GUINEA-BISSAU Part I: the Colonial Experience by Barbara Harrell-Bond and Sarah Forer

GUINEA-BISSAU Part I: The Colonial Experience by Barbara Harrell-Bond and Sarah Forer

In a three-part series, the author explores conditions in this small sub-Saharan nation that led Portugal to impose and then oerpetuate weak colonial rule. Fragmented pnd impoverished, Guinea-Bissau had few bdvantages at Independence except the onds forged in the antlcolon~alstruggle. The American Universities Field INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS American Staff, Inc.,founded in 1951, is a non- University of Alabama profit, membership corporation of Brown University American educational institutions. It Universities employs a full-time staff of foreign California State area specialists who write from UniversityIFullerton abroad and make periodic visits to California State Field Staff member institutions. AUFS serves UniversityINorthridge the public through its seminar pro- Dartmouth College grams, films, and wide-ranging pub- Indiana University lications on significant develop- for Shipboard ments in foreign societies. Education University of Kansas Michigan State University University of Pittsburgh Ramapo College of New Jersey Utah State University University of Wisconsin System

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THE AUTHOR BARBARA E. HARRELL-BOND is a the Afrika-Studiecentrum, Leiden. Ap- social anthropologist who has conducted pointed a Senior Research Fellow at the research in England and in West Africa. School of Law, University of Warwick, in Her special interests are family, urban 1976, Dr. Harrell-Bond joined the Field problems, law, and the history of the irn- Staff in 1978 to report on West Africa. position of alien law in colonial Africa. She received a B. Litt. and D. Phil. in anthropology from the University of Oxford. Her publications include Modern Marriage in Sierra Leone: A Study of the Professional Group and Community Leadership and the Transformation of Freetown (1801-19761, the latter being co-researched and written with two historians, Dr. Allan Howard and Dr. David Skinner. She has also published widely in academic journals, lectured in a number of universities including the Uni- versity of Illinois (Urbana), the University of Helsinki, and the University of 1981,American Universities Field Warsaw, and was a Visiting Scholar at Staff, Hanover, NH by Barbara Harrell-Bond and GUINEA-BISSAU Sarah Forer Part I: The Colonial Experience [BHB-3-'811

During the night of Friday, Novem- recent severe shortages of rice-the strategy emphasizing social justice ber 14, 1980, tanks moved through staple food of the Guinean people. and a fair distribution of benefits. the streets of the capital city of Bottles of imported alcohol graced Bissau and soldiers went round the store shelves but essential pro- This, the first of three Reports, will warning the populace not to leave visions were not available. Accusa- look at the colonial history of their homes: a coup dfQtathad just tions of corruption had been leveled Guinea-Bissau. Part II will describe ousted Luis Cabral, President of the against Luis Cabral and the Volvo- the development of the nationalist Republic of Guinea-Bissau since its driving, Paris-garbed bureaucrats of movement, the ideology of Amilcar establishment as an independent his regime. Cabral, its leader, and the armed state more than seven years before. struggle which began in 1963. Part Cabral, a mestizo (whose father Cabral, holidaying at the time on Ill will discuss the experiences and came from the neighboring Cape Bubaque, an offshore island, was problems of the country since inde- Verde Islands) in 1956 co-founded, put under house arrest. Two senior pendence.' members of the government who with his half brother Amilcar Cabral, Portugal's "Empire" the Guinean nationalist party, PAIGC resisted the takeover were killed, and a third, injured, sought asylum When Portuguese navigators and (Partido Africano de Independencia sailors, probably in 1446, first de Guine e Cabo Verde, the African in the Swedish Embassy. The inter- national press carried reports of sighted the green and swampy Party for the Independence of coast of present-day Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Cape Verde). demonstrations in the streets of Bissau celebrating the overthrow of they were no doubt unaware of the The coup (which is discussed in Cabral's government. fact that they were beginning to lay detail in Part Ill of this series of Re- the foundations of an international ports) was led by the country's Though circumstances surrounding economic and political system that Prime Minister and an important the coup remain unclear, one thing more than five hundred years later leader in the PAIGC, Jose Bernardo is fairly certain-it at least brought would still continue to dominate the Vieira ("General Nino"), a native a temporary halt to moves to unite lives of the majority of the world's Guinean. Nino, already regarded by Guinea-Bissau and the Cape Verde inhabitants. . .. Nor did the Portu- his fellow-countrymen as a legen- Islands. (Bothcountries had suffered guese sailors realize that the land dary figure at the age of 41, had from and fought together against they were about to "discover" earned his reputation as one of the Portuguese colonial rule, which had would not only be among the very chief guerrilla leaders of the PAIGC lasted more than 500 years.) first included in this world system during the II-year liberation struggle yet to be born, but also be among against Portugal. The coup had Guinea-Bissau was one of the first the very last to be forced to belong been carefully timed: many leading countries in sub-Saharan Africa to to it in its classical form of direct members of the government were achieve independence from its colo- colonialism. 2 nial rulers through guerrilla warfare. out of the country and the atmos- While most accounts credit Portugal phere was tense in the wake of the As the PAIGC gained control of with being the first "colonial power" parts of the country during the war, in Africa, at least one demytholo- I spent time in Guinea-Bissau it had introduced into these areas an gizes its early adventures there: during July and August 1980. alternative social and economic Sarah Forer, an American study- structure which won it the support What is true is that the Portuguese ing for her master's degree in of the majority of the peasantry maritime pioneers achieved a trading economics at the University of before the war was over. Since inde- and raiding presence along the Paris, assisted in the research and pendence, the government of coast after the 1440s; in the Congo writing as an AUFS student Guinea-Bissau has been fairly suc- estuary and along the northern part intern. 1 am particularly grateful cessful in maintaining a policy of of the coast of Angola after 7480; for her work translating French nonalignment, and during its first and at a few points on Africa's sources. seven years of self-rule it has Indian Ocean seaboard.. .. This faint attempted a unique development early presence they were gradually A relic of the early days of slaving, part of the fort at Cacheu.

