The Age ofDiscovery: Impact on Philippine Culture and Society SECOND EDITION
Edited by
BELINDA A. AQUINO DEAK T. ALEGADO •
This publication is part ofaproject that was funded by the Hawaii Committee for the Humanities and the State Commission on the Columbian Quincentennial Observance. The project was spon sored by the Center for Philippine Studies, University ofHawaii • at Manoa and co-sponsored by the Filipino Historical Society of Hawaii. •
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Copyright 1992 FIRST EDmON 1992 SECOND EDmON 1993 CENTER FOR PHILIPPINE STUDlES • School of Asian, Hawaiian and Pacific Studies University ofHawaii at Manoa
Printed by: Hawaii Correctional Industries •
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The Center for Philippine Studies was originally established asa Program in 1975 to offer an interdiscipli nary academic cwriculum on Philippine Studies, promote scholarly research and professional interest in the Philippines and Filipinos overseas, provide infonnation and educational resources to groups, individuals, and institutions interested in the Philippines or Filipinos, maintain a comprehensive hbrary collection of Philippine • material, and reccgnize the contributions ofFilipinos to the StateofHawaii. Itis the only academic center in the US offering graduate and undergraduate courses on the Philippines including four levels of Filipino and llokano. Students may pursue BA and MA degrees with concentration in Philippine Studies. The Center is partofthe School ofHawaiian, Asian and Pacific Studies at the University ofHawaii at Manoa. For more information about the Center, contact: Dr. Belinda A. Aquino. DireclOr, Center for Philippine Studies, Moore415, University ofHawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA. Ph: (808)956-2686- Fax: (808) 956-2682. •
• TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Foreword to the Second Edition Willa J. Tanabe
2 Rethinldng Magellan and Rediscovering the Philippines Belinda A Aquino
6 A Brief Philippine Prehistory Wilhelm G. Solheim II
10 The Philippines Before 1521 A.D. Robert Van Niel
13 Rizal's Sisa and Basilio: Characters as Symbols of National Identity Ruth Elynia S. Mabanglo
17 Philippine Music as Colonial Experience and National Culture Ricardo D. Trimillos
25 Discoverers, Discoveries, Discovering Ourselves: Language in the Encounter Between Discoverer and DiScovered MichaelL.Forman
30 The Filipino Plantation Community in Hawaii: Experiences of a Second-Generation Filipina Helen R Nagtalon-Miller
34 Philippine Chronology Up To 1946 Dean T. Alegado
40 A Bibliography on the Philippines: Pre-Hispanic to 19th Century AliceW. Mak Shiro Saito
43 Notes on Contributors
44 Acknowledgments
45 Schedule of Events •
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The Age ofDiscovery: Impact on Philippine Culture and Society SECOND EDITION COVER •
The print on the cover is reproduced from the The Philippines-PigajeltiJ'SSloryoflheirDiscoverybyMagellan byRodrigueLevesquepublishedinGatineau. Quebec. Canada in1980. Itsbows anartist'srenderingofthe death ofFerdinand • Magellan on the island ofMactan in Cebu. Philippines during a battle with native chief Lapu-Iapu and his men. According to Levesque. Pigafetta's account descn1les the balI1e as taking place on 21 April 152I. Magellan had ordered the burning of the native villagers' houses to scare them. Instead. they attackedthe Spanish invadersfuriously with spears andstones. • "They followed us shooting theirpoisoned arrows four orfive times. somuch sothattbey.recognizingthecaptain(Magellan). aimed at him so much that twice they shot arrows right byhis head." Magellan was wounded in the arm. Seeing this. the villagers "threw themselves all upon him. and one with along EcUtec1 by javelin gave him a blow in the left leg. thereupon he fell face • BELINDA .'- AQUINO fOlWard, now allofa sudden, they threw themselves upon him. DEAN T. ALEGADO with theirhardened spears. and with thesejavelins...theyslew the mirror. the light, the comfort, and our true guide." (p.62) .,i I WILLA J. TANABE
Foreword To The Second Edition
The Centerfor Philippine Studies at the University ofHawaii at Manoa in 1992 embarked on an ambitious program to examine critically the meaning and impact ofthe "Age ofDiscovery" on Philippine culture and society following Columbus' voyage to the Americas in 1492. The Spanish conquest of the Philippines in the 16th century is part of the controversial "Columbian legacy" in world history and history ofideas. The impact ofEuropean expanSion was not limited to the Americas andthe trans-Atlantic axis, nor did it end with Columbus. The arrival ofMagellan inthe Philippinesin 1521 setintomotionevents andprocessesthatare stillbeingexperiencedtoday.
The 1992programfocused on these events andtheirrepercussionsina seriesoflecturesand slide presentations. and in a volume of essays that examined the impact from six different perspectives and provided an annotated bibliography. This monograph. entitled The Age ofDis covery: ImpactonPhilippineCultureandSociety, proved so successful thatitwas soonoutofprinL In response to the demand for copies, particularly among school teachers who have little available resources on the topic, the Center for Philippine Studies decided to reissue the publication and expand it by including two new essays.
The CenterforPhilippine Studies is one often area centers within the School ofHawaiian, AsianandPacific Studies attheUniversityofHawaii atManoa. The Center's missionistopromote and assist teaching andresearch ofthe Philippines atthe Universityand tofoste! the understanding ofthe Philippines inthe widercommunity. This last mission is especially vital inview ofthe large Filipino community in Hawaii - one that presently constitutes approximately 15 percent of the state population.
The chief sponsor for the Center's project on the "Age of Discovery" was the Hawaii Committee for Humanities (HCH), one ofthe most active and imaginative funding agencies in the State. The Hawaii Committee for the Humanities, in cooperation with the State Commission on the Columbus Quincentenary. awarded the Center a grant of$25,000 to undertake the program.
The School of Hawaiian. Asian and Pacific Studies commends the Hawaii Committee for the Humanities and the Center for Philippine Studies for their partnership in creating excellent public programs and we welcome the reissue and expansion of the monograph. Making the monograph available again will help to insure that both the acadetnic and local communities gain a greater understanding of the complexity of the history of the Philippines and the strength and endurance ofFilipino culture.
Willa J. Tanabe. Interim Dean School ofHawaiian. Asian and Pacific Studies University of Hawaii at Manoa
1 BELINDA A. AQUINO •
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BAPTISM OF HUMABON Rethinking Magellan • and Rediscovering the Philippines •
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• On October 12, 1992 various parts of the In 1511, or roughly nineteen years after Co world, notably North America, led in the celebra lumbus' landing on the island ofHispaniola in the tion or observance of the Columbus Caribbean, the Crown of Portugal laid claim to QuincentenniaL This marked the SOOth anniver Malacca halfway around the globe, in what is now sary of the so-called "Age of Discovery," which Malaysia. This marked the beginning ofEuropean • was setinmotion by ChristopherColumbus' fateful expansion in the region, described by historian voyage in 1492 leading to the "discovery" ofwhat Martin J. Noone as "the great sprawling centre of was to become the "New World." He was sup Asiatic commerce, legendary Chersonese, empo posed to have been looking for India in search of rium ofmultitude ofnations, Chinese, Arab, Hindu, spices. Japanese, Siamese, and the island races of the • Columbus' achievement caught the imagina southeast archipelago." Malacca was the princi tion ofhis contemporaries in Spain and Portugal in pal distributingcenterfor cloves,cinnamon, pepper this incipient age ofconquest. What is now being and nutmeg grown in the Moluccas, Sumatra and referred to as the "age ofdiscovery" was actually Mindanao. a series ofinvasions beginning in the 15th century Actually earlier, in 1509, Lisbon dispatched • of territories ou·::side of Europe. The growth of Diego Lopez de Sequiera to survey Malacca, on "cosmographical knowledge" enabled these ag the belief that the Spice Islands were in the vicin gressive and ambitious men to launch explora ity, and not in India as previously thought. An tions and expeditions to various parts of the vast othership,captained by acertainde Sousa, included unknown world across the ocean. Spain's thrust among its officers Ferdinand Magellan, who had • into the ''New World" extended far beyond the been an officer in the Portuguese possessions in American continent. India and Malacca, and his friend Francisco 2 • Serrano. The conquest of Malacca was the most eign light" would lead to not only one of the spectacular development in this period, for this longest but also one of the most cruel colonial greatentrepotwas the key to "the whole fareastem regimes in world history. The Spanish regime trade." systematically destroyed native communities and The soldier of fortune Magellan switched his their institutions. It brutalized the indios, making loyalties to Spain, assembled a fleet under his them work as forced labor in the government' s flagship Trinidad. and sailed on September 20, various projects, oras indentured servants to friars 1519 from San Lucar, Spain. On March 17, 1521, or public officials. Above all, the Spaniards im Magellan and hisepoch-makingexpedition sighted posed an alien religion, Catholicism, on the popu ground on "the Archipelago of San Lazaro," in lation whose sacred native beliefs and shrines had what is now the island ofSamarin the Philippines. to be destroyed. The vanquished were viewed as This event would change the course of history savages or pagans who had to be civilized. In forever in this part of the world, notably in the many cases, the indios would simply be killed country that was to be called las islas Filipinas. outright. Genocide was a tool ofconquest. after King Philip (Felipe) II of Spain. Jose Rizal, the Filipino national hero who was For several generations ofFilipinos, their first executed by the Spanish authorities in December introduction to Philippine history was that the 1896 for his involvement in the Filipino national Philippines wasdiscoveredby Ferdinand Magellan ist movement, exposed the brutality and repres and that the first Catholic mass was held on sion ofthe regime in his two novelsNoliMe Tangere Limasawa, a tiny island south of Leyte. ("Social Cancer" or "The Lost Eden") and £1 The "Magellan myth" would live on for centu Filibusterismo ("The Subversive" or "Reign of ries and every Philippine history book would in Greed"). Rizal unmasked the Spanish hypocrisy variably begin in 1521 with the "discovery." which, "under the cloak of religion, has come to Magellan's portrait or monument would grace impoverish and to brutalize us." In Noli Me public plazas or buildings. In Cebu today, the Tangere. the country's suffering under the Span "Magellan Hotel" is a prominent landmark. Mil ish yoke is symbolized by the female character lions of Filipino parents would name their first Sisa, who loses her mind searching for her two born son Ferdinand. Magellan's predecessor in sons, who are accused of stealing by the local the Americas, Christopher Columbus, would be priest. Her sons are beaten up and one dies, while honored with the formation ofKnights ofColum the other escapes. Sisa becomes the town's mad bus organizations across the country. woman singing on occasion or being made to Meanwhile, the intrepid native leader on dance for the entertainment of the alferez or petty Mactan Island in Cebu, Lapu-lapu, who killed the officer. She manages to see her living son before interfering Magellan in battle, is largely forgotten. she dies. Rizal's novels also depict women being To Filipinos today, Lapu-lapu is the name ofa fish violated by Spanish friars and soldiers, based on (red snapper). He is not seen or treated as a hero. what was actually happening at the time. This was Following the "discovery" of the islands, an symbolic of the rape of the country by Spain's other conquistador, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, despotic rule. effectively annexed for Spain the newfound terri For three centuries, the Filipinos were prison tory, creating in the process the primate city of ers and slaves in their own country, subject to Manila in 1571 as the center ofconquest, consoli every conceivable kind ofexploitation and abuse. dation, government, colonial culture, and conver But over the years, the Spanish cruelty and abuses sion of the indios (native population) to Christi to the natives would be glossed over. The Span anity. The islands were, according to Spanish iards would be credited in the history books as chronicler Antonio de Morga, subjected to "the giving the Philippines a sense ofnational identity. sovereign light of the holy Gospel," and the con The term Filipino, which originally referred to quest was seen as the "handiwork of His [King Spaniards born in the Philippines (to distinguish Philip's] Royal hands." them from those born in Spain, the peninsulares,) Fot the next three hundred years, this "sover- was gradually applied to all people in the country.
3 • This was what the "Age of Discovery" meant and native cultures before the Western conquest. to Filipinos in the 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th Philippine historiography leans heavily to the centuries. It was not until the end of the 19th Spanish and American periods. Misrepresenta century that Filipinos regained their freedom, tions and distortions exist in historical records. following more than 200 rebellions in several Very few references exist on the pre-Hispanic. • parts of the country, which culminated in the pre-colonial era when the Philippine communities successful Philippine Revolution of 1896. The then were scattered on the path of the advancing Filipinos proclaimed the first independentrepublic conquistadJJres. It is hoped that this effort to in Asia on June 12, 1898. reshape our understanding of the Philippines will But in a strange twist of fate. the Philippines lead to more sophisticated orenlightened types of was once more colonized by another imperial interpretations that recapture the sensitivities and • power, the United States of America. which perspectives of native Filipinos. "bought" the Philippines from Spain for $20 mil In seeking to recover the true Filipino history. lion, following the Treaty of Paris in December we need to look more deeply into the pre-colonial 1898. And this new colonial regime would last for milieu. The islands that Magellan supposedly another forty-eight years. with its ill effects still discovered were always there. They had long been • visible in the current life of the nation. there with their own cultures and religions. They As in the Spanish period. American colonial were going about in their own peaceful ways and rule, essentially continued the pattern of socio traditions. Magellan simply stumbled upon them economic exploitation ofthe Philippines with the and upset the whole native ecology. The tribal collaboration of a native political elite. The people resisted the Western intrusion. Lapu-Lapu • Americans did not disturb the lopsided feudal killed Magellan when the latter tried to intervene social structure. even as they undertook programs in a local feud. The people also resisted wholesale for public education. public health. public service. baptisms orconversions to Christianity. Mindanao communication and public works. and other was never effectively controlled by Spanish rule. trappings of modernization. The introduction of The Moslem communities already had a sophisti "democracy"isseen as the American legacy in the cated cultural system. Throughout the archipelago, • Philippines. but it was more nominal than real. uprisings against the Spaniards were undertaken because it had no economic basis. No meaningful by native Filipinos. They did not always win but socio-economic reforms were introduced by the they fought nonetheless. American colonial regime. Yet these were never really studied and made Across the United States in 1992, the Colum integral parts of institutionalized Philippine his • bus Quincentennial was observed with various tory. Filipinos were instead subjected to aprocess activities, which sought to look into the impact of called "cultural imperialism," in which idealized the "Age of Discovery" on countries affected by versions ofMagellanand his fellow conquistadores that upheaval five hundred years ago. The Philip holding the Cross on one hand and the Sword on pines fell into that web of European territorial the other were happily greeted by natives. who expansion. As Agoncillo notes, the highly inde would later be baptized and given Christian names • pendent barangays (native settlements) in mid like Santos, de los Reyes. de La Cruz. and so on. ', 16th century began to stagger under the impact of However. the Philippines did not fall completely Spanish power and eventually lost their freedom. into the orbitofSpanishcolonization and Filipinos J; II' Ourgoal in putting together this publication is retained their indigenous names - TatLonghari. to encourage a deeper understanding ofthe conse Punongbayan. Putong. Palpallatoc. Langit. Dait. • quences of the European conquest of the Philip GamuLo. etc. pines, including the injustices and inequalities it Historical distortions and myths die very hard. created. which continue to affectseveral sectors of if at all. It is these myths that our textbooks and Philippine society today. institutions mindlessly repeat over the ages which Likewise. we want to call attention to the need have conditioned colonized peoples to accept in • to know more about the indigenous populations justice and inequality. The "colonial mentality"
4 • has resulted from this phenomenon that Filipino Bigelow, Bil~ Barbara Miner and Bob Peterson, eds. Re· social critic Renato Constantino calls "the thinking Columbus -- Teaching About the 500th Anniversary of Columbus' Arrival in Amuica. miseducation of the Filipino." Somerville, Massachusetts: Rethinking Schools, We do not want to romanticize the natives and Ltd.. 1991. "demonize" the foreign conquerors, as it were. Morga, Antonio de. Historical Events o[the Philippine Is Unfortunately, there is nothing more that can be lands (Sueesos de las Islas Filipinas). AnnOtJlled done to change the past But we cancertainly learn by Dr. Jose Rizal. Manila: Jose Rizal National Centennial Commission. 1962. from it And just as the groups in America cur Noone. Manin J. The General History o[the Philippines: rently rethinking Columbus want to dispel the The Discovery and Conquest of the Philippines biases and misrepresentations about the Western (/521· I581). Vol. 1. Manila: Historical Conserva conquest that have been institutionalized, we on tion Society. 1986. the otherside ofthe globe who underwent asimilar Rizal, Jose. Noli Me Tangere (The Lost Eden). Translated by Leon Ma Guerrero. (Bloomington: Indiana "cultural encounter" (usually a euphemism for University Press. 1961) conquestand domination) want to rethink Magellan Rizal. Jose. El FilibusteriSTTlJ) (The Subversive). Translated and reconstruct our history correctly wherever we by Leon Ma Guerrero. (Bloomington: Indiana can. University Press. 1962) The essays featured in this publication hope to Scon,William Henry. Prehispanic Source Materialsforthe Study ofPhilippine History. Quezon City. Philip put things in proper perspective. It is this process pines: NewDay Publishers. Revised Edition, 1984. of rethinking and reconstructing the way we look __. The Discovery o[ the Igorors: Spanish Conracts at the history of our country which gives real with the Pagans o[Northern Luzon. Quezon City, significance to the observance of the Columbus Philippines: New Day Publishers. 1974. Quincentennial in 1992. For us Filipinos this __. Filipino Class Structure in the 16th Century. Diliman, Quezon City: Third World Studies. Col to should be an opportunity rediscover ourselves. lege ofArts and Sciences. University ofthe Philip pines Program, 1978. REFERENCES __. Filipinos in China Before 1500. ChineseTransla tion by Go Bo Juan. Manila: China Studies Pr0 Agoncillo, Teodoro A. and Milagros C. Guerrero. History gram. De La Salle University. 1989. ofthe Filipino People. Quezon City: R. P. Garcia __. lwcano Responses to AmericanAggression (1900 Publishing Co.. 5th ed., 1977. 1901). Quezon City. Philippines: New Day. 1986.
