Notes

Introduction

1. One of the earliest and certainly the most influential of the contributions to this field is Said 1991. See also for example Cohn 1985; Fabian 1986; Harries 1988; Niranjana 1992; Rafael 1993; Mühlhäusler 1996. 2. These disciplines have been subject to reanalysis and self-scrutiny along these lines by their own practitioners. See for example Fabian 1983, 1991; Clifford 1988; Godlewska and Smith 1994; Bell et al. 1995. 3. In particular Le Cordeur 1981; Peires 1981b, 1989a,b; Giliomee 1989; Crais 1992; Ross 1993; Lambert 1995; Keegan 1996; Lester 1997, 2001. 4. See for example Sara Mills’ (1997) useful and accessible summary of the rela- tionship and distinctions between the different uses of the term. 5. See for example Patrick Harries’ (1993) account of the roots of Zulu cultural nationalism in nineteenth-century missionary linguistics. 6. Richard Elphick, among others, argues against the use of the term San since it is derived from a Khoi word, which is pejorative, and because it subsumes a wide array of cultural and linguistic difference (1989, p. 4). However, in common with many other contemporary scholars, I have elected to retain the term since it indicates an appropriate degree of linguistic and cultural relatedness, and because I find the connotations of its alternative, ‘Bushman’, just as problematic.

1 Language in the land of the ‘Hottentots’ and ‘Caffres’: European travellers to the eastern Cape, 1652–1806

1. For example Augustin de Beaulieu 1620–22, cited in Raven-Hart 1967, p. 101; Jón Ólafsson 1623, cited in Raven-Hart 1967, p. 112; Abraham Bogaert 1711, cited in Raven-Hart 1971: II, p. 483; Wouter Schouten 1676, cited in Raven- Hart 1971: I, p. 52. For nineteenth-century British discussion of the etymology of the term ‘Hottentot’, see papers in the Transactions of the Philological Society, 1866, pp. 6–25. 2. Peter Kolb’s The Present State of the Cape of Good-Hope, for example, published in German in 1719 and translated into English in 1731, offers a detailed ethnographic account of ‘Hottentot’ life and culture, alongside a brief and second-hand comparative description of the ‘Caffres’ of Port-Natal based on the testimony of a ship’s captain, Gerbrantz van der Schelling, who landed at Natal on the homeward leg of his trading missions (Kolb 1731: I, pp. 31–2, 81).

197 198 Notes

3. On contemporary European analogies between race and gender, see for example Stepan 1990, p. 43. 4. Recent scholars, notably Sara Mills, have condemned many aspects of Batten’s work as rather reductive and outdated. However, the fundamental features of his classifications of travel writing are, in this instance, still useful for my purposes. 5. See for example Lichtenstein 1812–15: I, pp. 413, 415, 419, 430–1. 6. For references to one or more unnamed interpreters – one, a ‘Gonaaqua from Bethelsdorp’ – see Lichtenstein 1812–15: I, for example pp. 383–4, 396.

2 Of translation and transformation: The beginning of missionary linguistics in South Africa

1. Transactions of the Missionary Society, 2nd edn, 1 (1804), p. 323. This volume is hereafter cited as Transactions. 2. As many historians have remarked, Ngqika was mistaken by the new Cape Government as the paramount chief of all the Xhosa, and treated accordingly. 3. On the inadequacy of Van der Kemp’s understanding of Xhosa for the purposes of effective evangelism, see Hodgson 1984, p. 33. 4. For further discussion of the Latin grammatical model see for example Hovd- haugen 1996b, p. 18; Steadman-Jones 2000, p. 197. 5. Rules of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Cited in Canton 1904: I, p. 17. Emphasis in original. 6. See for example Moffat 1842, pp. 291–2; Merriman 1854, p. 62; Moodie 1835, cited in Mesthrie 1998, p. 18. William Samarin’s discussion of the role of interpreters in central Africa is useful in this context. He writes,

An African intermediary could be anyone, but anyone 1) who shared a language with the white, 2) who enjoyed a certain amount of trust, and 3) who could be presented to others as representing the white. (Samarin 1989, p. 233)

7. Jean and John Comaroff make an analogous point in relation to inter- preters between Nonconformist missionaries and the Tswana (Comaroff and Comaroff 1991, p. 216). 8. D. Williams, ‘The Missionaries of the Eastern Frontier of the Cape Colony, 1799–1853’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1960, cited in Mesthrie 1998, p. 9. Bennie produced the earliest Scriptural translations into Xhosa, and his manuscript grammar of Xhosa was a (unacknowledged) source for Boyce’s grammar, published in 1834. See for example Godfrey 1934, pp. 123–34. 9. Recent collections in the field of history of linguistics have attempted to redress this balance. See for example Hovdhaugen 1996a; Zwartjes and Hovd- haugen 2004; Zwartjes and Altman 2005. 10. For the impact of missionaries’ educational background on their grammat- ical work, see also Nowak 1996b, pp. 157–8. Notes 199

3 Studying language in the ‘moral wilderness’: Methodist linguistics in the eastern Cape

1. Quote from Colonel Richard Collins, appointed as commissioner to assess the situation in the eastern Cape in 1809, and who was the first to propose settling the region around the Fish River in order to secure the colonial border. Moodie 1838–42: V, pp. 17–19. See also Peires 1989b, pp. 474–5. 2. For instances of the close questioning of missionaries by Xhosa on matters of Christian theology, see for example Shrewsbury 1867, p. 233; Moffat 1842, pp. 307, 311. 3. Reverend William Shaw, 15 October 1838. Regulations approved by District Meeting, May 1837. Methodist Missionary Archive, Box 3, Sheet 109. 4. Norman Etherington (1978, p. 29), for example, notes that none of the Meth- odist missionaries working in Natal before 1880 were university-educated, and fewer than half had pursued formal studies in theology. 5. Boyce to Secretaries of Wesleyan Missionary Committee, Dangwana River, 29 November 1830, WMMS incoming correspondence, Box 3: Albany. 6. Boyce to Secretaries of Wesleyan Missionary Committee, Bunting Station, 31 March 1832, WMMS incoming correspondence, Box 3: Albany. 7. Boyce to Secretaries of Wesleyan Missionary Committee, Missionary Notices, 213 (1833), p. 336. 8. Boyce’s dedication is disingenuous in obscuring earlier printed, but unpub- lished, works on Xhosa by Reverend John Bennie of the Glasgow Missionary Society. As Wilhelm Bleek pointed out some decades later, Bennie’s studies of Xhosa from the 1820s were influential on Boyce, as well as on other Methodist grammarians. Bleek 1858, p. 45. See also Godfrey 1934, pp. 123–34. 9. Peter Burke’s examination of the etymology of the term ‘jargon’ finds a number of meanings developing from its first use in the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries to connote ‘unintelligible speech, a sort of gargling in the throat’; but all carry a pejorative meaning, of unintelligible, impenetrable ‘not-language’ (Burke and Porter 1995, pp. 2–4, 10–13). 10. Very early in the grammar, for example, he uses comparison with the Latin ‘hic’ as a means to discuss the operation of definiteness in Xhosa (Boyce 1844, p. 6). 11. Such arguments can also be found articulated by missionaries who studied and published linguistic works on Khoi-San languages (see for example Tindall 1856, p. 11; Tindall 1857, pp. 3–4). Anthony Traill’s sociolinguistic account of the linguistic death of Khoi-San languages suggests a causal rela- tionship between linguistic stigmatisation and language death, arguing that negative European attitudes regarding Khoi-San speech prevailing from an early date were significant factors in the languages’ erosion:

To add to the social, economic and physical onslaught on the Khoekhoe, their language itself faced two intimidating problems. The first was extreme linguistic prejudice: from the first contacts between Europeans and Khoekhoe there had been a persistent attitude on the part of the Europeans that the language was utterly bizarre, unpleasant, inarticulate and not human. [] These prejudices fed the second problem, namely 200 Notes

the view that the language was unlearnable, and from as early as 1663 this led to official government policy that the Khoekhoe should learn the colonial language. (Traill 1995, pp. 5–6)

Traill’s arguments indicate the entrenched nature of the attitudes mani- fest in nineteenth-century language debates on Khoi-San. In indicating the material impact of linguistic stigmatization, they also serve to suggest the significance of missionary linguists’ absorption of extant colonial preju- dices as a contributory factor in the ongoing process of Khoi-San linguistic decline. 12. Boyce to Secretaries of Wesleyan Missionary Committee, Bunting Station, 21 April 1831, WMMS incoming correspondence, Box 3: Albany. 13. Note that Appleyard favours the term ‘Indo-Germanic’, which prevailed among German far more than British philologists in this period. See Morpurgo Davies 1992, p. 147. 14. For discussion of contemporary theories which cast Khoi-San people as the descendants of Ham, see Chidester 1996a, pp. 38, 41. 15. Peter Mühlhäusler, for example, notes the prevalence of analogous attitudes among missionaries in the Pacific in the nineteenth century (1996, p. 141). 16. See for example Appleyard 1850, p. 6, where he cites Prichard. 17. Ntsikana’s hymn, which is still sung in churches in South Africa, was often cited in missionary literature from the 1820s onward. It first appeared in Thompson 1827: I, pp. 455–7. See also for example Peires 1981b, pp. 72–4; Hodgson 1980. 18. The best history of the Cattle-Killing movement, told from the perspective of the Xhosa, is Peires 1989b.

4 Language, culture, and ‘the native mind’: Missionary language study in Natal

1. Fynn 1969, p. 60; Aldin Grout to Anderson, Bethelsdorp, 12 February 1836, printed in Missionary Herald, 1836, pp. 339–42. 2. Wilson and Thompson also point to the significance of language in consol- idating Zulu power (1969–71: I, p. 345). For contemporary evidence see for example the testimony of Madikane ka Mlomowetole, in Webb and Wright 1976: II, pp. 54–5. 3. For a discussion of these controversies as they were manifest in North America in this period, see Thuesen 1999, pp. 46–7. 4. For a useful discussion of the concept of ‘genius’ in language, see Schlaps 2004. 5. Lindley’s family angrily denied that these conversations had ever taken place, but this appears to me to be implausible. Given that Shepstone was also supposedly present, and more importantly that Colenso, having just been made Bishop, was particularly unlikely to want to court a reputation as a slanderer and a liar, it seems likely that, at most, he exaggerated the Amer- icans’ attitudes. E. D. Smith, The Life and Times of Daniel Lindley (1801–80) (London: Epworth Press, 1949), pp. 290–1, cited in Dinnerstein 1983, p. 88. Notes 201

6. Diana Jeater (2001, pp. 460–1) gives an excellent account of the anxieties engendered by such bilingualism among poor whites in early-twentieth- century Rhodesia. These speakers were considered by the colonial admin- istration to be inappropriate as interpreters, partly because they ‘possibly understood Africans a little too well’. Ann Laura Stoler (2002, pp. 121–30) also discusses anxieties around bilingualism among European children in the Dutch Indies, and the supposedly concomitant threat to European cultures and identities. 7. For further discussion of the missionary controversy over the Zulu name for God, and Colenso’s place within it, see also Worger 2001, pp. 428–45. 8. For further discussion of Colenso’s relationship to colonial rule see Guy 1983, p. 81. 9. Döhne’s approach to language development, and his treatment of Zulu as an agglutinating language, draws on the work of Wilhelm von Humboldt. See for example Humboldt 1836, pp. 264–71. 10. Hamilton and Wright (1990) discuss power relations in the Zulu state and the ideological implications of the Zulu/Amalala distinction. 11. Thanks are due to Javed Majeed for pointing out this fascinating contradic- tion in Döhne’s argument.

