus its energies in the preserve the resource base and in production in southern Africa is still development and evaluation of maize studies of situations in which farmers limited. Like the review of the Mexican and wheat technologies. In the near seem already to have adopted such OFR projects, this study recommends future, we will continue to synthesize technologies. Studies have been that the problem solving approach what has been accomplished in OFR, proposed in Haiti and El Salvador, with pioneered by OFR will have much promote greater precision in the the objective of gaining experience that wider potential if it is fully integrated execution of research, encourage will enable us to decide how we can with applied experiment station research thorough studies of adoption and best contribute to research on the and extension and if the quality of the diffusion, and engage in on-farm productivity and sustainability of diagnostic work and priority setting can research to capture farmers' perspec- smallholder farming systems over the be improved. tives in the design, evaluation, and use longer term.

Exploring Issues in Varietal Table 6. Observed yield increases from technological components for rainfed Development maize and increases necessary to recover farmers' investments, on-farm research sites, Mexico, 1984-87 With increasing frequency, the Econom­ explore Minimum ics Program is requested to Relevant yield Observed many issues in varietal development, Razelneanneee yield Oincluding utilization and the economics and methods of area to pay costs' increase of disease losses Site-and componentsMincrease control. A triticale utilization study Siteand component (%) (tlha) (t/ha) conducted from 1988 to 1989 among smallholders in the state of Michoacin, Favorable areas Mexico, has found that triticale is are short of La Fraylesca, Chiapas adopted by farmers who livestock tha lime) 40 1.2 land but increasing their HerbicideLiming (2 (glyphosate 3 L/ha) 32 0.5 +0.9c ownership. These farmers value triticale Subsoiling, zero tillage Not yet 0.0 -0.9 primarily as animal feed, not as a food determined grain that substitutes for wheat. This finding indicates a need for further smallholder La Huerta, .Jalisco La Herta Jalscocultivation research onof the triticale potential for offeed and 0.1 +0.3 fora ingthe ex fe art Seed treatment (Furadan 300 ml) 87 the next five years, the Drought tolerant varietyDrouht tlerat vaietyforage. EconomicsDuring Program hopes to monitor 50 0.1 +0.8 EooisPormhpst oio (OBS 8349x8332) triticale utilization issues and relay that information to the Wheat Program, Marginal areas perhaps supplementing work in Mexico areas where Tierra Caliente, Guerrero with studies in other grow triticale. Variety V455 78 0.1 +0.6 smallholders Seed treatment (Furadan 300 ml) 50 0.1 +0.7 A study of the economic losses to Hopekhen, Campeche Kamal bunt (Tilletia indica) of wheat in ouheran vaie Mexico was undertaken in 1989 witi, Drought tolerant varietyINAPadteCM YWht INIFAP and the CIMMYT Wheat (OBS 8349x8332) 80 0.1 +0.7 Program. Estimating the costs associ­ ated with Kamal bunt innorthwestern exith pmar arafeten Source: Hibon, A. 1990. Las fuentes de crecimiento de la producci6n de mafz de temporal en Mdxico: tHacia una investigaci6n agron6mica ms estratdgica? Mexico: CIMMYT. Mexico (the primary area affected) in an (Forthcoming). average year makes it possible to determine 1) the resources that should a Minimum yield increase necessary for investment in the component to be be allocated to developing wheat profitable (cost of capital included). germplasm resistant to Karnal bunt and b Includes residual effects for three years. 2) the appropriate level of investment in c Excludes residual effects. measures to prevent the disease from

48 Economics Research spreading to other wheat growing areas Many studies attest to the impact of The study found that practically all of of Mexico. This work was followed by successful plant breeding programs, but the benefits to crop management field surveys in the states of Sonora and few attempts have been made to research conducted by CIANO scien- Sinaloa, Mexico, to assess whether determine the potential payoff to crop tists over 10 years were generated by Karnal bunt is related to specific management research. In 1989 the the diffusion of just two innovations-­ management practices such as crop Program concluded a study of the planting wheat in raised beds, and rotation or fertilizer use. returns to crop management research integrated pest management. Those done over the years by scientists of the practices provided large per-hectare Northwestern Agicultural Research increases in net income for the farmers Measuring Returns to Center (CIANO) in the Yaqui Valley of who adopted them. Both new practices es erns Mexico. The highly commercial Research were also relatively complex technical agriculture of the Yaqui Valley is changes in crop management. From atypical of much crop production in the those results one might conclude that Assembling information on particular Third World, benefiting from strong the gains to such innovative research problems such as Karnal bunt is one links to an active research system and will be high in areas like the Yaqui way to guide difficult resource alloca- extension service. However, those links Valley, where farmers have already tion decisions. Another way to give were important for establishing causal benefited from the adoption of high administrators a better sense of which relationships between the development, yielding varieties, the use of fertilizer, endeavors are most likely to meet their recommendation, and consequent and access to irrigation. The estimated objectives efficiently is to provide adoption of cop management practices. real return on the investment in crop information on the results of specific management research was over 20%, kinds of research, comparable to estimates of returns to plant breeding programs. In the future the Economics Program in studies will collaborate of returns to crop manage­ ment research in other situations if any studies attest national programs express strong to the impact of successful plant breeding interest in this issue. Such studies may offer the opportunity to test the method­ programs, but few attempts have been made to deter nine the ology developed in the Yaqui Valley study under more difficult conditions. potential payoff to crop management research. Commodity Sector and Policy Analyses

Along with studies of the efficiency and 0 impact of certain kinds of research, studies of the maize and wheat econo­ mies, on a global or national level, are becoming essential to making research decisions at CIMMYT and in national programs. Because of policy reforms instituted as part of the structural adjustment programs of the 1980s, many countries are experiencing substantial shifts in relative wheat and maize prices, supply, and demand. These changes will have important

CIMMYT economists collect and analyze data on the production, utilization, and trade of maize and wheat to understand trends (such as a region's changing self-sufficiency inwheat production) that may affect future research priorities. 49 Review of CIMMYT Programs implications for agricultural research that, of all crops in sub-Saharan Africa, CIMMYT economist to establish a systems into the 1990s. maize appears to have the greatest basis for developing a national maize potential for revitalizing food produc- research strategy. One finding of the In 1989 CIMMYT Economics and tion. Admittedly, realizing that potential study is that the maize marketing Maize Program staff contributed to the will not be easy; it will require better system in Paraguay is better developed upcoming issue of World Maize Facts research at the farm level to identify key than is generally believed. A field and Trends, which presents a special production constraints and develop survey of maize markets disclosed a report on maize in sub-Saharan Africa, technologies and policies capable of complex system involving a number of written in collaboration with the resolving them and additional macro- intermediaries and distinct marketing International Institute of Tropical economic research to help design channels (see Figure 4). Agriculture. The report is a comprehen- policies to manage production, con­ sive account of maize production and sumption, and trade. utilization trends, technologies, consumption patterns, and key produc- Another study, focusing on maize Training tion constraints. After assessing production, consumption, and marketing prospects for raising production and in Paraguay, was conducted by staff of As our work in OFR shifts to address noting research priorities, we conclude the Paraguayan national program and a more methodological issues, and as others become equipped to offer the kind of training that we have conducted in the past, the Economics Program expects to develop its training activities Production to reflect the wider scope of its research and to better mneet the needs of social scientists in national programs. For the present, Program staff, in collaboration with colleagues frutn other international First centers, national programs, and assembly universities, continue to offer courses on a range of subjects, from the basics of OFR to special topics for social scientists. We also hosted three more visiting economists in 1989--Kofi trasport Marfo, A.A. Dankyi, and Henry transport Dakurah of the Ghana Grains Develop­ ment Project, who came to headquarters to analyze the results of adoption studies. They returned to Ghana to plan a more comprehensive study of maize Wholesaling technology diffusion.

The Program continues to document its experience in training others in the OFR approach. In many regions of the world over the past 10 years, we have courses on OFR, in into feed sponsored call which participants convene periodically in a location over one or more agricul­ tural cycles to carry out the successive steps of on-farm research. This year Consumption three of our staff assessed call system training in a paper to be published in 1990. A synthesis of our work in this area should be useful to others engaged in training national research and extension personnel ii" :he methods of OFR. Figure 4. Principal marketing channels in Paraguay for yellow maize destined for animal feed, which constitutes most of the maize that ismarketed.

50 An Overview of the Economics Program

Headquarters and regional/bilateral program regional research and training needs. Staff staff may allocate their time differently posted to bilateral programs with Haiti, among the Program's three chief areas of Mexico, and Pakistan collaborate closely work, but all staff contribute to each area. with social and biological scientists in those Regional economists working in Central countries to strergthen the social science America and the Caribbean, eastern and capacity in the national research system. southern Afica, and Southeast Asia have a special mandate to focus on particular

Technology design and evaluation

This research includes: I) designing new technologies, evaluating whether they are appropriate for farmers' circumstances and help sustain the resource base, and assessing adoption by farmers and 2) conducting studges of policies affecting the efficient utilization of technology at the farm level. A chief product of this work is methods and analyses that national programs can use in designing and evaluating technologies.

Research resource allocation and impacts

The need for accountability and discernment in the allocation of resources in national programs and at CIMMYT has placed greater emphasis on developing information and methods for setting research priorities and documenting the impact of research expenditures on productivity and income distribution.

Commodity sector and policy analysis

Commodity sector analyses cover all aspects of long term trends in maize and wheat prices, supply, and demand, including policy influences, that have a bearing on decision making for agricultural research, whether at CIMMYT or in national programs.