The Native Chief Lapn-Iapo.
5 • WILHELM G. SOLHEIM II A Brief Philippine Pre-History •
The dating and route of the fIrst entrance of humans to the Philippines is controversial. A minority hypothesis is that they fIrst came to Taiwanfrom South ChinawhenTaiwan was a part • of the mainland ofChina They then would have moved south to northern Luzon by way ofa land bridge and across narrow channels ofwaterwhere this bridge was incomplete. This would probably have happened during the Late Pleistocene, some • time before 40,000 years ago. The archaeological sites suggesting this hypothesis are in the Cagayan Valley. west ofTuguegarao. The geology ofthese sites is extremelycomplicated and theirdating and their association of Pleistocene fossils with man made tools is controversial. The more widely • accepted hypothesis is that they entered Palawan during the Late Pleistocene when it was joined to Borneo and the latter was a part of the Southeast Asia mainland as a result of the greatly lowered sea level during the late Ice Age. Archaeological northern Viet Nam by around 7000 years ago. • sites on the west coast of Palawan are reliably This moving around by sea brought to an end the dated back to 30,000 years ago with considerable practically complete isolation oftheearlierPhilip human deposits below, and thus earlier than this pine groups from each other and from outside the date. It is likely that both routes were used. Philippines. From this time on there was contact Certainly humans were scattered on various parts among the peoples of the different Philippine of the Philippine islands by 10,000 years ago, islands, with neighboring islands in Indonesia • using simple stone tools and living a hunting and and, to a lesserextent. with Taiwan. I have called gathering life. These people were the primary this time in the Philippines the Incipient Filipino ancestors of the present-day Negrito groups Period and dated it from 7000 to 3000 years ago though they were not themselves Negritos - and (Solheim 1981 :25-37). I have divided theIncipient some of the small ethnic groups living in the Filipino Period into three parts: • mountains ofMindanao. I have called this earliest period ofhuman occupation ofthe Philippines the "Early Incipient from 5000 to 3000 B.C., Middle Incipient from 3000 to 2000 B.c., and Archaic Period. from perhaps as early as 200,000 Late Incipient from 2000 to 1000 B.C. In [my] years ago to 7000 years ago (Solheim 1981:22 opinion tbe changes and additions to culture. 25). during these subperiods. did not occur at the • About 8,000 years ago, a way of life oriented same time in all areas. but staned at different to the sea began to develop in southern Mindanao times in different places and spread along the developing routes ofcommunication and, prob and northeastern Indonesia The people who de ably. trade. In someareas. more remore fromtbe veloped this culture, whom I have called the more heavily used sailing routes. there was a Nusantao. gradually explored the tides, currents, time lag in development so that, for example. a and coastlines to the north and extended their method that flrstappeared in one areain Palawan • explorations to Taiwan, coastal South China and may not have come into use in eastern Samarfor 6 • a thousand years or more. While our interest is The Formative Filipino Period I have dated in the development of Filipino colture. these from 1000 B.c. to A.D. 500: subdivisions are based on elements of culrure that came from outside or began at a margin of the Philippines because these are easierto recog "Development trends staned during the Incipi Pe~ nize arcbaeologically than the more important ent Period continued during tbe Formative general development ofculture. Nodoubt inter rioei. but at an increasingly more rapid rate. nal cultural development led to land-
REFERENCES sity of Santo Tomas Press, 1968. Fox, Robert B. The Tahon Caves. Manila: National Mu Solheim, Wilhelm G.II. The Archaeology ofCentral Phil· seum, 1970. ippines: A StudY Chiefly 0/ the [ron Age and its Hutterer,KarlL. "TheEvolution ofPhilippine Ulwland and Relationships. Monographs of the National Insti Societies," Mankind 9:287-289,1974. lUteofScienceandTecbnology#lO. Manila, 1964. ___. "Prehistoric Trade and Evolution of Philippine __."PhilippinePrehistory,"The People and Arts0/the Societies; A Reconsideration," Economic Ex Philippines: 16-83, by Father Gabriel Casal & change and Social interaction in SOUlheas/ Asia: RegaladoTrotaJose, Jr., Eric S. CasiJIo, GeorgeR. Perspecnves/romPrehislOry, History andEthrwg Ellis, and Wilhelm G. Solheim II. UlS Angeles: raphy: 177-196, ed. Karl L. Hutterer. Michigan Museum ofCuUllre History, UCLA, 1981. Papers on South and Southeast Asia 13. Ann Ar Solheim, Wilhelm G. II, AvelinoLegaspi,andJaimeS.Neri. bor, 1977. Archaeological Surveyi11Sou!he4sternMindan.ao. Scott, William Henry. Pre-Hispanic Source Materials/or Monograph No.8. Manila: National Museum, rhe Study o/Philippine History. Manila: Univer- 1979. 9 • ROBERT VAN NIEL The Philippines Before 1521 A.D. •
For some Philippine nationalists the time before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1521 is seen as a Golden Age. At that time the people of the Philippines were believed to have a sense of be • longing to theMalay Worldand were thought to be literate, prosperous, and united under their chiefs. The Spanish conquest is believed to have put an end to this idyllic condition and led to the decline and destruction ofthe Philippine people. Spanish and American colonialism is seen as the cause of • the present-day problems faced in the Philippine society. What do we know about the condition of the Philippine society in the early 16th century on the eve of the arrival of the Europeans? The inhabitants ofthe Philippines lived in kinship-based settlements known as barangay Datu .' under a chief, generally known as datu. Most Indian archipelago. The Philippine people were barangay were small, having from ten to thiny indeed very much part ofthe Malay World. As in houses, but there were some large ones of a hun otherpartsofthisWorld, the membersofa barangay dred ormore houses. The barangay was the largest were socially differentiated into chiefs, freemen, social unit in most of the Philippines. It was and slaves. The chiefs or clan-heads with their .' considered to be pre-political since having none of immediate family and associates had extensive the attributes of a governing organization, it was control over the social and economic life of the more of an extended family-type arrangement. community. Chiefs were men ofpersonal ability The size of a barangay was determined by its and prowess who were recognized leaders oftheir location within the natural environment. On the communities. In a few places burial mounds have • eveofthe Spanisharrival, there were twolocations been located that were venerated sites at which, in the Philippines that showed signs ofan organi the people believed, the spiritual force of a pow zational structure ofa larger scale. These were the erful chiefresided. There weregenerallyrulesand town ofJolo in the Sulu Archipelago and the town regulations that protected the status of the chiefly of Manila on the island ofLuzon. Both of these group, but we know little about how these laws • places had developed a more sophisticated struc were applied; itis generally thought thatlife within ture in the century before the Europeans arrived. the barangay was quite benign. Freemen were More about these in a moment, but first some heads ofhouseholds with some right toproductive further information about the normal barangay. land. Slavery was more of a bonded dependency Barangay were located mostly along the than the kind of harsh plantation labor that we leeward coasts of islands, or along rivers, or in generally associate with that term. Some slaves • inland plains that were well-watered. Their pro who were captured in raids were then generally ductive base was agricultural; rice-growing in settled onthe land, and in a generationortwowere either an irrigated or swidden form was the main integrated into the community. Others weredebt crop, supplemented by fish, livestock, and fruits ors who secured their debts with theirlabor, really and vegetables. This was very similar to the the only capitalthatwas available to mostpersons. • economic base of most other parts of the East The barangay, like negara in other parts of the
10 • " AD artist's conceptualization ofa 'baronghai,' 'binday,' or 'b Malay Wodd, focused on the chief or datu in a exaggerated, for were this the case, much more of totallypersonalmanner; thehierarchical and stable this early literacy wouldhave comedown to us. It natureofthis personal attachmentwas the essence is thought that land preparation, planting and har of the social nexus. Without such a personal tie vesting, hunting, andhousebuilding weredoneby there was no access; individual initiative was not cooperative labor, or bayanifum, among kinfolk prized, and the greatest punishment one could and neighbors, which still exists in some rural suffer was to be expelled from the community. areasofthePhilippines. Theordinaryhouses were Life in the barangay was isolated and built of bamboo and wood with nipa-palm roofs, relatively prosperous. There was abundant space though some of the homes of chiefs were larger for settlements and adequate food from the land and more substantial. The great religions had not andwaterfrom the streams. Thespatial separation yet entered the islands except as noted below. ofthe settlements and the islands resulted in many Belief in spirits was all pervasive, and natural languages or dialects being spoken; these lan phenomena such as volcanoes, mountains, water guages were all part of the Malayo-Indonesian falls, etc. wererevered. Spiritualbeliefs were also family of languages. Prior to the arrival of the related to ancestors. Spirithouses whereshamans Europeans there was a written script, but little has dispensedcurativewatersandamulets also existed, remained. An early Spanish report that everyone and in many instances became the locations of was literate and writing all the time seems highly later Catholic churches. 11 • While most barangay were sufficient onto rulers converted to Islam some years later, is their own needs and therefore remained limitedin generally seen as the center from which Islam size and autonomous in control, there was an spread throughout the archipelago. This spread is exchange throughout the islands. The movement closelyassociatedwithmercantile activity. Again, of products and artifacts occurred from earliest the Philippines were at the far end of the islands • times: in some places earthenware has been found stretching eastwardfrom the Malaypeninsula, but that was traded some 3000 years before the Euro traders from Borneoand Sulawesi entered the area peans arrived. However, the Philippines did not from the south, even before the founding ofMa participate until quite late in the great traditions lacca, according to some accounts. These mer that resulted in great empires being formed in chants and conveyors ofthe Faith were not native other parts of Southeast Asia. These great tradi to the area, claiming instead origins in Sumatra or • tions were mainly associated with the spread of a vague area to the west known as Arabia. The BuddhismandHinduismfrom Indiawhichresulted town of Jolo in the Sulu archipelago became a in empires such as Srivijaya (ca. 600-1250 A.D.), sultanate by the 15th century andmelded the local Angkor(ca.802-1432A.D.),Pagan(ca.l044-l287 barangay communities together into a more cen A.D.).andMajapahit (ca. 1293-1478 A.D.), which trally controlledstate. Soonanothersultanatewas • left behind monuments and memories ofa higher formed on Magindanao with its center near the form of statecraft. In the Philippines the great present-day city of Cotabato. These states were tradition of China, dating from Song (960-1279 not socially different from earlier social arrange A.D.) andMing times (1368-1644 A.D.), was also ments except as social distinctions became more present on the peripheries, since products and sharply defined. • merchants from China were known in the Philip Agriculturalandforestproduetswhichhad pines long before the Europeans arrived. Chinese always formed the basis of the trade in the area records ofthe 13th century identify the country of were now augmentedbyan active slavetrade. The Ma-i as a major trading point; Ma-i has been coastal communities of the Visayas served as the identified as Mindoro. However, these trading supply source for slave raiders. On the northern arrangements with Chinadidnotresultin a needto island of Luzon, the area of Manila Bay over • supersede the barangay level oforganization with centurieshaddevelopedinto an extensiveagricul largerforms ofstatecraft. Actually,this isnotvery tural and trading area. Contacts with China were remarkable, for most ofthe rest ofthe East Indian old, but had never led politically or economically archipelago was similarly managed. Most ofthe to much more than a confederation ofbarangay to great Southeast Asian empires mentioned above regulate the exchange of local products such as • were probably little more than courtly and com honey, beeswax, livestock and exotic birds, food mercial centers whose economic base was vested products, palm wine and sugar in exchange for in extended kinship-based, agrarian settlements porcelainandmetalproducts. Sometime,probably • i that provided labor for the great center and prod around 1500 A.D. this trade also began to be I ucts for the commerce. In the islands east ofBali, organized by Moslem merchants, either Chinese including the area of the present-day Philippines, or Malay, and a more sophisticated state system • there was little of the superstructure to be found was developed. It was this rather recent creation until the 14th or 15th centuries. of a state that Legazpi encountered when the In the century or century-and-one-half center of Spanish control in the Philippines was before the Europeans arrived, the great tradition shifted from Cebu to Manila in 1571. With the that began to affect change was Islam. Islamic· arrival ofRoman Catholicism a competition with • merchants had undoubtedly traversed Southeast Islamwas startedthatwouldintroducethepeoples Asia in the late 7th or early 8th centuries. By this of the Philippines to two of the world's great larter date there were already Moslem communi religious faiths, Islam and Catholicism. As the ties in China. In Southeast Asia, however, the traditions of the barangay communities turned to conversion of local chiefs to Islam is generally the service of the new economic and religious datedin the late 13th century. ThecityofMalacca, orders, a new period was introduced into Philip • which was founded about 1400 A.D. and whose pine life. 12 • RUTH ELYNIA S. MABANGLO Rizal's Sisa and Basilio: Characters as Symbols of National Identity Literature as a form ofart was used by the LobaNegra, about the assassination ofGovemor Spanish colonial regime to further its interests in General Fernando Bustamante in 1719, is called the Philippines. This was done principally by "the intellectual ancestor of the Propaganda "Christianizing" the oral literature of the natives. Movement" (Schumacher 1975). It was Burgos Various indigenous epics were replaced by the who began working on the issue ofsecularization, Pasyon, the life ofJesus Christ sang in the major which would later be taken over by the Propa languages during the Lenten season, and by awits ganda Movement as one ofits objectives. and corridos which heavily reflected adaptations Jose Rizal was eleven years old when the of European metric romances. Folk narratives three Filipino martyr priests, Burgos, Gomez and echoed European virtues and traditions, while Zamora, were executed in 1872. His two novels folksongs and proverbs became the vehicle for published several years later showed his sensitiv teaching Christian ideals and values. These ity to the clamor for reforms that was building up folksongs, narratives and adaptations were even in his era. Noli Me Tangere was the first realistic performed on stages in churches and outside novel produced in Philippine literature. It por through rituals and religious entertainments, such trayed Philippine society at the time by using as the comedia, santacruzan, senakulo,jlores de characters in situations that exposed the evils of mayo, andpastores. Spanish frailocracy and colonialism. As Rizal Indeed, the Spanish priests, who were the himselfadmitted, histask was oneofenlightening only people in direct contact with the natives during the colonial period could have used no Jose Rizal other tool as potent as literature "in exerting a pervasive influence" (Lumbera 1982) to shape the behavior of the Christianized Filipinos. Much of the Spanish colonial literature in the Philippines was created with the encouragement and supervi sion ofthe friars. There was a Permanent Censor ship Commission which looked into all the narra tives and periodicals to be printed to ensure that the circulation of "undesirable" materials would be prevented. But the colony could not be suppressed forever. The growth oftrade and influx ofliberal ideas aided the emergence of a new social class, which in turn gave birth to a new breed ofwriters: Filipinos writing for Filipinos. These were the writers of the Propaganda Movement which cre ated "anational consciousness,"revolvingaround "NoIiM. a nationalist movement from the time of Father Tangere" Jose Burgos to the period following the publica "Th.SociaI Cancer" transla tion ofNoli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. tiOn by Leon Ma. FatherBurgos (1837-1872), who wroteLa Guerrero 13 • his people through this novel in the hope that they Damaso thereafter arranges Maria Clara's wed could find solutions to their social and political ding to one of his relatives. Meanwhile, Father problems. In his words: Salvi plots an uprising that implicates Ibarra, leading to the latter's arrest and imprisonment. As I shall do with you what was heis reflecting on what one'spoliticalaims should • done in ages past with the sick. who were be in a country like the Philippines, Ibarra is exposed on the sle]ls ofthe temple so that rescued by the mysterious Elias. In a chase on the the worshippers. having invoked the god, lake, oneofthe two-EliasandIbarra-is killed, should each propose