5 From languages to language: The comparative philologist in South Africa

1. See Chidester 1996a, pp. 142–4, for a discussion of this question as it relates to Bleek’s work on Zulu religion. 2. See also Chidester 1996a, pp. 149–50. Bleek (1862, p. ix) points to the signi- ficance of Müller’s work on comparative mythology for his own ideas. 3. For further discussion of Bleek’s involvement in Huxley’s photographic project, see Godby 1996, pp. 115–27. Godby clearly indicates the prob- lematic nature of Bleek’s involvement in this dehumanising project of anthropometric photography, but still concludes by returning to Bleek’s ‘extraordinary humanity’ (p. 126). His views in this regard are criticized by Andrew Bank (2000, pp. 174–7). 4. The first to treat Bleek in this way was J. David Lewis-Williams (1981); several contributors to the 1996 collection Miscast, edited by Pippa Skotnes, took a similar approach. Andrew Bank (2000) has problematized these views of Bleek. Bibliography

Archives

Methodist Archive, John Rylands Library, Deansgate, Manchester Missionary Archive, SOAS, London Yale Divinity College

Serials and periodicals

The Anthropological Review The Cape Monthly Magazine Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Journal of the Ethnological Society of London Memoirs Read Before the Anthropological Society of London The Missionary Herald Missionary Notices Proceedings and Transactions of the Philological Society Reports of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society The South African Christian Watchman Transactions of the Missionary Society

Official reports and publications

A Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs, including genealogical tables of Kafir Chiefs and various tribal census returns, compiled by direction of Colonel Maclean (Printed for the Government of British Kaffraria Mount Coke: Wesleyan Mission Press, 1858) Report and Proceedings, with Appendices, of the Government Commission on Native Laws and Customs. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by His Excellency the Governor. January, 1883 (Cape Town: Richards, 1883) Report of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Aboriginal Tribes (British Settlements), reprinted with comments by Aborigines Protection Society (London: Aborigines Protection Society, 1837)

Books, articles and pamphlets

Aarsleff, Hans (1967) The Study of Language in England, 1780–1860. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Adendorf, R. (1995) ‘Fanagalo in South Africa’. In Rajend Mesthrie, ed., Language and Social History: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics. Cape Town and Johan- nesburg: Philip, pp. 176–92.

202 Bibliography 203

Albertini, Rudolf von and Albert Wirz (1982) European Colonial Rule 1880– 1940: The Impact of the West on India, Southeast Asia, and Africa, trans. John G. Williamson. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. Alexandre, Pierre (1967) An Introduction to Languages and Language in Africa, trans. F. A. Leary. London: Heinemann. Alter, Stephen G. (1999) Darwinism and the Linguistic Image: Language, Race, and Natural Theology in the Nineteenth Century. Baltimore: John Hopkins Univer- sity Press. Álvarez, Román and M. Carmen-África Vidal, eds (1996) Translation, Power, Subver- sion. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Anderson, Benedict (1991) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso. Angas, George French (1849) The Kafirs Illustrated in a Series of Drawings taken among the Amazulu, Amaponda, and Amakosa Tribes; also, Portraits of the Hottentot, Malay, Fingo, and other Races inhabiting Southern Africa: Together with Sketches of Landscape Scenery in the Zulu Country, Natal, and the Cape Colony. London: Hogarth. Anonymous (1859) ‘Language as a Means of Classifying Man’, British and Foreign Evangelical Review, 8, 826–50. —— (1860) The Bible of Every Land: A History of the Sacred Scriptures in Every Language, 2nd edn. London: Bagster. —— (1862) ‘Max Müller on Language’, in The London Review, 17 (January). Repr. in Roy Harris, ed., Language and Linguistics Vol. III: Language and Linguistic Theory 1800–1865. London: Routledge/Thoemmes, pp. 224–46. —— (1864) ‘Müller’s Lectures on Language’, in London Quarterly Review,23 (October). Repr. in Roy Harris, ed., Language and Linguistics Vol. III: Language and Linguistic Theory 1800–1865. London: Routledge/Thoemmes, pp. 393–413. Appleyard, Reverend John Whittle (1850) The Kafir Language: Comprising a Sketch of its History; which includes a general classification of South African dialects, ethno- graphical and geographical remarks upon its nature; and a grammar. King William’s Town: Wesleyan Mission Printing Establishment. —— (1849) An Apology for the Kafir Bible: Being a Reply to the Pamphlet Entitled, ‘Reverend J W Appleyard’s Version Judged by Missionaries of Various Denominations and Others’. Mount Coke: Wesleyan Mission Press. —— (1971) The War of the Axe and the Xosa Bible: The Journal of the Reverend J. W. Appleyard, ed. John Frye. Cape Town: Struick. Arac, Jonathan and Harriet Ritvo, eds (1995) Macropolitics of Nineteenth-Century Literature: Nationalism, Exoticism, Imperialism. Durham and London: Duke University Press. Arbousset, T. and F. Daumas (1846) Narrative of an Exploratory Tour to the North- East of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. Repr. Cape Town: Struik, 1968. Arbuthnot, James (1862) Emigrant’s Guide Book to Port Natal. London: Hamilton. Archbell, James (1837) A Grammar of the Bechuana Language. Graham’s Town: Meurant and Godlonton. Asad, Talal (1973) Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter. London: Ithaca. Ayliff, John (1846) A Vocabulary of the Kafir Language. London: Wesleyan Mission House. —— (1971) The Journal of John Ayliff. I: 1821–1830, ed. Peter Hinchliff. Cape Town: Balkema. 204 Bibliography

Bakhtin, Mikhail M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination, trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist, ed. Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas Press. Bank, Andrew (1995) ‘Liberals and Their Enemies: Racial Ideology at the Cape of Good Hope, 1820–50’. PhD thesis, Cambridge University. —— (2000) ‘Evolution and Racial Theory: The Hidden Side of Wilhelm Bleek’, South African Historical Journal, 43, 163–78. Barker, Francis, Peter Hulme, and Margaret Iversen, eds (1994) Colonial Discourse/Postcolonial Theory. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Barrell, John (1991) The Infection of Thomas De Quincey: A Psychopathology of Imperialism. New Haven: Yale University Press. Barrow, John (1801) An Account of Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa, in the years 1797 and 1798: including cursory observations on the geology and geography of the southern part of that continent; the natural history of such objects as occurred in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms; and sketches of the physical and moral characters of the various tribes of inhabitants surrounding the settlement of the Cape of Good Hope. To which is annexed, a description of the present state, population, and produce of that extensive colony; with a map constructed entirely from actual observations made in the course of the travels. London: Cadell and Davies. —— (1804a) An Account of Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa. In which is considered, the importance of the Cape of Good Hope to the different European powers, as a naval and military station; as a point of security to our Indian trade and settlements during a war, and as a territorial acquisition and commercial emporium in time of peace: with a statistical sketch of the whole colony, compiled from authentic documents. London: Cadell and Davis. —— (1804b) Travels in China, containing descriptions, observations, and comparisons, made and collected in the course of a short residence at the Imperial Palace of Yuen Min Yuen, and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton. In which it is attempted to appreciate the rank that this extraordinary empire may be considered to hold in the scale of civilized nations. London: Cadell and Davis. —— (1806) A Voyage to Cochinchina, in the years 1792 and 1793: containing a general view of the valuable productions and the political importance of this flour- ishing kingdom; and also of such European settlements as were visited on the voyage. London: Cadell and Davis. —— (1847) An Autobiographical Memoir of Sir John Barrow, Bart., late of the Admir- alty, including reflections, observations, and reminiscences at home and abroad, from early life to advanced age. London: John Murray. —— (1849) Sketches of the Royal Society and Royal Society Club. London: John Murray. Barter, Catherine [ca. 1866] Alone among the Zulus. By a Plain Woman. The Narrative of a Journey through the Zulu Country. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Bassnett-McGuire, Susan (1991) Translation Studies, revised edn. London: Routledge. Bassnett, Susan and André Lefevere (1998) Constructing Cultures: Essays on Literary Translation. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Bassnett, Susan and Harish Trivedi, eds (1999) Post-Colonial Translation: Theory and Practice. London: Routledge. Batten, Charles L. Jr (1978) Pleasurable Instruction: Form and Convention in Eighteenth-century Travel Literature. Berkeley: University of California Press. Bibliography 205

Bebbington, David (1992) Victorian Nonconformity. Bangor: Headstart. Beer, Gillian (1983) Darwin’s Plots: Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Fiction. London: Routledge. —— (1989) ‘Darwin and the Growth of Language Theory’. In John Christie and Sally Shuttleworth, eds, Nature Transfigured: Science and Literature 1700–1900. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 152–70. Bell, Alexander Melville (1849) Principles of Speech and Dictionary of Sounds; including directions and exercises for the cure of stammering, and correction of all faults of articulation. Repr. Washington DC: Volta Bureau, 1916. —— (1867) The Science of Universal Alphabetics; or Self-Interpreting Physiological Letters, for the Writing of All Languages in One Alphabet. London: Trübner. —— (1897) The Science of Speech. Washington DC: Volta Bureau. Bell, M., R. Butlin and M. Heffernan, eds (1995) Geography and Imperialism 1820– 1940. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Benham, Marian S. (1896) Henry Callaway, First Bishop for Kaffraria: His Life-History and Work. London: Macmillan. Bhabha, Homi (1994) The Location of Culture. London: Routledge. Bleek, Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel (1855) ‘On the Languages of Western and Southern Africa’, Transactions of the Philological Society, 40–50. —— (1855–56) Zulu Legends, ed. J. A. Engelbrecht. MS; published Pretoria: Van Schaik, 1952. —— (1856) The Languages of Mosambique: Vocabularies of the dialects of Lourenzo Marques, Inhambane, Sofala, Tette, Sena, Quellimane, Mosambique, Cape Delgado, Anjoane, the Maravi, Mudsua, &c. Drawn up from the manuscripts of Dr. Wm. Peters, and from other materials. London: Harrison. —— (1857) ‘Researches into the Relations between the Hottentot and Kaffir Races: Part I’, Cape Monthly Magazine, I, 289–96. —— (1858) The Library of his Excellency Sir George Grey, KCB. Philology. Vol. I – Part I. South Africa (within the limits of British influence). London: Trübner; Leipzig: Brockhaus. —— (1862) A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages. Part I: Phonology. London: Trübner. —— (1864) Reynard the Fox in South Africa; or, Hottentot Fables and Tales. London: Trübner. —— (1869a) ‘The Bushman Language’. In Roderick Noble, ed., The Cape and its People and Other Essays. Cape Town: Juta. —— (1869b) On the Origin of Language as a First Chapter in a History of the Development of Humanity. Repr. in Konrad Koerner, ed., Linguistics and Evol- utionary Theory: Three Essays by August Schleicher, Ernst Haeckel, and Wilhelm Bleek. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1983. —— (1869c) A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages. Part II: The Concord. Part I: The Noun. Cape Town: Juta; London: Trübner. —— (1870) ‘African Folk Lore’, Cape Monthly Magazine, n.s. I, 168–82. —— (1871) ‘Dr Bleek’s Report, etc., Regarding Photographs sent to England by Government December 23, 1871’. In Lucy Lloyd, ed., Specimens of Bushman Folk- lore collected by the late W. H. I. Bleek PhD and L. C. Lloyd. London: Allen, 1911. —— (1871–72a) ‘The Concord, the Origin of Pronouns, and the Formation of Classes or Genders of Nouns’, Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, I, lxiv–lxxxix. 206 Bibliography