51 Research Support Services

Ranging from evaluations

of biotechnology tools

for breeding to

preparation of experiment

station fields for planting, the

activities of CIMMYT's

research support services are

highly varied.

Yet, a number of common

threads run through the

fabric of this seeming

patchwork quilt.

Sergio Pa utii 5 2 Research Support Services

Perhaps one of the more interesting is of corn borer, the major insect pest of Conservation Tillage on the constant, conscious evolution of the maize in tropical regions. The project, Breeding Plots support units to keep pace with the which is funded by the government of Center's changing vision of its role and the Netherlands, includes the screening priorities. They do this by identifying of 80 CIMMYT lines and is, in part, Recent concern with sdstainability in and promoting within their respective CIMMYT's contribution to the Euro- agriculture has prompted a widespread areas of competence useful new ways pean RFLP network. A second project re-evaluation of soil preparation for the research programs to generate funded by the Rockefeller Foundation technology, and conservation tillage has our products and services. And, as this includes a collaborative effort with the emerged as a suitable alternative for is a two-way street, their counterparts in Center for Research and Advanced many production circumstances. The the programs on occasion return the Studies (CI,"NVESTAV) of the Mexican use of this tillage method in breeding favor, identifying and promoting National Polytechnic Institute (IPN) to plots, however, has received somewhat improved strategies and methods for identify RFLP markers associated with less attention. CIMMYT Experiment support efforts. The following high- drought tolerance. Stations is currently studying the lights illustrate both types of collabora- feasibility of that application, and while tion, as well as the gradual and deliber- CIMMYT's own biotechnology further research is necessary, the results ate transformation of the support laboratory will be operating in 1990, obtained to date are encouraging. services in response to the larger issues and initial work will focus on the use of that shape CIMMYT's outlook, molecular markers to analyze the Personnel at the El Batdin station genomes of maize, wheat, Tripsacum recently completed four years of trials spp. (wild relatives of maize), rye, and on a single plot using two maize Collaborative Research in related species. Our scientists will varieties (a hybrid and an open polli- C Botie Resedevelop technology to enhance the use nated variety), Biotechnology to compare conventional of such markers in detecting specific and conservation tillage practices under segments. Potential activities include different fertilizer treatments. As To provide its crop breeders with tools developing nonradioactive detection nitrogen levels increased, yields under that improve the efficiency and methods, improving the efficiency of conservation tillage were superior to effectiveness of their work, CIMMYT handling samples, and designing those under conventional land prepara­ signed on as a participant in two computer software to help breeders tion, and lodging under conservation collaborative ventures involving evaluate data from molecular genetics tillage was consistently less. In similar restriction fragment length polymor- research. trials during two cycles at the Poza Rica phism (RFLP) technology. station this year, maize grain yields In support of future biotechnology work under the two tillage A three-year systems were special project to develop a and to address several immediate roughly the same. set of probes for the wheat and barley concerns of the crop programs, the genomes was begun at Cornell Univer- maize and wheat wide crosses sections Acting on preliminary results from these sity, New York (USA), with funding are investigating techniques for studies, two CIMMYT scintists from the Australian Centre for Intema- generating viable plants from normally working with several maize populations tional Agricultural Research (ACIAR) nonreproductive plant tissues and based on highland adapted materials and the government of the Netherlands. nonviable embryos. Known as tissue planted some of their 1989 El Batdn The resulting linkage map and probes culture, the technique is being applied trials under conservation tillage. will help the Wheat Program to identify to research in wheat on callus induced and combine useful genes from different alien transfers, genomic translocations, The possible advantages of employing varieties and to select against undesir- polyhaploid production, somaclonal this method for on-station experiments able genes and gene interactions, variation, and selection for tolerance to are several: Researchers will also screen a number saline and aluminum toxic soils. One of important CIMMYT wheat and project involves studies of suitable 0 The reduced number of field opera­ triticale varieties in hopes of locating culture media for triticale and should tions increases the timeliness and important resistance factors in the wheat prove useful in the production of both efficiency of experiments. genome. primary and recombinant triticales. In maize, research has focused on deter- 0 Vhere are considerable savings in The Maize Program is involved in work mining the efficiency of callus culture machinery, installations, inputs, at the University of Missouri (USA) and plant regeneration in several of the water use, and labor. using RFLPs to identify areas of the Program's inbred lines. genome associated with resistance in 0 Erosion is reduced and soil quality CIMMYT materials to several species improved, increasing the operational life of the station.

53 Review of CIMMYT Programs

Extensive interdisciplinary research is The use of conservation tillage on and inexpensive treatment to assure that needed to clarify such issues as the long experiment station fields would be a seed distributed by the Center is free term effects of conservation tillage on valuable innovation for an international from Kamal bunt (Tilletia indica), a pest, disease, and weed incidence, as center such as CIMMYT. But resource disease for which quarantine regulations well as its appropriateness for breeding poor breeding programs in developing can seriously affect global movement of plots where wheat is grown or where countries may have even more reason to wheat seed. wheat and maize are rotated. Nonethe- examine the suitability of this technol­ less, interest in this tillage method for ogy for their particular circumstances. The treatment involves prewashing the breeding work is evinced by the seed, bathing it in a solution whose Center's development or purchase of active ingredient is sodium hy­ related equipment: Experiment Stations A Simple Treatment for pochlorite, and drying it. While research personnel have designed and built a continues to refine the procedure, small scale, direct-drill row crop planter Karnal Bunt experiments indicate that the treatment that can be used for zero-tillage on the could remove or destroy all T. indica experiment field or by farmers in The free exchange of germplasm to the teliospores on the surface of nonin­ developing countries, and the Maize benefit of farmers worldwide is an fected seed. Experiment Stations Program has purchased a four-row important function of institutions such personnel are now working with Seed planter for use, among other things, in a as CIMMYT. It depends largely on Health to construct and test system conservation tillage system on breeders' cooperators' confidence in the quality prototypes for treating seed in the plots, and health of seed they receive. As part quantities required by the Wheat of our efforts to conserve that trust, the Program. Seed Health Unit is developing a simple

A new seed treatment developed by Center staff that uses a sodium hypochlorite/detergent bath and air drying to remove or destroy Tilleta Indica tellospores will enable send shipped by CIMMYT to meet strict phytosanitary guidelines for Karnal bunt.

54 An Overview of Research Support Services

... Experiment stations

Oversees field operations on some 800 ha of land at various research stations and other experiment sites in Mexico.

Biometrics Systems and computing services

Provides mathematical and statistical Develops software, installs and oversees the support to crop program researchers in operation of hardware and networks, and is experimental design and the analysis of responsible for overall computing infrastruc­ results. ture.

Information services

Assists staff in communicating results of research, provides access to results of outside research, develops training materials, and supports administration in its information function.

Blotechnology General laboratories

Evaluates and adapts biotechnology Analyzes soil and plant tissue samples techniques for analyzing and improving submitted by the research programs and maize and wheat germplasih. Experiment Stations.

Seed health

Monitors and treats the seed imported or exported by CIMMYT to minimize the risk Ufrom seed-borne pathogens.

55 Financial Highlights 1989

Acltvty (II%)Management/Administration (I I%)

(I I%) Consulting (8%) -1

(6%) Genetic Resources (5%) -IMMYT partitions its (7%) Crop Management and (14%) financial resources among Pnysiolgy

(8%) Crop Protection (5%) - 1 five major organizational

(26%) Training (23%)

(31%) Germplasm Improvement (34%) units, which in turn allocate

Wbt Program Make Program resources to various (28%) .(30%) 1989 Allocatkm to oactivities. As one would

expect, the bulk of our

resources are allocated to

research on maize and wheat

and on economics issues

(17%) Administration (10%) related to those crops. R ueu S,,pport (15%) Fc.noinl Program (2%) Biotechnology Managjement/ (13%) (2%) Seed Health Administration (15%) (4%) Biometrics Consulting Crop Management '-3%1 Laboratories ol Physiology (17%) -- (15%b) Systems and Anays • omping Services Economc (18%) (24%) Informlion Services Training (32%) (48%) Experiment

Improvaee (5%) 56 Financial Highlights 1989

The activities to which each program allocates resources are defined by the Technical Advisoiy Committee of the Training Germplasm CGIAR. Germplasm improvement is (24%) Improvement predominant among them, consuming (37%) some 37% of the Center's research Crop Management resources at this time (setdiagram at and Physiology right). Training is also a major under­ taking, currently accounting for about 24% of the budget. Crop management Economics and physiology research, crop protec- Analysis tion, genetic resources, and economics (2%) research together account for another 25%, while consulting and information consume the rest.

The relative allocations shown in the diagrams on these pages will change C somewhat in the coming years, (9%) (7%) Protention following guidelines established in our (9%) (7%) Resources (5%) strategic plan--Towardthe 21st (6%) Centuiy: CIMMYT's Strategy--and elaborated in our Five Year Budget, Allocations by Major Activity: 1990-1994. These two documents, both Research, Research Support and Training of which were published in 1989, are central to future financial planning. The Budget proposes a moderate growth in financial resources for the Center over the next five years.

