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lntmdurtion and Acluww/prfgmenL1 A -t~tf The Drawings Collectionof the Royal Institute of British Architects(RIBA) is one of the largestand most comprehensivebodies of archiLecturaldrawings in the world, containing a quarter of a million drawingsfrom the Renaissance to the present day. Although the collectionfocuses on British drawing, it also includes imporLantworks from other countries such as France, Italy, and the UniLedStales. This exhibitionpresents masLerpieces from the Royal InstituLecollection by archiLectspracticing during the la,t five centuries, such as Palladio, Christopher Wren, Norman Shaw, and Edwin Lutyens, with works by twentieth-century luminaries, such as Frank Lloyd Wright, PeLerBehrens, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and James Stirling. These eighty-twodrawings and a group of drawing instruments were selecLedby John Harris, Curator of the Drawings Collection. The drawings span in dale and style the entire range of the collection, beginning with a fifLeenth-centurydesign for a towerwith turrets, the earliestdrawing in the lnstituLes collection,and ending with a 1981 Richard Rogers elevation drawing/or the rebuilding of Lloyds of London. In addition to the eighty-two drawings and archiLecturalinstruments, the Chicagoshowing of the exhibition has been supplemenLedwith a selectionof Lenpublications drawn from the Ryersonand Burnham Libraries at The Art Institute of Chicagoand the Department of Special Collectionsof The Universityof ChicagoLibrary The books, selectedby the Art lnstituLes Architectural Archivist, Paul Glassman, and myselfdirectly relate to the drawings on exhibit. They span four centuries and rangefrom a rare 1570 edition of Palladio s I QyuittroLibri dell' ArchiLetturato a plaLefrom the 1969 Museum of Modem Art portfolio that beautifully reproducesa selectionof drawings and collagesfor Mies s most important projecLs. Many of the books,such as the 1720 Vitrnvius Britannicus, exactlyreproduce the drawings on exhibit; others,such as the March 1871 issue of The Building News and Engineering journal, reproducedifferent views of one of the projectson exhibit. Our inLent wa, to point out some of the occasionson which the drawings werepub lished and to provide a fuller conLextfor understanding this set of influential drawings that comprisebut a small segment of the extensive JUBA drawing collection. This brochurehas been produced in conjunction with the Chicagoshowing of Great Drawings. The illustrations and captions refer to the supplemenLalpublications on view, and excerptshave been taken, in part, from the catalogue that accompaniesthis exhibition, Great Drawings from the Collection of the Royal Institute of British Architects. Thefully illustrated catalogue includes essaysby john Harris,Jill Lever, and Margaret Richardson. The caLalogueis 136 pages and includes 100 black and white illustrations and 15 color plates. It is available in the Museum Store in softcoverfor $15. 00. I would like to thank thefollowing organizations and individuals for their assistancein producing this brochure:the Dr. Scholl Foundationfor theirfunding; Susan Johnsonfor her design; Elizabeth Prattfor editing the brochure;and Bob H ashimotofor photographing the booksreproduced here. I would also like to thank architecturalartist Jim Smith and his staff, Scott Mazurek and Le Um McAllister,for designing and executing the splendid Palladian arcade that highlights the Chicago installation of the exhibition. The exhibition has been made possible by a generousgrant from Henry J. Heinz II, KBE, and Mr.,. Heinz, and by additional grantsfrom the VincentAstor Foundation, Imperial Chemical Industries PLC, Manufacturers Hanover Tru1t, Marley Holdings (U.S.A.) Inc., Mr. and Mrs.]. Irwin Miller, Samuel I. Newhouse Foundation, Pinewood Foundation, Reed Stenhouse Inc., Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, and Thomas Tilling Inc. Publicsupport ha1 been receivedfrom The National Endowmentfor the ArL1,the New York Councilfor the Humanities, and the New YorkState Council on the Arts. The Chicagoshowing of the exhibition has beenfunded by a generousgrant from the DI: Scholl Foundation. Front and back covers: Pauline Salip;a Andrea Palladio, deLailof drawing Assistant Curator of Architecture of a capitalfrom the Templeof The Art institute of Chirngu Hadrian, Rome, early 1550s. Collectionof The Royal InstituLe of British ArchiLects. LATE MEDIEVAL AND AFTER The lirst gn>up of drawings in the exhibition ha\e in common that the) (r/mwi11g11m. /-6) are earl, examples of architectural designs that were made by architects who recei\ed their initial training as stonemasons. These examples of architecture-from England, France, and northern Italy-range in date from the late fifieenth century to the Hi'.Ws. The earliest of the designs. for a to\\'er with turrets and large windows (see no. 1). demonstrates the ne11 political stabilit\ of Tudor England as well as th<: romantic taste of its Court. The design for Bishop Fox's chantry chapel at \,\'inch ester Cathedral (no. 2) was among the last of such 1rnrks, for the social changes made by the Reformation of H<:nry VIII brought a halt to ecclesiastical building in England. It marks, too, the final phase of medieval Gothic architectur<:, while the square ness, symmetry. and gTeat windows of the tm,er design were to become the hallmarks ofEli1abcthan domestic architecture. Robert Smvthson (c. 153:J-Hil4) designed a country house in about 1590 (no. 3) that is a typical El i1abethan design . Though the design In .John Sm) th son (died Hi:14-)for a room in Bolsovcr Castle (no . t) shows the influence of imported ideas. Eli1abethan architecture \,·as large!