—— (1871–72b) ‘On the Position of the Australian Languages’, Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, I, 89–102. —— (1873a) ‘Cape of Good Hope: Report of Dr Bleek concerning his Researches into the Bushman Language, presented to the Honourable the House of Assembly by command of his Excellency the Governor’. Govt. pamphlet. —— (1873b) ‘Scientific Reasons for the Study of the Bushman Language’, Cape Monthly Magazine, 7, 149–53. Repr. in Janette Deacon and Thomas A. Dawson, eds, Voices from the Past: /Xam Bushmen and the Bleek and Lloyd Collection. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1996, pp. 44–8. —— (1873–74) ‘Grimm’s Law in South Africa: Or, Phonetic Changes in the South African Bantu Languages.I–IntheSouth-Eastern Branch’, Transactions of the Philological Society, 186–200. —— (1875) A Brief Account of Bushman Folk-Lore and other Texts: Second Report concerning Bushman Researches, presented to both Houses of the Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope, by command of His Excellency the Governor. Cape Town: Juta; London: Trübner; Leipsic: Brockhaus. —— (1911) Specimens of Bushman Folklore collected by the late W. H. I. Bleek PhD and L. C. Lloyd, ed. Lucy C. Lloyd. London: Allen. —— (1965) The Natal Diaries of Dr. W. H. I. Bleek, trans. O. H. Spohr. Cape Town: Balkema. Boehmer, Elleke (2005) Colonial and Postcolonial Literature: Migrant Metaphors, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bolt, Christine (1971) Victorian Attitudes to Race. London: Routledge. Bopp, Franz (1820) Analytical Comparison of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Teutonic Languages, shewing the original identity of grammatical structure. Repr. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1974. Boucher, Maurice and Nigel Penn, eds (1992) Britain at the Cape 1795 to 1803. Houghton, SA: Brenthurst Press. Bourdieu, Pierre (1991) Language and Symbolic Power, trans. Gino Raymond and Matthew Adamson. London: Polity Press. Boyce, Reverend William Binnington (1834) A Grammar of the Kaffir Language. Graham’s Town: Wesleyan Mission Press. —— (1839) Notes on South-African Affairs. London: Mason. —— (1844) A Grammar of the Kaffir Language. Second edition, augmented and improved, with vocabulary and exercises by William J Davis. London: Wesleyan Missionary Society. —— (1863) A Grammar of the Kaffir Language. Third edition, augmented and improved, with exercises by William J Davis. London: Wesleyan Missionary Society. Brantlinger, Patrick (1988) Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Brash, W. Bardsley (1935) The Story of our Colleges 1835–1935: A Centenary Record of Ministerial Training in the Methodist Church. London: Epworth. Bredekamp, Henry and Robert Ross, eds (1995) Missionaries and Christianity in South African History. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. Briggs, John and Ian Sellers, eds (1973) Victorian Nonconformity. London: Arnold. Bronte, Charlotte (1847) Jane Eyre. Repr. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975. Brown, Robert (1892–95) The Story of Africa and its Explorers, 4 vols. London: Cassell. Bibliography 207

Bryant, James C. (1849) ‘The Zulu Language’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1, 383–96. Burchell, William J. (1822–24) Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa, 2 vols. London: Longman. Burke, Peter and Roy Porter, eds (1995) Languages and Jargons: Contributions to a Social History of Language. London: Polity Press. Bynon, Theodora and F. R. Palmer, eds (1986) Studies in the History of Western Linguistics: In Honour of R. H. Robins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Byrne, J. C. (1848) Emigrant’s Guide to Port Natal. London: Effingham Wilson. Calderwood, Reverend H. (1858) Caffres and Caffre Missions. London: Nisbet. Callaway, Reverend Henry (1844) The Way to Christ. London: Gilpin. —— (1868) Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the Zulus in their own Words, with a translation into English, and notes. Pietermaritzburg: Blair; London: Trübner. —— (1870) The Religious System of the Amazulu. Izinyanga Zokubula; or, Divination, as existing among the Amazulu, in their own words, with a translation into English, and notes. Pietermaritzburg: Blair. —— (1874) A Fragment on Comparative Religion. Private Circulation. Calteaux, Karen (1996) Standard and Non-standard African Language Varieties in the Urban Areas of South Africa. Pretoria: HSRC. Calvet, Louis-Jean (1974) Linguistique et Colonialisme. Paris: Payot. Campbell, John (1815) Travels in South Africa: Undertaken at the Request of the Missionary Society. London: Black and Parry. —— (1830) Hottentot Children; with a particular account of Paul Dikkop, the son of a Hottentot Chief, who died in England, Sept. 14, 1824. London: Religious Tract Society. —— (1830) Life of Kaboo, a Wild Bushman. Written in the form of a Narrative, by Himself; describing the circumstances and habits of his wretched countrymen; and the happy change which Christian instruction is calculated to produce amongst a barbarous people. London: Nisbet. Canonici, Noverino N. (1990) The Grammatical Structure of Zulu, 2nd edn. Durban: University of Natal. —— (1994) The Nguni Languages. Durban: University of Natal. —— (1996) Zulu Oral Traditions. Durban: University of Natal. Canton, W. (1904) A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 2 vols. London: John Murray. Carter, Paul (1987) The Road to Botany Bay. London: Faber. Chadwick, Owen (1971) The Victorian Church. Part I: 1829–1859, 3rd edn. London: Black. —— (1972) The Victorian Church. Part II: 1860–1901, 2nd edn. London: Black. Chidester, David (1996a) Savage Systems: Colonialism and Comparative Religion in Southern Africa. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. —— (1996b) ‘Mutilating Meaning: European Interpretations of Khoisan Languages of the Body’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, pp. 24–38. —— (1996c) ‘Bushman Religion: Open, Closed, and New Frontiers’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: Univer- sity of Cape Town Press, pp. 51–9. 208 Bibliography

Chimhundu, Herbert (1992) ‘Early Missionaries and the Ethnolinguistic Factor during the “Invention of Tribalism” in Zimbabwe’, Journal of African History, 33, 87–109. Christie, John and Sally Shuttleworth, eds (1989) Nature Transfigured: Science and Literature 1700–1900. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Christofersen, Arther Fridjof (1967) Adventuring with God: The Story of the American Board Mission in South Africa. Durban: Robinson. Christopher, Joseph S. (1850) Natal, Cape of Good Hope. London: Effingham Wilson. Clifford, James (1988) The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature and Art. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Cobbett, William (1836) A Grammar of the English Language, in a Series of Letters. Intended for the use of schools and of young persons in general; but more especially for the use of soldiers, sailors, apprentices, and plough-boys. To which are added six lessons, intended to prevent statesmen from using false grammar, and from writing in an awkward manner. London: Cobbett. Coetzee, Carli (1992) ‘Two Versions of a Journey into the Interior’, Pretexts, 5, 66–83. —— (2000) ‘The Double-sided Signature: The South African Career of Johannes Van der Kemp (1747–1811)’, Pretexts, 9, 207–14. Coetzee, J. M. (1988) White Writing: On the Culture of Letters in South Africa. New Haven: Yale University Press. Cohn, Bernard S. (1985) ‘The Command of Language and the Language of Command’. In Ranajit Guha, ed., Subaltern Studies No. 4. Delhi: Oxford Univer- sity Press, pp. 276–329. —— (1996) Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge. Princeton: Princeton Univer- sity Press. Cole, Alfred W. (1852) The Cape and the Kafirs: or, Notes of Five Years’ Residence in South Africa. London: Bentley. Colenso, Bishop John William (1854a) ‘Church Missions among the Heathen in the Diocese of Natal’. Repr. in Ruth Edgecombe, ed., Bringing Forth Light: Five Tracts on Bishop Colenso’s Zulu Mission. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1982, pp. 1–28. —— (1854b) ‘The Good Tidings of Great Joy, which shall be to all People’. Repr. in Ruth Edgecombe, ed., Bringing Forth Light: Five Tracts on Bishop Colenso’s Zulu Mission. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1982, pp. 29–41. —— (1854c) Village Sermons, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Macmillan. —— (1855a) Ten Weeks in Natal: A Journal of a First Tour of Visitation among the Colonists and Zulu Kafirs of Natal. Cambridge: Macmillan. —— (1855b) An Elementary Grammar of the Zulu-Kafir Language: Prepared for the use of Missionaries, and other Students. London: Clay. —— (1859) First Steps in Zulu-Kafir: An Abridgement of the Elementary Grammar of the Zulu-Kafir Language. Ekukanyeni: Church of England Missions. —— (1860a) ‘First Steps of the Zulu Mission’. Repr. in Ruth Edgecombe, ed., Bringing Forth Light: Five Tracts on Bishop Colenso’s Zulu Mission. Pietermar- itzburg: University of Natal Press, 1982, pp. 42–161. —— (1860b) Three Native Accounts of the Visit of the Bishop of Natal in September and October, 1859, to Umpande, King of the Zulus; with explanatory notes and a literal translation, and a glossary of all the Zulu words employed in the same: designed for the use of students of the Zulu language. Maritzburg: May and Davis. Bibliography 209

—— (1861) Zulu-English Dictionary. Pietermaritzburg: Davis. —— (1862–79) The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined, 7 vols. London: Longman. —— (1865) ‘On Missions to the Zulus in Natal and Zululand’. Repr. in Ruth Edgecombe, ed., Bringing Forth Light: Five Tracts on Bishop Colenso’s Zulu Mission. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1982, pp. 204–38. —— (1866) Natal Sermons: A Series of Discourses Preached in the Cathedral Church of St. Peter’s, Maritzburg. London: Trübner. —— (1868) Natal Sermons: Second Series of Discourses Preached in the Cathedral Church of St. Peter’s, Maritzburg. London: Trübner. —— (1871) First Steps in Zulu: Being an Elementary Grammar of the Zulu-Kafir Language, 2nd edn. Maritzburg and Durban: Davis. Comaroff, Jean and John Comaroff (1986) ‘Christianity and Colonialism in South Africa’, American Ethnologist, 13 (February), 1–22. —— (1991) Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism, and Conscious- ness in South Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. —— (1997) Of Revelation and Revolution. Vol II: The Dialectics of Modernity on a South African Frontier. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cook, Susan Elizabeth (1999) Street Setswana: Language, Identity, and Ideology in Post-apartheid South Africa. PhD thesis, Yale University. Cosgrove, Denis, and Stephen Daniels, eds (1988) The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design and Use of Past Environments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Craig, Colette, ed. (1986) Noun Classes and Categorization. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Crais, Clifton C. (1991) ‘The Vacant Land: The Mythology of British Expansion in the Eastern Cape, South Africa’, Journal of Social History, 25, 255–75. —— (1992) White Supremacy and Black Resistance in Pre-Industrial South Africa: The Making of the Colonial Order in the Eastern Cape, 1770–1865. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cram, David, Andrew Linn, Elke Nowak, eds (1996) History of Linguistics 1996. Volume I: Traditions in Linguistics Worldwide. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Crowley, Terry (2001) ‘The Indigenous Linguistic Response to Missionary Authority in the Pacific’, Australian Journal of Linguistics, 21, 239–60. Crowley, Tony (1989) The Politics of Discourse. London: Macmillan. Cullingworth, J. (1861) Guide to the Colony of Port Natal. London: Simpkin. Cust, Robert Needham (1883) A Sketch of the Modern Languages of Africa. 2 vols. London: Trübner. —— (1887) Linguistic and Oriental Essays written from the year 1847 to 1887. London: Trübner. —— (1889) Notes on Missionary Subjects. London: Stock. —— (1893) Essays on the Progress of African Philology up to the year 1893. London: Stock. Dalby, David, ed. (1970) Language and History in Africa. London: Cass. Darian-Smith, Kate, Liz Gunner, and Sarah Nuttall, eds (1996) Text, Theory, Space: Land, Literature and History in South Africa and Australia. London and New York: Routledge. Darwin, Charles (1859) On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Repr. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964. 210 Bibliography