a remedy. the othersurvivesand fmds his way into the forest. Among other things, this paper analyzes Noli ends with an unresolved yet forward • the two characters, 5isa and Basilio, of Noli Me looking note expressed by the dying hero, Elias, Tangere and El Filibusrerismo (Noli and Fili), to toward the end of the novel. show that the presence orabsence ofthe motherin a child-parent relationship can affect the develop I die without seeing the sun rise on my country. You who are to see the dawn, ment of identity. It will attempt to show that the welcome it. and do not forget those who • loss of personal identity represents the loss of fell during the night national identity caused by colonial oppression. A brief summary ofNoli and Fili is in or- Fili, on the other hand, begins with the der. mysterious character Simoun, who is bent on After seven years of studying in Europe, hastening the downfall ofthe colonial regime. He Crisostomo Ibarra returns to the Philippines and bribes the friars and civil officials and sows in • learns of the cruel death of his father, Don Rafael trigues amongtheeducatedmiddleclass. Simoun's Ibarra, in prison. Don Rafael had been a victim of goal is to instigate armed rebellion among the persecution by the friars. Instead ofharboring the people. Simoun is actually Ibarra in disguise. He initial anger he felt, Crisostomo transcends his returns to rescue Maria Oara from the convent rage by addressing himselfto the task ofbuilding where she had secluded herself after the rumored • a modem town school. He tries to secure official death ofIbarra. In reality, the novel is a narrative approval for this school which, in his mind, would of aborted dreams. Simoun dreams of freeing be run in the European fashion. It would be MariaClarafrom theinfluenceofthefriars, buthis through this school that he hopes to build the beloved dies before he realizes his objective. future of the country. Simoun then aspires to avenge oppression by But the well-meaning Ibarra eventually offering haven and support to the victims of in • learns that goodwill is not enough to quash "the justice (e.g., Tales, the schoolmaster, and Placido sacerdotal intrigues, the ineffectuality of good Penitente), only to be met with cynicism and intentioned bureaucrats, the selfishness of the placed in jeopardy. In the face ofall his failures, bourgeoisie, and the cultivated indifference ofthe Simoun commits suicide. people." (Mojares 1983) His principalantagonists According to Lumbera (1982), the final • are: (I) Father Damaso, the Dominican curate of chapter ofFili is a "dramatic working out of the San Diego town who caused Don Rafael's deg novelist's view of revolution through character radation, and who was also the real father of his analysis, in which Simoun's pain and anguish are childhood sweetheart and betrothed, Maria Clara; juxtaposed with Padre Florentino's quietism and and (2) FatherSalvi,anotherDominican friar who moral certitude to bring the novel to a deeply lusted after Maria Clara. moving conclusion." • At the laying of the school's cornerstone, Toexpose the evils and weaknesses ofthe Ibarra is almost killed by some of the men in the frailccracy in the Philippines, Rizal weaves into service ofFather Salvi. Ibarra is later excommu the novel secondary characters, social types and nicated for striking Father Damaso, who had in subplots. Through them, he successfully paints sulted the memory ofhis father atthe very banquet the ugly images of the friars: cruel, false, mur • Ibarra hosted for the school building. Father derous, lecherous, lusty and arrogant. 14 • Foremost ofthese secondary characters is grow up with a positive sense ofself and identity. Sisa. In the novel Sisarepresents the Philippines. He does not have any devotion to his family or It is only befitting that a woman, and a mother at nation. His self-actualization does not constitute that, would serve as the symbol of a country. any form of loyalty (an aspect of nationalism) to Sisa's Story reflects the plight of the Filipino his brood/culture. He echoes this in Fili, the se family at the time, which became an easy prey to quel toNoU, when confronted bySimounwho tells the vices and values of the colonizers. Her hus him: band, Pedro, succumbs to gambling and abandons Take the lead in forming your the family. The absence of their father forces the individuality, tty to lay the foWJdationsof a Filipino nation. . .. Hope only in two sons, Basilio and Crispin, to suppon their yourselves and your own efforts •... If family as church bell ringers. they refuse to teaCh you their language. This situation mirrors two glaring facts at then cultivate your own. make it more once: the beginning of the disintegration of the widely known, keep alive our native cul Filipinofamily andtheFilipino woman'seconomic ture for our people... helplessness. It is apparent that Sisa's inability to support the family in the absence ofher husband, Basilio answers: as well as her blind acceptance of the sustenance What you want me to do is be provided for by the two working young sons, is a yond my strength. I do not play politics. result of an assumed expectation that women are ... I have another end in life; my only dependent on their husbands or the males in the ambition is to alleviate thephysical ills of family. During the colonial period, the education my fellow citizens. of women prepared them only for the art and institution of marriage. Andwhenconfronted by Simoun about hisloyalty The implied murder of the young boy to family - to his dead mother and brother Crispin by the parish priest is a savage introduc Basilio retorts: tion to the evil of the Spanish friars. In pain, rage The vindication of the courlS, and shame, Sisa loses her sanity. She becomes a pure revenge. all this pot together would ghastly sight roaming the city of San Diego - a not bring back one hair on my mother's visible social malady echoing the people's loss of head or the smile on my brother's face. identity. For what are remembrances except What would I get out of avenging them? memories of one's culture, one's tradition, one's values-theveryelementsthatconstitutea nation's Basilio's traumatic separation from his selfhood or personality? Because a mother be motherduringhischildhoodthwartstheattainment queaths hermemories toherchild, she ensures the ofhis selfhODd, his senseofidentity. InChodorow's continuity offaith and dedication to the family in terms, this "brings anxiety that she [mother] will particular, and to the country in general. She not return, and with it a fundamental threat to the infant's still precarious sense of self." reaches the child devotion to everything and pr0 mulgates individuality. She becomes a model of Up to the end, Basilio's suffering contin interaction to the family, to other people, to the ues. His girlfriend Juli was, like his own brother, 'kababayans.' Mothers reach children faithful victimized bythefriars. FatherComorrarapes her ness to their culture. Nancy Chodorow (1978) as she comes to plead on Basilio's behalf. She writes: commits suicide byplungingfrom the belfry ofthe An important element in the church. AremorsefulBasilioapproachesSimoun: child's introduction to "reality" is ilS mother's involvement with other people ... I have been a bed son and a - with ilS father and possibly with SIb bedbrother. I forgot my brother's murder lings. These people are especially im and the tortures my mother suffered, and portant in the development ofa sense of God has punished me. Now all I have "'It selfand in the child's identification. is !hedetermination toreturn evil for evil, crime for crime, violence for violence. Basilio, Sisa's surviving son, does not 15 • Butitis too late. The revolution has failed. this absence (which can be compared to the force Simoun plans to annihilate everyone - natives. ful takeoverofa small butformerly stable country half-breeds, Chinese. Spaniards, everyone with like the Philippines by colonial powers) damaged out courage, without resolution - by bombing the psyche of Basilio (who represents modem them. Hefills a lamp with nitroglycerineandplans Filipinos). Indeed, Sisa'sloss ofsanity and subse • to conceal it as a wedding gift to Juanito and quent death is symbolic of one's estrangement Paulita. He confesses to Basilio that, earlier, he from the cultural identity that needs to be recap had mined the house where the festive gathering tured. would take place. Atthe moment, the lamp would Whetherone is Basilio, orSisa,orSimoun, lose its glow and as soon as someone touches it, matters little. What is important is the fact that • everything will blow up. Rizal, through his two novels, has articulated a Basilio tends to agree with Simoun. How poweIful response to colonial oppression and ever, he walks the streets ofManilaindecisive and suppression ofnational identity. Rizal unveils or terror-stricken with the knowledge of the deadly demystifies the tragic experiences ofthe Filipinos lamp. He passes by the former house of Capitan under the Spanish regime: the lifestyles, values. Tiago and finds it glowing with light. This is beliefs and attitudes. and the radical transforma • where the horrifying explosion would take place. tions taking place in the physical and spiritual Then he stumbles upon the love-smitten lsagani, levels of existence. Through his characters, like eyes transfixed at the bride, a melancholy smile on Sisa and Basilio, Rizal addresses the problem of his lips. howSpain damaged the Filipinonational identity. Basilio tries to drag lsagani away but his • friend merely shrugs. Forone moment he forgets REFERENCES his panic. He divulges Simoun's plan, hoping to save his friend. Once again, Basilio's resolution Arensmeyer,ElliottC. "Little Mansions: Riza! as aNovel ist,"Philippine Fu:tion, ed. Joseph A. Galdon. Quezon falters. He proves his unwillingness to destroy the City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press, grandeur of colonialism. As might be expected, 1972,221-234. Isagani runs to rescue his beloved. snatches the Chodorow, Nancy. The Reproduction ofMothering: Psy • terrible lamp before itexplodesanddumpsitto the choanalysis and the Socioiogy ofGender. Berkeley: university of California Press, 1978. watersofthe Pasigriver. Again, an eventthatonce Guerrero, Leon Ma. Noli Me Tangere. A Novel by Jost more aborts Simoun's hope for a [mal revenge. RizaI. Hong Kong: Longman Group, Ltd., 1965. Arensmeyer (1972) observes: _.EIFilibltSterismo. A Novel by Jose RizaJ. Hongkong: Longman Group LTD., 1965. • Basilio represemstheFilipinoin Lumbera. Bienvenido and Cynthia Nograies Lumbera. his best and worst aspects and so fulfills "Literature Under Spanish Colonialism (1565-1897)," Riza!'s final bitter analysis of the effects PhilippineLiuralure: AHistoryandAnlhology. Melro of colonization summed up in Father Manila; National Bookstore, 1982. 31-39. Florentino's pronouncementat the end of Mojares, Resil B. Origins andRise ofthe FllipinoNovel: A EI Filibusterismo: "whoever submits to Generic Study ofthe Novel Until 1940. Quezon City: .! tyranny loves it!" Basilio is a device but University of the Philippines Press. 1983. a well-realized one. In his intelligence San Juan, E. TuwardA People's UteraJ7lre: Essays in the and diligence and detennination to serve Dialects of Praxis and Co/lt1Yldjction in Philippine his people as a doctor. he falls into the aU Writing. Quezon City: Universily of the Philippines too-human trap of ambition and pride. Press, 1984. Although he is willing torisk his medical Schumacher.John. "ThePropagandaMovement,Litenlture I degree by helping SimoWl. he is more and the Arts," Solidarity, 9:4 (March-April, 1975). 17 • motivatedby revengeforJuIi's death than 18. for the cause of freedom. Basilio's behavior as a character repre (The alUhor acknowledges Dr. Palrit:iJl Horvatich of the CelllerforSOUlheastAsianStudiesandDr. Teresita senting the Filipino could best be summarized as Ramos ofthe Depanmelll ofIndo-Pacific Languages the lack ofideology caused by the absence ofhis for their insightful commellls on the first draft ofthe • mother during his formative years. The trauma of paper.) 16 • RICARDO D. TRIMILLOS Philippine Music as Colonial Experience and National Culture I view the colonial experience ofthe Phil ippines from a post-Marcos, post-Clark AirBase, 1992 vantage point; it is a view with IDixed feel ings. On the onehand, during the Spanish colonial period (1600-1898) much ofthe music that isnow considered distinctively Filipino developed, and during the American colonial period (1898-1946) '", the first flowering of both native and foreign scholarship about traditional music took place. ~ Thus the tongue-in-cheek description ofthe Phil "~) ~ ippinecolonialexperienceas"threehundred years ..' in the convent and forty years in Hollywood" J ' could be amended to "... and forty years making , sense ofthe first three hundred." On the other hand, the dramatic penetra tionof"Wesrem"cultureinto an evolving Southeast Asian Filipino one was clearly disruptive. Left to its own Asian resources, the Philippines might have developed cultural traditions comparable to Gausa Indonesia's game/an (gong orchestra) or Thegausais inpopular use amongtheIgonJIs ofLuzon. Thailand's kohn (masked dance theatre). How ever, the point is moot and the possibility of a number of new dimensions in the contemporary "purely Asian" Philippine Culture a matter of era. Cultural tradition (including music) impacts .nationalist speculation. directly upon national identity and thus carries In this briefdiscussion, I wish to consider social and political implications. music as part of Philippine tradition. Although I At the moment the Philippines seeks a concentrate on the Philippines, I feel that the political status that is more clearly independent of points raised here relate to the broader issues of the United States, which has been both colonial culturaltradition and traditionalism,questions that power and benefactor for nearly a century. In the Hawaiian culture and Native American cultures process ofredefinition the country sees, pragmati are also addressing atpresent. I approach the topic cally, its context and its locus of interaction to be frnman "insider's"viewpointusing three kinds of withitsimmediateAsianneighbors. Inthepastthe evidence: flrSt, the sentiments of present Philip Philippines has prided itself as being "the only pinesocietyexpressedthroughsocialinteractions, Christian nation in Asia"; its closerelations to the structured forums and the popular mass media; U.S. has been expressed by the epithet "Little second, the history and factual knowledge pre Brown American": both historic slogans point to sented in scholarly sources; and third, the panem a nation heretofore distanced from its Asian sur of personally observed societal attitudes and be roundings. However, changing realities - the havior regarding specific musical genres during shifting balances ofpolitical and economic power my field work in the Philippines. affected by such developments as petroehetnical For the Philippines the topic of cultural resourcesinSoutheastAsia, manufacturinggrowth tradition is a great concern; it has taken on a in East Asia, and an outward - oriented, region- 17 • ally-focused, foreign policy in China- has made ated musics oflong tradition. Second, the musics it incumbent upon the Philippines to pursue a themselves appear more "authentically Asian" redefinition. than those of the Philippine majority. In the In general cultural life this pursuit coin historicalpresentwhenthetermsacculturation and cides with the increase (since 1972) of Tagalog Westernization have a negative value in most of • language theater, the development ofPinoy rock the Third World, the Philippines appears doubly - popularmusicwith textsinPhilippinelanguage disadvantaged vis a vis the rest ofAsia: it has no rather than in English, and the proliferation of established music tradition of long standing numerous "coffee-table" picture books exploring and the musicaltraditions supponedby the present aspects ofPhilippine tradition, includingfestivals, establishment are clearly products of accultura cuisine, dance and distinctive modes of transpor tion and Westernization. • tation. A signal publication for identity is Being The quest for a pan-Philippine tradition is I Filipino (Gilda Cordero-Fernando 1981), a col not recent, but has been a concern for at least a I lection ofessays and art workthatidentifies social century. Individuals from the privileged class stereotypes and-ciescrire's the respective role of ilustrados (educated class) and mestizos (mixed each in Philippine society. The mUSical establish European and Filipino) - residing in Europe • ment of the Philippines (represented by the Cul wroteandplannedforsovereigntyand an indepen I tural Center of the Philippines and the University dentidentity. Dr. JoseRizal,thePhilippinemartyr i of the Philippines College of Music), although hero(educatedin SpainandinGermany) expressed \ firmly established in the traditions ofWestem art this sentimentin such writingsasNoliMe Tangere I music, has taken steps to promote a Philippine and EI Filibusterismt). Both reflected his hopes I • identity within these traditions. Operas based fora nascentPhilippinenationalism whose culture upon Philippinehistory, suchasLaLobaNegra by would bedistinctfromandindependentofthe 19th Francisco Feliciano (1984), and insnumental century Spanishpetitebourgeoisie that comprised compositions using Philippine materials, such as the colonial power structure. Agungan by Jose Maceda (1966), attest to this Filipino intellectualsdefine the nature ofa undertaking. representative tradition from at least three differ • The concern for a Philippine tradition has ent viewpoints. iniernal as well as external motivation. Internal One viewpoint sees a catalog of musical motivation includes the recognition that a shared genres. In the flood ofFilipino scholarship during cultural traditionreinforcesnational unity, a dream the Americancolonialperiod(1898-1946),apolo articulated by Jose Rizal in the initial resolve to gists regardedPhilippinetradition asthose musics • address Spanish colonial domination in the late that differed from the prevailing Western popular 19th century. The nation is a political entity made Gazz. vaudeville) and elitist (symphony, opera) up of a diverse number of cultures representing genres. The earliest known presentation of this some 80 distinct