CIMMYT's ability to fulfill its research Balance Sheet US dollars (000s) and training obligations to the develop­ ing world depends on donor funding of Year ended December 31 cov and special project activities. Since 1989 1988 1980, 15 new donors have committed to such support. In 1989, a new contribu- Assets 33,905 28,917 lion of extra-core funds for maize and tioniofetranin-ac viisf mae nd Cash and short-term investments 2,487 triticale training activities was made by Accounts receivable 5,863 the Government of the Islamic Republic 8,790 1,984 Inventories 118 132 of Iran. As well, the Fund for Private Pnven t ,riese 1 0 13 8 Assistance in International Develop- Property, plant, and equipment 22,510 20,938 ment donated extra-core funds support- Liabilities 8,762 6,117 ing additional maize research activities in Zimbabwe. Accounts payable and other liabilities 2,960 718 Our financial statement for this year Accrued staff obligations 889 598 shows an increase in total assets. This Payments in advance from donors 4,913 4,801 increase is reflected in the enhancement of property, plant and equipment assets, Fund balances 25,143 22,800 as well as donor receivables. A significant portion of the physical plant Property, plant, and equipment 22,510 20,938 enhancements resulted from the Capital 1,980 1,100 construction and equipping of the Operating 2,765 2,765 biotechnology laboratory that will Auxiliary services 361 485 Cumulative translation effect (2,473) (2,488) (continued, page 59) Total liabilities and fund balances 33,905 28,917

57 Donor Contributions US dollars (00,3)

Extra Core and Unrestricted Restricted Cooperative Total

Australia, Government of 652 59 711 Austria, Government of 240 240 Belgium, Government of 166 166 Canadian International Developmsat Agency 1,427 1,664 3,091 China, People's Republic of 50 50 Danish International Development Agency 569 92 661 European Economic Community 1,752 1,230 2,982 Finland, Government of 947 72 1,019 France, Government of 426 89 511 Fund for Private Assistance in International Development 53 53 Germany, Government of The Federal Republic 435 267 702 India, Government of 55 55 Inter-American Development Bank 4,610 4,610 International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics 378 378 International Development Research Centre 13 13 Islamic Republic of Iran, Government of 27 27 International Board for Plant Genetic Resources 24 24 Italy, Government of 238 131 369 Japan, Government of 1,800 253 2,053 Norwegian Agency for International Development 221 19 240 OPEC Fund for International Development 60 60 Spain, Government of 115 115 Switzerland, Government of 628 478 1,106 The Ford Foundation 100 100 The Netherlands, Government of 227 124 351 The Philippines, Government of 17 17 The Rockefeller Foundation 83 83 The United Kingdom, Government of 1,232 1,232 The World Bank 2,850 2,850 United Nations Development Programme 1,889 8 1,897 United States Agency for International Development 5,250 1,474 6,724 Miscellaneous training and research grants 1,076 1,076

Total 20,522 6,498 6,550 33,570

58 Financial Highlighis 1989

become fully operational in 1990. In contrast, the accounts receivable balance from donors was unusually Wheat high at the close of the year with several major core donations left outstanding. One result of this was an overall reduction in our cash balance as Maize compared to 1988.

Donor pledges in currencies other than US dollars are recorded at their dollar Economics equivalent on the date of deposit. This year the dollar strengthened against major currencies resulting in lower than Training expected dollar revenues from dona­ tions denominated in other currencies. In terms of the Mexican peso, the Administration/ combined effect of exchange rates and Research inflation in Mexico continues to Support influence our financial management, although in 1989 the overall effect was 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% considerably less than that of 1988. The lower dollar revenues combined with local inflation necessitated a draw on the CGIAR stabilization fund. Allocations to the Asian Region, Expressed as a Percent of Organizational Unit Budgets A complete accounting of CIMMYT's financial position for 1989 has been published as a separate document and is available from the Center upon request. These financial highlights summarize how funds were allocated by the Center. As shown in the chart on this page, our commitment to research and training efforts in Asia are significant. Future plained allocations reflect the many challenges facing the region and their continued importance to CIMMYT and to our donors.

59 Publishing by CIMMYT Staff

Selected CIMMYT Publications Journal Articles, Monographs, and Book

The following are selected publications _ . 1989. Toward the 21st Century: Chapters released by CIMMYT during 1989. A StrategicIssuesandthe Opera­ more complete listing is available from tionalStrategiesofCIMMYT. Bajet, N., and B.L. Renfro. 1989. Occur- Information Services. Mexico, D.F. rence of com stunt spiroplasma at . 1989. Wheat and triticale nursery different elevations in Mexico. CIMMYT. 1989. 1988 Annual Report: reports (1986-87). Mexico, D.F. PlantDisease73(11)926-930. InternationalMaize and WheatIm- Hettel, G.P. 1939. Wheat production Bjamason, M.S. 1989. Mais. Handbuch provement Center.Mexico, D.F. advances in South America's der Landwirtschaft und Emaehrung (Also available in Spanish.) colossus: The gains from 20 years in den Entwicklungslaendem. In _ . 1989. CIMM)Ts Five-Year of Brazilian/CIMMYT Vol. 4 Spezieller Pflanzenbauin Budget: 1990-1994. Mexico, D.F. collaboration. CIMMYT Today No. den Tropen und Subtrope, 32-40. .1989. CIMMYT International 18. Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT. (Also Brennan, J.P. 1989. An analytical model Maize Testing Program: 1987 Final available in Spanish.) of a wheat breeding program. R. ort. Mexico, D.F. Kohli, M.M., ed. 1989. Taller sobre la AgriculturalSystems 31(4):349­ _ . 1989. 1987-88 CIMMYT World fusariosisde la espigaen Amirica 366. Wheat Factsand Trends. The del Sur. Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT. _. 1989. Spillover effects of intema- Wheat Revolution Revisited:Recent Longmire, J., and J. Lugogo. 1989. The tional agricultural research: Trends andFutureChallenges. economics of small-scale wheat CIMMYT-based semidwarf wheats Mexico, D.F. (Also available in production technologies for Kenya. in Australia. AgriculturalEconom- Spanish.) CIMMYT Economics Working ics 3(4):323-332. .1989. Formulationde recomman- Paper 89/01. Mexico, D.F.: . 1989. An analysis of the economic dationsd partirde donnies CIMMYT. potential of some innovations in a agronomiques:Manuelmithodolo- Pakistan Agricultural Research Council/ wheat breeding programme. gique d'bvaluation1conomique. CIMMYT. 1989. Maize Research AustralianJournalofAgricultural Completely revised edition. and Development in Pakistan. Economics 33(1 ):48-55. Mexico, D.F. Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT. Broers, L.H.M. 1989. Influence of .1989. Formulationde recomman- Pakistan Agricultural Research Council/ development stage and host dationsd partirde donnies CIMMYT. 1989. Wheat Research genotype on three components of agronomiques:Cahierd'exercices. and Development in Pakistan. partial resistance to leaf rust in Mexico, D.F. Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT. spring wheat. Euphytica 44:187­ 1989. Recent Advances in the Russell, N.C. 1989. Ghana's tradition 195. Conservationand Utilizationof makers: Changing patterns in food .1989. Influence of post-infection GeneticResources:Proceedingsof crops researrh, extension, and temperature on three components of the GlobalMaize Germplasm production. CIMMYT Today No. partial resistance in wheat to wheat Workshop. Mexico, D.F. 19. Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT. (Also leaf rust. Euphytica44:215-224. _ , ed. 1989. Toward InsectResistant available in French.) . 1989. Partial resistance to wheat Maizefor the ThirdWorld: Tripp, R., and J. Woolley. 1989. The leaf rust in 18 spring wheat Proceedingsofthe International PlanningStage ofOn-Farm cultivars. Euphytica44:247-258. Symposium on Methodologiesfor Research:IdentifyingFactorsfor . 1989. Race-specific aspects of DevelopingHost PlantResistance Experimentation.Mexico, D.F. and partial resistance in wheat to wheat to Maize Insects. Mexico, D.F. Cali, Colombia: CIMMYT and leaf rust, Pucciniareconditaf.sp. 1989. Toward the 21st Century: CIAT. (Also available in Spanish.) tritici.Euphytica44:273-282. CIMMYT's Strategy.Mexico, D.F.