interests in Portugal could no longer protect their trading monopoly be- cause of the occupation of the mainland by Spain from 1580 to 1640. Cape Verde was "a sort of first edition of the American colonies.. . [which] enjoyed a period of splendor at the beginning of Portuguese mer- cantile capitalism in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, before entering a decline with the rise of the Antilles and Brazil." As the Dutch gained control of a substantial portion of the Asian trade, followed by the French and the English, the focus of the Portu- guese trading empire shifted from the west coast of Africa to Angola and Brazil. Moreover, during the six- teenth century, relatively few Portu- guese- perhaps 10,000-manned the overseas empire. Portugal itself was ill-served by the capital its able to transform into permanent he granted the King of Portugal and overseas territories yielded. Rather emplacements and small trading his successors "the monopoly of the than developing the home economy, settlements. trade with the inhabitants of the either manufacturing or agriculture, newly-discovered regions," al- capital flowed through Lisbon and .. . Portugal cannot be said to have though he forbade them to sell arms into Holland and England and even, wielded any real control over these to the "enemies of the Faith."4The in the case of Brazil, to other colo- territories until late in the nineteenth quest for gold from the Guinea nies. The west coast of Africa con- century, or even, for regions far coast, as well as other trade, led to tinued to be a rich source of slaves, from their main bases, until early in the establishment of a series of but Angola became Portugal's main the twentieth. This weakness de- trading centers and forts along the source of manpower for the planta- rived partly from the industrial and African coasts, and forts on the east tions and mines in its colony of technological backwardness of coast were built to protect the spice Brazil. Portugal itself, partly from the rivalry trade route to India and Indonesia. Although initially the slave trade of other imperial powers, and partly The slave trade became the principal from the strength of African king- relied on the application of force, activity of the Portuguese on the the Portuguese soon established doms and politics which faced and west coast of Africa after they had trading partnerships and coalitions long resisted Portuguese invasion. developed sugar plantations in with local individuals and groups In western Angola, for example, Madeira, S;o Tome, and Brazil. which supplied slaves. Before the there was almost continuous war- end of the sixteenth century there fare for nearly a hundred years after 1575.3 The uninhabited islands of Cape were at least ten such trading points Verde were systematically settled by between Cape Verde and the Sierra Some historians regard the cru- the Portuguese in the fifteenth cen- Leone River. Resident Portuguese sading zeal of the Portuguese and tury as an outpost for their mercan- traders, lanfados, entered into close their search for "Prester John" as tile activities. Cape Verde served as relationships with the local people the chief motives for this small and a base for slaving operations and for and often intermarried. Missionaries chronically poor country setting sail the production of cotton and textiles were also active in th% area. These around the world. Prester John, a which were exchanged with Afri- lan~ados(or tangomaos, as they mythical potentate, was thought to cans for slaves and other products. were also called) were "private be the ruler of a Christian kingdom, Some evidence suggests that the traders who resided in Guinea vaguely located in an area that was Portuguese encouraged intermar- against repeated prohibitions, pro- sometimes defined to include Ethi- riage between their settlers and viding a ready means of evading the opia and East Africa and some of Africans from the Guinea coast, attempted Portuguese monopoly of Asia. However, the evidence clearly which resulted over the centuries in trade."6~s early as 1466, Cape shows that such religious motives the development of a distinct, Verde had its first charter from the were only a thin disguise for com- catholicized Cape Verdean mestizo Portuguese Crown which, in addi- mercial motives. Even the Pope population. Until 1530 the Portu- tion to providing a judiciary and a recognized the economic impor- guese enjoyed a monopoly of revenue department, granted exclu- tance of spreading the gospel when commerce in the area. Thereafter, sive rights over the Africans resident

in the islands and license to trade on during the seventeenth and eight- in Guinea-Bissau was limited to the the mainland. By residing on the eenth centuries. The region which coast, which in 1836 was made a mainland, the lan~adoswere able to the Portuguese called "Guinea of district under the general govern- avoid paying taxes, and despite a Cape Verde" stretched from the ment of the Cape Verde Islands. The series of ferocious measures- in- Cape Verde Islands all the way to Portuguese constitution of 1838 cluding the threat of capital punish- what is today the Liberia-Sierra established that its overseas prov- ment - Portugal was unable to con- Leone border. This region had been inces would be governed by special trol the expansion of this commu- the preserve of the Portuguese laws passed in conformity with the nity of Portuguese and their families. traders settled on Cape Verde, but needs of the residents and suited to The lanqados lived under the rule of gradually British and French compe- their geographical situation and the African leaders, subject to the local tition reduced the Portuguese influ- conditions of their social environ- legal system, and cooperated with ence, and the Portuguese empire ment. the Africans in promoting free trade entered a period of further stagna- in the upper Guinea Coast. They tion. During the late eighteenth cen- A series of attempts had been made were joined by French, British, tury, the British founded their first to implant official representatives of German, and Dutch traders, who colony in Africa-Sierra Leone- the Portuguese government in also participated in the lively import- and in 1808 decided to enforce the Bissau, the first coming in 1614 export market in a variety of com- abolition of slavery on the coast of when an official of the Crown was modities besides gold and ivory. West Africa. This meant a direct appointed to serve in Cacheu. This Many Africans became fluent in confrontation with the Portuguese, effort, made to secure the revenue these European languages, but the only "colonial" power still which would result from a trading more commonly trade was facili- actively engaged in the slave trade. monopoly, led to direct confronta- tated by the development of Creole At the same time, the British wished tion with local Africans who were languages along the coast. Crioulo, to keep good relations with the determined to maintain free trade which is the lingua-franca in today's Portuguese, and sought Portuguese relations. Portuguese attempts to Guinea-Bissau, has its origins in this cooperation by suggesting that they prevent foreign ships from stopping period. confine their slaving activities to the in Bissau led to further serious set- east coast of Africa and Angola.7 backs in their relationship with the The Eighteenth Century local people; the King of Bissau The end of the seventeenth century The Nineteenth Century gave his personal guarantee of saw the Portuguese in dire financial The Napoleonic Wars in the early safety to ships sailing under other straits. Unlike England and France, nineteenth century had serious flags. In efforts to prevent the Portugal's imperialism never pro- effects on conditions within Portu- monopolization of trade, the Afri- vided the base for an industrialized gal. The invasion of Portugal by cans were joined by the langados. economy. Portugal had to import French troops resulted in diplomatic Portuguese attempts to preserve cereals and manufactured goods, pressure from the British for the sole authority over the area proved using its exports of sugar, tobacco, royal family to flee to Brazil. In 1808, ineffective and French, English, and salt, fruit, and wine to pay for these the family bowed to this pressure Dutch traders thrived. In May 1676, essentials. The Portuguese suffered and fled, escorted by British war- the first Company of Cacheu was from a perpetual balance of pay- ships. In 1822, Brazil declared its in- launched but its success was no ments problem', exporting primary dependence from