languages; regional differences type appeared in-1915 entitled "Music of the are reinforced by natural geographical barriers Philippine Islands" by Josefa Jara, a three-page islands, mountain chains and the sea. The possi commentary reprinted in two other journals that • bilityofforging a pan-Philippine cultural identity same year. However, the significant work upon or tradition is not without its challenges. How which subsequentaccountsdrewforbothmethod ever, theundertakingisseen notonlyasa desirable ologyandpurviewisMusicalInstruments andAirs adjunct to political unity; it also arises from a o/LongAgo byNorbenoRomualdez (arelativeof popularly-held feeling that there is an indermable Imelda R. Marcos). This modest publication, • cultural bond among the various language and taken from a series oflectures, was basedupon his regional groups. observations as a circuit justice travelling External motivation arises from Philip throughout the Philippines. Other authors, nota pine self-eomparison to Asian neighbors such as bly Madrid (1954), Espina (1961), and de Leon Japan, Han China andJava. First. such neighbors (1966), reinforce this viewpoint Unfortunately, • exhibit a centralized establishment with associ- several of the genres described were"already ex- 18 • tinct. Thus this first view ofPhilippine tradition infrastructures; in the domain ofcultural represen encompasses a list of genres without consider tation it has achieved a de facto status. ation for the historical condition ofeach. Documentation includes publications by A secondviewpointoftradition isprocess Spanish expatriates, including Walls y Merino's oriented. It posits that tradition derives from a "La mUsica popular de FiIipinas [folk music of performer's recognizably Filipino treatment or the Philippines]" (1982) and Diego's "Danza's approach to musicmaking, rather than from an jiIipinas [Filipino dances]" (1946). American established canon of music genres. That is, na writers also supported this point ofview, notably tional tradition is exemplified by the individual Brockerishire in"A word about nativePhilippines artist, whocreates orperforms "inaFilipino way." bands and musicians" (1916) and Hiestand in The most ardent champion of this viewpoint is "Philippines, alandwhere everyonesings" (1923). Antonio Molina whose writings encompass three Filipino scholars also promulgated this position. historical periods and three languages. He argues Contributions include "Folk music - its place in his case in "EI sistema tonal de la mUsica FiIipina our public schools" by Lardizabal (1933); the [ the tonal theory of Philippine music]" (1937), highlyinfluentialcompendiumofPhilippinedance Ang kundiman ng himagsikan [the song of revo music, PhiIippine National Dances by Reyes 1ution]"(1940), and"Intellectualcuriosityonaural Tolentino (1946); and "Philippine music - past phenomena" (1970). OtherwritersincludeRomero and present," by Kasilag (1961). More recent (1963) andMangahas (1972). The operatingdefi writings, such as those by Maceda (1974) and nition ofFiIipilW tradition as anything a Filipino Samson (1974-75), take exception to this view does is reminiscent ofCharles Seeger's definition point, thereby acknowledging its pervasiveness in for ethnomusicology.! contemporary Philippine thought. A third viewpoint is genre-specific. It When"musicofthe Philippines"is treated, holds that national tradition consists of musical the genres mostoften mentioned are thebanda, the genres developed in the LowlandPhilippines dur rondaIIa, the sarsuwela, and the kundiman. Each ing the Spanish and American colonial periods. has its birth in the Spanish colonial period (1600 This definition appears to be gaining ground in the 1898)-reflectingvariousresponsesto thecoJonial cultural pragmatismofthe pastdecade and will be situation - and continued on into the American examined more closely here. The documentation colonial period (1898-1946). relative to this attitude exhibits considerable his Banda. The banda or wind band is the torical depth and appears to have contributed to its only one of the four genres that maintains a clear level of general acceptance. It has been promul parallel to its Spanish counterpart It was used by gated in both mass media and public education the Spanish establishment both for secular (gov ernmental) occasions as well as religious ones. The present musical style, particularly that for religious observances, is surprisingly similar to that oftown windbands ofSpain andMexico. The banda is indispensable to local celebrations, in cluding the Sanracruzan (originally a religious observance, it has presently evolvedinto a kind of beauty pageant) and the Holy Week processions, during which santos, life-size icons of Biblical personages, are carried and venerated. Throughout the Spanish colonial period the bandas were apparently sponsored by the dio cese (simbahan) or by the town government Kulintang (municipio). During the American period the One or Ibe most ancient percussion instruments. wind bandsreceivedpositivereinforcement by the militaryband; an American-stylebandwasfounded 19 • by a Black American officer, Col. WalterLoving. history is traced in my article, "Das filipinische Named the Philippine Constabulary Band, it cre Rondalla-Orchester als Spiegel oiler Bestandteil ated a sensation atthe 1906 Chicago World Expo tierFilipino-Geschichte." (The FilipinoRondalIa sition (Ejercito y Ferriols 1945, Rubio 1959, de as mirror or component of Filipino history). At Leon 1963). present it is regarded by Filipinos as the most • The Spanishbanda andthe American band "typically Filipino" instrumental music ensemble occupy two separate streams ofwind band music and is prominent in cultural missions, official in the Philippines. The American band repenory receptions, and celebrations of national signifi and style is generally prevalent in urban settings cance. Thus, one of its major functions is as for secular concert music. The Spanish-style cultural emblem. banda maintains its original uses in town celebra Kundiman. Thethird genre,thekundirnan, • tions, both secular and religious.2 represents a conscious attempt by Filipino com As one of its major functions, the banda posers in the Western idiom to create a national provides a locus for regional identity. It is often artsong tradition comparable to the German lied the performing medium for the serenata, a musi and the French chanson. This major activity be cal competition between two different towns. The gan at the turn of the century by ilustrados • bands alternate, playing repertory of a particular (Borromeo-BuehIer 1985) trained in Western type (march, paso doble, waltz) as called for by a musk - Abelardo, Suarez, and Buencamino, to referee. The competition may last a few hours for name a few. The composition ofkundiman con an entire day, depending upon the strength ofthe tinues today, with numbers of them finding their musicians and the size of the repertory for each way into ftlm scores. group. Theserenata ends when one side "surren The termkundiman derives from an earlier • ders;" thus, the winner is determined by acquies folk genre (which also partook ofthe Hispanized cence. musical style); it was an improvised dance-song Rondalla. Therondalla is apluckedstring (Rubio 1973). The tide is mostoften explained as ensemble which derives its name and general a reduction oftheTagalogphrase "kung hindimanl musical characteristics from Hispanic sources, ifthis were not so," a stock opening for an impro • bothEuropeanand NewWorld. With theexception vised text usually dealing with frustrated or ofthe guitar, all rondalla plucked lutes underwent unrequited love. By the time the composed further evolution in the Philippines, contrasting in kundiman appeared the fold genre was already construction with their Spanish and Mexican extinct, apparendy going into decline in the early counterparts. Forexample,thePhilippinebandurya part of the 19th century. has courses of three strings rather than pairs of The speciftc musical referent ofthis genre • strings typical of the Spanish bandurria. Further purports to be the Italian concert Neopolitana, the Philippineinstrumentistunedina seriesfourths which was familiar to the 19th century Filipino rather than the ban.durrfa's mixture offourths and privileged class through touring artists from Eu thirds. rope and theirown travels on the continent, Such The musical style is "Hispanic"- simple a background reinforces the identity of the • triadic harmony and shifts between parallel major kundiman as an artsong tradition and explains the and minor modes without modulation. Popular preference for a bel canto vocal style. Its use as a 19th centuryrhythms-thepasodoble, the polka, concert music reflects the early 20th century na the waltz, the march and the habanera - are the tionalist resolve to place the Philippines (specift basis for the repertory. cally the Filipino concert performer ofEuropean • Its earliest use in the Philippines, like that art music) in a position of parity vis a vis the of its Spanish counterpart (known variously as Western concert world) rondalla, cumparsa or estudiantina), was for ser An important function of kundiman is enade and for dance accompaniment. The en culturalidentity; itis a means fortheFilipinoartist semble gradually developed other uses, such as to acknowledge his cultural heritage in music.4 competitions, concerts and school music. This Programming kundiman for an overseas artsong • 20 • recital isalmostprotocol,which theFilipinosinger and Behn Cervantes. Both have made this West appearing in Europe or America rarely fails to ern entertainment medium a forum for political observe. It is also expected of the vocalist in the and social criticism. Philippines as well, as a perusal of graduation A second function in the contemporary recitals at various tertiary schools of music in period is nostalgic idealization of this earlier era Manila reveals. by a broader (in terms of class) population base. For the artist touring overseas it serves to Forexample, NicanorTiongson's 1982revival of establishingroup solidaritywithFilipino members theTagalogsarsuwelaPilipinasCirca 1907played of the audience, many of whom decide to attend to large audiences in the open-aIr stage of Rizal the concenbecausethe performerisFilipino. This Park in Manila and was an oblique commentary function is especially well served in the United upon the present political-social-econornic situa States, where the visiting artist often relies upon tion (Fernandez 1985). An English version ofthis the resident Filipino population to provide the sarsuwela was presented by the Center for Phil audience for the concert.5 ippine Studies at Kennedy Theater at the Univer The kundiman is an instance in which the sity ofHawaii in the summer of 1989. name of a pre-existing folk genre, a rural impro The four genres (for most Filipinos) rep vised song-dance, is coopted to denote a created resent Philippine musical tradition and stand in genre with specific cultural-political aims and a contrast to specifically regional musics, such as derived musical style. thekulinrang [gong ensembleoftheMuslimsouth] SarsuweIa. The sarsuwela is Philippine (Cadar 1975, Kiefer 1970, Maceda 1963), the music theater derived from the Spanish zarzuela. ogayyam [improvised song ofthe upland peoples Although the Philippine sarsuwela had a rela onLuzonisland] (Pfeiffer 1976:17),orthe balitaw tively shon golden period - some thirty years [dance-song of Visayan language groups] between 1890 and 1920 (Hernandez 1976)-itis (Gutierrez 1955). However, clear distinctions still regardedas thePhilippinemusical theater. At amongthese categories-musicinthePhilippines, the present time there are frequent revivals of music ofthe Philippines, and Philippine music sarsuwela productions and organizations dedi still await incountry consensus. cated to theirre-perfonnance, suchas theZarzuela The concluding observations below arise Foundation of the Philippines. It is vernacular out of my creative and scholarly activities in light opera, whose initial libretti represented Philippine music. I suggest that they help us to reworkings of popular 19th cenrury Spanish understand the quality of the colonial experience zarzueias. However, the sarsuwela adapted itself (especially under Spain and Mexico) and the tra readily to social commentary and protest, against ditions it generated. both the Spanish (as in Walang sugar/without a 1. Borrowing the contrastive terms (but wound by S. Reyes) andthe Americans(Dallas ng not necessarily each concept in its entirety) from pilak / the power of money by de los Reyes). Redfield (1960:40-59)6, the state ofmusical tradi tion in the Philippines at present appears to be a The principal use of sarsuwela was and number of traditions in search of a continues to be entertainment. However, its little great tradition. Regional musics (the little traditions) functions included social protest and ridiculing are clearly defmed - usually by the criterion of authority. These so-called "seditous sarsuwela" language; butnoneenjoyfull supportofthenational productions were often closed down by the au establishment. Nogrouping ofmusical genrescan thorities (Bonifacio 1974). However, they dem be considered Filipino with either the same con onstrated that the techniques of protest and criti cism already existing in indigenous ruraI genres viction or by the same setofcriteria that identifies as or Bach's works as could be effectively incorporated into a "Western gagaku Japanese German. At the moment consensus is only at the level of art" form, which itself was to become radically acknowledging the need for a "great tradition." Filipinized. This lesson has notbeen lostupon the General agreement about its content has yet to be current group ofrelatively younger Filipino film reached. makers, includingLinoBrocka(whodiedin 1991) 21 • However, the Philippines, in its represen pino is the national language of the Philippines. tations to the outside, apparently assumes a If I were to accept the fatalism of my working, de facto definition of pan-Philippine Filipino forbears, the fmal word would be: colo tradition. For international touring programs of nialism happened. However, as an the Bayanihan Dance Troupe, the University of ethnomusicologist, I Calmot accept the reduction • the PhilippinesConcenChoir,andtheDepartment ismof"bahala na" (ifGod wills). Asa pragmatic of Tourism's Performing Ans Ensemble the as researcher (and sometimes advocate) ofmusic in sumption is implicit, reflectedinprogramming the Philippines, music of the Philippines. and and corresponds to the third approach explicated Philippine music, I feel a national music tradition above. isofcritical relevance to thiscountry. Theopinion • 2. The existence ofa Philippine tradition is consonant with my view of the ans in the becomes increasingly desirablewithin the context international political arena, discussed elsewhere of international arts exchange. Each national (Trimillos 1984b): entity needs cultural symbols as artifacts to ex 1. The arts entity is an expression of a change with others. The successful "dance diplo peoplereadilyavailabletotheoutsider; macy"carriedoutby theBayanihanDanceTroupe • 2. It is an avenue for localized initiative during the past three decades shows that the Phil in an increasingly internationalized ippines' ability in ans exchange is considerable. technological environment; Funher a national dance tradition seems to have 3. Itisadomainthat allows equitable and emerged from this activity. Some critics may mutualinterchange amongnations and dismiss it as folklorism, but it is nevertheless a cultures; • dance theaterwith wide popularappeal and accep 4. Itis an "artifacted"resourcethatcan be tance (Trimillos 1985a). shared internally and externally; and 3. Colonization of the Philippines began 5. It is a part of the international modus processes that led to a national identity - and by operandi ofmost nations. extension, to a national art tradition. Filipinos acknowledge thatitwasthecolonizerswhoforced • There is already a consciousness if not the separate indigenous peoples to regard them consensus in the Philippines that a national tradi selves as Filipino, united through their collective tion is desirable. However, its content and the experience of domination by a foreign power process by which that content is determined (Guerrero 1968:x). A similar impetus foridentity evolved, recontextualized, redefmed or created has already been analyzed forthe BlackAmerican anew - has yet to be determined. It is my feeling • experience by LeRoi Jones (1968), who observed that the power structure, "the establishment," can that enslavement of Blacks in the United States and should have a significant ifnot primaryrolein was a critical stage in the developmentofa Black that process. As thelocus ofpower, thedefinition American culture. For the Philippines, musics of its criteria (political, economic, religious, or developed during the colonial experience might intellectual), and the hierarchy of these criteria fmd ready acceptance as national tradition: be • become clearer, the content for a national Philip causetheirantecedentsareforeign (with approprate pine tradition will emerge. It is my opinion that qualifications for the term Kundiman), no single this content will derive its inspiration, if not its linguistic group holds regional-proprietary atti substance, from the colonial heritage - unfortu tudes toward them. The absence ofsuch attitudes nate and unhappy though it may have been. Forit might prevent the kinds ofresistance to a national • was theconditionofbeingcolonizedthat led tothe music tradition encountered during the establish articulation of a Filipino identity and generated mentofPilipino asthenationallanguage. Because identiftable sets of experiences shared by the Pilipino was based upon one regional tongue, peoples of the archipelago. Tagalog, it was resisted by non-Tagalog speakers for somefony years,wellintothenewera(Gonzales • 1980). The 1987 Constitution provides that Fili- 22 • ENDNOn;S Manoa; Philippine Studies Working Paper #1,1976. Hiestand, Dwight W. "Philippines A Land Where Everycne I. "Ethnomusicology is what ethnomusicologists do.' Sings," MusicalAmerica. September8, 1923 (Vo1.38, Charles Seeger put forward this definition during a No. 20, 5). graduate seminar at the University of California (Los lara, Josefa, "Music of the Philippine Islands," Journal of Angeles) in 1966; it has become part of the "oral Proceedings and Addresses. New VoIle: National ttadition" ofethnomusicology. Education Association, 1915,879-882. 