60 Publishing by CIMMYT Staff

Broers, L.H.M., and T. Jacobs. 1989. Duveiller, E. 1989. Research on Morris, M.L. 1989. Wheat policy The inheritance of host plant Xanthomonas translucens of options in sub-Saharan Africa: effect on latency period of wheat wheat and triticale at CIMMYT. The case of Zimbabwe. Agricul­ leaf rust in spring wheat. I: Bulletin ofEuropean Plant tural Economics 3(2): 115-129. Number of segregating factors Protection Organization 19:97- Morris. M.L., and M.D. Newman. 1989. and evidence for transgressive 103. Official and parallel cereals segregation in F3 and F5 Duveiller, E., F. Snacken, and H. markets in Senegal: Empirical generations. Euphytica 44(3):207- Maraite. 1989. First detection of evidence. World Development 214. Pseudomonasfiscovaginae on 17(12): 1895-1906. Byerlee, D.R. 1989. Bread and butter maize and sorghum in Burundi. Mujeeb-Kazi, A., S. Rolddin, D.Y. Suh, issues in Ecuadorian food policy: Plant Disease 73(6):514-517. N. ter Kuile, and S. Farooq. 1989. A comparative advantage Fischer, K.S., G.O. Edmeades, and E.C. Production and cytogenetics of approach. World Development Johnson. 1989. Selection for the Triticum aestivum L. hybrids with 17(10):1585-1596. improvement of maize yield some rhizomatous Agropyron Byerlee, D.R., P. Heisey, and P.R. under moisture deficits. Field species. Theoretical and Applied Hobbs. 1989. Diagnosing Crops Research 22(3):227-243. Genetics 77(2): 162-168. reseirch and extension priorities Fischer, R.A., I.B. Mason, and G.N. Peterson, C.J., and W.H. Pfeiffer. 1989. for small farmers: Experiences Howe. 1988. Tillage practices and International winter wheat from Pakistan. Quarterly Journal the yield of wheat in southern evaluation: Relationships among ofInternational Agriculture New South Wales: Yanco in a test sites based on cultivar 28(3):15. 425 mm rainfall region. Austra- performance. Crop Science Byerlee, D.R., M. lqbal, and K.S. lianJournal of Experimental 29(2):276-282. Fischer. 1989. Quantifying and Agriculture 28:223-236. Pfeiffer, W.H., and H.J. Braun. 1989. valuing the joint production of Guindo, 0. 1989. The role of adaptive Yield stability in bread wheat. In grain and fodder maize fields: research in increasing agricultural Variability in Grain Yields: Evidence from Northem Pakistan. productivity: The experience from Implicationsfor Agricultural Experimental Agriculture Haiti. Canadian Journal of Research and Policy in Develop­ 25(4):435-445. Agricultural Economics 37(3): II. ing Countries, Anderson, J.R. and Byrne, P.F., L.L. Darrah, K.B. Simpson, Gustafson, J.P., J.E. Dilld, and B. P.B.R. Hazell, eds., 157-174. A.J. Keaster, B.D. Barry, and Skovmand. 1989. Wheat substitu- Baltimore, MD, USA: IFPRI. M.S. Zuber. 1989. Maize silk pH tions in hexaploid triticale. Plant Pham, H.N.. S.R. Waddington, and J. as an indicator of resistance to me Breeding 102(l):111-112. Crossa. 1989. Yield stability of com earworm (Lepidoptera: Hallan, A., R.M. Hassan, and B. CIMMYT maize germplasm in Noctuidae). Environmental D'Silva. 1989. Measuring international and on-farm trials. Entomology 18(3):357-360. stochastic technology for the In Variability in Grain Yields: Ceballos, H., and V.E. Gracen. 1989. A multi-product farm: The irrigated Implicationsfor Agricultural dominant inhibitor gene inhibits farms of Sudan. Canadian Research and Policy in Develop­ the expression of Ht2 against Journal ofAgricultural Econom- ing Countries, Anderson, J.R. and Exserohilum race 2 in corn inbred ics 37(3):495-512. P.B.R. Hazell, eds., 185-205. lines related to B14. Plant Hock, J., J. Kranz, and B.L. Renfro. Baltimore, MD. USA: IFPRI. Breeding 102(1):35-44. 1989. El complejo mancha de Pansom, J.K., S.R. Waddington, and M. Crossa, J. 1989. Theoretical considera- asfalto de maiz, su distribuci6n Osmanzai. 1989. Effect of tions for the introgression of geogrifica, requisitos ambientales yellow-berry on field emergence exotic germplasm into adapted e importancia econ6mica en of spring wheat. Field Crops maize populations. Maydica M6xico. Revista Mexicana de Research 21(2): 115-119. 34(I):53-62. Fitopatologia 7(2): I1. Raun, W.R., D.H. Sander, and R.A. De Le6n, C., and S. Pandey. 1989. Jacobs, "I., and L.H.M. Broers. 1989. Olson. 1989. Nitrogen fertilizer Improvement of resistance to ear The inheritance of host plant carriers and their placement for and stalk rots and agronomic effect on latency period of wheat minimum till corn under sprinkler traits in tropical maize gene leaf rust in spring wheat. 1: irrigation. Agronomy Journal pools. Crop Science 29(1):12-17. Estimation of gene action and 81(2):280-285. Dubin, H.J., R. Johnson, and R.W. number of effective factors in Fl, Rerkasem, B., D.A. Saunders, and B. Stubbs. 1989. Postulated genes F2 and backcross generations. Dell. 1989. Grain set failure and for resistance to stripe rust in Euphytica 44(3): 197-206. boron deficiency in wheat in selected CIMMYT and related Thailand. Chiang Mai University wheats. Plant Disease 73(6):472- Journal ofAgriculture 5:1- 100. 475.

61 Reynolds, M.P., and E.E. Ewing. 1989. Beltrin, M.C., R.J. Peflia, and A.A. Crossa, J. 1989. Theory and practice in Effects of high air and soil Amaya. 1989. Comparison of determining sample size for temperature stress on growth and breadmaking quality-related conse'vation of maize tuberization in Solanum characteristics in complete and germplasm. In Recent Advances tuberosum. Annals of Botany substitute triticales. Abstracts of in the Conservation and Utiliza­ 64(3):241-247. the LXXIV Annual Meeting of the tion of Genetic Resources: . 1989. Heat tolerance in tuber American Association ofCereal Proceedings of the Global Maize bearing Solanum species: A Chemists, 118. Germplasm Workshop, 149-154. protocol for screening. American Bolafios, J.A., and G.O. Edmeades. Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT. Potato Journal 66(1 ):63-74. 1989. La importancia del Deutsch, J.A. 1989. Pre-release testing Smith, R.C.G., H.D. Barrs, and R.A. intervalo de la floraci6n en el and seed production of insect Fischer. 1988. Inferring leaf mejoramiento para ]a resistencia a resistant maize cultivars. In stomatal resistance from infrared sequfa en maiz tropical. In Toward Insect Resistant Maize measurements of foliage Compendio de Resdmenes de la for the Third World: Proceedings temperature. Agriculture and XXXV Reuni6n Anual del of the International Symposium Forest Meteorology 42:183-198. PCCMCA, 14. San Pedro Sula, on Methodologies for Developing Honduras: Secretarfa de Recursos Host Plant Resistance to Maize Naturales. Insects, 267-270. Mexico, D.F.: Published Proceedings/ Cantrell, R.P. 1989. Recent develop- CIMMYT. ments in the CIMMYT Maize Edmeades, G.O., J.A. Bolafios, M. Abstracts Program. In Toward Insect Hemkidez, and S.Bello. 1989. Resistant Maize for the Third Underlying causes of reduced Aguiluz, A., R.Rodriguez, R. Urbina, World: Proceedings of the anthesis-silking interval in and H.S. C6rdova. 1989. Avances International Symposium on Tuxpefio sequfa. Agronomy en el programa de mejoramiento Methodologiesfor Developing Abstracts, I l. para resistencia al achaparram- Host Plant Resistance to Maize Fischer, R.A. 1988. Plant breeding and iento en dos poblaciones de mafz Insects, 2-4. Mexico, D.F.: some broader issues in agricul­ (22 y 73). In Compendio de CIMMYT. ture. In Ninth Australian Plant Resamenes de la XXXV Reuni6n Celado, R., F. Navarro, and H.S. Breeding Conference Proceed­ Anual del PCCMCA, 20. San C6rdova. 1989. Evaluaci6n de ings, eds. K.S. McWhi,1er, R.W. Pedro Sula, Honduras: Secretarfa Ifneas SI de maiz provenientes de Downs, and B.J. Read, 61-68. de Recursos Naturales. las poblaciones 28 y 36 del Sidney, Australia: University of Bajet, N.B., and B.L. Renfro. 1989. The CIMMYT resistentes al achapar- Sidney. hopper-borne diseases of maize ramiento ciclo 2do. (Zea mays L.) Gonzflez de Le6n, D., D.A. Hoisington, and control by vector resistance. Repdiblica Dominicana. In D. Jewell, and J.A. Deutsch. In Toward Insect Resistant Maize Compendio de Resfimenes de la 1989. Genetic evaluation of for the Third World: Proceedings XXXV Reuni6n Anual del inbred tropical maize germplasm of the International Symposium PCCMCA, 4. San Pedro Sula, using RFLP's. Agronomy on Methodologiesfor Developing Honduras: Secretarfa de Recursos Abstracts, 82. Host Plant Resistance to Maize Naturales. Harrington, L.W. 1989. An introduction Insects, 156-162. Mexico, D.F.: C6rdova, H.S. 1989. Efectos de aptitud to on-farm adaptive research. In CIMMYT. combinatoria general e identifica- Dynamics in On-Farm Research: Bekele, G.T. 1989. Historia de la ci6n de hibridos triples de mafz Proceedings of a Workshop, eds. participaci6n del CIMMYT. In de grano amarillo en Centro Q.J. Laumans and A. Winarto, 8­ Taller sobre la Fusariosis de la America, Panamd1 y el Caribe. In 15. Malang, Indonesia: MARIF. Espiga en Amirica del Sur Compendio de Restimenes de la Harrington, L.W., M.D. Read, D.P. (proceedings of the 1987 work- XXXV Reuni6n Anual del Garrity, and R.B. Tripp. 1989. shop of the same name, Encar- PCCMCA, 2. San Pedro Sula, Approaches to on-farm client­ naci6n, Paraguay), ed. M.M. Honduras: Secretarfa de Recursos oriented research: Similarities, Kohli, 119-124. Mexico, D.F.: Naturales. differences, and future directions. CIMMYT. In Developments in Procedures Bell, M.A., and H.R. Lafitte. 1989. The for Farming Systems Research, role of the harvest survey in Proceedings of an International agronomic diagnosis. Agronomy Workshop, eds. S. Sukmana, P. Abstracts, 50. Amir, and D.M. Mulyadi, 37-53. Jakarta, Indonesia: AARD.