Portugal, a loss greater, and its interests were later products and importing manufac- that led Portugal to abandon its sys- transferred to the island of Bissau. tured goods-a practice more tem of colonial monopoly; Brazil was In 1690, a second company called characteristic of a colony than of a thrown open to British trade and the "Company of Cacheu and Cabo colonial power. For example, the direct foreign influence. The loss of Verde" was established but its Treaty of Methuen with Britain, Brazil (the source of 80 to 90 percent efforts to control trade in the area signed in 1703, provided for prefer- of Portugal's colonial commerce) in- fared no better. ential rates for the import of Portu- creased Portugal's troubles, and the In 1869, Guinea-Bissau was divided guese wines in exchange for the country suffered internal instability into four districts. The administra- duty-free entry of British textiles. and economic hardship. In addition, the decline in Portugal's West tive centers, Cacheu, Bissau, The mid-eighteenth century found African trade due to pressure from Bolama, and Buba, were all located the Portuguese empire in a crisis Britain and France meant that on coastal estuaries. In 1878 Portu- which was due largely to declines in Portugal could no longer compete gal had already decided to occupy production of sugar, gold, and dia- successfully as a trading nation. Guinea-Bissau by force and to sub- monds from Brazil, the mainstay of Even its long-established grip on due the native population which had its tottering economy. Portugal was, such trading centers as Bissau was grown ever more hostile to the Por- however, able to capitalize tempo- temporarily lost to the British and tuguese presence. But the military rarily on markets in Europe which French who entered into their own was repelled in the north, at Bolor, were being neglected as a result of private agreements with local still only on the coast, and they were French and British involvement in notables. unable to move into the interior be- the American war of independence. cause of African resistance. In 1879, Portugal's influence on the west Portugal formally separated the Portugal's practice of establishing coast of Africa was limited to Cape administration of Guinea-Bissau trading centers on the coast of West Verde and Bissau. From 1834 they from that of the Cape Verde Islands Africa and building slave forts was were administered as a unit, al- and officially proclaimed Guinea- copied by the British and the French though the administrative presence Bissau to be its colony; its right to rule over Cape Verde had never The Twentieth Century included subsistence farming: "Only been questioned. Before World War I, however, the possession of sufficient cattle, Portugal had managed to consoli- or the cultivation of a significant Having been increasingly dependent date its rule through its struggles quantity of a cash crop provide[dl on Britain for manufactured goods against armed African resistance in exemption from the necessity to and capital ever since the 1703 its colonies of Angola, Mozambique, take another job."g(ln Mozam- Treaty, Portugal was forced to rely Guinea-Bissau, the ,Cape Verde bique, for example, this policy raised on British patronage for its place in Islands, and Sa"o Tome and Principe, workers for the mines in South the scramble for Africa. Conflicts two small islands off the coast of Africa, for the roads and plantations between Portugal, France, Belgium, Equatorial Guinea. of Mozambique itself, and for the Germany, and England over the cultivation of cotton destined for the Congo River area led in part to the In 191 I, the Portuguese government textile industry in Portugal.) The famous Berlin Conference at which, created a Ministry of Colonies to practice of exporting labor from in 1844-45, the areas of Rios da decentralize the administration of its Angola to Szo ~om6and Principe to Guin6 do Cabo Verde were formally overseas territories and enacted work on cocoa plantations became recognized by these powers as special laws to deal with each, a matter of international concern in Portuguese Guinea. The conference according to their "state of civiliza- the first years of this century. had been organized ostensibly to tion." Three years later, legislation Although the Portuguese claimed decide finally the boundaries of established special administrative that these workers were under con- European control in Africa, but the procedures for the native popula- tract as indentured servants, inter- scramble went on for much longer. tions separate from those con- views on board ships verified that The present boundaries of Guinea- trolling Portuguese citizens resident they were slaves, prompting the Bissau were not established until the in the colonies. European recog- Cadbury Chocolate_ Company in Franco-Portuguese Convention of nition and administrative procedures Britain to boycott Sao Tome cocoa. 1886. After the Berlin Conference, aside, the Portuguese continued to Portugal signed treaties with France face stiff resistance in their efforts to By 1910, Portugal had still not and Germany which recognized its "pacify" the natives of their terri- become an industrialized power. sovereignty in the territories that tories in Africa. The inability of the That year marked the end of the lay between Angola and Mozam- many ethnic communities in Guinea- monarchy and the beginning of the bique, thus threatening British inter- Bissau to unite against the invading tumultuous Portuguese Republic ests in the area which is now Zambia Portuguese forces meant that the which ended in a coup in 1926. and Zimbabwe. Britain objected, country was largely under Portu- During the intervening 16 years, noting Portugal's inability actually to guese control by 1915, although there was an average of one revolu- occupy these lands according to the sporadic outbreaks of armed revolt tion and 3 governments per year. terms of the Berlin Conference. continued until 1936. Only one of the elected presidents Portugal then sent expeditions to actually completed his 4-year term The colonial policies of the Portu- give military support to its claims, and more than 500 different people guese in all their territories were but Britain delivered Portugal an held cabinet positions. There were 9 oppressive in the extreme. Slavery ultimatum to withdraw, backing it presidents, 44 ministers, 25 up- was not officially abolished in Por- up by sending battleships toward risings, 3 dictatorships, and in the tuguese territories until Mozambique. Portugal was finally 1836-in last five years of the Republic, there some places it continued for another forced to sign a treaty limiting its were more than 300 bombings. territories in southern Africa to the 40 years. With abolition came present-day borders of Mozambique further stagnation of the plantation Behind this incredible instability lay and Angola. economy (for which Guinea-Bissau a number of factors. Portugal had, had supplied many slaves), and in in 1916, joined the Allies in World Spurred by the humiliation of the 1899, the Native Labor Regulations War I. This led to the accumulation British accusation of inability to were passed. Despite their legal of a staggering debt and conse- occupy their colonial territories dressing, these amounted to a quently the budget deficit for the effectively, the Portuguese set out system of forced labor. Echoing the 1918-19fiscal year was the worst in to transform their image of weak- capitalist myth of the freedom of the all Portugal's recorded history. In an ness. They began a series of military worker to choose his means of live- effort to rescue the economy, the operations against native resistance lihood, the regulation read: "All national currency, the escudo, was which find few parallels in colonial natives of Portuguese overseas devalued, but the effect was only to history for bloody and ruthless provinces are subject to the obliga- worsen the balance of trade. The brutality. The financial cost of these tion, moral and legal, of attempting right to strike was recognized in wars, added to Portugal's already to obtain through work the means 191 I, and worker unrest plagued the weakened economic state, led that they lack to subsist and to government from then on. In 1917, Britain and Germany to assume that better their social condition. They for example, there was an outbreak Portugal would be unable to solidify have full liberty to choose the of civil violence, food stores being its control in southern Africa, and in method of fulfilling this obligation, sacked by starving workers. 