2. Guidelines for town hands are contained inPambansang Kasilag, Lucrecia R. "Philippine Music-Pastand Present," Samahan ng mga Banda sa Pilipinas [1960] (A Guide Exchange News, 1961 (Vo1.20/2l, 3-7,48-53). for Music Bands Organized and Formulated by the Kiefer, Thomas. Musicfrom the Tausug ofSulu, Moslems of Musicians' Commission of the National Federation of the Eastern Philippines. New York: Anthology Record Philippine Bands). and Tape, 1970. 3. Notable is that the Philippine interest in an indigenous Lardizabal, Felisa. "Folk Music -Its Place in our Public language, Western-style artsong was shared by a num Schools," Philippine JournaJ ofEdJ andPaci/i<: Quarterly, Summer,1984b(VoL 16,No.2, 19-27). _ ''The Changing Context of Philippine Dance Perfor· mance," Dance as Cultural Heritage, vol. 2. Dance ResearchAlI1UJIJ1, 1985a (VoL IS, 102-109). • _ "Music and Ethnic Identity: SlIlIlegies for the Over seas Filipino Youth Population: Yearbook for Tradi tional Music, 1985b (VoL 18,9·20). Walls y Merino, Manuel LA MUsica Popular de Filipinas (Folk Music of the Philippines). Madrid: Liberio de Fernando Fe, 1892. • • • • • • • Bamboo VioIiD The Bamboo Violin of the Zambales Negritos is the most improved striDged instrument ever made by any moun· tain group in the country. • 24 • MICHAEL L. FORMAN Discoverers, Discoveries, Discovering Ourselves: Language in the Encounter Between Discoverer and Discovered In my role as linguist in this forum, I want It was already some years ago that the State of to talk about the humanly central role oflanguage Hawaii, aware of the inherent irony and also in all we are discussing; I will talk about three sensitive to the hurt stili felt by many native discoverers: Christopher Columbus, Ferdinand Hawaiians, changed the old celebration of Co Magellan, andJames Cook. Regardless ofwhether lumbus Day into the later Discoverer's Day and itis thePC (Politically Correct) version, orperhaps then abandoned that holiday altogether, infavor of the RC (Really Correct) version ofhistory which celebrating Martin Luther King Day. I was one you prefer, it seems to me undeniable that these among many who lauded those changes. For three white males do deserve our attention today. many, notjusttoday butfor some decades already, That we might attend to them together, despite ithas not been acceptable (some would say simply their differences, is a function, in part at least, of not PC) to celebrate the arrival ofColumbus in the the fact that ourdiscussion has as its major sponsor New World. It seems embarrassing, a gratuitous the Centerfor Philippine Studies ofthe University insult to Native Americans - and all the more so ofHawaii. As alinguist!wantto look at language as Native American voices are given public and in this history, and by the time my few moments academic stages, and as modern scholarship ofthe have expired I want to have at least started to tell past couple ofdecades has developed our under you why, in all this, we still have a very great standing of what Professor David Stannard has amount of discovering to accomplish. We too labeled the "Americanholocaust." Yetmanyofus need to be discoverers, and so there are lessons to are conflicted in all this. Just recently (and not be learned of those who have carried that label without protests) the United States launched its before. space shuttle named Columbia once again. Was The Center for Philippine Studies, I want this launched in part as a symbolic act reasserting to suggest, can function as a sort ofint=ediary the RCI against the PC reluctance to celebrate - an int=ediarybetween America andthe Phil Columbus? Well, in any case, the Ivy League ippines, between Filipinos and Hawaiians, and cannot be expected to shut down Columbia Uni betweenHawaii and therestoftheUnitedStates of versity, oreven to change its name. Columbia, the America and the rest ofthe world. In this too there gem of the ocean, will continue to be included in is discovering to be done - but in the process of the nation's musical repertoire, even ifnot on the attending to that, we would well attend to some of top ren, and visitors to Washington, DC will, it theerrors in the workofthe three earlydiscoverers, seems reasonable to predict, many years hence as we can learn from them, even from their mis still pass through Union Station and come out takes. toward the Capitol building and stand before the Columbus, it is said by some, discovered monument to Columbus there. They will tour the America. Ofcourse, we are all aware how itis that Capitol buildingitselfand gaze upon the beautiful many, even eager businessmen and politicians, Columbus Doors and the Brumidi canopy fresco have shied away from the celebration ofthe event offifteen epic events in America's history begin behind that claim in this SOOth anniversary. Oc ning with his landing of Columbus, 1492. tober 12passed prettymuch unheraldedin America. FIrSt, I wanttotake upFerdinandMagellan. 25 • Many of us, perhaps because ofour school expe To us in Hawaii, this fact ofa starue forLapu-lapu riences, do notknow enough ofhistory, anda link may be eye-opening, as we do have a starue for between Columbus and Magellan may be too Captain Cook where he died at Kealakekua Bay, arcane for us. Yet Columbus's successin theeyes but we have nothing to commemorate the Hawai of Europe was no doubt part of what inspired ianwarriorwhobroughtCookdown,likeMagellan, • :\1agellan to his actions, what goaded those who in the shallow water at the shore. funded his expedition to their support - and There is a bit more I want to say about indeed quite literally Magellan may have walked Magellan and his interaction with those people in some ofthe very footsteps ofColumbus before who came to be called FilipiMs (and who just he took command ofhis three famous ships. Juan recently announced that they were considering a Rodriguez de Fonseca, Bishop of Burgos and modification to the name of their country, relin • Chairman ofthe Council ofthe Indies, had, twenty quishingRepublic ofthePhilippines andreruming five years before meeting Magellan, been one of to Filipinos).2 those called on to consider Columbus's proposal Before this first military encounter ofEu to seek the Indies by sailing west in the direction ropeans and Filipinos, there was some peaceful permittedby the Pope. BishopFonsecahadmocked talking and teaching that went on, and for which • Columbus as a crazy Italian and had, as events we should be grateful that we have a record. You developed, been humbled by Columbus's ac will have noticed in the program's brochure the complishment. Magellan, after sailing and fight illustration of Philippine syllabary writing. ing for Ponugal in Malacca and the Moluccas, Magellan and his men were unaware of the exist experienced the frustrations and disappointment ence of this way of writing in the islands they • ofthe scandal ofbeing charged with corruption in encountered. Before the Spanish left the Philip the service ofthe King ofPonugal. Disillusioned pines their impact would have all but totally yet still ambitious, he turned to Spain, marriedthe eradicated that method of communication and daughter of a wealthy Ponuguese expatriate record-making. (See also mention of this in the businessman, and through his father-in-law met paper by Ricardo Trimillos in this publication.) Bishop Fonseca, who perhaps tried to redeem Still, these voyagers did make an effon to com • himself by becoming Magellan's sponsor to the municate with thepeople they found. Makinguse KingofSpain. ItwasBishopFonsecahimselfwho ofthe assistance as interpreter ofa man some call drew up the elaborate contract between Magellan Enrique de Malacca, a Malaywhom Magellanhad and King Charles V. broughtonthis voyagefromhis earlierPortuguese Butitwas seeking his fonune andplaying advenTure in Malacca, Magellan's assistant and • politics, maneuvering between two political lead chronicler Antonio Pigafetta made a vocabulary ers in what was to become known as the Philip list to reflectthe languageofthese new subjectsof pines which broughtMagellantohis end. Between Crown and Cross. Close srudy of that list ofone Humabon whomMagellanhadbaptizedandtaken hundred and fifty or so words provides a salutary as ally, and Humabon's powerful rival Lapu lesson for us today. Many ofthe words preserved Lapu,Magellanoverestimatedhis strength and his are easily recognizable as identical to contempo • ability tooverpowerthe oneonbehalfofthe other. rary Sebuano across the span of five centuries: In the ensuingmilitary encounter, betrayed by the mata (eye) appears inPigafetta's listasmarta, dila false confidencethat sixty ofhis men could defeat (tongue) as dilla, pusud (navel) as pussud. more than twenty times that number, Magellan Granted. you have to cancel out the doubled con shed his blood and lost his life at the shores of sonant in the spelling, but that is easy. Other • Mactan. Today Magellan is remembered in Cebu spellingsareevenc1osertocontemporarySebuano: in the name ofa hotel and in the shrine or monu coco the nail is kuku in John Wolff's dictionary,3 ment said to contain fragments of the cross he and the elbow sico is siku in Wolff; we also find raised (as well as in a funny song, very popular, tubu (tubu, sugarcane) and babui (habuy. pig), which reminded us of "Mageelan"), but Lapu The egg is itlog (itlug). lapu is honored with a government-issue stamp Yetotherentriesinthe listwhichPigafetta's • and is also remembered on Mactan with a starue. voyage preserves are records of something else, 26 • something weoughttotake to hean. They show us Malay interpreter was using to try to elicit a instances of cross-cultural mistakes, language Sebuano form. Or perhaps the Sebuano knew the misunderstandings. Some of these involve dif Malay word and just gave it back (although this ficulties withhandling sounds: luiaforginger(luy would not very likely happen in Cebu today). a in Wolff); they just did not know how to spell a Maybe the Sebuanojustwanted notto beinvolved word that sounded like that. There were word in assisting any ofthese strangers to have anything final sounds that they did not hear, evidently. to do with young Sebuano unmarried women. Roho (hair), which we know now is bubuk (hair Maybe they were merely trying to preserve social on head). Stillmy students lastsemester, one from order. Language plays a crucial role there, of Taiwan, one from Japan, one from Singapore of course. Chinese background, and one a local haole Now I will rum to Cook, andbring us home (Caucasian) also had difficulty hearing the end of to Hawaii. Captain James Cook, and John Banks this and other words as pronounced for us by a (the manwhowas Cook'sequivalentofMagellan's Sebuano-speaking graduate student Some ofthe Pigafena), were, two and three-quarters centuries words in Pigafena'slist appear with aproblem the later, quite familiar with Pigafena's narration of Spanish in 400 years never surmounted, that of Magellan's ships and their voyage around the hearing fmal-ng as n: lion for Hung (nose) and world. The voyages ofCook's shipslikewise have Apin for aping. Initial ng- conquered the tongues given us vocabulary lists from the Tahitians and of Americans as well as the Spaniards before the Maori and the Hawaiians they encountered. them; ifwe know this we have little trouble seeing Comparisons of the lists is rewarding (and it is throughPigafena'sNepin forngipun (teeth). Then quite surprising to me that these lists and the srudy there are words that illustrate semantic difficulties of comparing them seem to have no place in our in that first interethnic srudy of Pigafetta, his schools). Just the lists ofnumbers in both Cook's Malay interpreter, and the unnamed Sebuano who (Banks) and Pigafena'sZzubu (CebuorSebu) list provided the words collected. One I have already are most instructive. Time is shon and I cannot mentioned: Ap in. Pigafetta gives Apin for the develop this with specific examples, but it is easy jaws. It is easy to imagine how such a misunder enough for you to see whatto do nextonyourown, standing took place. I hope. (A few ofthese, for teachers and students First, as I noted above, Apin should be to study, are appended at the end). understood as really aping. Then we must note I want to close by mentioning something thatwhatapingmeans is cheek, notjaw. The word that brings us right back to our present. On the for jaw in Sebuano is apapangig, but one can McNeil-Lehrer Newshour for the evening of Oc understand how that might be more difficult to tober 12, 1992, the essay that usually closes that elicit than the word for the more visible surface program was presented by Richard Rodriguez. phenomenon. Other words like this: The body This is a man, a Hispanic American, who became tiam, which involves that Spanish difficulty with well-known for an autobiographical book The finals,so-rn shouldreallybe-n. Thewordistiyan4. Hunger ofMemory7 . This bookmade Rodriguez Moreover, the gloss given is wrong in a fashion the darling of an RC set of public commentators somewhatsimilarto the mistake withaping. Tiyan who were pro-English only and vehemently op really means stomach, of course, and not body. posed to bilingual education in U.S. schools. In Pigafenagives the eyelids Pilac; pilukiseyelash Rodriguez's commentary, he pleaded with the andwinkorblinkaneyein contemporarySebuanoS audience to continue to celebrate Columbus Day, and itprobablymeantthe same thing in 1521. The for that, as he explained, was his birthday and the world eyelid is tabuntabun.6 birthday of many like him - those whose pro Another interesting error of yet another genitors were both Spaniardand Native American son is this: Pigafetta: The woman perempuan. Indian. This was the first time I found myself He also lists The married woman Rahal. What listeningtoRichardRodriguez with any sympathy. happened here? Perempuan is a Malay, not a We shouldthink abouthispointinconnectionwith Sebuano word. Perhaps Pigafena simply got all of our own friends (and children) who are confused and wrote down as Sebuanothe wordhis mestizo, mestiza, tisoy, hopa (terms indicating 27 mixed ancestry). • Finally I want to recall the lament ofUni ~rA~V; versity ofHawaiiprofessoremeritaElizabethCarr, L who decried the fact that we have learned vastly l/' V I.E rr ~ M more about the ecological condition of Kaneohe Bay than we have learned about the language in ) } I'" '\ 7f N • the heads ofthe children who live along its shores B~VNG orthe shores, valleys and thehillsidesofthe rest of 07 Hawaii. I wouldlike toproposethat wemightwell r;::; P- I D z,ev p extend ecological thinking to apply it to the value ~ oflinguisticdiversity. As JackWeatherfordwrote r G vJ 1.1S • in his recent book, Columbus arrived in the new 1/ world in 1492, but America has yet to be discov H rJv T ered.8 We must leave space for our children, the -r/ K.?"V'W Hawaiian children, theFilipinoimmigrantand the Filipino-American children, the mestizo, mestiza, V'" V' Y • hapa, the locals as well as the newcomers, so that Two kinds of ancient FfUpiDo writing with they can play their own role in that discovery. approxtmate EngJ1ah equivalents. Appendix English • I 2 3 4 5 6 7 gloss lua Rua Rua rua Dua duha '2' kolu Torou Torou toru Tolo tulu '3' ha Hea Ha whaa Vpat upat '4' • lima Rema Rema nma Lima lima '5' ono Ono Ono ono Onon unum '6' hi.ku Hetu Etu whitu Pitto pitu '7' walo Warou Warou waru Gualo* walu '8' iwa Heva Iva iwa Ciam siyam '9' • *The manuscript's fmal vowel appears to be Q or U. written over Jl. Column 1 is left blank for students to look up how the Hawaiian words were spelled in the records of Cook's voyages. Column 2 is modern Hawaiian. • Column 3 is from Joseph Banks's record of"Otahite." Column 4 is from Joseph Banks's record from the Endeavor's circumnavigation ofNew Zealand under Capt. James Cook. Column 5 is modern Maori Column 6 is Sebuano as recorded from "Zzubu" by Pigafetta. Column 7 is modern Sebuano as in Wolff. (Note that the word for eye given above is Sebuano mara with Maori mara the Hawaiian maka. Attending the words for three and seven, one can see that, across the set of languages, they are different consistently in the same way. The pattern of connection is preserved even in the • differences.) Otherwordspresentedin thetextofthis papermight serve asstaningpointsforstudents who would like to expand these comparative lists. 28 • SOURCES (For the Appendix) I. For Columns 3, 4, and 5. Anne Salmond, Two Worlds: First Meetings Berween Maori and ElVOpeans. 1642 1m. (Honolulu: University ofHawaii Press, (1991). 2. For Column 6. Antonio Pigafetta, MageUan's Voyage; A Narrative Account of the First Circumnavigation, vol. 2. Translated and edited byR. A. Skelton from the manuscript in the Beinecke Rare Book Manuscript Library of Yale University. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1969). 3. For Column 7. John U. Wolff, op. cit. ENDN01ES I. Some would say tha1 RC srands for "Right-wing Cor recl,· since anything PC is taken to be a version ofthe left. 2. No matter what, we can expect that our papers in Honolulu will still identify tha1 country by the label PI (forPhilippine Islands). A full forty years after the end of US territorial control of the Philippines, and after official shift from PI to RP (for Republic of the Phil ippines), the papers continue to insist on PI, once even defending such usage by insisting tha1 it was shorter! That could well be true in the eyesofa typographer, but it still seems politically insensitive and anachronistic. 3. See John Wolff, A Dictionary of CebUlJllO Visayan. Philippine Journal of Linguistics Special Monograph Issue No.4. (Manila: Linguistic Society ofthe Philip pines, 1972). Note that CebUlJllO and SebUlJllO are variantspellingofthesame narne. Visayan(orBisayan) is a Ianguagefami/y. 4. Ibid., p. 1027. 5. Ibid., p. 762 6. Ibid., p. 954. 7. See Richard Rodriguez. HungerofMerrwry. (Boston, Massachusetts: David R. Godine, 1982). 8. Jack Weatherford. Indian Givers: How Indians ofthe Amuicas Transformed the World. (New York: Ballantine Books, A Fawcett Columbine Book, 1988), p.255. 