62 Publishing by !MMYT Staff Hibon, A. 1989. Plenary discussion: Piedra, C.R. de ]a, B.W. L6pez, J.L. Taba, S. 1989. User-oriented bank Practical issues in implementing Jim~nez, and A. Hibon. 1989. management. In Recent Advances adaptive on-farm research. In Case study 3: Maize on-farm in the Conservation and Utiliza- Dynamics in On-Farm Research: research in La Fraylesca, tion ofGenetic Resources: Proceedings ofa Workshop, eds. Chiapas, Mexico. In Dynamics in Proceedings ofthe Global Maize Q.J. Laumans and A. Winarto, On-Farm Research (proceedings Germplasm Workshop, 39-48. 88-89. Malang, Indonesia: of the 1988 conference of the Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT. MARIF. same name, Malang, Indonesia), Torres, E., and E. Hesse de Polanco. Lafitte, H.R., and G.O. Edmeades. 58-75. 1989. Relevance and adequacy of 1989. Adaptive strategies in low Reynolds, M.P., E.E. Ewing, and T.G. crop protection information for N environments: A comparison of Owens. 1989. Photosynthesis at wheat. In Crop Protection improved and unimproved maize high temperature in tuber-bearing Information:An International genotypes. Agronomy Abstracts, Solanum species: \comparison Perspective, eds. K.M. Harris and 116. between accessic:. ,nfcontrasting P.R. Scott, 67-86. Wallingford, Law.a, D.A., and K.D. Sayre. 1989. heat tolerance. Plant Physiology UK: CAB International. Effects of crop rotation tillage and Supplement, 24. Tusuz, M.A., N. Koc, and S. Sriwatan­ straw management on common Rosales, P.M., and S. Taba. 1989. A apongse. 1989. Breeding for borer root rot of wheat. Abstracts of local germplasm bank informa- resistance in maize in Turkey. In American Phytopathology tion management system. In International Congress of Society Annual Meeting in Recent Advances in the Conser- SABRAO (proceedings of the Phytopathology 79(10): 1142. vation and Utilization of Genetic 1989 congress of the same name, Mann. C.E. 1989. Breeding wheat for Resources: Proceedings ofj'he Adana, Turkey), 213-216. heat and drought tolerance. In Global Maize Germplasm Vasal, S.K., G.C. Han, and E.M. Elias. Northeastern Seminar on Wheat Workshop, 52-58. Mexico, D.F.: 1989. Development of noncon­ (proceedings of the 1989 seminar CIMMYT. ventional maize hybrids. Agron­ of the same name, Khon Kaen, Sayre, K.D., I.Ortiz-Monasterio, W.R. omy Abstracts, 103. Thailand), Appendix 3. North- Raun, and M. McMahon. 1989. Vasal, S.K., and S. Taba. 1988. eastern Wheat Council and IRRI. Effect of sub-soiling and incorpo- Conservation and utilization of Maredia, K.M., J.A. Mihm, and A.S. ration of organic matter on maize genetic resources. In Plant Tasistro. 1989. Maize weevil irrigated wheat yields in north- Genetic Resources: Indian control. Insecticideand Acaricide western Mexico. Agronomy Perspectives, eds. R.S. Paroda, Tests 14:207-208. Abstracts, 144. R.K. Arora, and K.P.S. Chandel, Mihm, J.A. 1989. Evaluating maize for Smith, M.E., J.A. Mihm, and D.C. 91-107. New Delhi, India: resistance to tropical stem borers, Jewell. 1989. Breeding for NBPGR. armyworms, and earworms. In multiple resistance to temperate, Villareal, R.L., R.P. Singh, and S. Toward Insect Resistant Maize s:btropical, and tropical maize Rajaram. 1989. Norin 10 dwarf­ for the Third World: Proceedings insect pests at CIMMYT. In ing genes in the CIMMYT bread ofthe InternationalSymposium Toward Insect Resistant Maize wheat breeding programs. on Methodo!ogiesfor Developing for the Third World: Proceedings Agronomy Abstracts, 104. Host Plant Resis!."nce to Maize ofthe InternationalSymposium Woolley, J.N. 1989. Integrating on- Insects, 109- 12 '. Mexico, D.F.: on Methodologies for Developing station and on-farm research. In CIMMYT. Host Plant Resistance to Maize Progreso en la Investigaci6ny _ . 1989. Mass rearing stem borers, Insects, 222-234. Mexico, D.F.: Producci6n del Frijol Comiin fall armyworms, and corn CIMMYT. (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), CIAT earworms at CIMMYT. In Soto, N., R. Rodriguez, L. Brizuela, and Publication No. 23, 449-456. Toward Insect Resistant Maize H.S. C6rdova. 1989. Deter- Cali, Colombia: CIAT. for the Third World: Proceedings ininaci6n de la aptitud combinato­ ofthe InternationalSymposium ria general de lineas endogtmicas on Methodologies for Developing y su efecto en la formaci6n de Host Plant Resistance to Maize nuevos hibridos triples de mafz Insects, 5-21. Mexico, D.F.: (Zea mays L.) en Centro America. CIMMYT. In Compenaio de Res6menes de Pfeiffer, W.H., K.D. Sayre, S. Rajaram, la XXXV Reuni6n Anual del and T.S. Payne. 1989. Empirical PCCMCA, 4. San Pedro Sula, approaches to breeding for Honduras: Secretarfa de Recursos drought stress. Agronomy Naturales. Abstracts, 95.

63 Presentations and Other Byerlee, D.R. 1989. Food for thought: Crossa, J., P.N. Fox, W.H. Pfeiffer, and Publications Technological challenges in Asia S. Rajaram. 1989. Integrated agriculture in the 1990's. statistical techniques for anialyz­ Anandajayasekeram, P., G. Durr, and Conference of Asian and Near ing multilocation yield trials. XII G.M. Karanja. 1989. Challenges East Bureau's Agricultural and EUCARPIA Congress, Science of the regional research centers in Rural Development Officers, for Plant Breeding. February, the generation, testing, and USAID. February, Rabat, Gottingen, Germany. dissemination of appropriate Morocco. Deutsch, J.A., and H. Ceballos. 1989. technologies for small-holder Byerlee, D.R., and M.L. Morris. 1989. Combining ability estimates and farmers in Kenya. Annual An overview of economic issues heterotic patterns for selected Scientific Conference of the in wheat research and develop- tropical lines. North Central Corn Kenya Agricultural Research ment in sub-Saharan Africa. Sixh Breeding Research Commitee Institute. August, Nairobi, Kenya. Regional Wheat Workshop. (NCR-2) Meetings. February, Anandajayasekeram, P., A. Low, and G. October, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Rosemont, IL, USA. Durr. 1989. Economic evaluation Byerlee, D.R., and G.E. Sain. 1989. Duarte, E., M.M. Kohli, and R. Pedretti. and interpretation of intercrop- Ajuste estructural y precios 1989. Resultados del octavo ping trials. Workshop on Re- relativos de alimentos bisicos: vivero de lineas avanzadas del search Methods for Cereal/ Hallazgos preliminares en Cono Sur (LACOS) 1988-89. Legume Intercropping in Eastern Amrrica Latina. El Comercio y el Ministerio de Agricultura y and Southern Africa. January, Eiecto en la Agricultura de las Ganaderia de Paraguay. CIMMYT. Lilongwe, Malawi. Polfticas Macroecon6micas en el Dubin, H.J. 1989. CIMMYT's role in Anandajayasekeram, P., and C.N. Contexto del Ajuste Estructural international rust r search with Murithi. 1989. The role and place en Amdrica Latina. May, special reference to the sub­ of on-farm research with the Santiago, Chile. continent. ACIAR/PARC/ICAR farming systems perspective Byerlee, D.R., and B.Triomphe. 1989. Workshop. March, Islamabad, (OFR/FSR) in the National The use of integrated agronomic- Pakistan. Agricultural Research Project economic surveys in the diagns- . 1989. CIMMYT regional (NARS) and its implications, tic stage of on-farm research, pathology project in South Asia. Kenya Agricultural Research Workshop on the Design and Seminar at the Swiss Federal Institute National and Regional Analysis On-Farm Trials. Institute of Technology. July, Research Programme Develop- February, ibadan, Nigeria. Switzerland. ment Workshop. December, Calhoun, D.S., P.A. Burnett, H. Vivar, Durr, G., and P. Anandajayasekerm. Nairobi, Kenya. and L. Gilchrist. 1989. Field 1989. The role of social scientists Bell, M.A., D. Flores, and A. Lim6n. screening for Diuraphis noxia in on-farm experimentation. 1989. A preliminary evaluation of resistance. Second Russian Wheat Regional Technical Network­ the "harvest survey technique". Aphid Workshop. October, shops on Issues Related to Annual Wheat Newsletter 35:2. Albuquerque, NM, USA. Planning Management and Burnett, P.A., and M. Mezzalama. Carney, J.A. 1989. Gender and rural Evaluation of On-Farm Experi­ 1989. Notes from the barley transformation in the Gambia. ments. December, Arusha, yellow dwarf program at Annual Meeting of the Associa- Tanzania. CIMMYT. Barley Yellow Dwarf tion of American Geographers. Duveiller, E. 1989. Screening criteria Newsletter 2:68-70. March, Baltimore, MD, USA. for bacterial streak in bread .1989. Screening cereals for Ceballos, H., and J. Deutsch. 1989. wheat, durum wheat, and triticale. resistance to barley yellow dwarf Estudio de la herencia de la Seventh International Conference in Mexico. Fourth international resistencia a Phyllachora maydis on Plant Pathogenic Bacteria. Plant Virus Epidemiology en maiz. X Congreso ASCOLFI. June, Budapest, Hungary. Workshop. September, Montpel- July, Cali, Colombia. Gebrekidan, B. 1989. Introduction and lier, France. . 1989. Response to selection for background to the Third Regional _ .1989. The barley yellow dwarf resist,,nce to Exserohilum Maize Workshop of Eastern and program at CIMMYT. ICARDA/ turcicum in CIMMYT subtropical Southern Africa. Third Regional Agriculture Canada/Laval pool,%. North Central Corn Maize Workshop of Eastern and University Workshop on Barley Breedhkg Research Commitee Southern Africa. September, Yellow Dwarf. November, Rabat, (NCR-2) Meetings. February, Nairobi, Kenya. Morocco. Rosemont, IL, USA.