Davis, Reverend William J. (1872a) A Grammar of the Kaffir Language. London: Wesleyan Missionary Society. —— (1872b) A Dictionary of the Kaffir Language: Including the Xosa and Zulu Dialects. Part I. Kaffir-English. London: Wesleyan Mission Society. —— (1877) An English and Kaffir Dictionary. Principally of the Xosa-Kaffir, but including also many words of the Zulu-Kaffir Dialect. London: Wesleyan Missionary Society. Davison, Patricia (1996) ‘Foreword’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press. Deacon, Janette (1996a) ‘The /Xam Informants’. In Janette Deacon and Thomas A. Dawson, eds, Voices from the Past: /Xam Bushmen and the Bleek and Lloyd Collection. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, pp. 11–39. —— (1996b) ‘A Short Note on Lloyd’s !Kung Informants’. In Janette Deacon and Thomas A. Dawson, eds, Voices from the Past: /Xam Bushmen and the Bleek and Lloyd Collection. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, pp. 40–3. —— (1996c) ‘A Tale of Two Families: Wilhelm Bleek, Lucy Lloyd and the /Xam San of the Northern Cape’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, pp. 93–113. Deacon, Janette and Thomas A. Dawson, eds (1996) Voices from the Past: /Xam Bushmen and the Bleek and Lloyd Collection. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. Dealtry, William (1811) A Vindication of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 2nd edn. London: Hatchard. De Kock, Leon (1994) ‘Textual Capture in the Civilising Mission: Moffat, Living- stone, and the Case of Tiyo Soga’, English in Africa, 21, 33–58. —— (1996) Civilising Barbarians: Missionary Narrative and African Textual Response in Nineteenth-Century South Africa. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand Univer- sity Press. Delegorgue, Adulphe (1847) Voyage dans l’Afrique Australe. Notamment dans le territoire de Natal, dans celui des Cafres Amazoulous et Makatisses, et jusqu’au Tropique de Capricorne. Exécuté Durant les années 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, & 1844, 2 vols. Paris: René. Denny, J. Peter and Chet A. Creider (1986) ‘The Semantics of Noun Classes in Proto-Bantu’. In Colette Craig, ed., Noun Classes and Categorization. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 217–39. Desmet, Piet et al., eds (2000) The History of Linguistic and Grammatical Praxis. Louvain, Belgium: Peeters. Dinnerstein, Myra (1976) ‘The American Zulu Mission in the Nineteenth Century: Clash over Customs’, Church History, 45, 235–46. —— (1983) The American Board Mission to the Zulu, 1835–1900. Ann Arbor: Univer- sity Microfilms International. Döhne, Reverend Jacob Ludwig (1843) Das Kafferland und seine Bewohner. Berlin. —— (1857) A Zulu-Kafir Dictionary: Etymologically explained, with copious illustra- tions and examples, preceded by an introduction to the Zulu-Kafir language. Cape Town: Pike’s Machine Printing Office. Doke, Clement Martyn (1943) Outline Grammar of Bantu. MS, published Graham- stown: Rhodes University, 1982. —— (1958) ‘Scripture Translation into Bantu Languages’, African Studies, 17, 82–99. Bibliography 211

—— (1959a) ‘Bantu Language Pioneers of the Nineteenth Century’, African Studies, 18, 1–27. —— (1959b) ‘Early Bantu Literature – The Age of Brusciotto’, African Studies, 18, 49–67. —— (1960a) ‘The Earliest Records of Bantu’, African Studies, 19, 26–32. —— (1960b) ‘The Growth of Comparative Bantu Philology’, African Studies, 19, 193–218. Dubow, Saul (1995) Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Duminy, Andrew and Bill Guest, eds (1989) Natal and Zululand from Earliest Times to 1910: A New History. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press. Du Plessis, J. (1911) A History of Christian Missions in South Africa. Repr. Cape Town: Struik, 1965. Du Plessis, J. A. and M. Visser (1992) Xhosa Syntax. Pretoria: Via Afrika. Eberhard, Etain (1996) ‘Wilhelm Bleek and the Founding of Bushman Research’. In Janette Deacon and Thomas A. Dawson, eds, Voices from the Past: IXam Bushmen and the Bleek and Lloyd Collection. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, pp. 49–65. Edgcombe, Ruth, ed. (1982a) Bringing Forth Light: Five Tracts on Bishop Colenso’s Zulu Mission. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press; Durban: Killie Camp- bell Africana Library. —— (1982b) ‘Introduction’. In Ruth Edgecombe, ed., Bringing Forth Light: Five Tracts on Bishop Colenso’s Zulu Mission. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press; Durban: Killie Campbell Africana Library, pp. xiii–xlvi. Edwards, Philip (1994) The Story of the Voyage: Sea-Narratives in Eighteenth-Century England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Elbourne, Elizabeth (1995) ‘Early Khoisan Uses of Mission Christianity’. In Henry Bredekamp and Robert Ross, eds, Missionaries and Christianity in South African History. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, pp. 65–95. —— (2002) Blood Ground: Colonialism, Missions, and the Contest for Christianity in the Cape Colony and Britain, 1799–1853. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Ellis, Alexander J. (1873–74) ‘First Annual Address of the President to the Philo- logical Society’, Transactions of the Philological Society, 1–34. Elphick, Richard (1989) ‘The Khoisan to c.1770’. In Richard Elphick and Hermann Giliomee, The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840. Cape Town: Longman, pp. 3–40. —— (1995) ‘Writing Religion into History: The Case of South African Chris- tianity’. In Henry Bredekamp and Robert Ross, eds, Missionaries and Chris- tianity in South African History. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, pp. 11–26. Elphick, Richard and Hermann Giliomee, eds (1989) The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840. Cape Town: Longman. Errington, Joseph (2001) ‘Colonial Linguistics’, Annual Review of Anthropology, 30, 19–39. Etherington, Norman (1978) Preachers Peasants and Politics in Southeast Africa, 1835–1880: African Christian Communities in Natal, Pondoland and Zululand. London: Royal Historical Society. 212 Bibliography

—— (1989) ‘Christianity and African Society in Nineteenth-century Natal’. In Andrew Duminy and Bill Guest, eds, Natal and Zululand from Earliest Times to 1910: A New History. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, pp. 275–301. —— (1996) ‘Recent Trends in the Historiography of Christianity in Southern Africa’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 22, 201–19. Eveleigh, William (1920) The Settlers and Methodism 1820–1920. Cape Town: Methodist Publishing Office. Fabian, Johannes (1983) Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes its Object. New York: Columbia University Press. —— (1985) Language on the Road: Notes on Swahili in Two Nineteenth-Century Travelogues. Hamburg: Buske. —— (1986) Language and Colonial Power: The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. —— (1991) Time and the Work of Anthropology: Critical Essays 1971–1991. Chur, Switzerland: Harwood. Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (1806) Addresses to the German Nation, trans. R. F. Jones and G. H. Turnbull. Edinburgh: Neill, 1922. Findlay, G. G. and W. W. Holdsworth (1921) The History of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, 5 vols. London: Epworth. Fischer, A. (1985) English-Xhosa Dictionary. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Fodor, Istvan and Claude Hagege, eds (1983) Language Reform: History and Future, vol. 2. Hamburg: Buske. Foster Jones, Richard (1953) The Triumph of the English Language. California: Stanford University Press. Foucault, Michel (1970) The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. London: Routledge. —— (1979) The History of Sexuality Volume I: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley. London: Allen Lane. —— (1980) Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977, trans. Colin Gordon. Brighton: Harvester Press. Freund, William M. (1989) ‘The Cape under the Transitional Governments, 1795– 1814’. In Richard Elphick and Hermann Giliomee, eds, The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840. Cape Town: Longman, pp. 211–40. Fuze, Magema M. (1979) The Black People and Whence They Came, trans. H. C. Lugg. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press. Fynn, Henry Francis (1969) The Diary of Henry Francis Fynn, ed. James Stuart. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter and Shooter. Gardiner, Allen F. (1836) Narrative of a Journey to the Zoolu Country, in South Africa. London: Crofts. Gérard Genette (1997) Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretations, trans. Jane E. Lewin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Giliomee, Hermann (1989) ‘The Eastern Frontier, 1770–1812’. In Richard Elphick and Hermann Giliomee, eds, The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840. Cape Town: Longman, pp. 421–71. Glenn, Ian (1996) ‘The Bushman in Early South African Literature’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: Univer- sity of Cape Town Press, pp. 41–9. Gneuss, Helmut (1996) English Language Scholarship: A Survey and Bibliography from the Beginnings to the end of the Nineteenth Century. Binghamton: Centre for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies. Bibliography 213

Godby, Michael (1996) ‘Images of //Kabbo’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Nego- tiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, pp. 115–27. Godfrey, Reverend Robert (1934) ‘Reverend John Bennie, the Father of Kafir Literature’, Bantu Studies, 8 (2), 123–34. Godlewska, Anne and Neil Smith, eds (1994) Geography and Empire. Oxford: Blackwell. Godlonton, Robert (1836) A Narrative of the Irruption of the Kafir Hordes into the Eastern Province of the Cape of Good Hope, 1834–5. Graham’s Town: Meurant and Godlonton. Golan, Daphna (1994) Inventing Shaka: Using History in the Construction of Zulu Nationalism. London and Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publications. Goldberg, David Theo, ed. (1990) Anatomy of Racism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Gordon, Robert J. (1992) The Bushman Myth: The Making of a Namibian Underclass. Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford: Westview. Greenstock, Reverend W. (1861) Kafir Essays, and other pieces, with an English translation. Grahamstown: Printed at the Office of the Anglo-African. Grout, Reverend Lewis (1849) ‘The Zulu and other Dialects of Southern Africa’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1, 397–433. —— (1853) ‘An Essay on the Phonology and Orthography of the Zulu and Kindred Dialects in Southern Africa’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 3, 421–68. —— (1856) An Answer to Dr. Colenso’s ‘Letter’ on Polygamy, by an American Missionary. Pietermaritzburg: May and Davis. —— (1859) The Isizulu: A Grammar of the Zulu Language; Accompanied with a Historical Introduction, also with an Appendix. Pietermaritzburg: May and Davis; Durban: Cullingworth; London: Trübner. —— (1864) Zulu-Land; Or, Life Among the Zulu-Kafirs of Natal and Zulu-Land, South Africa. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Publication Committee. Guenther, Mathias (1995) ‘Contested Images, Contested Texts: The Politics of Representing the Bushmen of Southern Africa’, Critical Arts, 9, 110–18. Gunnar, Peter M. (2003) Here Am I, Lord, Send Me: The Life of Missionary Leader Rev. William Binnington Boyce. Sydney: Desert Pea Press. Guy, Jeff (1983) The Heretic: A Study of the Life of John William Colenso 1814–1883. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press. —— (1994) ‘Making Words Visible: Aspects of Orality, Literacy, Illiteracy and History in Southern Africa’, South African Historical Journal, 31, 3–27. —— (1997) ‘Class, Imperialism and Literary Criticism: William Ngidi, John Colenso and Matthew Arnold’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 23, 219–41. Haeckel, Ernst (1869) ‘Editor’s Preface’, in Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel Bleek, ‘On the Origin of Language as a First Chapter in a History of the Development of Humanity’. Repr. in Konrad Koerner, ed., Linguistics and Evolutionary Theory: Three Essays by August Schleicher, Ernst Haeckel, and Wilhelm Bleek. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1983. Hall, Martin (1996) ‘The Proximity of Dr Bleek’s Bushman’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, pp. 143–59. Hamilton, Carolyn (1998) Terrific Majesty: The Powers of Shaka Zulu and the Limits of Historical Invention. Cambridge MA and London: Harvard University Press. 214 Bibliography

Hamilton, Carolyn and John Wright (1990) ‘The Making of the AmaLala: Ethni- city, Ideology and Relations of Subordination in a Precolonial Context’, South African Historical Journal, 22, 3–23. Hammond-Tooke, W. D. (1997) Imperfect Interpreters: South Africa’s Anthropologists 1920–1990. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. Hanzeli, Victor Egon (1969) Missionary Linguistics in New France: A Study of Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Descriptions of American Indian Languages. The Hague: Mouton. Harries, Patrick (1988) ‘The Roots of Ethnicity: Discourse and the Politics of Language Construction in South-east Africa’, African Affairs, 8 (1), 25–52. —— (1989) ‘Exclusion, Classification and Internal Colonialism: The Emergence of Ethnicity Among the Tsonga-Speakers of South Africa’. In Leroy Vail, ed., The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. London: Currey; Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 82–117. —— (1993) ‘Imagery, Symbolism and Tradition in a South African Bantustan: Mangosuthu Buthelezi, Inkatha, and Zulu history’, History and Theory, 32, 105–25. —— (1995) ‘Discovering Languages: The Historical Origins of Standard Tsonga in Southern Africa’. In Rajend Mesthrie, ed., Language and Social History: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics. Cape Town and Johannesburg: David Philip, pp. 154–75. Harris, Roy, ed. (1995a) Language and Linguistics Vol. III: Language and Linguistic Theory 1800–1865. London: Routledge/Thoemmes Press. —— ed. (1995b) Language and Linguistics Vol. IV: Language and Linguistic Theory 1865–1900. London: Routledge/Thoemmes Press. Hartley, J. B. (1988) ‘Maps, Knowledge, and Power’. In Denis Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels, eds, The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Repres- entation, Design and Use of Past Environments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 277–312. Hastings, Adrian, ed. (2000) The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Helmstadter, Richard J. and Bernard Lightman, eds (1990) Victorian Faith in Crisis: Essays on Continuity and Change in Nineteenth-Century Religious Belief. London: Macmillan. Herbert, Robert K., ed. (1992a) Language and Society in Africa: The Theory and Practice of Sociolinguistics. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. —— (1992b) ‘Language in a Divided Society’. In Robert K. Herbert, ed., Language and Society in Africa: The Theory and Practice of Sociolinguistics. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, pp. 1–19. Herbert, Thomas (1634) A Relation of Some Yeares Travaile, begunne anno 1626, into Afrique and the greater Asia, especially the Territories of the Persian Monarchie, and some parts of the oriental Indies. London: Stansby and Bloom. Herder, J. G. von (1827) Treatise Upon the Origin of Language. London: Longman. Hinchliff, Peter (1967) Calendar of Cape Missionary Correspondence 1800–1850. National Council for Social Research. Hlongwane, J. B., ed. (1998) Issues in African Linguistics. Pretoria: van Schaik. Hobsbawm, Eric and Terence Ranger, eds (1983) The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hodgson, Janet (1980) Ntsikana’s ‘Great Hymn’: A Xhosa Expression of Christianity in the Early 19th Century Eastern Cape. Cape Town: Centre for African Studies. Bibliography 215