29 • HELEN R. NAGTALON-MILLER The Filipino Plantation Community • in Hawaii: Experiences of a Second-Generation Filipina • As discussed elsewhere in this publica Provincial Normal School, and was more inter tion, the age of discovery had an especially dev ested in pursuits of the mind than in the fatming astating effect on the people of the Philippines. and managing ofhis family's lands. Determined From the Western point of view the arrival ofthe to leave the Philippines without telling his family Spanish in the 16th century began a process of (he knew that his family would not give him their leading the Philippines into the path of Western blessingifhe told them ofhis intentions),he spent • culture. From the point of view of the Filipino several weeks before arriving at the recruiting people, in retrospect, the Spanish arrival marked agent's office roughing up his palms with rocks in the beginningofthemixtureofindigenouscultures order to be able to show calloused hands and that had existed for several centuries with that of succeed in being recruited. This may not have European culture. happened too often, and most of those recruited • Filipino culture was a blend of what had were indeed farm laborers with little education existed in 1521 overlaid with the impact of more and fewer employment possibilities in their than three centuries ofSpanish intrusion and later homeland. ofseveral decades of American occupation. The When my father was recruited he left the earliest Filipinoimmigrants toHawaiiin 1906had Philippines alone and went to a plantation on only a few years ofthe American experience, but Kauai where he had been assigned as a laborer. • by the time the largest numbers began to arrive After a year, he asked to be transferred to Oahu after World War I, a generation of Filipinos had Sugar Company in Waipahu, on the island of been influenced by the "Little Brown Brother" Oahu, where he was to be employed as the colonial philosophy of the American expansion company's office assistantpayroll and sugarcane ists. weight clerk. He married my mother, whose high • The Filipinos who came to work on the schooleducationinthePhilippineswas interrupted sugar plantations ofHawaii were thus the product when she left for Hawaii with her father, mother, of this fusing of Malay, Spanish and American and two younger brothers. Her father had been cultures. In reality, however, Filipinos (like most recruited to be the chiefcook and manager ofthe colonized or multicultural people) are not always company's boarding house where my father was aware of their culture, or conscious about which employed shonly afterbeing transferred from his culture is which. laborer's job on Kauai to Oahu. The Hawaiian sugarplanters attempted to In Hawaii there was a notewonhy differ ensure that those they recruited were agricultural ence between the Filipinoimmigrant workers and laborers who would be satisfied to remain on the the Japanese who arrived earlier. The Filipinos plantations to fulfill their contracts. The planters came from a land that had been colonized by the were usually successful in recruiting laborers, Americans after more than three centuries of although manyaccountsaretoldofbettereducated Spanish rule. The Japanese, on the other hand, recruits successfully passing themselves off as came from a country which was already a world fann laborers. power and a relatively homogenous society. Be One such person was myfather. He was a cause ofJapan's position among world powers it • graduate of llocos* None High School and the could try to bring pressure on the United States, 30 • and often did, when there were complaints of available near their living quarters, they would worker mistreatment. (This did not mean that the cultivate their vegetables in unused plots of land interventionofthe Japanesegovernmenton behalf near the sugar cane fields. ofits citizens in Hawaii were always successful) A group ofneighbors and relatives shared The Filipinos had no such recourse because the large quantities offood: for example, a large can Philippines before independence in 1946 was a ofbagoong (Filipino fish sauce) would be bought colony of the united States. cooperatively and shared by the members of the Considering the much larger number of group. males comparedwith the females, itisnot surpris A pig would be slaughtered and butchered ingthatFilipinosin Hawaii livedtwo quitedifferent in someone's backyard and the meat cuts divided lifestyles. The largest group consisted of single among five to ten families, depending on the size men who lived in dormitory-style housing. In the ofthe pig. The organizing family would get such early days the plantations provided boarding fa delicacies as the head, tail, and the innards. cilities for single Filipino laborers in structures Some bachelors (2 to 4 individuals) would called "clubhouses." They often were comprised buy a automobile together and share its use. The ofa kitchen, a largedining room, a social hall, and workers helped each other to buy household ap a recreation hall. pliances, equipment, tools, or large purchases re Only a small minority ofFilipinos lived in quiring loans. Lendingmoneytoeachotherwithout single family units. However, these units did not written contracts was common. existinisolationofnuclearandextendedfamilies, Since a high percentage of laborers were and frequently offictive families (families whose Dokano, their foods were vegetables cooked with members are not related by blood). dried shrimp or fish and slices ofpork or chicken. Often singlemales who wererelated to one In contrast, our Tagalog friends and neighbors or another of the family members, or were just used more tomato sauces, potatoes, peas and gar friends, would share livingquarters, expenses and banzos in their cooking. Gradually, each group household chores. Many single males would be began cooking each other's dishes. asked to become godfathers to the family's chil The favorite foods were pinakber (the dren, thus becoming honorary fathers to those Dokano vegetable stew resembling the French children. There were at least two relatives living raratouille butwithbagoong andfish,shrimp,pork, with our family. They tended the vegetable gar or pork rinds, and with very little broth), and den, helped with the cooking and housework, and dinengdeng (sliced eggplant, long green beans, were treated and respected as members of the bittermelon, okra, andlima beans cooked in broth family. consisting of bagoong, fresh tomatoes and dried In older plantation homes, where the shrimp). plantation did not object to the tenants adding on Conditions peculiar to Hawaii meant that or changing the design of the house, whenever a these dishes underwent changes. Less bagoong relative arrived, rooms were added. was used while more pork and tomatoes were After 1965, when a new wave of Filipino included in the recipes. Inthe U.S. mainland even immigrants came and plantation families were greater changes were necessary. The pinakber buying their own lots and homes (fee simple), cooked by the Mexican wife ofmy father's cousin families beganrebuilding their homes to resemble did not look at all like pinakber to me because of the two-story Spanish-type architecture of the the changes she had to make since basic ingredi Philippines. ents were not available, or she felt that bagoong The low wages paid sugar workers, lower had too strong a flavor. for Filipinos than for other groups in the early The Filipino tradition of bayanihan years, required ingenuity in order to survive. It (helpingeach other) wasacommonpracticeamong was common for workers to grow vegetables in all groups on the plantation. The laborers helped their gardens and to share their harvest with each other build chicken houses, garages, play neighbors and friends. Where land was not rooms orscreened work rooms. Forweddings and 31 • baptismal parties the relatives, neighbors and children even when the children responded in friends helped with the preparationsofthelunch or English. My parents spoke English fluently, but dinner, whichincludedkankanen (sweets made of they spokeIlokano to each otherandtome andmy sticky rice, sugar, and coconut milk). On the sister. Even though we answered in English, they plantations,probablyduetothescarcityofwomen, continued to speak to us in nokano. • the men did the large-scale cooking; the women A special vocabulary developed from the made the rice cakes. Families often took care of Filipinoexperienceonthe plantation andspreadto the orphaned children oftheir friends with little or other groups. It included expressions such as: no monetary help, with just the satisfaction of a 1. Bulakbol (lazy, probably from mutual debt ofgratitude in mind.. "blackballed," that is, someone • A majorityoftheFilipinoimmigrantswere blackballed by the plantation and Catholic. A much smaller number were Method who, therefore, could not work, ists and Congregationals who had become Prot even ifthrough no fault ofhis own, estants through the work ofthe BoardsofMission was regarded as a ne'er-do-well). of those denominations in the Philippines and 2. Salamabit (son-of-a-bitch) and Hawaii. Those denominationsestablishedchurches Salamagan (son-of-a-gun), ex • on the plantations where services were held in the pressions used in place ofFilipino I language of the members. The sugar planters swear words when resorting to I supported the work of those churches by con Hawaiian English Creole (pidgin). \ structing buildings for the ProtestantChurches on 3. Sabidong (poison) Gang, a term i almost every plantation. used on the plantation to refer to a • Both Catholics and Protestants practiced work group assigned to spray rituals that were not entirely Catholic or Protes chemicals to eradicate weeds in tant, but contained elements of animism The the cane fields. I atang (offering), food for deceased relatives, was 4. Manong, Manang (Ilokano terms common on household shrines; it was a common ofrespect for older brother/sister, \ practice to go to the beach aftera funeral service to butalso usedforotherolderpeople • immerse oneself. Mymother, despite beingdyed usually of the generation of one's in-the-wool Congregational Protestant, would al oldersiblings); Tara,Nana, (terms ways say upon returning home from any outing forfather/mother, butalso usedfor "AddiJ kamin," ("We are back"),justtoinform the olderpeople ofone'sparents' gen house spiritsthatthe family membershavereturned eration). They were often used • home. derogatorily or incorrectly by At all parties, large or small, participants members ofother groups. who could play a musical instrument, dance or 5. Booli-booli (thewaymanyFilipino sing, were asked to perform. It was considered laborers in the early plantation era ungracious not to perform when asked to do so. pronounced "benevolent" when Children who could perform or those who were referring to benevolent societies • taking music and/or dance lessons were expected whichprovidedtheirmembers with to perform for their elders and for guests. At our fmancial help). Booli-booli often family parties, my parents were always asked to had a bad connotation because sing duets. Usually they sang nokano songs that some ofthese aid societies did not were popular in their youth. Even our family fulfill their obligations to the la • parties were fonnally organized with a designated borers who had invested most of master of ceremonies and a formalized program their savings. I featuring speeches and testimonies. 6. In speakingEnglish the traditional Filipinos on the plantations would use the Ilokanohonorifics ofManong and language of their native regions when among Manang, Tara and Nana were not • speakersofthe samelanguage. It was commonfor usually used. They were replaced. parents to use their native language with their by Mr. and Mrs. My mother-in- 32 • law, who was of Anglo-Saxon community celebrations, but as they approached background, could not understand theirteens, refusedtodo sofor fearofbeingteased why mymotherinsisted on calling Tnarumg, buk-buk, orbayaw, all terms ofderision. her "Mrs. Miller" even after they ImportanteventsinPhilippinehistory were hadknowneach otherfor anwnber marked by major community celebrations, the of years. most importantof which were the observances of the birth and death ofthe Filipino patriot, Dr. Jose Unlike many American children, Filipino Rizal, and the Philippine Commonwealth Day. children were not paid to do chores around the On such occasions members of the Filipino com house. Money which they earned was given to munitywore Filipinodresses andBarong Tagalog their mothers. The mothers in turn gave the (men's embroidered native shirt). These events children whatwasneeded for daily schoolorother were marked with the recitation of poems and expenses. Children were taught to help educate speeches in llokano, Tagalog, or Visayan, folk their younger siblings and were not expected to dancing and singing. say to theirparents,"Youoweme$Sforyesterday's The FilipinoswhocametoHawaii to work grocery shopping," or"formy having cleaned the on the sugar plantations survived because, like house." other groups that came before them, they drew Filipino parents commonly told their from those aspects of their culture that enabled children they were not only American but also them to continue to adapt. This, in turn, helped Filipino. However, since the children attended them toemerge gradnaI1y as adistinctandimportant American schools and moreover the radio andthe group whose languages, history, religion, food, newspapers were in English, they often had diffi customs, and music have made an impact on the culty knowing to which group they belonged. social, economic, and political institutions of Manysecond-generationFilipinos bornandraised American society. on the plantations found protection from ethnic slurs against Filipinos by identifying themselves as Spanishor Qlinese. Qlildrenoftenwererequired • Theolderspellingisllocos,butincunentusage. this is also by their parents to wear Filipino costumes during spelled llokos. 33 • DEAN T. ALEGADO Philippine Chronology Up To 1946 • 25 • 30,000 B.C. Ancestors ofthe NegriflJs stan arriving from the south (Borneo) through land bridges. 3 - 6,000 B.C. AuslroneSians arrive from Indonesia and other pans ofSoutheast Asia. 1,500 B.C. Migrants arrive in northern Luzon from Indochina, South China and Formosa. • 800 - 500 B.C. Anotherwave ofmigrantsarrive from SoutheastAsiaandSouthChinabelieved to be the ancestors ofpresent-dayKaJingas,Apayaos,Ibanags,TagbanUllS.Mandayas.Manobos,Bagobos.KuImnans. Bilaans, Tirurays and Subanons. 400 - 100 B.C. More migrants - referred to as the Ka/anay and Novaliches people - arrive from the coasts of • Indochina and seale in the Visayan islands, Mindoro, Marinduque, the Calamianes islands, and PaJawan. 300 - 200 B.C. Another group ofmigratory Mawy people from the westem coast ofBomeo arrive and seale in Mindanao, pans of Visayas and Luzon. They introduce irrigated agricuIture, smelting, forging and manufacture ofiron and othermetals, the anofweaving 00 ahand loom,and the manufac1llre ofbeads, bracelets and other ornaments. • 100 A.D. - 1200 Another group ofMalays arrive, the ancestors ofthellokanos, Tagalogs, Bisayans, Pampangos, Bilwls, Pangasinans. 960-1279 RecOtds indicate conlaCl and trade between China and people in the Philippines during the Sung dynasty. • 1300 -1390 Muslim traders and religious teachers from India and Arabia arrive. Muslim sul1anales in SuIu are established. 1366 - 1644 Records indicate contact between China and people in the Philippines daring the Ming dynasty. 1400 Mani1a founded as a trading pon between Canton, Moluccas and SuIu. • 1450 A powerful Muslim sultanate is set up in SuIu after marriage between Abu BaIer from Sumatra (Indonesia) and daughter ofRajah Baginda ofSuIu. 1520 (Nov. 28) Magellan and his crew enter the Pacific Ocean for the fll'Sl time and give it its name. 1521 (March 17) Magellan's expeditioo arrives in SuIuan island in Samar, the fll'St Europeans to set foot on Philippine shores. They name the entire archipelago IsiIJs de San Lazaro. 1521 (March 30) Magellan celebrates Easter Sunday with Rajah Ko1tJmbu ofLimasawa island, the first mass held inthe Philippines. Laterintheday, a cross is erected and MagelIan cIairns the islands forthe king ofSpain. 1521 (April 7) Magellan and his crew reach Cebuand make a blood compact with Rajah HumabolI. OnSunday, .' 14 April, more than 800natives, includingRajah Hwnabon andhis family, arebaptized and given Christian names, and made to recognize Spain's sovereignty over them, 1521 (April 27) Lapu-lapu and his men kill Magellan and drive offthe resl ofhis forces in a fierce battle on the island ofMacran. With 18 surviving men aboard, the VicflJria arrives in Spain 00 8 Nov. 1522, • becoming the first Europeans to circumnavigate the world, and proving the existence ofa water route to the Moluccas by sailing weal. 34 • 1526 - 1564 Spain sends 8 unsuccessful expeditions to colonize the Philippines. 1565 Legazpi arrives in Cebu and begins a successful Spanish campaign to colonize the Philippines. 1571 (May 19) Legazpi conquers Manilaby defeating the forces led by Rajah Soliman andRajahLakandula. On 3 June. Manila is declared a city and becomes the capital ofNew Castille, the seatofthe Spanish empire in Asia. 1575 Galleon Trade begins as Manila becomes the transshipment point between China and Acapulco, Mexico. 1584 Pampangos revolt against forced labor in the gold mines of llocos, harsh methods of tribute collection, and widespread food shortages inPampanga andManila. This is justone ofmore than 200 unsuccessful localized rebellions against the Spanish until the 1896 Revolution. 1622 Anativepriest orbabaylan named Tamblot leads an uprising ofmore than 2,000 in Bohol burning churches while calling on the Boholanos to reject the Catholic religion. 1649 SU1TIJVoy leads an lipriSing against the Spanish in Samar to protest forced labor. The rebellion spreads throughout the island as churches are burned and friars driven out. To crush the revolt Spanish forces from Leyte, Manila and Z3mboanga are sent to Samar. Sumuroy is Idlled, along with his father and brother, and their heads are displayed in Catbalogan. 