64 Publishing by CIMMYT Staff Gebrekiden, B., and B. Gelaw. 1989. Hobbs, P.R., A. Razzaq, N.J. Hashmi, Mann, C.E., and P. Sirithunya. 1989. The maize megaenvironments of B.R. Khan, and B.M. Khan. 1989. Report on yield data of the Thai eastern and southern Africa and Wheat production and yields in national wheat and barley germplasm development. Third Rawalpindi District of the Punjab nurseries 1987/88. 1987/88 Eastern and Southern Africa from 1983 to 1986. PARC/ Wheat Research and Develop- Regional Maize Workshop. CIMMYT Paper No. 89-2. ment Workshop. August, September, Nairobi, Kenya. PARC/CIMMYT, Islamabad, Lampang, Thailand. Gelaw, B. 1989. The structure and Pakistan. Maraite, H., M. Nibishimirwa, and E. function of CIMMYT's Maize Hock, J.1989. Requisitos ambientales Duveiller. 1989. Epidemiology of Program in the SADCC Region. para el desarrollo del "complejo sheath brown RCT of Graminae SACCAR/WINROCK Workshop mancha de asfalto" que ataca al caused by Pseudomonasfusco­ on Integrating Research to mafz en Mexico. X Congreso vaginae in tropical highlands. Improve Agricultural Productivity ASCOLFI. July, Cali, Colombia. International Conference on Plant and Natural Resources Manage- _ . 1989. Evaluaci6n lelos Pathogenic Bacteria. June, ment. November, Lilongwe, parnmetros que afecian la Budapest, Hungary. Malawi. estimaci6n de la severidad de la Mezzalama, M., and P.A. Burnett. Gonzd1lez, C. 1989. The use of Genstat enfermedad foliar causada por 1989. Annual variation in isolates at the International Maize and Phyllachora maydis en el mafz of barley yellow dwarf virus in Wheat Improvement Center. mediante un diagrama estAndar. cereals in the Toluca Valley of Sixth Genstat Conference. XVI Congreso Nacional de la Mexico. Fourth International September, Edinburgh, Scotland. Sociedad de Fitopatologfa. July, Plant Virus Epidemiology Guindo, 0. 1989. La recherche en Montecillo, Mdxico. Workshop. September, Montpel­ milieu paysan: L'expdrience du Kohli, M.M. 1989. El estado actual del lier, France. CIMMYT en Haiti. Sdminaire triticale, problemas y perspecti- _. 1989. Cereal aphid transmission prdsentd A la Facultd vas. Third Brazilian Triticale of barley yellow dwarf virus in d'Agronomie et de Mddecine Meeting. Cascavel, Brazil. the high valleys of Mexico. Vdtdrinaire. December, Port-au- Lawn, D.A. 1989. Soilborne pathology. Fourth International Plant Virus Prince, Haiti. Colorado State University Annual Epidemiology Workshop. Hesse de Polanco, E., and R. Herrera. Newsletter 35:99-110. September, Montpellier, France. 1989. An integrated systems Lothrop, J.E. 1989. The CIMMYT . 1989. Enanismo amarillo de la approach to scientific information headquarters highland maize cebada: Virosis que afecta al trigo services at CIMMYT. Second program. Third Eastern, Central y otros cereales de grano pequefio CGIAR Documentation and and Southern Africa Regional en Mdxico. In Enfermedades del Information Services Meeting. Maize Workshop. September, Maiz, Frijol, Trigo y Papa, 76-80. January, Hyderabad, India. Nairobi, Kenya. Montecillo, M6xico: Colegio de Hibon, A. 1989. La investigaci6n Low, A., and S.R. Waddington. 1989. Posgraduados. adaptativa con participaci6n de On-farm research on maize Morris, M.L. 1989. Measuring com­ los productores: Lecciones de una production technologies for parative advantage: A review of experiencia en M6xico. Foro small-holder farmers in southern CIMMYT's experience with Nacional Sobre la Asistencia Africa: Current achievements and "RC analysis. AAEA Annual T6cnica Integral al Campo. the future prospects. Third Meeting. July, Baton Rouge, LA, September, Quer6taro, Mexico. Eastern and Southern Africa USA. - . 1989. Les sources de croissance Regional Maize Workshop. Palmer, A.F.E., and P. Anan­ de la production de ma's pluvial September, Nairobi, Kenya. dajayasekeram. 1989. The KARI/ au Mexique: Quelle marge de Mann, C.E. 1989. Aspects and pros- Egerton/CIMMYT crop manage­ manoeuvre pour la recherche pects of wheat production in the ment research training initiative. agronomique tropicale? X Philippines, or: What to do after Third Eastern and Southern s~minaire d'dconomie et sociolo- the pilot project. Keynote address Africa Regional Maize Work­ gie du CIRAD. September, to the Philippine Wheat Work- shop. September, Nairobi, Kenya. Montpellier, France. shop. August, Los Baflos, _ . 1989. The importance and Philippines. application of site descriptors and farmer management practices in on-farm trial evaluation. Regional Technical Networkshops on Issues Related to Planning Management and Evaluation of On-Farm Research Experiments. December, Arusha, Tanzania. 65 Palmer, A.F.E., and R.A. Kirkby. 1989. Renkow, M. 1989. Differential welfare Waddington, S.R., and P. Kunjelu. Elements of an integrated effects of technical change in 1989. Potential technology and intercropping research program. developing countries: A simula- research needs for rainfed maize Workshop on Research Methods tion analysis. AAEA Annual production in drought prone for Cereal/Legume intercropping Meeting. July, Baton Rouge, LA, environments of southern Africa. in Eastern and Southern Africa. USA. FarmingSystems Bulletin 3:28­ January, Lilongwe, Malawi. Sharif, M., J.L. Longmire, M. Shafique, 41. Rajaram, S., R.P. Singh, W.H. Pfeiffer, and Z. Ahmad. 1989. Adoption of Waddington, S.R., A. Low, and P. M. Albarnin, and R.J. Pefia. 1989. Basmati-385: Implications for Kunjeku. 1989. Planning of on­ Preharvest sr,routing tolerance in time conflicts in the rice-wheat farm research intercrop trials. CIMMYT bread wheat cropping systems of Pakistan's Workshop on Research Methods germplasm. Fifth International Punjab. PARC/CIMMYT Paper for Cereal/Legume. January, Symposium on Pre-Harvest No. 89-1. PARC/CIMMYT, Lilongwe, Nialawi. Sprouting in Cere,!s. June, Loen, Islamabad, Pakistan. Webby, G.N., R.M. Lister, M. Mez­ Norway. Tripp, R.B. 1989. Farmer participation zalama, and P.A. Burnett. 1989. Ransom, J.K. 1989. Agronomic in agricultural research: New Production of antisera to barley interpretation of on-farm research directions or old problems? yellow dwarf virus from dried intercropping trials. Workshop on Discussion Paper No. 256. leaf tissue. ICARDA/Agriculture Research Methods for Cereal/ Institute of Development Studies, Canada/Laval University Legume Intercropping in Eastern Brighton, UK. Workshop on Barley Yellow and Southern Africa. January, Vasal, S.K., G.C. Han, E.M. Elias, and Dwarf. November, Rabat, Lilongwe, Malawi. N. Vergara. 1989. Desarrollo de Morocco. • 1989. Biological and social hibridos no convencionales de Woolley, J.N. 1989. Implementation of constraints to maize production in maiz. XIII Reuni6n de Maiceros on-farm intercrop experiments. .ast Africa. Alumni Seminar de la Zona Andina. September, Workshop on Research Methods Series, Department of Biological Chiclayo, Peru. for Cereal/Legume Intercropping Sciences, Old Dominion Univer- Villareal, R.L., E. del Toro, "nd E.R. in Eastern and Southern Africa. sity. November, Norfolk, VA, Olmedo. 1989. CIMMYT 1988 January, Lilongwe, Malawi. USA. breeding/pathology in-service . 1989. The diagnosis of inter­ -. F'7'0"9. Constraints to maize training course. Annual Wheat cropping problems in farmers' producto, ii East Africa. Newsletter 35:95. fields and its relation to planning International Programs in Waddington, S.R. 1989. Agronomic research. Workshop on Research Agriculture Seminar Series, problems related to tillage in Methods for Cereal/Legume Purdue University. October. West small-holder cereal production Intercropping in Eastern and Lafayette, IN, USA. and some research opportunities. Southern Africa. January, . 1989. Striga on mai.te: Its Workshop on Tillage, Past and Lilongwe, Malawi. growth, development, and Future. November, Harare, Yirga, C., H. Bcyene, L. Zewdie, and D. control. Ninth Annual Maize and Zimbabwe. Tanner. 1989. Initial results of an Cowpea Workshop. February, . 1989. On-farm experimentation informal survey: Kulumsa mixed Kumasi, Ghana. with intercrops. Workshop on fanning systems zorne Chilalo . 1989. Weed control in maize/ Issues Related to Planning Awraja, Arsi Region. IAR legume intercrops. Workshop on Management and Evaluation of Working Paper No. 10. IAR, Research Methods for Cereal/ On-Farm Experiments. Decem- Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Legume Intercropping in Eastern ber, Arusha, Tanzania. Zarco-Hernindez, J., R.J. Pefia, A.A. and Southern Africa. January, Amaya, and G. Varughese. 1989. Lilonte, Malawi. Evaluation of quality parameters for the characterization of the baking (bread) performance of complete and substitute triticales. XII EUCARPIA Congress, Science for Plant Breeding. February, Goettingen, Germany.