1921 1898 they entered into a secret but if they do not fulfill it, public was marked by another significant treaty by which they would have authority may force a fulfillment."8 outbreak of worker unrest. Even the shared out these two territories be- In other words, unemployment be- professional middle class, of which tween them had Portugal lost its came a crime and "unemployment" army officers formed an important tenuous hold. from the Portuguese point of view segment, saw their purchasing power severely curtailed; in fact, turned to cash-cropping in the nutritional standards of the their salaries were only slightly colonies, using forced labor. In 1840, peasants. higher than those of the workers. groundnuts (peanuts) had been suc- The country, growing more unstable cessfully introduced into Senegal by Other important changes were as the economic position and social the French and their cultivation occurring in colonial administration mobility of the military-a major spread quickly in Guinea-Bissau to following the onset of the Salazar force in Portugal's politics-was the Bolama region. In the early part regime in Portugal. After the Berlin threatened, suffered under politi- of the twentieth century, there was Conference of 1884-85, Portugal's cians so inexperienced they were a rapid expansion of groundnut fragile hold over commerce in the inept even in the practice of corrup- cultivation, which required Portu- Guinea-Bissau region had been lost tion. guese colonial penetration into the to the Germans and the French, a interior. As has been noted, the price Portugal had to pay for its Fascism and the Colonies indigenes resisted and were put presence in Africa. It is therefore not The 1926 coup inaugurated a mili- down by armed force. The growing surprising that in 1927 more than 70 tary dictatorship. Dr. Antonio Sala- of groundnuts was at first optional, percent of exports from Guinea- zar's authoritarian rule began two but later on the companies were Bissau were destined for importa- years later when he was appointed able to force African peasants to tion into these two countries, while Minister of Finance and given produce this crop, the Lisbon gov- in turn, they exported manufactured control of the budget of every min- ernment cooperating with the large goods to Guinea-Bissau. Conse- istry. The transformation of the Por- companies by making colonial ad- quently, by the early 1930s, Portugal tuguese government into a fascist ministrators responsible for insuring was largely a functionary serving the regime occurred over the next few production. Local Portuguese mer- interests of France and Germany. years, and this regime survived until chants and farmers also benefited Such a relationship was unaccept- 1974. The new government com- from this system of control, the able to Salazar's nationalist govern- prised a coalition of the military and merchants serving as middlemen in ment. Further, business interests in the Catholic Church, together with the purchase of groundnuts, and the Portugal were determined to bring banking and other financial inter- settled Portuguese farmers acquir- the country into the twentieth ests, including large landowners ing access to labor. The classical century by industrializing the econ- (the Church was one of the largest), method of drawing African farmers omy, and this required wealth and and large commercial cartels. Sala- into cash-cropping through taxes raw materials. For these Portugal zar relied on these traditional institu- was thus only one of the repertoire was dependent on its overseas tions and sought to rally the of methods which was applied to possessions. populace around the slogan "Faith, the colonies. The Portuguese in In an effort to reassert Portugal's Family and Work" to justify his Guinea-Bissau had managed to take oppressive authority over a disinte- hegemony, legislation was passed in advantage of the hierarchical Islam- 1926 which once more designated grating society consisting largely of ized societies present and had gone illiterate peasants. Poverty and Angola and Mozambique as Portu- so far as to introduce white Portu- guese colonies. This proclamation political oppression made emigra- guese chiefs into some of these tion to the colonies and other parts was extended to Guinea-Bissau the groups. Where more subtle methods following year. Salazar, who had of the world a widespread phe- failed, the commercial interests of nomenon. briefly been Overseas Minister but the Portuguese in groundnut and had never set foot in any of the Salazar's government also ushered palm oil production were imposed at Portuguese colonial territories, cre- in a distinct change in colonial gunpoint. (In other colonies, local ated a new type of administration policy; for the first time, colonial African chiefs were co-opted and for them, detailed in the Colonial exploitation was organized system- taxes collected in the form of pro- Act of 1930. Lisbon was declared atically. Portuguese companies were duce. In parts of Mozambique, for the center of control of the overseas granted preferential tariff systems in example, a man was required to pay provinces, and all policy decisions the overseas holdings. Capitalizing 100 pounds and a woman 50 pounds concerning the colonies would be on this advantage, the companies of cotton per year; failure was pun- made by the central government in established stores in the colonies ished with a method of torture Portugal, minor affairs being de- where peasants who had never had involving beating the hand with a cided by the Overseas Ministry. This a monetary system traded their pro- small stick called the palmatoria, an legislation also included a provision duce for coupons. With these instrument of discipline in Postu- for differing personal law for two coupons, they were forced to buy guese schools.) categories of inha,bitants of the basic subsistence foodstuffs, which colonies. One, ind~genos,included formerly they had produced before Thus, instead of being able to con- the majority Af/rican population; the colonization on communally owned centrate on growing their own sub- other, do-ind~genos,applied to the land for their own consumption. It sistence foods, African farmers whites, the mestizos and the assimi- might well be asked why it was that were forced, in a variety of ways, to lados, who were regarded as citizens African peasant farmers were un- concentrate on cash crops, render- of Portugal, distinctions of great able at this time to feed themselves. ing them victims of the commercial importance for Portugal's colonial companies which were expanding policy. The ending of the slave trade in the their exploitation of the economies nineteenth century had seriously of the colonies. Cash-cropping soon In 1933, along with a new constitu- damaged the bank accounts of Por- reduced the variety of foodstuffs tion for Portugal, known as the New tuguese merchants, and they had grown and adversely affected the State, the Organic Charter of the Portuguese Colonial Empire was tions over the Azores were pro- nomic Co-operation in 1947 and promulgated. This included admin- longed. Anxious to deflect stories sought Marshall Plan aid in 1948. istrative reforms which essentially carried in the American press which The North Atlantic Treaty Organiza- limited the decentralization pro- had labeled Salazar a fascist, tion was founded the following year, visions of 1911. One of the most George Kennan -the man respon- and Portugal was included in its important aspects of the Organic sible for these negotiations with membership. Although French Charter was its attempt to provide a Portugal-refers to him in his colonies in North Africa were in- legal base for the re-establishment memoirs as a "man of principle."lO cluded as members, there was no of Portugal's lost commercial There is little indication that the U.S. mention in the treaty of Portugal's monopoly. Protective tariffs were was, at this time, overly concerned colonies. Portugal's depleted econ- introduced to insure Portuguese with Portugal's "domestic dictator- omy left it with nothing to con- shipping a monopoly for transport- ship or any future self-determination tribute to the alliance or, of course, ing materials moving between for [its]. . .colonies," U.S. lack of to the economic interests of the colonies and Lisbon. Given the im- interest in Africa per se being newly formed committee of Euro- position of such disadvantageous demonstrated by the fact that at the pean cooperation. The primary terms, merchants from France and time there was not even a bureau of interest that Portugal presented to Germany began to withdraw from African