1660 Maniago 1eads a revolt in Pampanga against forced labor, forced conscription into the Spanish army and navy, and illegal expropriation ofrice and other produce. Maniago's revolt spreads to otherparts ofCentral Luzon including Pangaainan. He writes to other native chiefs in Dccos and Cagayan Valley to join him in an attackofManila. Maniago is betrayed by otherPampango chiefs in excbange for some privileges and selfIsh advantage, a pattern that would happen again and again in the Filipino people's long struggle against colonial rule. 1660 - 1661 Malong leads one of the biggest and most threatening rebellions against Spanish rule in Pangasinan. His rebellion spreads to Pampanga. Z3mbales, llocos and Cagayan as an estimated 40,000 men join his army. The Spanish recruit mercenaries from other parts ofthe Philippines, an armed force led by two Spanish generals defealS Malong in a fIerce balIle in Pangasinan. Malong is executed in his hometown ofBinaJatongan (now BinaJonan) and his head is placed in a pole and displayed in the town center. 1744 - 1829 DagoJwy leads a revolt against the Spanish in Bohol after a friar refuses to give his brother a Christian burial. More than 20,000 Boholanos join him and successfully defeat all Spanish forces sent to captme him. Dagoboy declares independence from Spain and selS up the Bohol Republic which lasts 75 years. 1762 The British invadeandoccupy Manila for2years as anoff-shootoftheSevenYears WarinEurope. The defeat ofthe Spanish forces by the British sparks native uprisings throughout the country. Spanish offIcials and friars are either killed or expelled. Of these revolts, the major ones occur in Pangasinan and llocos. Palaris leads a revolt in Pangasinan and Tarlac that would last until 1765. With more than 10,000 men, Palaris drives all friars and Spanish offIcials oot of Pangasinan. Palaris iscaptmed in January 1765 and is banged in his hometown ofBinalatongan. Diego and Gabriela SiUvlg lead an uprising in the llocos which lasts for 5 months. The Spanish are expelled from Vigan and the tribule and forced labor are abolished. Diego Silang is betrayed and assassinated. His wife Gabriela assumes command of the rebellinn, but is captmed and banged in public. 1785 Following the endingofthesubsidy from Mexico and the establishmentofthe tobacco monopoly, the Royal Philippine Company is set up. Direct trade with Spain is opened which facilitates the entry ofthe Philippines into international system oftrade. Adomestic economy begins to emerge after 1785. 1812 This year sees the promulgation ofthe Cadiz Constitution by Spanish Liberals who share power 35 • in a provisional government with the Spanish monarchy in the struggle lO end Napoleon's occupation of Spain. The Constitution extends the rights of man not only lO Spaniards in the peninsula but lO all subjects ofSpain. Many people in the Philippines take the proclamation lO mean universal equality and the abolition ofthe lribure aod forced 1aIlor. The governor goneral is forced lO issue a decree saying !hat the the coostiwtional decree does not apply to the iNiios. Ferdioaod VU'scomeback as king ofSpain results in theretum ofreactionary absolutism aodthe • end of the short-lived liberal period in Spain aod the colonies. 1813 The Galleon Trade ends and by 1821 Mexico gains its independence from Spain, forcing the Spanish lO develop the Philippines lO make it economically more self-sufficienL 1841 Apolinario Ik la Cnu., also known as HermtJ1lD Pule, leads a revolt in Laguna and Tayabas after • his religious order, the Cofradia IkSan Jose, is rejecred by the Spanish authorities. AngemI by what they feellO beracial discrimination againstindios, Pule's group-which is called Colorum due lO theirreligious mysticism - retreats into the mountains ofLaguna aod Tayabas. Pule and other leaders ofthe Cofradia are caplIIred. Their bodies are dismembered and exhibired in the main lOwns ofTayabas. Native Filipino soldiers from Tayabas who are quartered in Manilaaod sympathetic lO Apolinario dela Cruz attack Fort Saotiago, but are quickly suppressed. • 1861 (June 19) Jose Rizal, the Philippine national hero, is born in Calamba, Lagooa, south ofManila. 1863 (Nov. 30) Andres Bonifacio, the founder of the Katipunan and leader of the 1896 Revolution, is born in Tondo,ManiIa. 1869 The Suez Canal is opened aod regular steamship service is established between Manila aod • Europe which facilitares the influx oflibeml ideas into the Philippines. 1872 (Feb. 17) The Filipino native priests - Gomez, BlUgos and Zamora - are ,",blicly executed bY the Spanish for alleged participation in the mutiny of200 Filipino soldiers in Cavire. The dealhs of the three Filipino jX'iests, who hadactivelycampaignedfor therights ofnative clergy -awakensa powerful sense ofnationalist consciousness among Filipinos. • 1887 JoseRiza/' sfustoftwoclassic novels,NoliMeTangere (TheSocialCaocer)ispublished. Baooed by theSpanishauthorities in the Philippines, the Noli plays an importaotroleinforging aFilipino national identity as it depicts Spanish colonial oppression. 1889 The first issue ofLa Solidmidild is published in Febroary in Spain, It becomes the voice of Filipinos working forreformsandadvocatingan endto abusesby Spanishcolonial authoritiesand • friars in the Philippines. The reform movement is known as the Propaganda Movement. 1891 RizaI ,",blishes the second ofhis two novels, El FUibusterismo (The Subversive). Itdepicts the alternative choices open lO Spain: either implement reforms in the Philippines-cr face violent revolution. illeNoli,Fili is baooedby the Spanish from dislribution in thePhilippines. Riza)'s writings earns him the undispured intellectual leadership ofthe Philippine nationalist movemenL • 1892 RizaI n:turns lO the Philippines from Spain and foundsLaLigaFUipina, an organization seeking peaceful reform and Filipino representation in the Spanish Cortes (parliament). Rizal, however, is arresred by the Spanish aothorities aod exiled lO Dapilllll in Mindanao. Reacting to lwal's arrest, Andres Bonifacio and the more militant members ofLa Liga organize the Katipunan, a secretrevolutionary organization !hatseeks lO endSpanish colonial rule and win freedom for the Filipinos. • 1896 The Philippine Revolution breaks out on 26 August as the Spanish disco_the existence ofthe Katipunao. Within a few weeks, the revolution spreads 10 the provinces around Manila as well as in other parts ofthe counlry. On 30 December, Rizal is publicly executed by the Spanish in Bagwnbayan (Luneta) aod his death intensifies the revolution. 1897 Bonifacio, the founder of the Katipunan, is execured on 10 May and the leadenhip of the • Katipunao is assumed by Emilio AguiMJdo and his Cavire faction. On I November, Aguinaldo 36 • and other revolutionary leaders approve a Constitution and establish the Biak·na·BalO republic, which officially declares Philippine independence from Spain. On 16 December. Aguinaldo signs a peace agreement with the Spanish governor general. Aguinaldo and other leaders leave for exile in Hongkong on 27 December. 1898 The Spanish·American War breaks out on 24 April following an explosion on the U.S.S. Maine in Havana, Cuba. AU.5. Navy fleet docked in Hong Kong under Commodore George Dewey is ordered lD proceed lD Manila lD destroy the Spanish fleeL Aguinaldo and otherexiledFilipino leaders hurry back to the Philippines lD reorganize the revolutionary army. thinking that the Americans would assist the Filipinos in fmally putting an end to Spanish rule in the Philippines. On 12 Jooe Aguinaldo raises the Philippine flag in Kawil, Cavile and declares the birth of rhe Philippine Republic. With revolution spreading throughout the COootry, the remaining Spanish military forces are driven lD Manila swroooded by 12,000 FIlipino soldiers. But the Spanish refuse to surrender wttiI the American troops land on the outskirts ofManila on 14 August. The U.S. military forces under General Otis, however. refuse lDallow AguinaJdo andhis menlDenter Manila Only then did Aguinaldo realize that the U.S. has no intention ofhelping the Filipinos establish an independent govemmenL On 10 December 1898. despite the fact that the Filipinos are virtually in control ofthe entire COootry and the Spanish are hostage in Manila, Spain signs the Treaty ofParis ceding the entirePhi1ippines to the U.S. foc $20 million. Despite demands by Filipinos to be present at the Paris peace tallcs. their representative is not allowed to sit in the discussions transferring colonial control of the Philippines from the Spanish to the Americans. 1898 (Aug. 14) U.S. General Wesley Merritt establishes military government in the Philippines. 1899 AguinaldO transfers the seal of the new Philippine Republic to Malolos and convenes a consti· tutional convention and Congressthateleets himpresidenton 23 January. On4February. fighting breaks out between Filipinos and American soldiers in San Juan. Manila, which begins the Philippine·American War. 1899 (March) Schurman Commission appointed by U. S. President William McKinley arrives in Manila to investigate Philippine conditions and interview pm-American ilustrados of the country. 1901 Aguinaldo is captured by American troopS inPaIanan, Isabelaon 23 March. On4JuIy the U.S. establishes a civil government and declares the Philippine "insurrection" over. Other Filipino revolutionary leaders -Malvar, San Miguel. Ricarle, Guillermo. andSakay- however refuse lD recognize American rule and continue to fighL The last revolutionary leader. Makario Sakay. is fmally captured and hanged in public on 13 September 1907. Other Filipino nationalist1eaders who "'fusethe oath ofloyalty to the U.S.• such asApolinario Mabini. are exi1ed lD Guam. It takes 126.000 U.S. troops to defeat the revolutionary army ofthe Philippine Republic. (Official U.S. records show tbatmore Ihan200.000 Filipinos died as aresull oflhe war andmore Ihan600.ooo were wounded.) TosuppressFilipimnationalism.the U.S. Congress passesaseriesofand·sedilion laws. including the Flag Law. which prohibit the public display ofthe Philippine flag from 1907 to 1919. Several Filipino writers are imprisoned for writing "seditious plays." In August 1902. PascualPobleteocganizes theNacionaiistaParty (different from theparty ofthe same name founded in 1907) lD campaign foc Philippine independence. 1902.Q3 Simeon Ola leads an "insurrection" in Bilrol region against the Americans. At about the same time. uprisings in the Visayan provinces are widespread, especially in Cobu. Samar. !.eyre and Panay. "Papa" lsio leads pulajanes (rebels) in "hit-and-rwt" warfare with Americans. 1907 American colonial policy of"tutelage for self·ruJe" for the Philippines is implemented with the election for the National Assembly. Sergio Osmeiia is elected first speaker. Due lD resttictive property qnaliflcations. only 98,251 or 1.41% of the population out of7 million able to vote. 1909 U.S. Congress passes the Payne·AldrichACI which allows unlirnited entry ofAmerican goods to enter the Philippines free of duty in exchange for allowing a quota of Philippine agricultural export products, such as sugar, hemp and copra. to enter the U.S. 37 • 1910 Felipe Salvador. popularly known as Apolpe. is finally captured by U.S. troops and the newly created Philippine COIISlabulary for leading a peasant rebellion in Cenllll! Luzon. Salvador is hanged in public. The popularity of "Apo !pe" would lead his fonowers and future Colorwn rebellions to regard him as a cult hero like Rizal. 1913 U.S. Congress allows total "free!lade"between the U.S. andthe Philippines. "Freetrade"policy • basically relegates thePhilippines as aagricultural andraw material exporting counUydependent on the U.S. for manufactured goods. Itwould result in the neglect ofPhilippineinduslrializali for several more decades. 1916 Jones Law reorganizes Philippine Legislature and creates Senate with 24 members. • 1920 - 30 Peasant-based and messianic Colorum movements and uprisings breakout in many pans ofthe COWlIIy in this decade. The Colomm movements are W1denaken by oppressed peasants who see their 1eadeIS as messiahs leading them to liberation and redemption from oppressive landlords. There is the Sociedad de la Confianza in Leyte and Samar. and the Caballeros de la Sagrada Familia in Pampanga. BuIacan. Pangasinan. and Nueva Ecija. One ofthe most serious Colorum revolts occurs in Tarlac in 1923 led by Pedro Kabolaand theKapisananMaIci1bola MakaraNlg. In 1927. a Colorum movement re-emerges in six cenllll! Visayan provinces led by FlorelU:io • IntTencherado with an eslimated foUowing of more than 26,000 peasants. Inttencherado's followers expellandIords in several towns in Negros andnoilo. confISCating Jands ofhacenderos and seizing government buildings. InlrellCherado is captured and committed to serve for life in an insane asylum in Manila. 1922 (Feb.) Partido NacionaJistIJ Colectivista is organized with Manuel L. Quezon as its presidenL This is • the a result of the split in the Nacionalista Party to break away from Sergio Osmella. 1923-24 Colorums lead uprising in Mindanao. The Colorums belong to a secret peasant society with adherents in theprovinces ofLeyte.Ceho, several provincesinMindanao,Rizal.Tarlac. Batangas andLagWJa. 1929-30 Partido Kowumista ng Pilipinas (Communist Party of the Philippines) is founded. • 1931 In January Pedro Calosa. a farmer who was a plantation laborer in Hawaii, Jeads a peasant rebenion in Tayug. Pangasinan. Calosa, whose CoJorum society is IWIledSociedad ti Mannalon (Society ofLandTillers) and the Sinaruay.attaek the town ofTayug. seize themunicipal building and bum in a bonfire at the town plaza tax records, debt records and tenancy contracts. Calosa hopes the Tayug uprising would ignite the whole ofCenllll! Luzon in a peasant IeVolution that • would achieve independence forthe COlDIUy andreward allparticipants with equal shares in Jands confIscated from landIords. 1934 (March 24) U.S. PresidentRoosevelt signs Tydings-McDuffie Law granting independence tothe Philippines after a IO-year transition period. 1934 (July 10) 202 delegates elected to Constiwtional Convention to draft charter for rhe Commonwealrh and • future independent Philippine republic. Claro RecIO elected president ofConvention. 1935 (May 2-3) The SaMal in Laguna led by Benigno Ramos. campaign against maIdislribution of property. excessive taxes. concentration ofland ownership. especiaUy in the Church and demand imme diate Philippine independence. • 1935 (Nov. 15) PhilippiM Commonwealth inaugurated with MIJIWeIL. Quezon and Sergio Osmeiia as president and vice-president, respectively. 1937 After two decades of struggle. Filipino women win right to vote. Women leaders campaign nationwide to win plebiscite on female suffrage by nearly halfa million votes. 1937 (Nov. 9) PresidentQuezon proclaims Tagalog as the'national language and designates 19 June 1940aslhe • day when it should be taught in all schools. 38 • 1941 7 December, Japan declJu:es war against the U.S. by bombing Pearl Harbor. On 26 July the Philippine reserve and regular fotCes were inCOlJlOl"red into the U.S. Army under Genernl Douglas MacAnhur. Japan invades the Philippines on 8 December and moves toward Manila on 31 December. 1942 (Jan. 2) Japanese fotCes occupy Manila. 1942 Quezon and his cabinet escape from the Philippines via submarine on 20 February. Genernl MacArthur escapes to Austtalia on 11 Mateh. Bataan and Corregidor fall to the Japanese imperial army in April. 1942 (March 29) Peasant leaders form resistance movement, Hukbo ng Sayan Laban saHapon (People's Army Against the Japanese), in Centtal Luzon. 1943 (Oct. 14) Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic under Jose P. Laurel is proclaimed. 1944 (Oct. 20) Oenernl MacArthur and his fotCes land on Leyte and proceed to "liberate" the Philippines from the Japanese with his famous line "[have returned." 1945 (Feb. 27) MacArthur (as Military Administrator) turns over the civil government to President Sergio Osmena. (Quezon died in exile in 1944.) 1946 (July 4) Philippines becomesan independentrepublic. (lndependence Day would Jater be changed to June 12). Mam;el A. Roms becomes fltSt president. Fillplno weapons and Kataas-taas 39 ALICE W. MAK SHIRO SAITO A Bibliography on the Philippines: • Pre-Hispanic to Nineteenth Century This bibliography is divided into three sec DICTIONARY tions. The first section lists general works which ffiSTORICALANDCULlURALDICTIONARYOFTIiE • PHILIPPINES, by Ester G. Maring and Joel M. Maring. provide background information on the history Memchen, NJ.: Scarecrow Press, 1973. 240p. and culture ofthe Philippines. The section covers the prehistoric orpre-Hispanicperiodand the third ATLAS covers the Spanish era from Magellan's anival in TIiE PHILIPPINE AlLAS, by the Fund for Assistance to the Philippines up to the revolution at the end of Private Education. Manila; The Fund, 1975. 2 vol. • the 19th century. TRAVEL BOOKS The materials selected for this bibliography PHILIPPINES, by Hans Johannes Hoefer etat. are available at Hamilton Library, University of Singapore: APA Productions, 1988. 335p. Hawaii at Manoa. Some books may also befound PHILIPPINES HANDBOOK. by Peter Harper and Evelyn in the public libraries. Sebastian Peplow. Chico, Calif.: MoonPublications,l991. 587p. • GENERAL WORKS AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS BIBLIOGRAPHY TIiE PHILIPPINE STORY, by Hugh Gibb. PHILIPPINES, compiled by Jim Riclwdson. Honolulu: Academics Hawai'i, 1981. 7 videocassettes. Oxford. England; Santa BarbaIa. Calif.: Clio Press, 1989. The tides of the videos are: Fiestas of the Philip 372p. pines, Ifugao, Maranao, NegrilOS, Spanish D0 • A comprehensive bibliography arranged by sub main, Taboo Caves, and Years ofChange. jecl Includes works in history, geography, popu lation, migration, cultwe, government, religion, 1UKLAS SINING, by the CulmraI Center of the Phi1ip literatwe, eduea1ion, folklore, economy, ete. pines. Manila: The Center, CulmraIPromolion Division, 1989. 7 ENCYCLOPEDIA vide.ocasseues. "Aseries ofessays and videodocumenlllries on the • ENCYCLOPEDIAOFTIiEPHlLIPPINES,ediredbyZoilo M. Galang. Manila; E. Floro, 1950-58.20 vol. seven arts in the Philippines" - visual arts, music, Includes volumes on IiteIature, biography, com architecture, dance, theater, film, and literature. merce and industry, art, educalion, religion, g0 vernment and politics, science, history, builden, PERIODICALS and general information. ARCHIPELAGO, TIiE INTERNATIONAL MAGAZINE OF TIiE PHILIPPINES. Manila; Bureau ofNational and • FILIPINO HERITAGE: TIiE MAKING OF A NATION, Foreign Information, Depl ofPublic Information. 1974 -. edited by Alfredo R. Roces. Manila: Lahing Pilipino Thismagazine is no longerbeing published. How Publishing, 1977-10 vol. ever, it is a good resource for illustrations and Volume one covers the stone age; volume two the interesting articles on history and cultwe. melal age; volume three the age ofIrade and con tacts; volumes four to seven the Spanish period; PHILIPPINE QUARTERLYOFCULTURE &; SOCIETY. Cebu City: University ofSan Carlos. 