—— (1982) The God of the Xhosa: A Study of the Origins and Development of the Traditional Concepts of the Supreme Being. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. —— (1984) ‘Do we hear you Nyengana? Dr J. T. Van der Kemp and the First Mission to the Xhosa’, Religion in South Africa, 5 (1), 3–47. —— (1997) ‘A Battle for Sacred Power: Christian Beginnings among the Xhosa’. In Richard Elphick and Rodney Davenport, eds, Christianity in South Africa: A Political, Social and Cultural History. Oxford: James Currey. Holden, Reverend William C. (1855) History of the Colony of Natal, South Africa. London: Heylin; Graham’s Town: Godlonton; Cape Town: Robertson; Durban: Cullingworth; Pietermaritzburg: Archbell. Hovdhaugen, Even, ed. (1996a) and the Word was God: Missionary Linguistics and Missionary Grammar. Münster: Nodus Publikationen. —— (1996b) ‘Missionary Grammars – An Attempt at Defining a Field of Research’. In Even Hovdhaugen, ed., and the Word was God: Missionary Linguistics and Missionary Grammar. Münster: Nodus Publikationen, pp. 9–22. Howsam, Leslie (1991) Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hulme, Peter (1986) Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean, 1492– 1797. London and New York: Methuen. Hulme, Peter and Neil L. Whitehead, eds (1992) Wild Majesty: Encounters with Caribs from Columbus to the Present Day. Oxford: Clarendon. Humboldt, Wilhelm von (1836) On Language: The Diversity of Human Language Structure and its Influence on the Mental Development of Mankind, trans. Peter Heath. Repr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Hunt, James (1863a) ‘Introductory Address on the Study of Anthropology’, The Anthropological Review, 1, 1–20. —— (1863b) ‘On Anthropological Classification’, The Anthropological Review,1, 382–5. —— (1863c) ‘On the Physical and Mental Characteristics of the Negro’, The Anthropological Review, 1, 386–410. —— (1863–64) ‘On the Negro’s Place in Nature’, Memoirs Read before the Anthro- pological Society of London, 1, 1–63. Irons, W. (1858) The Settler’s Guide to the Cape of Good Hope and Colony of Natal; compiled from original and authentic materials. London: Stanford. Isaacs, Nathaniel (1836) Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa, Descriptive of the Zoolus, their Manners, Customs, with a Sketch of Natal. Repr. Cape Town: Van Riebeeck Society, 1936. Janson, Tore and Joseph Tsonope (1991) Birth of a National Language: The History of Setswana. Gaborone, Botswana: Heinemann. Jasper, David, ed. (1993) Translating Religious Texts: Translation, Transgression and Interpretation. London: Macmillan. Jeater, Diana (2001) ‘Speaking Like a Native: Vernacular Languages and the State in Southern Rhodesia, 1890–1935’, Journal of African History, 42, 449–68. Jolly, Pieter (1996) ‘Between the Lines: Some Remarks on “Bushman” Ethnicity’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, pp. 197–209. Joseph, John E. (1987) Eloquence and Power: The Rise of Language Standards and Standard Languages. London: Pinter. Joseph, John E. and Talbot J. Taylor, eds (1990) Ideologies of Language. London: Routledge. 216 Bibliography

Karttunen, Frances (1994) Between Worlds: Interpreters, Guides, and Survivors. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. Kay, Stephen (1833) Travels and Researches in Caffraria: Describing the Character, Customs, and Moral Condition of the Tribes Inhabiting that Portion of Southern Africa: with historical and topographical remarks illustrative of the state and prospects of the British settlement in its borders, the introduction of Christianity, and the progress of civilization. London: Mason. Keegan, Timothy (1996) Colonial South Africa and the Origins of the Racial Order. Leicester: Leicester University Press. Kiernan, V. G. (1990) ‘Noble and Ignoble Savages’. In G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter, eds, Exoticism in the Enlightenment. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 86–116. Koelle, Reverend S. W. (1854) Polyglotta Africana; or a Comparative Vocabulary of nearly three hundred Words and Phrases, in more than one hundred distinct African Languages. London: Church Missionary Society. Koerner, Konrad, ed. (1983) Linguistics and Evolutionary Theory: Three Essays by August Schleicher, Ernst Haeckel, and Wilhelm Bleek. Amsterdam and Phil- adelphia: John Benjamins. Kolb, Peter (1731) The Present State of the Cape of Good-Hope: or, A Particular Account of the several Nations of the Hottentots: Their Religion, Government, Laws, Customs, Ceremonies, and Opinions; Their Art of War, Professions, Language, Genius, &c. Together with a Short Account of the Dutch Settlement at the Cape, trans. Guido Medley, 2 vols. London: Innys. Kolbe, Reverend F. W. (1870) ‘The Ba-ntu Prefixes’, The Cape Monthly Magazine, n.s. 1, 344–55. —— (1871a) ‘On the Origin of Language’, The Cape Monthly Magazine, n.s. 3, 93–7. —— (1871b) ‘On the Affinity between the Indo-European and the African Bantu Languages’, The Cape Monthly Magazine, n.s. 3, 298–303. Kotzé, D. J., ed. (1950) Letters of the American Missionaries 1835–1838. Cape Town: Van Riebeeck Society. Kuhn, Thomas S. (1996) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd edn. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Lalu, Premesh (2000) ‘The Grammar of Domination and the Subjection of Agency: Colonial Texts and Modes of Agency’, History and Theory, 39, 45–68. Lambert, John (1995) Betrayed Trust: Africans and the State in Colonial Natal. Scott- sville: University of Natal Press. Landau, Paul Stuart (1995) The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Chris- tianity in a Southern African Kingdom. London: Currey. Lang, Andrew (1884) Custom and Myth. London: Longmans. —— (1897) Modern Mythology. London: Longmans. Lanham, L. W. and K. P. Prinsloo, eds (1978) Language and Communication Studies in South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Latham, Robert Gordon (1844–46) ‘Contributions to the Study of the Languages of Africa’, Transactions of the Philological Society, 218–22. —— (1850) The Natural History of the Varieties of Man. London: Van Voorst. —— (1851) Man and His Migrations. London: Van Voorst. —— (1855) ‘On Certain Recent Additions to African Philology’, Transactions of the Philological Society, 85–95. Bibliography 217

—— (1862) Elements of Comparative Philology. London: Longman. Le Cordeur, Basil A. (1981) The Politics of Eastern Cape Separatism 1820–1854. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Lepsius, C. R. (1855) Standard Alphabet for Reducing Unwritten Languages and Foreign Graphic Systems to a Uniform Orthography in European Letters. London: Williams and Norgate; Berlin: Hertz. Lester, Alan (1997) ‘The Margins of Order: Strategies of Segregation on the Eastern Cape Frontier, 1806–c.1850’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 23, 635–53. —— (1998) Colonial Discourse and the Colonisation of Queen Adelaide Province, South Africa. Historical Geography Research Series 34. —— (2001) Imperial Networks: Creating Identities in Nineteenth-Century South Africa and Britain. London and New York: Routledge. —— (2003) ‘Historical Geographies of Southern Africa’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 29 (3), 595–613. Le Vaillant, Francois (1790) Voyage de M. Le Vaillant dans l’lnterieur de l’Afrique, par le Cap de Bonne-Esperance, dans les annees 1780, 81, 82, 83, 84 et 85, 2 vols. Paris: Leroy. Lewis-Williams, J. David (1981) Believing and Seeing: Symbolic Meanings in Southern San Rock Paintings. London: Academic Press. —— (1996) ‘ “The Ideas Generally Entertained with Regard to the Bushmen and their Mental Condition” ’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, pp. 307–13. Lichtenstein, Heinrich (1808) ‘Bemerkungen über die Sprachen der südafricanis- chen wilden Völkerstämme, nebst einem kleinen Wörterverzeichnisse aus den gebräuchlichsten Dialecten der Hottentotten und Kaffern’. In F. J. Bertuch and J. S. Vater, eds, Allgemeines Archiv für Ethnographie und Linguistik. Weimar. —— (1812–15) Travels in Southern Africa in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806, trans. Anne Plumptre, 2 vols. Repr. Cape Town: Van Riebeeck Society, 1928. Linnaeus, Carl (1735) Systema Naturae, trans. M. S. J. Engel-Ledeboer and H. Engel. Repr. Nieuwkoop: B. De Graaf, 1964. —— (1792) The Animal Kingdom, or Zoological System, of the celebrated Charles Linnaeus; Class I: Mammalia, trans. Professor Gmelen. London: Murray. Livingstone, David (1857) Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa; including a sketch of sixteen years’ residence in the interior of Africa, and a journey from the Cape of Good Hope to Loanda on the west coast; thence across the continent, down the river Zambesi, to the Eastern Ocean. London: Murray. Lloyd, B. G. [ca. 1948] Kitchen-Kafir Grammar and Vocabulary, 9th edn. South Africa: Central News Agency. Lorimer, Douglas A. (1978) Colour, Class and the Victorians: English Attitudes to the Negro in the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Leicester: Leicester University Press. Louw, J. A. (1983) ‘The Development of Xhosa and Zulu as Languages’. In Istvan Fodor and Claude Hagege, eds, Language Reform: History and Future, vol. 2. Hamburg: Buske, pp. 371–92. Low, Gail Ching-Liang (1996) White Skins/Black Masks: Representation and Coloni- alism. London and New York: Routledge. Lund, Thomas (1863) A Key to Bishop Colenso’s Biblical Arithmetic, 2nd edn. London: [n.p.]. Lyell, Charles (1832) Principles of Geology, being an attempt to explain the former changes of the earth’s surface, by reference to causes now in operation, 3 vols. London: Murray. 218 Bibliography