affairs in the State Depart- the founders of NATO was the Guinea-Bissau. Raw materials were ment. Azores Islands, which were crucial exported from the colonies to Portu- in Cold War defensive strategy. gal, refined, and then resold. The [ The U.S. I. .. interests in the Azores Military aid from the United States elimination of French and German for strategic military purposes to Portugal began in 1951 and a new competition meant that the terms of shaped postwar relations with Por- agreement, granting more extensive trade for the Africans in the colonies tugal and affected international re- base rights in the Azores, was also worsened, as Portugal, with its lations. Such determination of signed. Substantial portions of the monopoly control, was able to policy by military and security Portuguese military forces were thus impose prices lower than world interest alone may perhaps be dis- American-trained and equipped. market prices. Purchases of cash illusioning to idealists fresh from the Most American aid to Portugal was crops in Guinea-Bissau were con- reading of the Atlantic Charter, or spent with an eye to European de- trolled by middlemen. The peasants still steeped in similar passages from fensive orientations, but some went remained outside the imposed their high school history textbooks. on "such projects as the highway monetary system, yet were totally But it is hardly surprising in view of from the Genguela Railway to dominated by it. Growing only rice the general trends of American Chingola, the port at Lobito, or the for their own consumption and de- policy. The applicability of such runway in Vila Luso. In 1953 a loan livering palm nuts and groundnuts ideals [as decolonizationl has been was made to Rhodesia and Portugal for the export market, their other severely selective: confined to which paid for the rail link from food needs were inadequately met where political forces have com- Rhodesia to Lourenco Marques" 12. by the coupon system. pelled them to be taken into (This particular investment insured account, or where they could be transport of crude oil to Salisbury Portugal and NATO profitably employed against an long after international sanctions Portugal's allegiance in World War I1 opponent. 11 against the Rhodesian government became a matter of Allied concern Thus, the Dutch for example, found had been imposed.) Good relations when its Azores Islands located in with Portugal continued with a new the North Atlantic proved strategi- themselves under the pressure of "American anticolonialism" when it agreement over the Azores signed in cally important in the war against 1962. Americans neither challenged Germany. Even before Portugal had appeared that a policy of withdrawal was the only tactic that would pre- Portugal's colonial policies nor its stopped exporting vital war mate- dictatorship, and indeed the United rials to Germany, the British had serve Indonesia (and Southeast Asia in general) from communism. States supported Portugal's bid to established an air base in the Roosevelt's and Stalin's pressure on join the United Nations. Azores. The United States entered Churchill over British holdings was into negotiations for similar facili- Portugal and the United Nations similarly self-interested. The ties. In 1943, U.S. policy vacillated Organization absence of strong nationalist move- between considering taking the Portugal's first application to the ments in the Portuguese colonies at Azores by force, and complying United Nations was made in 1951. In the end of World War II meant that anticipation of the requirements for with the Portuguese demand that Portugal and its colonies remained acceptance, the Portuguese con- American military interests be re- largely untouched by the "winds of stitution was revised by removing moved immediately after the war change" which had begun to blow. the term "colony" as applied to their was over, with the United States American strategic concerns largely overseas holdings, and introducing assuring Portugal of support for its ignored Portugal and Africa as a sovereignty over its empire. Amer- whole, excepting the Azores. the nomenclature "overseas prov- ica's attitude toward Portugal was inces." Lisbon's new rhetoric de- complicated by Portugal's known The defeat of Germany found Por- fended the notion of "political unity fascist regime and oppressive colo- tugal re-establishing its important and economic solidarity of all the nial policy. Salazar, a committed economic links with Britain and Portuguese territories" and of "the nationalist, disliked any act which other European powers. The Portu- spiritual assimilation of the non- smacked of infringement on Portu- guese government participated in metropolitan populations." The guese sovereignty, and the negotia- the Committee of European Eco- legislation stated that the overseas provinces were now an integral part administrators were recruited from and the Native Statute ?f 1954 dis- of the "motherland." Provision was the assimilado population of Cape tinguished between ind~genasand made for the appointment of depu- Verde. Guinea-Bissau, integrated assimilados. The former included all ties from these provinces to the into the centralized judicial system those who had not fully assimilated Portuguese parliament, and the of Lisbon, became a subdistrict. The the Portuguese language and "civ- franchise was extended to those new institutions and rules gave only ilization." Only assimilados could Africans of "civilized status," apparent consideration to the mul- exercise the few democratic rights according to the Portuguese defini- tiplicity of indigenous laws, and, as granted the people of Guinea, which tion, less than one percent of the noted above, legislation distin- included the right to vote for mem- black population. Upon this legisla- guished between two types of bers of the National Assembly in tion Portugal hoped to base its claim citizens. Natives were subject to a Lisbon or for members of the Gov- that it did not control any non-self- municipal court system-only the ernment Council in Bissau. "Less governing territories. Portuguese and assimilados (0.3% than four-tenths of one percent of of the population) resident in the Africa population was classified In 1955, Portugal was admitted to Guinea-Bissau had the right to as assimilado during the 1950s. This the United Nations as part of a deal appeal to Lisbon. figure gives the true measure of with the Soviet Union, in which democra~yin colonial Guinea."l4 each camp of the Cold War was Although it has been widely be- An ind~gena could become an granted the admission of several lieved that Portugal's colonial policy assimilado only if he fulfilled a set of new members. When an attempt to in Africa lacked a "color conscious- requirements: these included the apply the United Nations' require- ness," color was certainly one of the ability to speak Portuguese, being ment that members report on con- most important diacritical class over 18, holding a job which pro- ditions of nonself-governing terri- marks. It has already been noted vided sufficient income to support tories was made in 1956, Portugal that, very early, individual Portu- him and his family, having a record asserted that it had no such posses- guese traders intermarried with of good conduct, having attained a sions. During the years following Africans along the coast, and a there were a number of debates on number of important African fam- certain level of education and "habits which are a condition for the the status of Portugal's provinces, ilies today have their roots in these and in the late 1960s, the United early unions. Many mulatto children unrestricted application of the pub- Nations passed several resolutions were educated in Europe and served lic and private law," and having proof that he had never refused to condemning Portugal's practices in as agents and factors for the mer- perform military service or deserted its colonies. These pressures had cantile interests of the companies it. Feflecting the implication that the little effect on the internal politics of operating on the west coast of ind~genawas "uncivilized," census Portugal (despite protests which Africa. At times there were voices in figures up to 1959 categorized the came from movements within the Portugal which protested against population as civilizado and do- country), nor did they shake the such assimilation into African soci- civilizado. support of Portugal's Western allies. ety. The Church was primarily con- cerned about baptism and conver- By 1961, however, events had taken Most important, the United Nations sion, and the government