1973 -. • volumes eight to ten the strngg1es to achieve na tionhood. There are 593 topics in this multidiscipJinary set written by 186 contributors PHILIPPINE STUDIES. who are recognized experts in their respective Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. 1953 -• fields. . Pll.IPINAS, A JOURNAL OF PHll.IPPINE STUDIES. Ann Arbor: Philippine Studies Group oftheAssociation for • Asian Smdies. 1980 -. 40 • SOLIDARITY; CURRENT AFFAIRS, IDEAS AND THE A SELECTED BffiLiOGRAPHY ON PHILIPPINE PRE· ARTS. Manila; Solidaridad Publishing House. 1966·. HISTORY, compiled by Daniel W. TanlOCO, Jr. Manila: National Museum, 1970. 59 p. fUSfORY THE Fll..IPINO NATION. THE TABON CAVES; ARCHAEOLOG!CAL EXPLO Danbury, Conn.; Grolier Internalional, 1982. 3 vol. RATIONS AND EXCAVATIONS ON PALAWAN IS Volume one is subtided 'A Concise HisUJry ofthe LAND,PHlLIPPINES,byRobenB.Fox. Manila: National Philippines' and is by Helen R. Tubangui el al; Museum. 1970. 197 p. volume two 'Philippine An and LiteI3lUIe' by Felipe M. de Leon, Jr.; and volume three 'The SPANISH COWNIAL PERIOD Phi1ippines: Lands and Peoples. a Cultwal Geog· raphy' by Eric S. Casiilo. THE DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF THE PHILIP· PINES,1521-158I,byMartinJ.Noone. Manila: Historical HISTORY OF THE Fll..IPINO PEOPLE, by Teodoro A. Conservatioo Society. 1986. 476 p. Agoncillo and Milagros C. Guerrero. Quezon City; R.P. Gan:iaPub. Co., 1977. nop. Fll..IPINO CLASS STRUCTURE IN THE 16TH CEN TIJRY, by William Henry ScotL QuezonCity: T1tird World A HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINES: FROM THE SPAN· Studies, College of AIls &: Science, University of the Phil ISHCOLONIZATIONTO THE SECONDWORLD WAR, ippines System, 1978. 25 leaves. by Renato Constantino. New YorJe Monthly Review Press, 1975. 459 p. THE HISPANIZATION OF THE PHILIPPINES; SPAN ISH AIMS AND FILIPINO RESPONSES, 1565·1700, by THE PEOPLE AND ART OF THE PHILIPPINES, by John Leddy Phelan. Madison: University of Wisconsin Gabriel Casal et aI. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultwal Press, 1959. 218 p. HisUJry,UniversityofCalifomia.LosAngeles,I981. 270p. "Catalogue ofan exhibitioo presented at Honolulu THE MANILA GALLEON, by William Lytie Schurz. Academy ofAIls, Spring/Summer 1981,andother New Yor!<: E.P. Dutton, 1959 (c. 1939). 453 p. museums." Covered are the prehistoric period, Spanish colonial period, and the traditional aIlS of THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, 1493·1803; EXPLORA· the northern and southern Philippines. TIONSBYEARLYNAVIGATORS.DESCRIPTIONSOF THE ISLANDS AND THEIR PEOPLES, THEIR HlS THE PHILIPPINES, HISTORICAL OVERVIEW, by Julie TORY AND RECORDS OFTHECATHOLIC MISSIONS, Shaclcford, editedbyBelinda A. Aquino. Honolulu: Centers ASRELATED IN CONTEMPORANEOUS BOOKS AND for Southeast Asian and Philippine Studies, University of MANUSCRIPTS, SHOWING THE POLmCAL. ECO Hawaii, 1990. 243 leaves. This is intended for high school NOMIC. COMMERCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDI· studenrs. TIONS OF THOSE ISLANDS FROM THEIR EARLIEST RELATIONS WITH EUROPEAN NATIONS TO THE THE ROOTS OFTHEFILIPINO NATION, byOD.Corpuz. BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY; trans Quezon City: Ak1aIli Foondation, 1989. 2 vol. lated from the originals, edited and annotated by Emma Helen Blair and Jatnes Alexander Robertson. Cleveland: PRE.HISPANIC PERIOD A.H. Clark Co., 1903-09. 55 vol. AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL PICTURE OF A PRE·SPAN PHILIPPINE SOCIAL HISTORY: GLOBAL TRADE ISHCEBUANOCOMMUNITY.byKarIL.Hutterer. Cebu AND LOCAL TRANSFORMATIONS, edited by Alfred City: University of San Carlos, 1973. 104 p. W. McCoy andEd. C. de Jesus. Honolulu: UniversityPress of Hawai'i, 1982. 479 p. PREHISPANIC SOURCE MATERIALS FOR THE Acollection ofthirteen local andregional histories STUDY OF PHILIPPINE HISTORY, by William Henry by cooternporary historians. Scott. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1984. 196 p. THE PHILIPPINES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, "PRE-HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINES," by Robert B. byEliodoroGonzalesRobles. QuezonCity: MalayaBooks. Fox. In ASPECI'S OF PHILIPPINE CULTURE. 1969. 322 p. Mattila, 1967-1968. 7 no. inl vol. One in a seven-lecture series given at the National THE PHILIPPINES UNDER SPAIN: A COMPILATION -, Museum in Mattila from OcL 3, 1967 - Feb. 20, AND TRANSLATION OF ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS, 1968. edited by Virginia Bertir.ez Licuanan and Jose UavadOr Mira. Manila: National Trust for Historical and Cultwal READINGS IN PHILIPPINE PREHISTORY, edited by Preservatioo of the Philippines, 1990 -. Mauro Gan:ia. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1975. 368 p. 41 • Amulti-volume setoforiginal Spanish documents THE PRIDE OF THE MALAY RACE, A BIOGRAPHY aanslated inlO English. Begins wilh the prepara OF JOSE RIZAL, by Rafael Palma. New YoriI:: Prallice tions for Magellan's voyage and "ending wilb the Ha1I. 1949. 385 p. eSlablishmenl ofthe Philippine Republic after the revolution against Spain.' EL FILIBUSTERISMO (THE SUBVERSIVE), by Jose Riza1. Translated by Leon Ma. Guerrero wiIh his inttoduc • SPAIN IN THE PlULIPPINES, FROM CONQUEST TO tion. REVOLUTION, by Nicholas P. Cushner. Quezon City: New York: NotIOn, 1968 (c. 1962). 299 p. Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila Univer FJrSI published in 1891; sequel 10 "Noli Me sity, 1971. 272 p. Tangere," published in 1887. THE CHURCH NOU ME TANGERE (THE LOST EDEN), by Jose Rizal. Translated by Leon Ma. Guerrero. New YoriI:: Norton, 1968 • mSTORY OF THE CHURCH IN THE PHIUPPINES, (c. 1961). ~ p. 1521-1898, by Pablo Fernandez. Manila: National BooIcsIore, 1979. 447 p. THE END OF THE SPANISH COLONIAL ERA STUDIES IN PHnlPPINE CHURCH msTORY, edited FILIPINO NATIONALISM. 1872-1970, by Teo OTHER FOREIGN INFLUENCES ON SOCIETY HOUSEHOLD ANTIQUES & HEIRLOOMS, by Felice AND CULTURE Sta. Maria. Manila: GCF Books, 1983. An exquisite coffee table book showing objects THE CHINESE IN PIllLIPPINE LIFE, 1850-1898, by from Ihe daily liIe ofIhe weallhy at the IUtIl of Ihe EdgarWickberg. New Haven: YaleUniversityPtess,I965. cenlllly in Ihe Philippines. • 280p. THE PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT, 1880-1895: THE INDIAN INFLUENCES IN THE PIllLIPPINES WITH CREATORS OF A FILIPINO CONSCIOUSNESS, THE SPECIALREFERENCE TO LANGUAGE ANDLITERA· MAKERS OF REVOLUTION, byJobo N. Schumacher. TURE, by Juan R. Francisco. Quezon City: University of Manila: Solidaridad Pub. House, 1973. 302 p. Ihe Philippines, 1964. 310 p. • REVOLUTIONARY CLERGY: THEFILIPINOCLERGY UTERATURE AND THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT, 1850-1903. by Jobo N. Schumacher. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila BROWN HERITAGE: ESSAYS ON PHILIPPINE CUL University. 198I. 298 p. TURAL TRADmON AND LITERATURE, ediIed by Anronio G. Manuud. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila TURN OF THE CENTURY, planned and produced by Universty Press, 1967. 885 p. Gilda CooIero-Fetnando and Nik Ricio. • Quezon City: GCF Books, 1978. 264 p. THE CULTURAL TRADmONAL MEDIA OF THE "AcoUeclion ofarticles on Philippine IlisIory and I PlULIPP!NES: ESSAYS.BffiUOORAPHY.GLOSSARY, life in the years 1880-1911.' Excellent iIIUS11a DIRECTORY; edited by Nicanor G. TIOIIgSOl1. Manila: lions. Association ofSoulheasl Asian Nalions. 1986. p. 196-364 Each essay includes a description ofthe oral uadi • lion (i.e. BaIagIasan, epic. pasyon, Iromedya, sina· kula, and sarsuweIa).1r3CeS its origin and develop men~ and discusses Ihe meaning and fimclion of the performance and !be mode ofpresentalion. PIllLIPPINE UTERATURE: A mSTORY & ANTHOL OGY,editedbyBienvenidoLumbel3andCynlbiaNograies • Lumbera. Manila: National BookslOre, 1982. 439 p. RlZALIANA THE FIRSTFILIPINO, ABIOGRAPHY OFJOSERlZAL, MgnJret Motif by Leon Maria Guerrero. Manila: National Heroes Com FoUDd In BoIltoc Reglou, • mission, 1963. 549 p. Nortilem LlIZOJl 42 • NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS WTI..LA J. TANABE.Ph. D. (Columbia University), is Interim Dean ofthe School ofHawaiian, Asian and Pacific Smdies (SHAPS), andProfessorofArt, University ofHawaii atManoa. She has also servedas DirectoroftheCernerforJapanese Smdies atSHAPS, andis theauthor ofPailtlingsoflhe LoIUSSulTa, KoreanArr, and numerous articles on EastAsian anandrelatedtopics. BELINDA A. AQUINO, PhD. (Cornell), is Professor ofPolitical Science and Asian SWdies and Director of theCenter for Philippine Smdies. University of Hawaii at Manoa. She's the author ofPolitics of Plunder - the Philippines Under Marcos, which hasbeen translated toJapanese, and numerous publications on contemporaryPhilippine society andpolitics. She was Vice President for Public Affairs atthe University ofthe Philippines (1989·91) where she was also Professor ofPolitical Science and Public Administration. WTI..HELM G. SOLHEIM n, Ph.D. (University of Arizona). is Professor Emerims ofAnthropology, University of Hawaii at Manoa. He is an internationally recognized specialist on Southeast Asian prehistory and has written extensively on this subjecL He is also an expert on the Philippine prehistoric period wilh numerous publications such as The Are/uleology of Central Philippines, Philippine Prehisrory, and Are/uleologieal Survey in Southeasrern Mindanao. ROBERT VAN NIEL, Ph. D. (Cornell), is Professor Emeritus ofSoutheast Asian history at the University of Hawaii He is the author of The Emergence ofrhe Modern Iltlionesian Elite,Java under rhe Cultivation System, A Survey ofHis/lJrical Source Marerials in Java andManila.and numerous scholarly articles. He was the FoundationDean oftheSchoolofHumanities of the Universiti Sains Malaysia in Penang where he was also professor of History. RUTH ELYNIA MABANGLO, Ph.D. (MLQ University, Manila), is considered the best Philippine female poet in Tagalog and has won several prizes for Tagalog poetry including the 1992 Poet ofthe Year Awanlin the Philippines. Herbook Mga Lihmn ni Pinay (Letters ofPinay) won the 1991 National Book Award. She was a fellow atthe Iowa International Writing Program in 1987. She was Associate Professor ofLiteralUre atDe LaSalle University in Manila. Cunently she'svisiting faculty at the University ofHawaii Department ofIndo-Pacific Languages. RICARDO D. TRIMILLOS,PhD. (UCLA), is an ethnomusicologist, cunently Chair ofAsian Studies at the School ofHawaiian, Asian and Pacific Studies, University ofHawaii atManoa. Previously in the Music Department, his major research areas include the music ofthe Philippines. court music ofJapan, and popular/commercial music of the Philippines and of the United Stales. An active perfonner ofthe /wIo (traditional zither ofJapan). he also performs and teaches Philippine lwiinrang and rondalla. He is Executive Board member of the International Council f MICHAEL L. FORMAN,Ph. D. (Cornell), is Associate Proiessor ofLinguistics at the University ofHawaii at Manoa. He was awarded the Regents' Medal for Excellence in Teaching, 1984, and the Robert W. Clopton award for Distinguished Community Service in 1986. He has authored publications onKapampangan and on general linguistics, as well as articles on 2amboangueilo. riddling or bugrungan, and thelifeoflanguagein theFilipinocommunity in Hawaii. He has served onthe Manoa Faculty Senale and on the Hawaii Committee for the Humanities. HELEN R. NAGTALON·MILLER, Ph. D. (Ohin State University), was born in Waipahu. Oahu. Her parents immigrated from llocos Norte in northern Philippine in the early 1920s and were married in Waipahu. She is retired from the University ofHawaii. She holds a B. Ed. (English and Music) and an M.A. (French Literature) from the University ofHawaii (Manoa); aDiplome from the University ofParis (Sorbonne). and a Ph.D. from Ohio State University. DEAN T. ALEGADO,Ph.D. (University ofHawaii at Manoa), has been with the Ethnic Studies and Philippine Studies faculties at University of Hawaii at Manoa for severnl years. His majer research areas include labor migration from the Philippines, the Filipino experience in the U.S., and ethnic and race relations. He has been active in various community issues like immigration, civil rights, ethnic identity, and problems of labor. He has a Ph.D. in Political Science. ALICE W. MAK. M.L.S.(University of Hawaii at Manoa), is a librarian with the Asia Collection, University of Hawaii at Manoa. She is currently the editor ofthe Philippine Studies Newslerter, which is prepared and published by the Center for Philippine Smdies for the Philippine Smdies Group of the Association for Asian Swdies. SHIRO SAITO, M.A. (University of MinneSOl8), is the Asia Specialist and Social Sciences Collection Develq>ment Coordinator attheUniversity ofHawaii atManoaLibrnry. He has published many Philippine reseazch tools considered standard works in the field. Among the grants he has received was a Fulbright to the Philippines. He was also the project director for the Southeast Asian Research Tools project funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities. 43 • \(''''\0\\ LLJ)(;\IE'\ IS Annette Lew, Executive Director, Hawaii Committee for the Humanities Laurie Lee Bell, Assistant Director, Hawaii Committee for the Humanties • Bob Buss, Program Development Specialist, Hawaii Committee for the Humanties State Commission on the Columbian Quincentennial Observance, Governor's Office ofInternational Relations Moheb Ghali, Director, Office ofResearch, University ofHawaii at Manoa Helen Nagtalon-Miller, Filipino Historical Society ofHawaii Ethnic Studies Program, University ofHawaii at Manoa • Oem Bautista, Operation Manong Danny Campos, Operation Manong Adrialina Guerero, Operation Manong Lyna Burian, Filipino Historical Society ofHawaii Waikin Wong, Center for PhiIippine Studies • Armand Busmente, Fil-Am Courier Filipino Coalition for Solidarity Marlene Manzano, Oahu Filipino Community Council Precy Aguirre, University ofHawaii at Hilo Coco Anguay, University ofHawaii at Hilo Millie Macugay • Lito Asuncion Johnny Verzon Virgilio Agcolicol Larry Ordonez MercyYu • RoseYu-Cua Venny Villapando Emie Libarios, Leeward Community College Priscilla MikkeI, Maui Community College June Iwamoto, Maui Community College ., Byron Moon, Music Department, University ofHawaii at Manoa Henri Pickens, University ofHawaii at Hilo Peggy FInk, Librarian, Lanai Library J ',l Shirlyn Ueno, Konawaena High School "j\1 Haunani Meyer, Molokai Intermediate and High School Frances Dinnan, Kauai Community College •'l " Rosalina Arzadon, Kauai Filipino Community Council I Participants from the University ofHawaii at Manoa: i(Ii Belinda A. Aquino ~J ; Dean T. AIegado Wilhelm Solheim II • Robert Van Niel Ricardo D. TrimiIIos Michael L. Forman Ruth Elynia Mabanglo AIiceW. Mak • Shiro Saito 44 • SCHEDULE OF EVENTS OAHU: October 24. 1992; 9 a.m. - 2 p.m. Honolulu Music Bldg., Room 36 University of Hawaii at Manoa BeliDda A. Aquino ''RethJnklng Magellan and RedJscovering the Philippines" . llofichaelL.Forman "Discoverers. Discovertes. Discovering Ourselves: Language In the Encounter Between Discoverer and Discovered" Ruth ElyD1a MablIDgJo "Stsa andBasilio: Characters as Symbols of National Identity" Helen Nagtalol1-llofiIIer 'The Filipino Plantation Community In Hawall: Experiences of a Second-Generation Filiplna" WIlhelm Solheim n "A BriefPhilippine Pre-HIstory" Ricardo D. TrImilloa "Philippine Music as Colonla! Experience and National Culture" Robert Van Nlel 'The Philippines Before 1521 AD." Dean T. Alegado 'The Age ofDiscovery: Impact on Philippine Culture and Society" (Slide Show) MAUl: November 7. 1992: 9 a.m. - 12 noon KAHULUI Student Lounge Maui Community College MOLOKAI: November 14. 1992; 9 a.m. - 12 noon Hoolehua Molokai Intermediate & High School (Venue subject to change) LANAI:. November 21. 1992: 9 a.m. - 12 noon Lanai City Lanai Ubrary BIG ISLAND: November 28. 1992; 9 a.m. - 12 noon Hilo UH - Hilo Campus Center BIG ISLAND: December 5. 1992: 9 a.m. - 12 noon Kona Konawaena High School KAUAI: February 6. 1993: 9 a.m. - 12 noon Lihue Kauai Community College For more Information. contact Dr. Dean T. Alegado. Project Director. Center for Philippine Studies. Moore 414. University Hawal1 at Manoa Honolulu. HawaH 96822. tel. 956-6915 / 956-6086; Fax. 956-2682 PROGRAMS ARE FREE AND OPEN TO THE PUBIJC 45 GRAPHIC CREDITS • Page 2: Joaquin, Nick. "Baptism ofHumabon," Almanacfor Manilefios. Manila, Philippines: Mr & Ms Publishing Company, 1979. Page 5: Pobre, Cesar P., et. al. Tuladan: The Philippine South. Manila, Philippines: The Executive Committee, 1978. Page 6: Pobre, Cesar P., et. al. TuIadan: The Philippine South. Manila, Philippines: The • Executive Committee, 1978. Page 9: Pobre, Cesar P., et al. Tuladan: The Philippine South. Manila, Philippines: The Executive Committee, 1978. Page 10: Pobre, Cesar P., et al. Tuladan: The Philippine South. Manila, Philippines: The Executive Committee, 1978. • Page 11: Scott, William Henry. Boar Building and Seamanship in Classic Philippine Society. Manila, Philippines: National Museum, 1981. Page 13: Joaquin, Nick. Almanacfor Manilefios. Manila, Philippines: Mr & Ms Publishing Company, 1979. Page 17: Pfeiffer, William R. Indigenous, Folk, Modern Filipino Music. Dumaguete City, Philippines: Silliman Music Foundation, Inc., 1976. • Page 19: Banas, Raymundo C. Pilipino Music and Thearer. Quezon City, Philippines: Manlapaz Publishing Co., 1969. Page 24: Pfeiffer, William R. Indigenous, Folk, Modern Filipino Music. Dumaguete City, Philippines: Silliman Music Foundation, Inc., 1976. Page 28: Joaquin, Nick. Almanacfor Manilefios. Manila, Philippines: Mr & Ms Publishing • Company, 1979. Page 39: Joaquin, Nick. Almanacfor Manilefios. Manila, Philippines: Mr & Ms Publishing Company, 1979. Page 42: Jose-De1a Cruz, Mercedita. Sourcebook ofPhilippine Traditional ArtMotifs and Crafts Processes. Manila, Philippines, 1982. • THE PROJECT TEAM • BelJnda A AqUino. Prtnclpal Humanities Scholar Director. Center for Philippine Studies School for HawaJlan. AsIan and Pacl1lc Studies • Unlverslty of Hawaii at Manoa Dean T. Alegado. PrOject Director Florence Lamoureux, Budget Coordinator Clemen C. Montero. Project Asslstant and Pub1lcatlons Production Coordinator Ginger Ladd. LogiStics and Scheduling Coordinator • 46 •