\ untouched h\· the Renaissance on continental Europe. Despite some occasional excep tions in decorati\'e details. the tlovelty, daring. and unity ofrhc best examples ofEfoabethan architecture arc utlparallclcd outside Eng land. In France, the influence of the Italian Renaissance \ras felt by the first vears of the sixteenth centun. From 154G,\rith the rebuilding of the Louvre, a national Renaissance style developed in France, as seen in the dr,l\\ing for a house (no . 5) by.Jacques Centilh;1tre (born 1578). The Renaissance came later to Genoa than to other Italian cities and the drawing of the Palau.o del Signor Antonio Doria (no . G) represents an carlv stage in the development ofa distinctive Cenoesc style. Typica l of this local st\ le arc the heavih articulated ornament of the cornice and the decorati\e ernphasis at the entrance.
PALLADIO AND PALLADIANISM Andrea Palladio ( 1508-1580) is the onh architect to ha\ e given his (1h"wi11g1111.,.7-!0J name to an architectural St) le that has scarce!\ been out of use since its invention. Palladio\ influence has been !elt through his Classically .\11drt'!IPalladio( 1508-1580) based bu i leiings, his clr;mi ngs. and his hooks, particularly I (21wllro hg. I (seejJ. 4) Half-section Libri dc/l'.\rrhite/lum. through the courtyard of the Palau.a In addition to the requiremcnls defined In the buildillg program, da Porto Festa., Vicenza, c. 1549 site, and structural and aesthetic possibilities of building mater ials such (unexecuted), as publishPdi n 1 Quat as stuccoed brick. stone. and timber, Palladio's design sources were tro Libri dell'Architetturadi Andrea nature it.selLrnd the ideas that he deri,ed from Vitnn·ius\ treatise Palladio ( Venice: Appresso Dominico about Roman architecture. Ik \\·as also indebted to other Italian archi de ' Franceschi, 1570), book 2, p. IO. tects of the time. including Sebastiano Serlio. Palladio is best known This is a rare copyfrom thefirst as the designer oh ii las that housed not only the o\\·11c1;but also his Pdition of 1 Quattro Libri published steward. laborers, and farm animals in a complex that included farm in Venice in 1570. The right half of vanls and farm buildings. gardens. and orchards. The Villa Rotonda Palladio'sdrawing/or the Palazzo near \'iccn1.a is the most famous of Palladio's ,·illas . d.a.Porto h.sta (no. 7) details a. court Palladio'., I Quattro Uhri dell'. \rchitl'l/11ra\\'as !irst publi,hecl in yard with giant mmposite columns \'en ice in 1570. ;md other editions soon follm,ed . A cop, of the first a.ndfigurat ivt' sculpture in niches and cd ition mav be seen in the first Ii lirary-book case ace om panyi ng this in a fri eze near the rooflin,1. This exhibition (,cc fig. I). Fngl ish architect Inigo Jones (1573- Hi!'.i~)took was a.pr eparatory drawing for thP woodcut of thPs ame courtyard seen with him on his second trip to Itah in ltil:~-14 a cop\ of the 1601 edition lwre. The Pa.Lau.a was designed/or of Palla clio 's hook and made notes on the bu ilcli ngs as he \·isi ted them. C:ui,rp/Je l'orto and follows a stan A 1970 reproduction ofJonc.•;s annotated I Q11al/roJ,ibri dell';\rchitettum drml palau.'osc hf'mf' ba1Pd on is also on vie11 in the exhibition cases (sec fig. 2). \\'hile in \'en ice. h, a 8ram.ante's Home of Raphael. stroke ofgoocl f 3 architecture.Jones was able to buy virtually all of Palladio's survi\·ing design dra\\·ings from either Palladio's son, Silla, or Palladio's disciple, Vincenzo Scamozzi, an architect much respected by.Jones. The result of Inigo.Jones's visit to Italy became evident, for example, in his designs for the Prince's Lod1-,ringat Newmarket of about 1619 (no . 9). The Prince's Lodging became the primarv source for the design of English count!')' houses of the later seventeenth century. i\ndrm l'a/ladio ( 1508-1580) hp, 2 Half -elevation of thefacade of the Palazzo da Porto Festa, Vicenza, c. 1549, as published in Inigo Jones on Palladio (Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Oriel Press, 1970), vol. 2, book 2, p. 9. I Quattro Libri proved to be one of Palladio's most influential publica tions. Inigo Jones, who carried the influence of Palladio to England, took a copy of the 1601 edition of I Quattro Libri with him on his second trip to Italy in 1613-14.Jones recorded extensive notes in the mar gins of the book as he visited the sites of Palladio's many buildings in Italy. This 1970 reprint of 1 Quattro Libri is afacsimile ofjones's anno tated copy of the book. /111),o/011n( 1575-1632) hg. J Elevation of the portico, Fig. I Fig. 2 with the westfront, of the old St. Pau/:5 Cathedral, London, c. 1608, as published in The Designs of Inigo Jones (London?: William Kent, 1727), vol. 2, pl. 56 . By 1608, the medieval Cathedral of St. Paul's wa, in delapidated condi tion and proposals were being sub mitted for its restoration.Jones 'sfirst drawing/or the re-fronting of the Cathedral (no. 10) is radically dif Jerentfrom his built design, repre sented here in plate 56 of William Kent:, Designs of Inigo Jones. In modifying the executed version,Jones disengaged the columns and pilasters to create a portico, refined his vocab ulary by introducing keystones and vou.uoirs to the arched windows , steepened the gable, and elongated the obelisks. The earlier scheme has been di:scribed byJohn Summerson as "back cloth architecture'; however, it marks the beginning of the architect's trans ! ormation from "picture-maker to thefirst English architect of genim" (RIBA catalog, p . 