was a slightly different direction. A series report from which the statement of always upset about its loss of of international incidents resulted in the7e rules derive, noted that the revenue due to the ability of these the "Third World" becoming a new indlgena status also carried with it battlefield for power and influence. groups, which had strong contacts economic and social implications with indigenous leaders, to circum- Within Angola, armed revolt had through the operation of the labor broken out and the U.S. administra- vent their financial obligations to the laws which "frequently subjected tion revised its policy toward Portu- Crown. him to forced labor both for public works and private enterprises." As a gal and its colonies. At a meeting of Portuguese racial prejudice is not as result of international pressure the Security Council on March 15, closely tied to the idea of race, as following the UN's exposure of 1961, a draft resolution was intro- such, as is the racism of northern Portugal's discriminatory plural legal duced which called on Portugal to Europeans. Nor is its expression un- system, the Native Statute of 1954 introduce the reforms which had ambiguous. But it clearly exists. And was repealed along with the intro- been part of the previous year's the scorn for Africans inherent in duction of other so-called reforms. resolution. Although no members the Portuguese attitudes can be In 1961 the African inhabitants were voted against this resolution, it seen in the very mechanism which is formally recognized as Portuguese failed, with six abstentions against proposed for attaining the "multi- five positive votes. The United citizens, although their private or racial" unity of the Portuguese personal law remained tied to the States voted in favor. nation. That mechanism is assimila- indigenous systems. Language and Reforms and Assirnilado Status tion: not through the creation of the "cultural" criteria were dropped some new culture, but through be- The year in which Portugal became from citizenship requirements and coming Portuguese, absorbing Por- a full member of the United Nations schools were opened to black tuguese culture and language. 13 marked another change in the ad- children. Labor reform legislation ministration of Guinea-Bissau. A The distinction between different was passed, although in practice it new judicial and administrative sys- types of citizens had existed in prac- had relatively little effect upon the tem was introduced and placed tice for some time and, formally, it lot of the majority of Africans. The under the control of the bureaucrats had already been introduced under preamble to the reformed labor law stationed in the country. These the Colonial Act of 1930. This law sounds like an admission of guilt The cathedral in Bissau.

The courthouse in Bissau.

A section of the main highway to Bafata. The Portuguese did not encourage edu- cation as every hand was needed for the growing of cash crops for export. All the agricultural work was done by manual labor and even today most farming is done by hand labor.

Cattle grazing in the eastern part of Guinea-Bissau.

Women at work plo wing a field. concerning the conditions of the that many new states were deter- In the Committee's view, the colonies: mined to pursue their own paths of reforms which Portugal claims to development without the guidance have introduced not only failed to All distinctions between ethnical or of their former colonial masters. meet the basic aspirations of the cultural groups have disappeared Support for "peaceful transforma- peoples of the territories for self- and in the future all workers, tion" from colonial status to inde- determination, but did not even whatever the ethnical or cultural pendence in Africa and elsewhere bring about any significant changes group to which they belong, shall be became the strategy for maintaining in political, economic, social, and subject to the same law; compulsory political, economic, and social con- educational conditions. Further, de- labor in any form is not permitted; trol over these emerging states. The spite so-called far-reaching reforms, no penal sanctions are provided for lesson of what had happened to many of the fundamental laws, as the nonfulfillment of labor contracts; Egypt was too painful and imme- well as the discriminatory status of there is no paternalistic guardian- diate to be ignored: Nasser's reac- the indigenous inhabitants, re- ship of workers; the recruitment of tion to the West's transgressions mained unchanged. workers through the intervention or against Egypt's sovereignty had with facilities granted b y the authori- raised the ugly specter of the Soviet The Committee noted that the ties is forbidden; there is no inter- menace as a force to be reckoned majority of the territories' inhabi- vention of the authorities in the with in dealings with nationalist tants could not have elected repre- elaboration of labor contracts. 15 movements elsewhere. At the time sentation in the territorial organs of Government since the right to vote The idea that a multi-ethnic Portugal of the UN resolution, 23 other still depended on both a literacy existed and that it stretched over former African colonies had already qualification [the ability to read and continents and oceans as a single won their independence (Egypt, the write Portuguese] and the payment entity was passed off as being the twenty-fourth, is often not counted of a minimum tax of 200 escudos. very opposite of apartheid theories as an "African state.") of racism. Portugal's pretense that The Committee further reported racial discrimination in its African The general policy followed by the that all the representatives of the possessions did not exist was part of colonial powers (excluding Portu- political parties which had been the same racist theory that included gal) resulted in a phenomenon heard, even those whose parties the euphemistic designation of its known as "neocolonialism," the were committed to direct action, for colonies as "overseas territories," maintenance of the colonial system example those in Angola - were pre- and its "system of assimilation." despite the legal transformation to pared to negotiate with Portugal on The distinctions between native and self-governance. It included eco- the actual transfer of power if Por- non-native peoples were maintained nomic, political, social, military, and tugal recognized the right of the by Portugal to be of a "cultural" not technological domination, and re- peoples to self-determination and a racial nature; the proof, it was quired the cultivation of a local elite independence.. .. said, lay in the process of assimila- which aligned its interests with those tion, whereby Africans who suc- of the imperialist power. In many The Committee found that it was cessfully fulfilled certain cultural cases, independence was contin- Portugal's continued insistence that requirements were treated on an gent upon agreement with consti- there could be no change in the equal footing with their white, tutional arrangements which status of the territories and the fellow countrymen. assured such binding ties. For Por- denial of the political aspirations of tugal, as we shall see in Part I1 of this the people that led them to despair Legal changes pertaining to local series, neocolonialism was not a of a peaceful solution. Therefore, government were also included in viable option. the Committee stressed that for these 1961-62 reforms introduced by Portugal the most urgent step for- Portugal. All these reforms were As part of its overall program to ward would be to recognize the formulated in response to increasing encourage decolonization, the UN right of peoples of the territories to pressure following the United set up a Special Committee on Terri- independence. 