66 Trustees and Principal Staff in 1989

Trstees (as or may 199)

Burton C. Matthews, Chairman Ricardo Magnavaca (Brazil), Office of the Director (Canada), University of Waterloo, Brazilian Agency for Agricultural General Canada Research (EMBRAPA), Brazil Donald L. Winkelmann, USA, Peter Day (England), Director General Rutgers--the State University Joseph M. Menyonga (Cameroon), Paul Roger Rowe, USA, Deputy of New Jersey, USA Organization of African Unity Director General of Research* (OAU) of the Semi-Arid Food Robert D. Osler, USA, Deputy Director Seine Debela (Ethiopia), Grain Research and Development General and Treasurer** Institute of Agricultural Research, Program (SAFGRAD), Claudio Cafati, Chile, Deputy Director Ethiopia Burkina Faso General of Administration and Finance* Donald N. Duvick (USA), Edgardo Moscardi (Argentina), Gregorio Martinez V., Mexico, Iowa State University, USA National Institute of Agricultre Government and Public Affairs and Livestock Technology (!NIA), Officer Lloyd T. Evans (Australia), ,rgentina Norman E. Borlaug, USA, Consultant Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization W. GerhardPollmer (West Germany), (CSIRO), Australia Hohenheim University, GeneralAdministration West Germany Carlos Iltuk Gonzilez (Mexico)', Carls(Mxic)',Kathleen hnk Gnz~z Hart, USA, Ainancial Officer Secretary of Agriculture and Water Sergio Reyes Osorio (Mexico)', Kte Ramirez S., Mexico, Resources (SARH), Mexico National Institute of Forestry, Administrative Officer Agriculture, and Livestock Administrative Cie, Khein Singh Gill (India), Punjab Research (INIFAP), Mexico Alejandro D. Violic, Chile, Agricultural University, Training Coordinator** India Louisa van Vloten-Doting (The Linda Ainsworth, USA, Netherlands), Center of Plant Head, Visitors Services Ahmed Goueli (Egypt), Governor Breeding Research (CPO), Hugo Alvarez V., Mexico, ofthe Province of Damiett, The Netherlands Purchasing Officer Egypt Dorsey Burger, SA,.'ssisant to the Donald L. Winkelimann (USA)', Director General Gao Lianphi (China), Jiangsu CIMMYT, Mexico Alfredo Cedillo S., Mexico, Head, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Human Resouirces** People's Republic of China Hikoyuki Yamaguchi (Japan), Javier Eissa C., Mexico, Administrative Komazawa University, Computer Specialist** Japan Susana Eng M., Mexico, Supervisor,

Accounting Services Josd Luis Fonseca G., Mexico, Head, Covemment Documents

'Ex officio position

* Appointed in 1989 ** Left CIMMYT in 1989

67 Marco Galicia 0., Mexico, Andean Regioii Jorge Bolafios, Nicaragua, Physiologist Administrative Computer (staff based in Colombia) Patrick Byme, USA, Breeder Specialist* Hemin Ceballos, Argentina, Breeder Elias Elias, USA, Breeder Maria Garay A., Mexico, Head, Wayne Haag, USA, Breeder** Antonella Furini, Italy, Tissue Culture Food and Housing Edwin Knapp, USA, Agronomist Diego GonzAlez de Le6n, Mexico, Armando Kegel S., Mexico, Shivaji Pandey, India, Breeder Geneticist (stationed at University Superintendent of Services** of Missouri, USA)* Jorge Martinez V., Mexico, Head, Asia Region Gengchen Han, China, Breeder Telecommunications (staffbased in Thailand) Yves Savidan, France, Cytogeneticist* Roberto Martinez L.., Mexico, Head, Carlos De Le6n G., Mexico, Pathologist Bernard Triomphe, France, Agronomist Brilding Maintenance Gonzalo Granados R., Mexico, Barbara Sulanowski, USA, Entomologist Pre- and Postdoctoral Fellows Writer/Editor** Michael Read, USA, Agronomist Wolfgang Drepper, West Germany, Pathologist** Eastern Africa Region Keith Ess, USA, Breeder* Maize Program (staff based in Kenya) Jens Hock, West Germany, Brhane Gebrekidan, Ethiopia, Breeder Pathologist** Ronald Cantrell, USA, Director A.F.E. Palmer, UK, Agronomist Daniel Jeffers, USA, Pathologist* Ripusudan Paliwal, India, Joel Ransom, USA, Agronomist Karimbhai Meredia, India, Associate Director Entomologist** David Beck, USA, Breeder, Central America Mario Morales, Guatemala, Breeder Lowland Tropical Germplasm and Caribbean Region Eric Scopel, France, Agronomist* Magni Bjarnason, Iceland, Breeder, (staff based in Guatemala) Catherine Thome, USA, Breeder* Subtropical Germplasm and Hugo C6rdova, El Salvador, Breeder Quality Protein Maize William Raun, USA, Agronomist Janes Deutsch, USA, Breeder, Wheat Program Lowland Tropical Germplasm North Africa/Middle East Region Dana Eaton, USA, Breeder, (staff based in Turkey) R.A. Fischer, Australia, Director (also Population Improvement Sutat Sriwatanapongse, Thailand, Acting Leader, Crop Protection and Gregory Edmeades, New Zealand, Breeder Crop Management and Physiology) Physiologist George Varughese, India, Associate David Jewell, Australia, Breeder, Southern Africa Region Director (also Acting Leader, Wide Crosses (staff based in Zimbabwe) Genetic Resources) Rende Lafitte, USA, Training Officer Bantayehu Gelaw, Ethiopia, Breeder Osman S. Abdalla, Sudan, Head, and Physiologist Stephen Waddington, UK, Agronomist Durum Wheat James Lothrop. USA, Breeder, Mdximino AlcalA S., Mexico, Hvad, Highlp-ad Maize Cooperative Program with International Nurseries John l;iihm, USA, Entomologist liTA in West Africa Amoldo Amaya C., Mexico, Head, Bobby Renfro, USA, Pathologist (staff based in Cote d'Ivoire) Wheat Quality Labora'ory Suketoshi Taba, Japan, Breeder, Alpha Diallo, Guinea, Breeder Mark Bell, Australia, Training Officer Germplasm Bank Pedro Brajcich, Mexico, Head, Ching-Yan Tang, Hong Kong, Breeder, Midaltitude Maize Station Durum Wheat** International Testing** in Zimbabwe Peter A. Burnett, New Zealand, Serinder Vasal, India, Breeder, Hiep Ngoc Pham, USA, Breeder Virologist/Entomologist Hybrid Maize Kent Short, USA, Breeder Paul Fox, Australia, Breeder/Stati­ Willy Villena 0., Bolivia, Richard Wedderbum, Barbados, stician, International Nurseries Training Officer Entomologist Lucy Gilchrist S., Chile, Pathologist/ Jonathan Woolley, UK, Trainer Training Officer Ghana Matthew A. McMahon, Ireland, Francisco R. Arias M., El Salvador, Agronomist** Agronomist A. Mujeeb-Kazi, USA, Head, Wide Crosses Associate Scientists * Appointed in 1989 Hdctor Barreto, Colombia, Training * Left CIMMYT in 1989 Julien Berthaud, France, Geneticist*

68 Trustees and Principal Staff in 1989 Wolfgang H. Pfeiffer, West Germany, CIMMYT/ICARDA Economics Program Head, Triticale Cooperative Program Sanjaya Rajaram, India, Leader, (staff based in Syria) Derek Byerlee, Australia, Director Germplasm Improvement, and Byrd C. Curtis, USA, Breeder Robert Tripp, USA, Assistant Director Head, Bread Wheat M. Miloudi Nachit, West Germany, Michael Morris, USA, Economist Ricardo Rodrfguez R., Mexico, Head, Breeder Germplasm Enhancement Guillermo Ortiz Ferrara, Mexico, Central America and Caribbean Kenneth D. Sayre, USA, Agronomist Breeder Region (staff based in Costa Rica) Ravi P. Singh, India, Geneticist/ Juan Carlos Martfnez S., Argentina, Pathologist Bangladesh Economist Bent Skovmand, Denmark, Head, David A. Saunders, Australia, Gustavo Sain, Argentina, Economist Germplasm Bank Agronomist Enrique Tones, Colombia, Eastern and Southern Africa Region Pathologist** CIMMYT/Turkey Ponniah Anandajayasekeram, Sri Maarten van Ginkel, The Netherlands, Winter Wheat Program Lanka, Economist (based in Kenya) Bread Wheat Breeder (staff based in Turkey) Rashid Hassan, Sudan, Economist Reynaldo L. Villareal, die Philippines, Hans-Joachim Braun, West Germany, (based in Kenya)* Training Officer Breeder/Pathologist Paul Heisey, USA, Economist Hugo Vivar, Ecuador, Ilead, Eugene Saai, USA, Pathologist (based in Malawi) ICARDA/CIMMYT Barley Wilfred Mwangi, Kenya, Economist Associate Scientists (based in Ethiopia) Andean Region Sufi Ahmed, Bangladesh, Breeder* Allan Low, UK, Economist (staff based in Ecuador) Leon Broers, The Netherlands, (based in Zimbabwe) Santiago Fuentes S., Mexico, Pathologist/Breeder* Pathologist Etienne Duveiller, Belgium, Pathologist Southeast Asia Region Sirkka Immonen, Finland, Triticale* (staF based in Thailand) East Africa Region Anatole F. Krattiger, Switzerland, Larry Harrington, USA, Economist (staff based in Ethiopia) Small Grains Biotechnology Douglas G. Tanner, Canada, Satvinder Kaur Mann, India, Haiti Agronomist Pathologist* Ousmane Guindo, Canada, Economist Monica Mezzalama, Italy, South Asia Region Pathologist** Mexico (staff based in Nepal) Roberto J. Pefia B., Mexico, Albdric Hibon, France, Economist H. Jesse Dubin, USA, Pathologist/ Cereal Chemist Breeder L.T. van Beuningen, The Netherlands, Pakistan Peter R. Hobbs, UK, Agronomist Pathologist (based in Paraguay)*.* James Longmire, Australia, Economist