40) . The pub lished view shows the actualization of that genim . Fig 3 4 THE BAROQUE IN ENGLAND The Penguin Dirtirmmy o/Arrhitecture defines Baroque architecture as (drawing nos. 11-16) "characterized by exuberant decoration, expansivt', nu-,·act'ous forms, a senst' of mass, a delight in large-scalt' and sweeping, istas and a prd~ erence for spatially complex compositions:· Tht' definition makes it clear that English Baroque architecttfft' was neYer as l'ullv-formcd as that ofltaly (where it began), Spain, Southern Ct'rmanv, or Austria-countries in which the Baroqut' style exprt'ssecl the triumph of Catholicism aftt'r tilt' traumas ol'the Reformation, as well as the power of absolute Sir Chri1topherWren ( 1632-1723) monarchv. Puritan England, with its northerly climate and impm·erished sovereigns, 11atched by a Parliamentjealous of its rights, \\'as scarct'h· (Not illuitmtPd) Transversesection of St. Paul's Cathedral,London, likely to achit've sojoyfullv spontaneous a Baroq uc style as its European 1673-74 as published in A Cata neighbors. wgue of the Churches of the City of Early, though ephemeral, examples of the use of the Baroque in London; Royal Palaces;Hospitals; English architecture were designs by Sir Balth;var Gerbier ( 1592-1663) and Publick Edifices; Built by Sr. for temporary triumphal arches for the Coronation of Charles II in 1661 ChristopherWren Kt. Surveyor (sec no. l l), and an unrealized Roman-Baroque scheme of about 1699 (London: Sam. Harding, Dan. by John Talman ( lG77-1726) for a ,·ilia for King William IIl(no. 14). Sir Browne, Wm. Bathoe, 1727), Christopher Wren ( 1632-1723) was the father of an English Baroque pl. 10. architecture that, since it was tempered bv classical elements, should In 1666, the Great Fire of London more exactly he termed "Baroque Classicism:· vVrcn's Royal Na,·al destrayedthe old St. Paul's Cathe Hospital at Greenwich in London (no. 12), begun in 1694, is the most dral which had been restoredby Inigo integrated and gTandest of his Baroque works. W'rcn is probably best Jones only 33 years earlier,and Sir known for his designs of the new cathedral of St. Paul's and more than ChristopherWren was appointed to fifty churches built in London after the great fire of 1666. Wren's design designa new building. Wren'sdraw of about 1671 for the Church of St. Stephen Walbrook (no. 13) is the most ing/or the church of St. Stephen majestic of his parish churches . His solution for cksigning the dome of Walbrook(no . 13) is considereda foundation for this design, which is St. Stephen's can be considered a preliminarv study for the vaster and considerablylarger and more com more complex, yet simila1~ problem that fact'd Wren in the design of plex. The challengeof the two designs St. Paul's Cathedral. Note the similarities between the drawing of the is similar: namely, to integratelin dome of St. Stephen's and that of the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral repro ear and circularspatial elements. duced in the Catalog of the Churrhes of the City o/ J,onc/011seen in one of the exhibition cases. NEO-PALLADIANISM Inigo Jones ( 157(1-l(i')2) and John Webb ( lbl l-1{172) introduced the (drawing 110s. 17-20) Palladian style into England; Colen Campbell ( lmfi-17:?9) and Richard Bovie ( 16\)4-175'.)) 11erc Neo-l'allaclians 1\'ho, after an interval of fifty years, revived the style. The beginning oft he 1-c,,ival was marked in 1715 hy Campbell's publication of the first nllumt' of \'itrnvius Rritm111icm, in \\'h ich one h u nd reel plates with text adnicatt'd the su pcriorit) of the Classical \'OGtbularv of Palladio and InigoJones O\'er the "affected and licentious" forms oft he Baroque. As a propagandist exercist', 1'itruvim Brilannicm (follo\\'cd by further volumes in 1717 and 1725) ,vas extra ordinarily succt'ssful. lt was also an effecti,·e ach·ertisement for Campbell who. naturally enough, incluclecl somt' of his 0\\'11 designs. A copy of Campbell's book, open to his plate oL\lereworth Castle, is in one ofrhe library-book cases accompan) ing the exhibition (see fig. 4 ). ,\ rendering of the castle may also be seen in drawing no. 17 in the exhibition. Also published in 1715 \\'as the first installment ofCiacomo Leoni's translations of Palladio's I Quattro Libri de/1'.4.rrhittttum, one of the text books of the Palladian re\'i,,al. With Vitruvim Britmmirns, it aroused the attention ofvoung Richard Boyle, the Earl of Burlington, ll'ho became the leading protagonist of the Neo-Palladian style. His ,isit to Itah in 1719 to study Palladio's \l'orks led to his discm·er\', in the stables of the Villa ;\faser, o!'Pallaclio's drawings of the Roman Baths. He purchased the drawings and on his return to England bought fromJolm Talman 5 a large collection of drall'ings bv InigoJoncs and Jolrn Webb, together ll'ith the drall'ings of Palladio that.Jones had acquired in Italv in 161I. These drawings became Burlington's chief source for a '.\leo-Pallaclian architecture that was sometimes more "correct" than the originals. Chiswick Villa, which Burlington designed for himselfbetween 172,1 and 172!),is his masterpiece . Burlington's protegc" William Kent(c. Hi85- l748) continued the '.\:eo-l'allaclian style (no. 19) for a short time, but, being less constrained than his mastec Kent ventured into an unanti quarian Gothic stvlc that established him as the inventor of'·English Rococo Cothic-k:' B, 17:):), when.John Vardy (died 1765) clcsignecl his altcrnatin' desig11s for '.\Iiiton Abbev (no. 20). he felt free to design in Colm Campbell( 1676-1729) either the J\:eo-Palladian or Gothic stvlc. signalling the encl of the Fig. -I Section of MereworthCas prepondcran t influence of '.'\co-Pal ladianism. tle, Kent, c. 1720, as published in Campbells Vitruvius Britannicus: or, The British Architect. . . (London: Colen Campbelland Joseph Smith, 1725), vol. 3, p. 38. Scottisharchitect Colen Campbell based his design of MereworthCastle on Palladio's Villa Almerico("la Rotunda') at Vicenza. The basic structureof the building was com pleted by 1723 and therebywas the first fully Neo-Palladian building in England. The drawing of Mere worth (no. 17) was one of at least three variations that Campbelldrew beforeh e produced the engraved illus tration seen here. The schemesdiffer chiefly with regard to interior orna ment, with the published design closest to what was actually built. Fig. 4 EARLY NEO-CLASSICISM Whereas Lord Burlington\ classicism took its inspiration from Palladio (drowing nos. 21-25) and other interpreters of antiquity, the l\eo-Classicism of the rnicl eighteenth century was inspired h) the contemporary archaeological discmeries of Creek and Roman art and architecture at Herculaneulll and Pompeii (both dcstrmcd b, the eruption ofl\1t. \'esmius in 7~)A .D.). It \\"as this empirical approach to the lllonuments thcmsches that gan' Neo-Classicism its strength and st\ le . The origins ofNeo-Classicism arc to he found in France and Italy. In 17 !:) in Rome, Cio\'anni Battista Piranesi ( 1720-1778) produced his inlluential sets of etchings. l'rima Parlr dr' Architctlurc I' l'rosj1ettive,1rhich presented archaeological reconstructions of Roman buildings more splendid than the originals had eYer been . Ar the same time, he \\·as in contact with the French Academy in Rome, \\'hich \\'as in the 17 lOs and 50s a training ground for the future leaders of French l\eo-Classicism. In Paris.JC. Soufflot designed the church ofSte-Ccne\'iC\'e (later lo become the Panthi·on) ,,·here he de, eloped the building r~pc of the 6 Roman bath into a domed, cruciform church , creating the gTeat monu ment or the early phase of the style . In the 1750s, English architects became great travelers, visiting the ancient sites of the l\leditenanean, and, as a result, published a series of books that made the English contribution to architectural scholarship of out.standing importance in the second half of the eighteenth ccntu1, ·. These ll"orks included Robert Wood's Ruins of Palmyra, 1753; .James Stuart ancl !'\icholas Revett's Antiquitif's of Athens, 17(i2; and Robert Adam's obsen·ations of Diocletian 's Palace at Spalatro, 1764. In Englancl, Robert Adam ( 1728-1792) and Sir Wi Iii am Chambers (1723-1796)dominated the architectural 11orld from about 1760 until about 1790. Chambers 's domestic buildings (no. 22) arc more Palladian in style, but his public work, such as York House of 1759 (no . 21 ), is in the pure style ofNeo-Classical Paris. Adam's houses arc more thoroughlv Neo-Classical in planning and eilect: his "Adam St> 1c:·as s NEO -CLASSICAL FANTASIES The J\:eo-Classical fantasy or "capriccio" can be defined as an archi (drmoing nm. 26~2R) tectural drawing showing some fantastic and unrealisable structure or antique ornament, often in ruins or m·er-run b1· predatory nature. The ideas for these fantasies originated in Italy from t\\'o sources-the French Academy in Rome and the overwhelming influence of Giovanni Battista Piranesi ( 1720-1778). There hacl been in Rome , from the late seven teenth century, a growing interest in the city's antique past, but this interest was increased in the mid-eighteenth centu1y· by the archaeo logical discoveries at Herculaneum and Pompeii. lt was l'iranesi. howeve1; who came to Rome in 1713, and published his first set or romantic etchings, which depicted fantastic reconstructions of Roman buildings . It was this type of etching of"the 1740s that influenced Charles Michel-Ange Chai le ( 1718-1778) to design his capriccio of a courtyard dominated by a castle (no. 26). During the 1740s, Piranesi came to be closely associated with the French Academy in Rome. The influence of his fantasy architecture was felt by several generations of students at the school well into the late eighteenth century, particularly in the work of Etienn e-Louis Roullce and Claucle-Nicholas Ledoux. Roth architects produced a comparatively small body of executed work , and are best known for their 1·ast and effectively unrealisable romantic projects (no. 27). Their fantasies have lived on to exert a considerable influence, particularly on the designs of English and American architects of the 1970s. Joseph Michael Gandy ( 1771-184'.~)was known as the 'English Pirancsi' and his large architectural persp 7 LATE NEG-CLASS ICISM The later phase of '.\'eo-C:lassicislll was characteri1ec! hv the appearance (r/rm1•111gnm. ](). )()J oflllan) different st\les. The architect who epitmni1ed the cclecticislll of the period wasJalllcs Wyatt ( 17-16-181'.)),called by.John Summerson a "st\listic weathercock who turned with the breeze oft:c1shion'.' His designs of lHOOfor Dmrning College (no . '.tZ) and Ash ridge shm,· the ,·aricty of his \\'ork and two of the important themes oflate :'\eo-C:lassicislll: Rolllan se,crit\ and a rationalil.ed Gothic. Sir.John Soane ( 17.'i'.'1-1837)was an indi, idualist whose work, such as the Bank of England (no. 29), was influenced by Laugic1; Piranesi, and Ceorge Dance.;\ section ofSoane's design f<>rthe Great Room at C:hillington, Staffordshire, is reproduced in a book of his projects on exhibition (see fig. (1). Both ,·ie,,·s sho\\' Soanc\ use of classical forllls in the shall 8 Sir.Jolw Soane ( 1753-1837) Fi[?;-6 Section of the Great Room, Chillington, Staffordshire,the seat of Thomas Giffard, Esq., 1785-89, as published in Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Buildings byJohn Soane, Architect (London: Messrs. Taylor, 1788), pl. 16. This designfor the Great Room at Chillington, along with thatfor the Bank of England (no. 29), reveals characteristicfeatures of Soanes highly individualistic Neo-Classical style based on an interestin shallow domes, clerestorywindows , and broad arches. The two differ significantly, however,in that the earlierdesign for the Great Room retains the tradi tionalfarms of classicalornament, from which Soane later deviated Fig. 6 in buildings such as the Bank of England. THE PICTURESQUE When applied to architectuff. the tcTm '·Picturesque" does not refer (rlrowi11p: nm. )7- /()J to a particular style ofbuilcli11g, but to the total effect of the house in its natural landscape setting, and is charactcriz,ed hy asymmetrv and ,aricty The Picturesque Movement was formal Iv begun in 1794 with the publication ofRichanl Payne Knight's The La11d,rnjJe.a Didactic Poem and L'vedale Price's E1say1111 lhP Pirturesqur. These were fol\mrecl in 1795 by Humphrey Repton's SkPtchl'sr111d Hi11ts 011 !Jrnd,rnpe (;ordeni11g. All three books were concerned with a new approach to nature . .John "lash ( 1752-1835) \,as the leading architect of the Picturesq uc \lovement. He ,,,as in partnership with Humphrey Repton from 1795 to ISO:!, and while Repton '·improved" estates, '.\:ash made alterations to houses and clesi1-,rnedlodges, cottages (no.'.~\)). and dairies i11a Picturesque style . Frorn Richard Payne Knigh1 he derived the idea of'an Italian ti,pe of house, irregular in plan with a round tower and deep eaves. Ikt\,,cen 1790 and ISIO, a series of'hooks on cottages was published. (Nol illmlralerl) The cottage in its many fcmns-sorne thatched. some with porches Jane Austen, Sense and Sensibility made of tree trunks, some based on I.augier's Neo-Classical primitive (London: T Egerton, 1813.) Lent by hut. but all ,,aried and irregular-became 1he archi1ectural set-piece of the Department of Special Collections, the :\lmemcnt. By 181I the Picturesque l\Iovement was sufiiciently well The University of ChicagoLibrary. established to be satirised bv Jane Austen in Sense and Sensibility A copy Joseph Bonomi achieveda celebrity of the !St'\ edition ofSe11.1ermd Semibilil), mentioning the Picturesque sufficient to be mentioned byJane work of.Joseph Bonomi, is included in the exhibition. Austen in her novel Sense and Sensi The Picturesque :\lovcment did, howevc1; have far reaching effects bility. As the novel details, Lord upon the architectun· of the nineteenth century. For the next hundred Courtland wanted to build a mansion and had three different schemesdrawn years the architect was, in effect, painting a picture as he sketched asym by Bonomi to choosefrom . Robert metrical towers and castle keeps and concocted associational stvles. This Ferrars advised him to bum Bonomis approach naturally aflected ,u-chitectural perspectives, which became plans and to build a cottageinstead. larger and more painterly. 9 EXOTIC SOURCES B\ the 17 IOs, one of the hv-products of'.\'eo-Classicism \\·as a ne\\' (r/rmt 1111.~ 11m. ·JI I)) interest in exotic st, les, together ,,·ith the Creek and Gothic revivals. In England, the fashion for Chinese garden architecture \\'as spreading rapidh. and it \\'as at Ke" (;ardens that a (inn and ol~jectin· interest in exoticism \\·as first clearh displ,l\ eel on a large scale. Sir William Chambers ( 1723-17SHi).\\'ho created the garden buildings there (no. 4-1) hetll'een 17:i7 and 176'.1.had hirnself,isitcd China as a ,·oung man in the 17 IOs and had. In· the end of that decade, acquired a considerable reputation as an amateur sinologist. In 175(-jhe published Des1/z:11sjiJ1' (,'hi11es1•B11ildi11g,, ll'hich was ,·er) influential both in England and on the Continent. Chambers had also included '.\1oorish buildings at Kew Gardens the ,\lhamhra and the '.\losque-but it \\'as not until the end of the eighteenth centun that there 1\'as anything in Britain remote!) reflecting the architecture oflndia. The idea of reproducing Indian styles in England took shape onh· after the exploration oflndia h, · the artist fhomas Daniell (l74-~l-18Hl), who \\'Cllt there \\'ith his nephell' William ( 17(-i~l-18,n) in 178°1. Bct,,cen 178b and 17Sn, the Daniells made arduous tours ofludia and built up a \'ast stock of'drawings oflndian buildings (sec no. 4-2). Lne1; they spent thirteen years making IH aquatints of their dra,,·ings ancl they regularly exhibited their \'icws ofTndian buildings at the Rmal Academy. Their pictures 11· THE GOTHIC REVIVAL OF In England, the Gothic style never really fell out offan)l: It sur\'i,·ed THE 1830s in country backwaters; it 11as used by architech such as Sir Christopher (rlrt1111mg110.\. )-I -1-6) \\ 'ren and 1\icholas H,l\l·ksmoor ,,·hen architectural good manners required it: it 1\'as transformed into Baroque b\' '.\:icolas Vanbrugh; and \\'illiam Kent \\'cddcd it ro the Rococo. Antiquarianism, litcrat') tastes, sentiment, Romanticism, the Picturesque i\10\'ement, and patriotism first sustained and later widened the scope. From the 1790s on, Gothic became less and less the ,·en occasional altcrnati\'e to the J)l'c,·alcnt style. In 1835, \1 hen the competition for the nell' Palau· of Westminster \\'as announced. "Gothic or Eli1abctha11" \\'as stipulated. The new Parlia ment building (no. 15), designed by Charles Barry ( 17~6-1860), belongs to the Picturesque period of the Gothic Re,·i\'al as docs the competition desig11 of 1834-for the Fitz\\ illiam \!use nm (no. 4-4-)hv Thomas Rickman ( 177{-i-184-1). rhe second phase of the Gothic Re,·i,·al-1\'har historian Kenneth Clark has called the "ethical pcriod''-bcgan with A.W."l. Pugin (1812- 1852). Though Pugin had collaborated 1\'ith Charles lbny on the Houses of Parliament, he hi msclf descri lwd the bu i Id ing as having Tudor dctai ls on a classical building. Pugi11's designs f IO standing of the connC'ction hctween the style. construction, and function of Gothic architecture. and it marks a new chapter in the histon of the Gothic ]{e\'i\·al in Britain. MONUMENTS OF COMMERCE, The Industrial Revolution created a need fo1 new tvpes ofbuiklings. 1830s-1860s and that need was met h} a new kiud ofarchitcct-imlcpendent, often (r/mwi11g "°'-47-52) self~madc, determinedly professional. and. on occision. prepared to exploit ne\\ materials and technolog,. The cloth rnills of northern England, desig11ed in the 17qos. \1ere the world's first iron-framed. multi story buildini-,rs. The structural problems of market halls. railwa, stations. and exhibition buildings that spanned large. unencumbered Jloor areas were soh·ed bv a daring USC'of cast or \1Tought iron. laminated wood. and glass that culminated in the Cnstal Palace of l851 (no. SI) designed h, Sir.Joseph Paxton ( 1801-18(1.~)- Charlcs Fowler ( 1792-1867) was a giftccl architect \lith an engineer\ abilitv to handle structure. Hungerford \Ltrkct (no. 47). designed in lH:ll-33 by Fowler in an appropriate!\· simplified !'\co-Classical sn·lc, was a bra\·e example of structural economy in which cast-iron, brick. and a laminated-tile roofing svstem were employed. David \1ocatta ( 1806- IH82) designed the stations 011 the I nndon to-Brighton Railwav between 18'.-\~)and 18+\J (no. 48). \1·hich IT\"eal in the rational. shed-like structure of the platform canopies the influence of his friend Fowlec Fowler had earlic1; bel\1een IH27 and IH'.-\0,built the gTeat glazed consen·aton at S,on House. \[iddlesex, that,])\ inspiring the series of glasshouses by Paxton, led to his design of the Crystal Palace. Though this \\'as follo\\'ed by other large structures such as the LeC'ds Corn Exchange in JH(-j() (no. 52) h\ Cuthbert Brodrick ( 1822-1905 ), -which measures ElO h\ 1'.-\Gfeet and is crmrnC'd h,· an iron. timhe1; and glass dome~ii.irther adYances in terms of"rnegastructure" had to \\'ait upon the inveution ofmC'chanical and electrical sen·ices such as elevators, telephones and air-conditioning. Style had not been Paxton\ concern in the design of the Crystal Palace. The direct descendant of train sheds and glasshouses. ib form and appearance were determined b) its function. structure. and materials. Howe\-c1; stde was a consideration in the design of most commercial buildings. Cothic. associated with churches and conserva tism, did not gain acceptance until the IH(iOs.Various manifestations of the Italianate and Franco-Italianate. howe\e1; \\'ere apprmed, suggesting a degree of sophistication, modernity. and respectability. For interiors, thC' Louis XIV st, le became \Cn popular for commercial use. First used by Benjamin vVvatt for two London houses in the 1H20s, Philip Charles Hardwick (JH22-18~l2) used it in IH:"i2for the interiors of the Great Western Hotel, London (no. 49). and Robert Le11·is Roumieu ( IH14- 1H77) added a touch of the Louis XV stvle to a Bond StreC't shop in 1H53 (no. 50). ]l THE LATER GOT HIC REVIVAL The st,le of(~othic architecture urged b, A.v\'.N. Pugin in Crmtrasls.. . (t/rnwU/g nos. 5 J- 56) in ]8j(j was that offourtccnth-centun England. This dogma was accepted h, his adherents until about 1850, when the need for more flexible Gothic lrmns became apparent. This was clue in part to the fact that Gothic \\'as nm, used for buildings other than churches that often had no precedents in meclieYal architecrurc. There \\'as, too, the need to e\"(iln.' an economical Gothic style suited to brick architecture and iron framed structures.John Ruskin's Sto11rsof \cenicrof 1851 praised the merits of Venetian Cothic, and the competition of 1855 for a new cathedral at Lille in northern France-where the use of brick and an carh French Gothic st}le 11·c1-crecommended to the competitors-1ras 1,·onjointly h1 \\'illiam Burges and Henry Clutton. This did much to encourage British architects to study foreign Gothic styles. In 1857, C.(;_ Scott published /?m/(/rks 011 Sffular & Domrstic Archilff/Url' and made a plea for the appropriateness and adaptability of the Gothic style for non-church architecture. These were all landmarks that led, from about 18(i0, to Gothic's 1·ictory in the "Battle of the Sn·les" and to an almost u 11i1 ersal acceptance that cm braced e,en warehouses, offices, and other bui !clings of commerce. Alt hough Sir George Gilbert Scott ( 1811-1878) lost his campaign for a Gothic Foreign Oflice (no.:">'.'\),the \\'ar ofsl\les might be said to haw· been 1,·011when all the entrants for the La\\' Courts Competition in 1866 submitted Cothic designs . Scott's rejected Cothic design of 1859 for the Foreign Office (110. 53) 1\"asin a French fiftccnth-ccnturv Gothic st\ le (the staircase tcm-crs inspired b1 that at the C:h,1tcau de Blois) 1,·ith a squareness and hori- 1011talit,· of outline, and some details deri,-cd from Italian Cothic. For the design of 18G:">-76of the St. Pancras Raih,a) Station and Hotel (110. 55), Scott used a north Italian C:othic ''interlaced 1,·ith good repro ductions of details for Winchester and Salisbury Cathedrals, and v\'e•arninster Abbe)." Burges's 1871-78 design for the church at Studley Royal. Yorkshire (110. i}fi). 1,as mostly in the Early English Cothic style. DOMESTIC-ALL SORTS, The countn· house boom during the middle vears of Queen Victoria·s l850s -1870s reign 1,·as created b1· the gro\\'th of industry and commerce. There was (r/rm,·111g11u\. 57-61 J a steach increase in home building by the ne\\' merchant and manufac turing classes, 1,·hich started in the earh l8i}()s and reached its peak in the 1870s. This 1,·as brought to an abrupt encl b) the agricultural slump of l87\J-q4_ after \\'hich the rich either built much smaller houses or rented them. ,\!though there was gn·at freedom of choice among the archi tectural styles, their degree of popularity was constantly sh ifi.ing. The diffrrcnt \'arieties ofC:lassical st\les, for example, were losing ground during the mid-Victorian period . Due to A.W.N. Pugin's writings in the IW'\Os.Classical architecture had come to be considered un-English and essentially urban-and pagan. Consequentlv, tom1-houses remained in a Classical s11le, oc as in the example ofAlfonl House (no. (iO) In :\fatthe\\' Digb1· \\\att ( 1820-1877), the1 \\'ere designed in a smart, Parisian Second Empire st, le, 1,hich 1,as first copied in the 18:">0sand was used wideh for hotels in the 18(i0s. For countn houses, ho\\'C\'(:r, Eli1abethan, -:Jacobethan:' and C:othic-English, French. or Italian-1,-c1T acceptable and \'en commonh used. The design for a suburban YiIla ar Bushe1· lleath (no. :">8)by Robert Louis Roumicu ( 1814-1877) echoes the stl"listic fashion oCits grander C:othic prototype. In the 18GOs,a number of"rhe younger and abler Cothic Re\'iYal architects, notabl:, \\'.E. :-.:esficld and Richard l\'orman Shaw ( 18'.)l-191'.2), 12 Richard .Vonnrw Shaw ( 1831-1912) inaugurated the "Old English" st\ le, ll'hich 11as a term used to describe Fig. 7 Ley [e] swood, Groombridge, borh the Tudor Gothic and Eli1abethan of the rambling. manorial kind. Sussex, 1868 , as published in The Sha\1\ design for Le\s1rnod (no. 59) \\'as particular!, influential. Another Building News and Engineering 1·ie11 ofLcysm)()d, as published in The n11ildi11gXews a11dF11gi111 'l'l'i11p: journal 18, March 31, 1871 .Joumal, is included in one of the exhibition cases (see fig. 7). lh inaug (London:for the proprietors). urating the new style. the architects declared their distaste frir the modern This photolithographof Leyswood Gothic of plate-glass. sash-11 indows, and structural polychromy. and led belongsto a portfolio of illustrations the way to the Arts and Crafts ~lol'ement . 1d1ich turned its attention to from the British periodicalThe Build the 1ernacular tradition ofhurnhlc countr\ dwellings and to materials ing News. In contrastto the draw and methods of building rather than stylistic correctness. ing of Leyswood(no. 59), the perspectiveview isfrom a lower vantage point on the oppositeside of ------·--, the property.Photolithography made possiblethe reproductionof line draw ings such as this, and facilitated the world-widedissemination of mid nineteenth-centurystylistic develop ments in English architecture. As a direct result of this and other published views of Leyswood,for instance, Shaw strongly influenced domesticarchitecture in Great Britain and the United States, where he inspired thefirst flowering of the ShingleStyle . Likewise, Shaws drafts manship, exactly reproducedthrough the photolithographicprocess, had an impact on other architectsdue to its cold, literal quality that made it easy to copy. LE;YtS WOOD, SUSSEX Fig. 7 ECLECTICISM, 1870s-1880s As 11-ch:1ve seen. rhc mid-Victorian decades were do111i11atcd hy the (drawi11g11m. 6] -65J Cothic Rc,i,al architects. Sir Ccorgc Cilliert Scott \1·as the 1nost prnlific . and the buildings that stand out as the monumc11ts ofthal st\ le arc his St. Pancras Statiou Hotel (no. 35) .. \lfinl \\'aterhouses's \!anchester 'Jcmn I [all. and C .E. Street's Ll\\ Courts. But in the 1860s. marn architect.,. and particular!\ the 1oung and pro1-,,-ressi1elike :\cslicld and Sha\1 , began to turn ,m·a1 from Corhic forms-cspeciall\ in their domestic 11ork-tm1ards the Old English and the Queen Anne s!Yles. The latter \1·as dn ,elopecl hy Ernest Ceorge ( 18,~\)-19'.Z'.Z)and flarold .\i11s\1ortli Peto ( 185-1--1933)in London for their houses in Harr ington Carde11s in the 1880s. It 11·assoon copied all mer Chelsea. The Cothic style itself had. since the 1850s. taken ll!a11y limns. and it \\'as only a s111,1IIsl<:']J to total eclecticism . Afier alioul lH(i()most architects felt able to choose fi·celY.:rnd to \;11, · their choice and combination olstyles from building to building. 13 THE ARTS AND CRAFTS The architects of the Arts and Crafts l\1o\'emcnt, and their buildings, MOVEMENT were named in 1888 after the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Societ) (an (r/rowinp.,· nm. 66~7 I) offshoot of the Art \Vorkers' (;uild, whose aim was to bring together craftsmen in architecture, painting, sculpture, and the applied arts), The work of the Arts and Crafts architects had certain common features: the functions ofa building were expressed in its exterior form: its materials were taken from the immediate locality because they were cheaper and in harmonv with their surroundings; details were based on vernacular originals and not taken from classical pattern hooks: the architects were all interested in the crafts and in employing plasterers, painters, c11Yers, and sculptors to enrich their \\'Ork: and ornament was based on :'\ature, During the J880s and \)Os, the younget; more prof,'Tessive architects, mam of them in Richard .'lonnan Shaw's o[fice, tried to free their work from historical styles, and instead based their designs on the examples of simple, com1t11 buildings-on the \'ernacula1: They followed the ne1\· pursuit of"scrambling": energetically traveling through the villages of Kent, SlllTt'\, and Sussex sketching local utilitarian buildings, Most of them joined the ttew guilds and societies: the two most important of these \\ere the Society (cl1' the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPA13), founded h> William '.\fotTis in 1887, and the An Workers' Guild, started in 188--l-b} fin: pupils in Sh,tw's office-Gerald Horsley, W.R. Lethah\, Ernest :'\c\\ton, Mervyn '.\[acarttH:'} and Edward Prio1~ The Society was founded speciticalh to prevent the ruthless Gothic "restoration" of cathedrals and other ancient monuments, and was a strong force in making younger architects aware of the materials and textures of tradi tional lrnilding and the \'aluc ofcraftsrnanship. ln addition to the aim of the Art \Vorkers' Cuild to bring together craftsmen in the arts, its hwi/; Uuwl \\'right I /867-1959) architect members particularlv \\',mtcd to bring crafi and the arts hack Fip;,8 Rowing Boat H ouse, together again itt building, University of Wisconsin Boat Club The three most influential architects of the English Arts and Crafts (Yahara Boat Club), Madiwn, Wis l\lmement \\tTe Baille Scott, \\'ho sulJscrihcd lo the ,trtistic aspect, of consin, 1902, as publi,hed in the '.\lm'elllent: the Scottish architect Charles Rennie 1\lackintosh, \\ ho Ausgefuhrte Bauten und Entwurfe subscribed to the progrcssi1e nature o!'the Movement: and Echrin von Frank L loyd Wright(Berlin' Ernst Wasmuth, 1910), vol, 2, Lut\ ens ( 18ti~)-El--J---l-), I\ ho subscribed to its picturesque romanticisnL pl, 55 , The influence of the English Arts ancl C:ralts '.\lmTment quickly spread to the llttited States, and across America architects adopted the l\[m·e The influence of Frank Lloyd Wrights mcnt\ philosophv, Tn Chicago, the in£Juence took hold in the \\'Ork of architecture has been international, Louis Sulli,an, and in the Prairie School as seen in the work of Frank due in Largepart to the overwhelming Llmd Wright. William Drummot1 14 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY By !<)14a re, ·olution had taken place in architecture and a number of (draw/111; 110.1. 72-82) diflerent architecL, in different countries had succeeded in creating a manner of building that was independent of past st\ les. \\'alter Gropius's facton of Ell I-I I, the Fagus Works at Allele! in Cerrnarn, has often been cited as the !irst example of the new International \!oclcrn mm ·ement, but there are other examples of seminal work from around the world: Frank Lloyd Wright's houses in the 1890s in Chicago and his 1902 Yahara Roat Club (see no. 72 and fig. 8) in V\'isconsin; Ton: Carnicr's Cite lmlustriellc from 1904; the works ofJoscph Hollinan and Adolf Loos in Vienna; and Peter lkhrens 's 1\)09 turbine factory in Berlin. The buildings of the new style were generally characteri1ed h\' their unrelincdly cubic shapes and ,,hite colm: They were intended to be built of machine-made materials and to express their function in their form; they ,m>ided relcrences to motifs of the past-period detail, classical columns. or pitched roofs. One or the icons of the Inter national Style was \fies van der Robe's design for the ne\r campus at the Illinois Institute oflechnolog) featuring spare , rectilinear steel and glass buildings , such as the Libra1) and Administration Building or 1\)44 (no. 78). Details of the building arc featured in a published ,·iew in Ludwig Mies van der Rohe: /)rawing1 i11Thr ,\luseurn of Modem Ari, (sec !ig. 9). It has been said that the new architecture was distinguished b, · a "new sense of space and the machine aesthetic'.' In addition, through easier travel, the spread of cheap printing, and a 11·ell-illustratcd tech nical press , architecture became international. In spite of this revolution in design and rhc on'nd1elming Ludwig ,\lies van d1'r Rohe (1886- dominance of the International Style, the 11,entierh centur~, like any 1969) other period in histOJ) , has also seen a succession ofdi!krcnt st: les, Fig. 9 Perspectiveview of comer, each with their national characteristics. The most recent of these is Library Administration Building, termed "Post \lodernism:· :\ distaste for the "banality" of l\.!odern archi Illinois Institute of Technology, tecture in 1964 led to.James Stirling's design for the History Bu ilding at Chicago, 1944 (unexecuted),as pub Cambridge University (no. 80). This approach led to an architecture lished in Ludwig Mies van der Rohe: that became freer in its forms. I-lowcw1; in the 1970s it led to an era of Drawings in the Collection of The revivals. The Modern movc1nent was thought to be ,-itan end: instead Museum of Modem Art (New York: architects incorporated historicist and picturesque clements into their The Museum of Modem Art, 1969), work; housing became smaller in scale and brick respectable. This Post pl. 30. Modernism of the mid l 15