16 Nations General Assembly declara- tories Under Portuguese Adminis- tion of decolonization, Resolution tration. Because it continued to in- The United Nations Assembly 1514 (XV), of December 14, 1960. sist that its territories were an inte- shared the conclusions of this com- This declaration recognized the right grated part of Portugal, Lisbon re- mittee and on December 14, 1962, of independence and self-deter- fused to allow this committee even passed a resolution which con- mination of all colonized countries to visit its colonies in Africa. The demned Portugal's attitude, urging and peoples. special delegation from the United it to take steps to follow a recom- Nations was forced to conduct mendation that the rights to self- Decolonization interviews with refugees and local determination and independence be Support by Western powers for political officials of neighboring granted to its colonies. Furthermore, decolonization was a response to countries in order to ascertain the it called on Portugal to cease its acts the actual political situation of the conditions of life in the Portuguese of repression and grant uncondi- world. The Cold War had been colonies. They were charged to tional political amnesty. The UN intensified by the Soviet invasion of investigate in particular the effects stressed the importance of granting Hungary in 1956. The development of Portugal's so-called reforms of the free functioning of political of the nonaligned movement 1961. The committee reported back parties and proposed that Portugal stemming from the Conference of to the Assembly in the following negotiate with their representative Bandung in 1955 showed the West terms: institutions and immediately grant independence to all its territories. only 3.8 percent of children of pri- given to Portuguese interests that Portugal, relying on the implicit mary school age and 0.3 percent of have developed in our country support of its NATO allies, rejected children of secondary school age without being incompatible with the committee's report as unobjec- actually attending schools. With national sovereignty. This would tive and partial, and with its Legis- almost no mechanization of agricul- naturally be done without corn- lative Council reforms in 1963, set ture, every hand was required for promising the intransigent defense about erecting further justifications the production of cash crop quotas of the rights of the people of '%r- for denying self-government. demanded by the financial interests tuguese" Guinea. 17 which were exploiting the country. The Portuguese, unfortunately, ig- Guinea-Bissau after 1960 (The greater natural resources of nored the existence of the PAIGC, The colonial legal changes instituted Mozambique and Angola meant and did not listen to Amilcar in Guinea-Bissau after 1960 effected that the hardships associated with Cabral's words. Nor did they see the the following results. The country forced labor were even more pro- handwriting on the wall-the armed was divided into 12 subdivisions, 9 foundly felt. In these two colonies struggle began in early 1963. of them urban (called concelhos), mines were opened and the Portu- and 3 rural areas (circunscrico"es). guese established large plantations.) The system which the PAIGC and Below the level of the provincial other nationalist movements in the government in Bissau, local officials In both Angola and Guinea-Bissau, Portuguese colonies were attacking ruling these 12 subdivisions were political parties were officially has been described as "ultra-colo- appointed from Lisbon, and their formed in 1956 (Mozambique's nialism," the most primitive and liberation movement, FRELIMO, powers included both judicial and most extreme form of colonialism. 18 was founded in 1962 and a clandes- administrative functions. In the rural As a "colonial power," Portugal was tine movement was formed in Sa"o areas, where most of the population unique: like its colonies, Portugal ~om6and Principe in 1961 Initially, lived, control was exercised through 1. was itself stagnating in underdevel- the objectives of the PAIGC in chiefs who carried out the colonial opment. It suffered from a pre- policy. These chiefs were the tax Guinea-Bissau were to gain inde- pendence and self-determination by industrial infrastructure, with prop- collectors, the heads of police, and erty controlled by a feudal regime, were directly responsible to the peaceful means, and efforts were made to negotiate with the Portu- the military as the sovereign power, government for the maintenance of and a fascist government, the pre- order in the chiefdom. These func- guese government. Despite ex- amples of how irresistible were the cise conditions which determined tionaries worked with local leaders this phenomenon of "ultra-colo- who were themselves appointed by pressures from armed nationalist movements in such places as nialism." Internal pressures forced a the Portuguese and were their allies. shift in Salazar's policy toward a Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia more rapid industrialization within Amilcar Cabral, an agronomist and (Algeria and Tunisia having the founding member of the liberation Portugal, but this only exacerbated fearful word "socialist" in the titles the problems. In the colonies the movement (PAIGC), had himself of their newly independent states) made a thorough investigation of demands for capital and raw mate- and despite the several precedents rials increased and Portugal was the structure of colonial rule in where colonial powers had adopted also forced to relax its position on Guinea-Bissau and his report the "wisdom" of neocolonialism as multinational investment. Seriously accorded with the findings of the a policy for their colonies, Portugal dependent upon its NATO allies, United Nations Special Committee. remained intransigent. Yet, in a Portugal had neither the means nor But the formal descriptions of the declaration made in June 1961 to the manpower to protect its over- legal and administrative system or the Special Committee on Terri- seas interests against the revindica- even of Portugal's racist policies tories under Portuguese Adminis- tions of African nationalism-except vis-3-vis the African population do tration, Amilcar Cabral still held out through bullets and napalm. not begin to describe the extremes the offer to talk: of oppression and human suffering (May 1981 which were being endured in The people of '%rtugueser' Guinea Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea- are convinced that it is not yet too Bissau. The life expectancy in late for reason to triumph, and they Guinea-Bissau, estimated between are therefore always prepared to 35 and 38 years today, continues to negotiate, through their legitimate be among the lowest in the world. representatives, with the Portu- Infant mortality was admitted to be guese government in order to estab- 40 percent and, in certain areas, up lish the forms of peaceful liquidation to 80 percent. The population suf- of Portuguese colonial domination fered from the typical disease pat- and define the ways and means terns of the tropics but expenditure through which "Portuguese" for health services in 1960, accord- Guinea can accede to indepen- ing to a World Health Organization dence. report, amounted to only 32 escudos Revealing his understanding of per head (about $1.00). In the field political realities, he went on to say: of education Guinea-Bissau com- pared most unfavorably with the Under such circumstances it was neighboring African countries with obvious that consideration would be NOTES

1. Lusophone African studies have 3. Basil Davidson, "Recent History of 10. lbid., p. 39. been relatively neglected by scholars Angola," Africa South of the Sahara, outside Portugal. There are some com- 1978-9(London, 1978). 11. Ibid., p. 40. petent studies in English and French on 12. Ibid., p. 47. the early period of Portuguese contact 4. C.R. Boxer, Four Centuries of Por- with Africa, based on colonial records tuguese Expansion 1415- 1825: A Suc- 13. Ibid., p. 20. and oral traditions, but from the eight- cinct Survey (Johannesburg, 19611, 14. Rudebeck, Guinea Bissau: A eenth century onward there are fewer pp. 7-8. Study. . ., p. 22 studies. Moreover, without a knowledge 5. S. Amin, Neo-Colonialism in West of Portuguese, one's understanding of Africa (Baltimore, Md.: Penguin Books, 15. lbid., p. 23. internal conditions in Portugal which had 19731, p. xvii. a direct effect upon its colonies is limited. 16.Quoted from A Principle in Torment I/. There are English and French studies on 6. W. Rodney, A History of the Upper The United Nations and Portuguese the subject but Portuguese scholars are Guinea Coast 1545 to 1800 (Oxford, Administered Territories, in Rudebeck, not entirely satisfied with their interpreta- 1970).p. 75. Guinea Bissau: A Study.. . . tion of the situation. This is particularly 7. Letter from Zachary Macaulay to 17. Rudebeck, Guinea Bissau: A true of books and articles about Lord Castlereagh, May 8, 1807 Study.. ., p. 46. twentieth century Portugal and its ( C0/267/24). colonial relations. 18. Perry Anderson, Le Portugaletla fin 8. N. Bruce, Portugal: The Last Empire de L'dtra-colonialisme (Paris, 1962), (Vancouver, 19751, p. 60. p. 18. 2. L. Rudebeck, Guinea-Bissau: A 9. W. Minter, Portuguese Africa and Study of Political Mobilization ( U ppsala, the West (Baltimore, Md.: Penguin 19741, p. 3. Books, 1972).