Southeast Asia Region Pre- and Pc 'doctoral Fellows Associate Scientists (staff based in Thailand) Efrem Bechere, Ethiopia, Breeder Judith Carney, USA, Geographer** Christoph E. Mann, West Germany, D. Steven Calhoun, USA, Breeder Mitchell Renkow, USA, Economist Breeder Jon Ame Dieseth, Norway, Breeder** Guillermo Fuentes Ddvila, Mexico, Pre- and Postdoctoral Fellows Southern Cone of South America Pathologist Daphne S. Taylor, Canada, Economist* (staff based in Paraguay) Dennis Lawn, USA, Pathologist Gregory Traxler, USA, Economist Girma Bekele, Ethiopia, Pathologist Maria Teresa Nieto-Taladriz, Spain, Man Mohan Kohli, India, Breed,' Breeder** Visiting Research Fellow Patrick C. Wall, Ireland, Agronomist Ivd.n Ortiz Monasterio, Mexico, John Brennan, Australia, Economist** Agronomist* Thomas S. Payne, USA, Breeder Robert Raab, USA, Training** Matthew Reynolds, Great Britain, Physiologist* Nitschka ter Kuile, USA, Tissue Culture * Appointed in 1989 Richarl Trethowan, Australia, * Left CIMMYT in 1989 Breeder

69 Biometrics Information Services Laboratories

Carlos A. GonzAlez P., Uruguay, Tiffin D. Harris, USA, Writer/Editor Evangelina Villegas M., Mexico, Head, Head, Biometrics and Head, Information Services General Laboratories** Josd Crossa, Uruguay, Eugene P.Hettel, USA, Enrique I. Ortega M., Mexico, Associate Scientist Writer/Editor Associate Scientist Nathan C. Russell, USA, Reynald Bauer Z., West Germany, Writer/Editor Supervisor, Cereal Chemistry Experime at Stations Kelly A.Cassaday, USA, Laboratory Writer/Editor Jaime L6pez Cesati, Mexico, John A. Stewart, UK, Head of Stations G. Michael Listman, USA, Editor Supervisor, Soils and Plant and CIMMYT Executive Officei" Thomas H. Luba, USA, AV/Trdining Nutrition Laboratory Hannibal A. Muhtar, Lebanon, Materials Coordinator Coordinator Alma McNab, Honduras, Translations Armando S. Tasist,'o S., Uruguay, Coordinator/Editor Systems and Compuing AgronomistfTrainir.g Officer Edith Hesse de Polanco, Austria, Head, Services Roberto Varela S., Mexico, Coordinator Scientific Information Unit Abelardo Salazar, Field Superintendent, Rafael Herrera M., Mexico, Supervisor Russell Cormier, Canada, Head Poza Rica Station of Scientific Information Services Neal Bredin, Canada, Ricardo Marques L., Mexico, Field Miguel Mellado E., Mexico, Associate Scientist** Superintendent, El Batdn Station Publications Production Manager Miguel Cooper, Mexico, Network and Jos6 A. Miranda, Mexico, Field Lourdes Romero A., Mexico, PC Manager** Superintendent, Toluca Station Supervisor of Library Services Guillermo lbarra, Mexico, Network and Rodrigo Rasc6n, Mexico, Field PC Manager* Superintendent, Cd. Obrcg6n Hector Nuiiez C., Mexico, Project Gonzalo Suzuki, Mexico, Field Leader, Scientific Computirig* Superintendent, Tlaltizapdn Station Henrik Schou, Denmark, Daniel Villa H., Mexico, Program Analyst* Workshop Head** Marco van den Berg, The Netherlands, Juan Garcfa R., Mexico, Workshop Associate Scientist** Head* Jesds Vargas G., Mexico, Systems and Operations Manager

* Appointed in 1989 ** Left CIMMYT in 1989

70 CIMMYT Addresses (as of April 1990)

Headquarters CIMMYT CIMMYT c/o INIAP P.O. Box 5186 CIMMYT Apdo. 2600 Kathmandu Lisboa 27, Apdo. Postal 6-641 Quite NEPAL Col. Judrez, Delg. Cuauhtdmoc ECUADOR E-mail: 157:CG1089 06600 Mdxico, D.F. Telex: 00308 2532 INIAP ED Telex: 2262 NARANI NP MEXICO BITnet:CGI201 %NSFMAIL@ CIMMYT CIMMYT INTERMAIL.ISI.EDU c/o ILCA P.O. Box 1237 E-mail (DIALCOM): 157:CGI201 P.O. Box 5689 Islamabad Telex: 1772023 CIMTME Addis Ababa PAKISTAN Telefax INTL: 525-954-1069 r'T'HIOPIA E-mail: 157:CGI023 Telefax NATL: 915-954-1069 Telex: 21207 ILCA ET Telex: 5604 PARC PK

CIMMYT CIMMYT Other CIMMYT Offices c/o Canadian High Commission C-C 1170 Box 1639 Asunci6n CIMMYT Accra PARAGUAY GHANA Telex: 602 PY CIMMYT House 16, Road 48 Telex: COMCAN 2024 'Canadian High Telefax:(595-21) 91-346 Gulshan, Dhaka Commission in Ghana) BANGLADESH or 3036 BTiIIO GH (Kumasi) CIMMYT Telex: 642892 ASTDK BJ c/o ICARDA CIMMYT P.O. Box 5466

CIMMYT c/o ICTA Aleppo c/o CIAT Apto. Postal 692-A SYRIA Apdo. Adreo 67-13 Ave. Reforma 8-60 Zone 9 Telex: 331206 ICARDA SY Cali Edif. Galerfas Reforma, 3er Nivel COLOMBIA Guatemala City CIMMYT E-mail: 157:CGi077 (CIMMYT GUATEMALA P.O. Box 9-188 MAIZE) E-mail: 157:CGI303 (CIAT) Bangkok 10900 Telex: 5769 CIATCO Telex: 6215 (ANAVI GU) THAILAND Telefax: 57-23-647243 E-mail: 157:CG1205 CIMMYT Telex: 84478 INTERAG TH CIMMYT c/o Canadian Embassy Telefax: (0066/2) 579-4377 Apartado 55 Delmas 18-Nova Scotia Bank Building 2200 Coronado Port-Au-Prince CIMMYT COSTA RICA HAITI P.K. 39 Emek E-mail:157:CG1066 Telex: 3490001 PPBOO :A Ankara Telefax:Telex: 2144 506-29-4741 IICA CIMMYT E-mail:TURKEY 157:CG%07 I P.O. Box 25171 Telex: 42994 CIMY TR

CIMMYT Naimbi IITA 01 B.P. 2559 KENYA CIMMYT Bouake 01 E-mail: CIP/CIMMYT 10074:CGU017 P.O. Box MP163 or MP154 COTE D'IVOIRE Telex: 22040 ILRAD HarareMount Pleasant E-mail: WARDA (CGi125) CIMMYT ZIMBABWE Telex: 69138 ADRAOCI P.O.IMTZ Box 30727 E-mail:BAW 157:CG!237

Lilongwe 3 Telex: 22462 CIMMYT ZW MALAWI Telex: 43055 ROCKFND MI Telefax: 731014 CIMMYT is an internationally funded, nonprofit scientific research and training WritinglEditing: Tiffin D. Harris, organization. Headquartered in Mexico, the Center is engaged in a worldwide research Nathan Russell, Kelly Cassaday, program for maize, wheat, and triticale, with emphasis on improving the productivity Michael Listman, Alma McNab, and of agricultural resources in developing countries. It is one of 13 nonprofit international Gene Hettel agricultural research and training centers supported by the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), which is sponsored by the Food and Design: Miguel Mellado E.and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), and the United Nations Development Design Assistance: Maricela A. de Programme (UNDP). The CGIAR is a consortium of some 40 donor countries, Ramos, Josd Manuel Fouilloux B., and international and regional organizations, and private foundations. CIMMYT receives Efren Diez Ch. core support through the CGIAR from a number of sources, as indicated in the financial highlights section of this Annual Report. Bibliographic Compilation: Edith Hesse de Polanco, Lourdes Romero, and Responsibility for this publication rests solely with CIMMYT. Miguel Angel Ldpez.

Correct Citation: CIMMYT. 1990. CIMMYT 1989 Annual Report (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center). Beyond Subsistence: New Optionsfor Asian Farmers. Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT.

ISSN 0257-8735