Mackenzie, Anne (1857) Seeing and Hearing; or, first impressions in Natal. Edin- burgh: Grant and Son; London: Bell and Daldy. Mackenzie, John M. (1986) Imperialism and Popular Culture. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Maclennan, Ben (1985) A Proper Degree of Terror: John Graham and the Cape’s Eastern Frontier. Johannesburg: Ravan Press. Maddieson, Ian and Thomas J. Hinnebusch, eds (1998) Language History and Linguistic Description in Africa. New Jersey and Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World Press. Makoni, Sinfree (1998) ‘African Languages as European Scripts: The Shaping of Communal Memory’. In Sarah Nuttall and Carli Coetzee, eds, Negotiating the Past: The Making of Memory in South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, pp. 242–8. Makoni, Sinfree (2003) ‘From Misinvention to Disinvention of Language: Multi- lingualism and the South African Constitution’. In Sinfree Makoni et al., eds, Black Linguistics: Language, Society, and Politics in Africa and the Americas. London and New York: Routledge. Makoni, Sinfree et al., eds (2003) Black Linguistics: Language, Society, and Politics in Africa and the Americas. London and New York: Routledge. Malherbe, V. C. (1990) Krotoa, called ‘Eva’: A Woman Between. Cape Town: Univer- sity of Cape Town. Malik, Kenan (1996) The Meaning of Race. London: Macmillan, 1996. Malkiel, Yakov (1993) Etymology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Manchester, Martin L. (1985) The Philosophical Foundations of Humboldt’s Linguistic Doctrines. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Mann, Robert James (1868) The Emigrant’s Guide to the Colony of Natal. London: Virtue. Marks, Shula (1989) ‘Patriotism, Patriarchy and Purity: Natal and the Politics of Zulu Ethnic Consciousness’. In Leroy Vail, ed., The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. London: Currey; Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 215–40. Marks, Shula and Anthony Atmore (1970) ‘The Problem of the Nguni: An Examin- ation of the Ethnic and Linguistic Situation in South Africa before the Mfecane’. In David Dalby, ed., Language and History in Africa. London: Cass, pp. 120–32. Mason, Reverend G. H. (1862) Zululand: A Mission Tour in South Africa. London: Nisbet. Mears, G. (1958) ‘John Whittle Appleyard’. In Methodist Missionaries No. 2: Edward Boyer Cook, Charles Pamla, John Whittle Appleyard. Rondebosch: Methodist Missionary Department, pp. 29–48. —— (1971) ‘W. B. Boyce’. In William Binnington Boyce, Notes on South African Affairs. Cape Town: C. Struick. Meinhof, Carl (1915) An Introduction to the Study of African Languages, trans. by A. Werner. London: Dent. Mendelssohn, Sidney (1910) Mendelssohn’s South African Bibliography, 2 vols. London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trübner. Merriman, Archdeacon (1854) The Kafir, the Hottentot, and the Frontier Farmer: passages of missionary life from the journals of the Venerable Archdeacon Merriman. London: Bell. Bibliography 219

Mesthrie, Rajend (1992) ‘Fanagalo in Colonial Natal’. In Robert K. Herbert, ed., Language and Society in Africa: The Theory and Practice of Sociolinguistics. Johan- nesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, pp. 305–24. —— ed. (1995) Language and Social History: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics. Cape Town and Johannesburg: Philip. —— (1996) ‘Imagint excusations: Missionary English in the nineteenth century Cape Colony, South Africa’, World Englishes, 15, 139–57. —— (1998) ‘Words across Worlds: Aspects of Language Contact and Language Learning in the Eastern Cape, 1800–1850’, African Studies, 57, 5–26. Mills, Sara (1991) Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women’s Travel Writing and Colonialism. London and New York: Routledge. —— (1997) Discourse. London: Routledge. Moffat, Robert (1842) Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa. London: Snow. Moodie, Donald (1838–42) The Record; or a series of official papers relating to the condition and treatment of the Native Tribes of South Africa, 5 vols. Repr. Cape Town: Balkema, 1960. Moodie, J. W. D. (1835) Ten Years in South Africa, 2 vols. London: Bentley. Moorhouse, Geoffrey (1973) The Missionaries. London: Eyre Methuen. Moropa, Koliswa, and Alet Kruger (2000) ‘Mistranslation of Culture-Specific Terms in Kropf’s Kafir-English Dictionary’, South African Journal of African Languages, 20 (1), 70–9. Morpurgo Davies, Anna (1998) Nineteenth-Century Linguistics. Harlow, Essex: Addison Wesley Longman. Mtuze, P. T. (1998) ‘The Dilemma Facing the African Translator in Modern-Day Discourse’. In J. B. Hlongwane, ed., Issues in African Linguistics. Pretoria: van Schaik. Mühlhäusler, Peter (1996) Linguistic Ecology: Language Change and Linguistic Imper- ialism in the Pacific Region. London and New York: Routledge, 1996. —— (1999) ‘Exploring the Missionary Position’, Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 14 (2), 339–46. Müller, Friedrich Max (1861–64) Lectures on the Science of Language delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 2nd series, 2 vols. Repr. London: Rout- ledge/Thoemmes Press, 1994. —— (1863) ‘Introductory Lecture on the Science of Language’, Macmillan’s Magazine, 1. Repr. in Roy Harris, ed., Language and Linguistics Vol. III: Language and Linguistic Theory 1800–1865. London: Routledge/Thoemmes Press, 1995, pp. 369–85. —— (1882) ‘Mythology among the Hottentots’, Nineteenth Century, 11, 110–25. Nelson, Cary and Lawrence Grossberg, eds (1988) Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Newmeyer, Frederick J. (1986) The Politics of Linguistics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Newton-King, Susan (1999) Masters and Servants on the Cape Eastern Frontier, 1760– 1803. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nicholls, John (2003) Adaptation and Resistance: Response of Xhosa to Colonists 1819 to 1836, first revised edition. Wolverhampton: John Nicholls. Niranjana, Tejaswini (1992) Siting Translation: History, Post-structuralism and the Colonial Context. Berkeley: University of California Press. 220 Bibliography

Nowak, Elke (1996a) ‘Considering the Status of Empirical Research in Linguistics: Approaches and Attitudes since 1800’. In Even Hovdhaugen, ed., and the Word was God: Missionary Linguistics and Missionary Grammar. Münster: Nodus, pp. 23–44. —— (1996b) ‘Investigating Diversity: Descriptive Grammars, Empirical Research and the Science of Language’. In David Cram, Andrew Linn, Elke Nowak, eds, History of Linguistics 1996. Volume I: Traditions in Linguistics Worldwide. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 155–64. —— ed. (1999a) Languages Different in all their Sounds Descriptive Approaches to Indigenous Languages of the Americas 1500 to 1850. Münster: Nodus Publika- tionen. —— (1999b) ‘Missionaries, Linguistics, and Foreign Tongues: A Glance at the State of the Art’, Bulletin of the Henry Sweet Society for the History of Linguistic Ideas, 33, 35–42. Olender, Maurice (1992) The Languages of Paradise: Race, Religion and Philology in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Arthur Goldhammer. Cambridge MA and London: Harvard University Press. Ong, Walter J. (1982) Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Methuen. Paley, F. A. (1862) ‘The Science of Language’, Home and Foreign Review, 1. Repr. in Roy Harris, ed., Language and Linguistics Vol. III: Language and Linguistic Theory 1800–1865. London: Routledge: Thoemmes Press, 1995, pp. 309–27. Parsons, Gerald, ed. (1988) Religion in Victorian Britain. IV: Interpretations. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press. —— (1997) ‘Rethinking the Missionary Position: Bishop Colenso of Natal’. In John Wolffe, ed., Religion in Victorian Britain. V: Culture and Empire. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 135–75. Pauw, B. A. (1975) Christianity and Xhosa Tradition: Belief and Ritual among Xhosa- speaking Christians. Cape Town, London and New York: Oxford University Press. Pearson, Samuel C. (1969) ‘From Church to Denomination: American Congreg- ationalism in the Nineteenth Century’, Church History, 38, 67–87. Peires, J. B., ed. (1981a) Before and After Shaka: Papers in Nguni History. Graham- stown: Institute of Social and Economic Research. —— (1981b) The House of Phalo: A History of the Xhosa People in the Days of Their Independence. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. —— (1989a) The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement of 1856–7. Johannesburg: Ravan Press; Bloomington and Indiana- polis: Indiana University Press; London: Currey. —— (1989b) ‘The British and the Cape, 1814–1834’. In Richard Elphick and Hermann Giliomee, eds, The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840. Cape Town: Longman, pp. 472–518. Penn, Nigel (1999) Rogues, Rebels and Runaways: Eighteenth-Century Cape Charac- ters. Cape Town: David Philip. Pennycook, Alastair (1998) English and the Discourses of Colonialism. London: Routledge. Perrin, James (1855a) A Kafir-English Dictionary of the Zulu-Kafir Language, as Spoken by the Tribes of the Colony of Natal. London: Christian-Knowledge Society. —— (1855b) An English-Kafir Dictionary of the Zulu-Kafir Language, as Spoken by the Tribes of the Colony of Natal. Pietermaritzburg: May and Davis. Bibliography 221

Porter, Andrew and Robert Holland, eds (1988) Theory and Practice in the History of European Overseas Expansion. London: Cass. Porter, Dennis (1991) Haunted Journeys: Desire and Transgression in European Travel Writing. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Pratt, Mary Louise (1992) Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation. London and New York: Routledge. Prichard, James Cowles (1848) The Natural History of Man; comprising inquiries into the modifying influence of physical and moral agencies on the different tribes of the human family, 3rd edn. London: Bailliere. —— (1851) Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, 4th edn, 3 vols. London: Houlston and Stoneman. Prickett, Stephen (1986) Words and the Word: Language, Poetics and Biblical Inter- pretation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. —— (1993) ‘The Changing of the Host: Translation and Linguistic History’. In David Jasper, ed., Translating Religious Texts: Translation, Transgression and Inter- pretation. London: Macmillan, pp. 4–20. Rafael, Vicente L. (1993) Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conver- sion in Tagalog Society Under Early Spanish Rule. Durham and London: Duke University Press. Ranger, Terence (1983) ‘The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa’. In Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds, The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Raven-Hart, R. (1967) Before Van Riebeeck: Callers at South Africa from 1488 to 1652. Cape Town: Struick. —— (1971) Cape of Good Hope 1652–1702: The First Fifty Years of Dutch Colonisation as seen by Callers, 2 vols. Cape Town: Balkema. Rees, Wyn, ed. (1958) Colenso Letters from Natal. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter and Shooter. Ricks, Christopher and Leonard Michaels, eds (1990) The State of the Language. Berkeley and Oxford: University of California Press. Robins, R. H. (1997) A Short History of Linguistics, 4th edn. London and New York: Longman. Robinson, John (1862) Natal: A Practical Guide Book to that British Dependency in South-Eastern Africa. London: Street. Rogerson, John (1984) Old Testament Criticism in the Nineteenth Century: England and Germany. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Ross, Robert (1993) Beyond the Pale: Essays on the History of Colonial South Africa. Hanover and London: Wesleyan University Press. —— (1999) A Concise History of South Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rousseau, G. S. and Roy Porter, eds (1990) Exoticism in the Enlightenment. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press. Sadler, Celia (1967) Never a Young Man: Extracts from the Letters and Journals of the Rev. William Shaw. Cape Town: Haum. Said, Edward (1989) ‘Representing the Colonized: Anthropology’s Interlocutors’, Critical Inquiry, 15, 205–25. —— (1991) Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient. London: Penguin. —— (1993) Culture and Imperialism. London: Chatto and Windus. Salmon, Vivian (1985) ‘Missionary Linguistics in Seventeenth-Century Ireland and a North American Analogy’, Historiographia Linguistica, 12, 321–49. 222 Bibliography

Samarin, William J. (1984) ‘The Linguistic World of Field Colonialism’, Language in Society, 13, 435–53. —— (1989) ‘Language in the Colonization of Central Africa, 1880–1900’, Cana- dian Journal of African Studies, 23, 232–49. Sanneh, Lamin (1989) Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture. New York: Orbis. Sanneh, Lamin (1993) Encountering the West. Christianity and the Global Cultural Process: The African Dimension. London: HarperCollins. Scheller, I. J. G. (1825) A Copious Latin Grammar, trans., notes and additions by George Walker, 2 vols. London: Murray. Schlaps, Christiane (2004) ‘The “Genius of Language”: Transformations of a Concept in the History of Linguistics’, Historiographia Linguistica 31 (2–3), 367–88. Schlegel, Friedrich von (1808) ‘On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians’. Repr. in The Aesthetic and Miscellaneous Works of Friedrich von Schlegel, trans. E. J. Millington. London: Bohn, 1849. Schmidt, Bettina (1996) Creating Order: Culture as Politics in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century South Africa. Nijmegen: Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen. Sebba, Mark (1997) Contact Languages: Pidgins and Creoles. Basingstoke and London: Macmillan. Shaw, William (1860) The Story of my Mission in South-Eastern Africa: comprising some accounts of the European colonists; with extended notices of the Kaffir and other native tribes. London: Hamilton, Adams and Co. —— (1972) The Journal of William Shaw, ed. W. D. Hammond-Tooke. Cape Town: Balkema. Shooter, Reverend Joseph (1857) The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country. Repr. New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969. Shrewsbury, John V. B. (1867) Memorials of the Rev. William J. Shrewsbury. London: Hamilton, Adams and Co. Silverstein, Raymond O. (1968) ‘A Note on the Term “Bantu” as First Used by W. H. I. Bleek’, African Studies, 27, 211–12. Simms, Karl, ed. (1997) Translating Sensitive Texts: Linguistic Aspects. Amsterdam and Atlanta: Rodopi. Sirayi, G. T. (1991) ‘The African Perspective of the 1856/1857 Cattle-killing Move- ment’, South African Journal of African Languages, 11 (1), 40–5. Skotnes, Pippa, ed. (1996a) Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press. —— (1996b) ‘Introduction’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, pp. 15–23. Smith, Reverend Thornley (1850) South Africa Delineated; or, sketches, historical and descriptive, of its tribes and missions, and of the British colonies of the Cape and Port-Natal. London: Mason. —— (1881) Memoir of the Rev. John Whittle Appleyard. London: Wesleyan Missionary Society. Sparrman, Anders (1805) A Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, and Round the World: But Chiefly into the Country of the Hottentots and Caffres, from the Year 1772, to 1776, 2 vols. London: Robinson. Spear, Thomas (2003) ‘Neo-Traditionalism and the Limits of Invention in British Colonial Africa’, Journal of African History, 44, 3–27. Bibliography 223

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty (1988a) In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics. New York and London: Routledge. —— (1988b) ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’. In Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, eds, Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Stam, James H. (1976) Inquiries into the Origin of Language. New York: Harper and Row. Stapleton, Timothy J. (1994) Maqoma: Xhosa Resistance to Colonial Advance 1798– 1873. Johannesburg: Ball. Steadman-Jones, Richard (1998) ‘Colonialism and Linguistic Knowledge: John Gilchrist and the representation of Urdu in the late eighteenth and early nine- teenth centuries’. PhD thesis, Cambridge University. —— (1999) ‘Learning Urdu in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries: Dialogues and Familiar Phrases’. In David Cram, Andrew Linn, and Elke Nowak, eds, History of Linguistics 1996: Selected Papers from the Seventh Inter- national Conference on the History of the Language Sciences. Volume I: Tradi- tions in Linguistics Worldwide. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 165–72. —— (2000) ‘Etymology and Language Learning at the Start of the Nineteenth Century’. In Piet Desmet et al., eds, The History of Linguistic and Grammatical Praxis. Louvain, Belgium: Peeters, pp. 189–207. Stepan, Nancy (1990) ‘Race and Gender: The Role of Analogy in Science’. In David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 38–57. Stocking Jr., George W. (1971) ‘What’s in a Name? The Origins of the Royal Anthropological Institute (1837–71)’, Man, 6, 369–90. Stoler, Ann Laura (2002) Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Taylor, Reverend J. Dexter (1935) One Hundred Years of the American Board Mission in South Africa 1835–1935. US: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Taylor, Reverend William (1867) Christian Adventures in South Africa. London: Jackson, Walford and Hodder; New York: Carlton and Porter. Theal, George McCall (1882) Kaffir Folk-lore; or, a Selection from the Traditional Tales Current among the People Living on the Eastern Border of the Cape Colony. London: Sonnenschein. —— (1897–1905) Records of the Cape Colony, 36 vols. London: William Clowes and Sons. Thomas, Terence (1997) ‘Foreign Missions and Missionaries in Victorian Britain’. In John Wolffe, ed., Religion in Victorian Britain. V: Culture and Empire. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 101–34. Thompson, George (1827) Travels and Adventures in Southern Africa, 2 vols. London: Colburn. Thompson, Leonard, ed. (1969) African Societies in Southern Africa. New York: Praeger. —— (1990) A History of South Africa. New Haven and London: Yale Univer- sity Press. Thornton, Robert J. (1983a) ‘ “This Dying Out Race”: W. H. I. Bleek’s Approach to the Languages of Southern Africa” ’, Social Dynamics, 9 (2), 1–10. —— (1983b) ‘Narrative Ethnography in Africa, 1850–1920: The Creation and Capture of an Appropriate Domain for Anthropology’, Man, n.s. 18, 502–20. 224 Bibliography

Thuesen, Peter J. (1999) In Discordance with the Scriptures: American Protestant Battles over Translating the Bible. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tindall, Reverend Henry (1856) Two Lectures on Great Namaqualand and its Inhab- itants, delivered before the Mechanics’ Institute, Cape Town. Cape Town: Pike. —— (1857) A Grammar and Vocabulary of the Namaqua-Hottentot Language. Cape Town: Methodist Mission Press. Traill, Anthony (1995) ‘The Khoesan languages of South Africa’. In Rajend Mesthrie, ed., Language and Social History: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics. Cape Town and Johannesburg: Philip, pp. 1–18. —— (1996) ‘!Khwa-Ka Hhouiten Hhouiten “The Rush of the Storm”: The Linguistic Death of /Xam’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, pp. 161–83. Tylor, Edward B. (1866) ‘On the Origin of Language’, Fortnightly Review, 4. Repr. in Roy Harris, ed., Language and Linguistics Vol. IV: Language and Linguistic Theory 1865–1900. London: Routledge/Thoemmes Press. Vail, Leroy, ed. (1989) The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. London: Currey; Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Vail, Leroy and Landeg White (1991) Power and the Praise Poem: Southern African Voices in History. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia; London: Currey. Van der Kemp, Johannes Theodorus (1795–1802a) ‘Journey to Caffraria’, Trans- actions of the Missionary Society, 1, 2nd edn. —— (1795–1802b) ‘Specimen of the Caffra Language’, Transactions of the Missionary Society, 1, 2nd edn, 442–58. —— (1813) Memoir of the Reverend J. T. Van der Kemp, late missionary in South Africa. London: London Missionary Society. Venuti, Lawrence, ed. (2000) The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge. Ward, W. R. (1990) ‘Faith and Fallacy: English and German Perspectives in the Nineteenth Century’. In Richard J. Helmstadter and Bernard Lightman, eds, Victorian Faith in Crisis: Essays on Continuity and Change in Nineteenth-Century Religious Belief. London: Macmillan, pp. 39–67. Webb, C. de B. and J. B. Wright, ed. and trans. (1976) James Stuart Archive of Recorded Oral Evidence Relating to the History of the Zulu and Neighbouring Peoples, 4 vols. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press; Durban: Killie Campbell Africana Library. —— (1978) A Zulu King Speaks: Statements made by Cetshwayo kaMpande on the History and Customs of his People. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press; Durban: Killie Campbell Africana Library. Welsh, David (1971) The Roots of Segregation: Native Policy in Colonial Natal, 1845– 1910. Cape Town, London and New York: Oxford University Press. Williams, Donovan (1978) Umfundisi: A Biography of Tiyo Soga, 1829–1871. Lovedale: Lovedale Press. ——, ed. (1983) The Journal and Selected Writings of the Reverend Tiyo Soga. Cape Town: Balkema. Williams, Raymond (1983) Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. London: Fontana. Wilmsen, Edwin (1996) ‘Decolonising the Mind: Steps Toward Cleansing the Bushman Stain from Southern African History’. In Pippa Skotnes, ed., Miscast: Negotiating the Presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, pp. 185–9. Bibliography 225

Wilson, Monica (1972) The Interpreters. Grahamstown: 1820 Settlers National Monument Foundation. Wilson, Monica and Leonard Thompson, eds (1969–71) The Oxford History of South Africa, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon. ——, eds (1982) A History of South Africa to 1870. London and Canberra: Croom Helm. Wolffe, John, ed. (1997) Religion in Victorian Britain. V: Culture and Empire. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Wonderly, William L. and Eugene A. Nida (1963) ‘Linguistics and Christian Missions’, Anthropological Linguistics, 5, 104–44. Woodard, Helena (1999) African-British Writings in the Eighteenth Century: The Politics of Race and Reason. Westport, Connecticut and London: Green- wood Press. Woodward, Servanne (1990) ‘The Head of the Crafty Serpent: Missionary Gram- mars and Bilingual Dictionaries in African and Caribbean Countries’, Diogenes, 152, 50–72. Worger, William H. (2001) ‘Parsing God: Conversations about the Meaning of Words and Metaphors in Nineteenth-Century Southern Africa’, Journal of African History, 42, 417–47. Young, Robert (1995) Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race. London: Routledge. —— (2001) Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell. Youngs, Tim (1994) Travellers in Africa: British Travelogues, 1850–1900. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Zemka, Sue (1995) ‘The Holy Books of Empire: Translations of the British and Foreign Bible Society’. In Jonathan Arac and Harriet Ritvo, eds, Macropolitics of Nineteenth-Century Literature: Nationalism, Exoticism, Imperialism. Durham and London: Duke University Press, pp. 102–37. Zwartjes, Otto and Cristina Altman, eds (2005) Missionary Linguistics II/Lingüística Misionera II: Orthography and Phonology. Selected papers from the Second Inter- national Conference on Missionary Linguistics, São Paulo, 10–13 March 2004. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Zwartjes, Otto and Even Hovdhaugen, eds (2004) Missionary Linguistics/Lingüística Misionera. Selected papers from the First International Conference on Missionary Linguistics, Oslo, 13–16 March, 2003. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Index

Afrikaans, origins of, 11 border, colonial, see frontier zone, see also Cape Dutch eastern Cape agglutination, 106–7, 158 Boyce, William Binnington, 73–94, 95, see also grammar; Xhosa language; 98, 99, 105, 108, 111–13, 116–17 Zulu language British and Foreign Bible Society, 58 alliteration, see ‘euphonic concord’; Bryant, James, 124, 130 euphony Burton, James, 74–5 American Board of Commissioners for ‘Bushman’, 13, 17 Foreign Missions, 118–22, for further references, see San 129–30, 138–43, 154 languages and peoples ancestor worship, as product of language structure, 184 Callaway, Henry, 162–5 anthropology, 15–16, 185–9, 193–4 Calvinism, 158 Appleyard, John Whittle, 61, 94–112, Cape Dutch, 11, 18, 58, 74 116–17, 148, 168 cartography, 33–4 Arabic, 85 Cattle Killing, Xhosa, 115 Archbell, James, 77 Chidester, David, 101, 123, 164, 191 Arnold, Matthew, 151 chronology, Biblical, 101–4, 156–7, Ayliff, John, 71 173, 177 classification, of languages and peoples, 1–2, 12, 16–17, 80, Babel, 139 87–90, 179–89, 192–5 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 3–4 comparative classification of Bantu Bank, Andrew, 12, 191, 201 and Khoi-San, 26–8, 35–40, Bantu, 9–10, 169, 186–8 87–90, 99–104, 170, 180–5 see also Nguni; Xhosa language; clicks, see implosive consonants (clicks) Xhosa people; Zulu language; Coetzee, J. M., 15–16 Zulu people Colenso, John William, 125–6, Barrell, John, 89–90 142–53, 155, 170, 171 Barrow, John, 30–43 colonialism Bennie, John, 60, 198, 199 British, 29, 33–4, 67–9, 96–7, Berlin Missionary Society, 154 115–16, 126–8 bilingualism Dutch, 14, 17–18 among Khoikhoi and Xhosa, 10 Comaroffs, Jean and John, 195 among whites, 22, 37, 142–3, 201 communication, 2–4, 22–6, 40–3, 48, Bleek, Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel, 49–50, 53, 54, 57–8, 71, 93–4, 148, 167–96 111, 142–5, 149–53, 164–5, Boers, 17–18, 22, 26, 29, 33, 34, 44, 190–1, 195, 196 47, 52, 53, 67, 68, 127 dialogue as central to Christian Bopp, Franz, 157 mission, 149–53, 164–5

226 Index 227 comparative philology, 95–6, 100, Fabian, Johannes, 3–4, 141, 105, 113, 154, 156, 167, 169–91 193–4, 195 comparativism, 129, 163, 167–8, 194 Fanakalo, 11 see also classification, of languages Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 155, 169 and peoples Frazer, James, 163 comparison, as strategy in linguistic Fritsch, Gustav, 186–7 representation, 26–8, 35–40, frontier zone, eastern Cape, 17–20, 113–14 22–9, 32–43, 44–50, 52–7, 67–73, see also classification, of languages 76–7, 78–9, 80–2, 89–90, 93–4, and peoples; comparativism 95–100 contact languages, 11, 17 language and communication in, copiousness, as characteristic of 18, 20, 22–9, 35–43, 47–50, language, 83, 99 53–7, 71–3, 78–9, 80–2, 89–90, Cust, Robert Needham, 59–61 93–4, 95, 98–100

gender, grammatical, see grammar, Darwin, Charles, 171, 174, 187 gender in Davis, William Jafferd, 77, 93–4, Genette, Gérard, 63 112–16 Giliomee, Hermann, 18, 67 Davys, John, 16 glossaries, see vocabularies Deacon, Janette, 190 God dictionaries, 62, 111–13, 149, 154–62 difficulty in discussing concept of, Dingane, 118, 119–20 42–3 Dinnerstein, Myra, 129–30, 138 terms for, 41, 55, 91, 144–5, 159, discourse, definitions of, 6–7 163 colonial, 5–6 Godby, Michael, 201 n.3 disease, as metaphor for grammar communication, 153 categories of, 56, 62–3, 85, 105, Döhne, Jacob Ludwig, 121–2, 154–62 133–4, 147–8 Dubow, Saul, 12, 195 comparison as strategy in Dugmore, H. H., 71 representation, 85–6, 105–6, Dutch East India Company, see VOC 134–5 (Verenigde Oostindische gender in, 170, 179–85 Compagnie) see also dictionaries; vocabularies Greek, 134–5 Grey, George, 154, 170–1, 190 economics, as metaphor for language, Grimm, Jacob, 100 140–1 Grout, Aldin, 120 Ellis, Alexander, 168 Grout, Lewis, 124–5, Elphick, Richard, 197 n.6 129–43, 148 ethnography, 19–20, 26, 34–5, 53, 163 Guy, Jeff, 195–6 see also anthropology etymology, 157, 159–61 Haeckel, Ernst, 171, 176, 187 ‘euphonic concord’, 74–6, 84, 99, Harries, Patrick, 12, 121, 195 130–1 Hebrew, 85–6, 87 euphony, 75, 83, 84, 131, 147 Herbert, Thomas, 16 evolution, as model for language Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 155 development, 174–8, 184–5, 189, higher criticism, 153, 169, 173 190–1 Horne Tooke, John, 107 228 Index

‘Hottentot’, 13, 16–17, 197 see also jargon; Khoi languages; San for further references, see Khoi languages and peoples languages Kitchen Kaffir, see Fanakalo Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 107, 155, Kolb, Peter, 16, 197 n.2 175, 181 Hunt, James, 187 Huxley, Thomas, 171, 174, 185, 187 Lang, Andrew, 163 language implosive consonants (clicks), 10 families of, 100, 132, 180–1, 184–5 in Khoi-San languages, 36–7, 40, and historical reconstruction, 102 99–104, 179 in Xhosa, 74 and nation, 38–9, 155, 158, 159–62 in Zulu, 145, 158 origin and development of, 39–40, Indo-European languages, 99–100, 49, 100, 131–2, 157, 172–6, 177 105–6, 170, 172, 179–80, 184–5, relationship to culture, 42–5, 48–50, 192, 193, 194 92–3, 101–2, 107–10, 134–8, interpreters, 22–4, 42–3, 53, 58–60, 142–3, 175–6, 183–4 71–2, 74–5, 78, 119–20, 133, relationship to mind, 106–7, 154, 150–3, 164, 165, 198 n.6 159–61, 163–5, 181–4 see also linguistic relatedness Jane Eyre,62 language-learning, 4, 49–50, 55, 60, jargon, 83, 89, 102–3, 199 n.9 62, 75–6, 77, 95, 104–7, 132–4, 142–3, 163 ‘Kaffir’, 13, 16–17 and colonial power, 78–80, 81–2, for further references, see Bantu; 96–9, 171 Nguni; Xhosa; Zulu among colonists, 22, 37, 97, 155 Kew gardens, 31–2 among white children, 22, 37, 76, Khoi languages, 10, 13, 36–7 142–3 as absence, 15 and contamination, 142–3 as animalistic, 16 languages, Indo-European, 38, 85–6, as lacking in scientific and abstract 100 terms, 41–2 see also Greek; Latin difficulty in learning, 16, 22 Latham, Robert Gordon, 167 onomatopoeic origins of, 39–40 Latin, 85, 87, 199 n.10 Khoikhoi people, 10, 13 early European contact with, 14 Lepsius, Karl Richard, 139, 169–70, men, as effeminate, 38–9 180 Khoi-San languages, 10, 11 Le Vaillant, Francois, 19 decline of, 88–9 Lichtenstein, Heinrich, 1–2, 43–50, early European contact with, 15–16 51, 56 Hamitic origins of, 103 Lindley, Daniel, 200 n.5 incompatibility with Christianity, lingua francas, see contact languages 87–90, 99–100 linguistic hierarchy, 37–40, 120–1, as product of deterioration, 102–3 159, 175–6, 182–5 stigma as contributory factor in see also classification, of languages decline of, 199–200 n.11 and peoples; language, compared with Xhosa/Bantu, 26–8, relationship to culture 35–40, 87–90, 99–104, 170, linguistic relatedness, 80 180–5 see also language, families of Index 229 linguistic representation, as multilingualism representation of social reality, and development of European 27–8, 54–5, 93–4, 137 colonialism in South Africa, linguistics 10–11 colonial, 2–4, 11–13, 78–80, and problems of communication, 81–2, 96–9, 126, 128, 141, 18, 22, 35–6, 53 146–7 as productive of linguistic missionary, 56–7, 61–4, 80, 97, 126, deterioration, 158 128, 130, 155–6, 162, 167, 193–4, 195–6 native speakers, 3–4, 60–1, 64, Linnaeus, Carl, 19–20, 21, 32 110–12, 133–4, 135–8, 149–53, see also natural science 166, 191, 196 Lloyd, Lucy, 178, 189 natural science, 18–50 London Missionary Society, 51, 52 as model for linguistic description, Lorimer, Douglas, 187 19–20, 26–7, 28–9, 35–6, 47–9 Lubbock, John, 163 as model for travel writing, 21–2, Lund, Thomas, 153 31–2, 45–6 Lyell, Charles, 171 ‘Negro’, see ‘race’ Ngidi, William, 149, 150–3 Maurice, F. D., 144, 170 Ngqika, 42–3, 52, 53, 55, 67, 198 Mbande, Mpengula, 164, 165 Nguni, 9–10, 12–13 Meinhof, Carl, 195 see also Bantu; Xhosa language; Methodists, 69–73 Xhosa people; Zulu language; attitudes to Xhosa, 69–70, 71, 73 Zulu people educational background, 72 Unkulunkulu, as term for God, 145, language study, 72–3, 112–13 159, 163, 191 relationship to British settlers in Nongqawuse, 115 eastern Cape, 69–71 Ntsikana, 108–10 mfecane, 118–19, 120, 123 migration, and theories of language onomatopoeic, 39–40 development, 131–2 orthography, 138–41 millenarianism, 130, 139–41 Milward, John, 15 missionaries, 51, 127–8 Pentecost, 139 educational background, 63, Perrin, James, 155 73–4, 94, 130, 149, 154, philology, comparative, see 199 n.4 comparative philology and language study, 57–64 philosophy, as characteristic of see also entries for individuals, language, 83, 99 denominations phonology, 27, 36–7 Moffat, Robert, 59 see also implosive consonants monogenesis, 103, 156–7, 175–6 (clicks) monotheism, as product of language pidgins, see contact languages structure, 184 polygenism, 187 Mpande, 149 see also monogenesis Mpondo, 13, 74–5, 91, 92, 127 potentiality, as characteristic of Mühlhäusler, Peter, 62 language, 63–4, 82–90, 99–104, Müller, Friedrich Max, 117, 163, 171, 107–8, 112, 126 174, 181 Pratt, Mary Louise, 18, 39 230 Index

‘prefix-pronominal’ languages, see Standish, Ralph, 15–16 grammar, gender in Steadman-Jones, Richard, 6, Prichard, James Cowles, 103, 167 62–3, 86 printing press, 58 progress, 161 Theal, George McCall, 195 Thonga/Tsonga, 12 ‘race’, 185–9 Thornton, Robert, 169, 171 climatological theories of, 188 time ‘Negro’ as racial category, 186–8 anthropological time versus Reformation, 83–4 evangelical time, 193–4 regularity, as characteristic of Khoikhoi concepts of, 41–2 language, 83 temporal distancing, 190, 193–4 representation, 3, 4–5 see also chronology, Biblical; romanticism, 154–5 language, and historical roots, 157, 160 reconstruction uTixo, as term for God, 55, 91, 145 Said, Edward, 4 Traill, Anthony, 199–200 n.11 Samarin, William, 198 translation, 58, 60–1, 108–10, 111, San languages and peoples, 10, 122, 134–6, 150–3, 162 37, 177–8, 186, 188, see also interpreters; missionaries, 189–90 and language study San as problematic term, 197 Tshatshu, Dyani, 72 see also Khoi-San languages Tylor, Edward Burnett, 163 Sanneh, Lamin, 195 Schlegel, Friedrich von, 107 Van der Kemp, Johannes, 51–7 Semitic, 85–6, 100–4 verbs, 85–6, 105–6, 134–5, 147–8 settlers, British, 68–9 VOC (Verenigde Oostindische attitudes to Xhosa people, 70–1, Compagnie), 14 81–2, 97 vocabularies, 19–20, 26–8, 35–6, ‘sex-denoting’ languages, see 47–50, 53–6 grammar, gender in see also dictionaries; grammar Shaka, 119, 158–9 see also Zulu language, and policies Wesleyans, see Methodists of the Zulu state word lists, see vocabularies Shaw, William, 69–70, 72, 74, 76, 77, writing, see orthography 101, 112–13 Shepstone, Theophilus, 74–5, 127–8, Xhosa language, 1, 9–10, 12–13 144, 146 contrasted with Khoi-San, 26–8, Shrewsbury, William, 71 35–40, 87–90, 99–104, 170, Skeper, Jan, 23–4 180–5 Skotnes, Pippa, 189 elevated origins of, 40 Smith, Thornley, 95 manliness as characteristic of, 27, Soga, Tiyo, 60 38–9 Sparrman, Anders, 20–9 as marker of potentiality, 82–90, spatiality, in colonial linguistic 99–104, 107–8, 112 discourse, 140–1 as product of deterioration, 100 Spencer, Herbert, 163 as Semitic, 85–6, 101–4 standardization, of language, 12–13, see also Bantu; ‘euphonic concord’; 79, 138–41 Nguni; Zulu language Index 231

Xhosa people, 9–10 as elevated linguistic form, 121–2, absence of culture, 90–3, 107–8 123–6, 127, 131–2, 158–9 as Arabs, 101–4 and policies of the Zulu state, colonial policy of assimilation, 120–2, 124–6, 158–9 115–16 as repository of culture, 134–8 culture, as object of study, 116 as standard language in Natal, early European encounters with, 124–6, 127 22–5 and Zulu ‘mind’, 128, 154, 159–61, religious thought, 55, 91 163–5, 191 resistance to British colonialism, 65, and Zulu national identity, 155, 68, 93–4, 96–7, 111–12 158, 159–62 responses to missionaries, 52, 54, see also Bantu; ‘euphonic concord’; 71, 108–10 Nguni; Xhosa language as warlike, 79, 81–2, 97 Zulu people, 9–10 see also Bantu; Nguni; settlers, as degraded, 138, 142, 158–63 British, attitudes to Xhosa as high-status group, 122–3 people; Zulu people inhabitants of Natal as, 124, 126 relationship to colonial power in Natal, 127–8 Zulu language, 9–10, 92, 178, 191 religious thought, 144–5, 164–5 as corrupting, 142–3 responses to missionaries, 128 as degraded, 159–62 see also Bantu; Nguni; Xhosa people