NOTE ON SOURCES

Much of the history of Portuguese Rudebeck, L. Guinea-Bissau: A Study Cabral, Amilcar. Revolution in Guinea involvement in Guinea-Bissau in this of Political Mobilization (Uppsala, (London, 1969). series of Reports was drawn from: -.Unity and Struggle (London, Amin, S. Neo-Colonialism in West 1980). Africa (Baltimore, Md.: Penguin The references provided Cabral, Luis, Strategy in Guinea-Bissau, material for this series and may be of in- Books, 1973). (London, 1979). terest to those seeking further informa- Boxer, C.R. Four Centuries of Portu- tion on Guinea-Bissau: Campbell, B.K. Liberation nationale et guese Expansion 1475-1825: A Suc- construction du socialisme en Afrique cinct Survey (Johannesburg, ). 1961 Aaby, P. The State of Guinea-Bissau: (Ango/a/Guinea-Bissau/Mozambique) -.The Portuguese Seaborne Em- African Socialism or Socialism in (Montreal, 1977). pire 1475- 1825 (London, 1973). (Pro- Africa (Uppsala, 1978). Chabal, P. "The PAIGC: The Dilemmas vides a full discussion of Portugal's Abshire, D.M. and M.A. Samuels, eds. of continuity,,, West Africa, Decem- imperial system.) Portuguese Africa: A Handbook ber 22, 1980, Bruce, N. Portugal: The Last Empire (London, 1969). Chaliand, G. Armed Struggle in Africa: (Vancouver, 1975). African l nformation Service, ed. Return With the Guerrillas in to the Source: Selected Speeches of Davidson, Basil. "Cabral on the African G~;~~~(N~~york and ~~~d~~: 1969). Revolution," Monthly Review, vol. 31, Amilcar Cabral (New York and Lon- no. 3, 1979. don, 1973). Conchiglia, A. "Le Coup du 14 Minter, W. Portuguese Africa and the Anderson, Perry. Le Portugal et la fin de novembre," Afrique-Asie, Novem- ber West (Baltimore, Md.: Penguin l'ultra-colonialisme (Paris, 1963). 24,1980. Books, 1972). Andreini, J.-C. and M.-C Lambert. La . "Recent History of Angola," in Rodney, W. A History of the Upper Guin6e-Bissau: D'Amilcar Cabral a la Africa South of the Sahara, 1978-9 Guinea Coast 1543' to 7800 (Oxford, reconstruction nationale (Paris, 1978). (London, 1978). 1970). (Provides a detailed discussion Bailey, M. Oilgate: The Sanctions de Andrade, M. "Actualit6 de la pensee of relations between white traders and Scandal (London, 1979). politique d'Amilcar Cabrai," Afrique- the local African people and describes Asie, May26 - June8,1980. the gradual changes in them that Brandt Report. North-South: A Pro- occurred over the two centuries fol- gramme for Survival (London and . "Biographical Notes" in Cabral, lowing the Europeans' arrival.) Sydney: Pan Books, 1980). A. UnityandStruggle (London, 1980). Gibson, R. African Liberation Move- Toward Final Victory! (Richmond, Newspapers and Magazines ments: Contemporary Struggles Canada, 1974) Against White Minority Rule (London, Afrique-Asie, May 26-June 8, 1980; No- 1972). Louis, W.R. Imperialism at Bay 1947- vember 24,1980. 1945(0xford, 1972). Goulet, D. Looking at Guinea-Bissau: A Jeune Afrique, November 26,1980. New Nation's Development Strategy Malley, S. "Luiz Cabral: sur la br8che du (Washington, D.C., 1978). combat pour I'edification," Afrique- Le Monde, November 18, 19, and 20, Asie, May 26-June 8, 1980. 1980. Guine' Bissau: Recostruca"~ Nacional. (Boulogne, n.d.1. McCollester, C. "The Political Thought The Guardian, November 13, 17, 18,24, of Amilcar Cabral," Monthly Review, 29, and December 3 and 6,1980. Guide et Cap-Vert: Information Concp. vol. 24, no. 10, March 1973. (Algiers, 1970) The International Herald-Tribune, No- New African Yearbook 1980 (London, vember 18,1980. Hadjor, K.B. "The Revolution in Guinea- 1980). Bissau," Africa, April 1974. The Times, November 18,1980. Overseas Companies of Portugal, Fact West Africa, November 24, December Hair, P.E.H. "Sources on Early Sierra Sheet on Portuguese Guinea, (Lisbon, 15 and 22,1980. Leone," Africana Research Bulletin, 1974). vol. IV, Nos. 3,4; vol. V, nos. 1,2,4; vol. VI, nos. 1,2,3; vol. VII, nos. 1,2,; Tenaille, F. Les 56 Afriques. Guide polit- vol. Vlll, nos. 1,2,3; vol. IX, nos. 1,2. ique l/de A a L (Paris, 1979). Kamara, S. "Le revanche des Noirs," Urdang, S. Fighting Two Colonialisms: Jeune Afrique, November 26,1980. Women in Guinea-Bissau (London, 1979). Liberation Support Movement Informa- tion Center (publ.) Guinea-Bissau: