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COFFEE PESTS, DISEASES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT This page intentionally left blank COFFEE PESTS, DISEASES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT by J.M. Waller CAB International, Egham, Surrey, UK M. Bigger Lilac Cottage, Kingsland, Leominster, UK and R.J. Hillocks Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Medway Campus, Chatham, UK CABI is a trading name of CAB International CABI Head Office CABI North American Office Nosworthy Way 875 Massachusetts Avenue Wallingford 7th Floor Oxfordshire OX10 8DE Cambridge, MA 02139 UK USA Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 617 395 4056 Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 Fax: +1 617 354 6875 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.cabi.org © J.M. Waller, M. Bigger and R.J. Hillocks 2007. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK. A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress, Washington, DC. ISBN-10: 1 84593 129 7 ISBN-13: 978 1 84593 129 2 Typeset by Columns Design Ltd, Reading, UK Printed and bound in the UK by Biddles ?????? Contents Preface vii Part I Coffee as a Crop and Commodity 1 1 The Basics of the Coffee Crop 3 2 World Coffee Production 17 Part II Insect Pests and their Management 35 3 Stem- and Branch-borers 41 4 Berry-feeding Insects 68 5 Insects that Feed on Buds, Leaves, Green Shoots and Flowers 91 6 Root- and Collar-feeding Insects 145 Part III Diseases and their Management 169 7 Foliage and Shoot Diseases 171 8 Berry Disease 211 9 Wilt Diseases and Diseases of the Root and Stem 231 10 Nematodes 258 11 Nutrient Deficiencies and Physiological Disorders 277 v vi Contents Part IV Integrated Crop Management 289 12 Nursery Management, Transplantation and Crop Maintenance 291 13 Shade Management, Conservation and Biodiversity 310 14 Postharvest and Processing Pests and Microbial Problems 325 15 Integrated Pest Management and Pest Management Technologies 336 Appendix A Natural Enemies and Other Insects Associated with the Main Pest Species 361 Appendix B Pollination of Coffee 412 Index 423 Colour plate section can be found following p. 224 Preface There have been several texts dealing with general aspects of coffee cultivation and production during the last 20 years, but none has given a comprehensive coverage of pests and diseases. At a time when greater attention is being paid to environmental issues, both consumers and producers of coffee are becoming more concerned with the way that coffee is grown. Over the last three decades there has been a marked shift away from the reliance on pesticides for management of pest and diseases, towards a more integrated approach using a variety of methods. An understanding of the biology and ecology of pest and pathogens is essential for this process. As a tropical perennial crop, coffee has a wider environmental effect as it is grown in some of the world’s most ecologically sensitive regions. Not only can it act as a refuge for a large diversity of native fauna and flora, but it also helps to protect important watersheds of tropical montane areas, especially when grown under shade. Coffee is a primary export of many developing countries that rely to a greater or lesser extent on its foreign exchange earnings for financing essential imports and services. Any decline in coffee export earnings can therefore have major economic and political repercussions. Coffee has been subjected to the rigorous discipline of market forces, with depressed prices resulting from excess of production over demand, interspersed with short periods of high prices stimulated by temporary setbacks in production. Meanwhile the costs of inputs, such a transport, machinery, labour and materials, have continued to increase. The decreasing profit margins resulting from these opposing trends have forced coffee farmers to economize and this has often led to a reduction in the use of agricultural inputs necessary for optimal coffee production. The effects have been felt most by the millions of smallholder farmers who rely on coffee as their only or main cash crops and who lack financial resources and the possibilities of economy of scale. Resources allocated to crop protection have often been the first to be cut, and vii viii Preface this has added further pressure for more sustainable methods of pest management. Both economic forces and environmental pressures influence how coffee is grown. Pest and disease management forms an integral part of all coffee production systems, and a sustainable management system that can be integrated into the wider aspect of crop management cannot be achieved without knowledge of the biology and ecological interactions of pests, pathogens and their associated biota. The increasingly evident climatic changes that are now occurring will also affect the incidence and severity of pests and diseases, and a closer understanding of their biology should facilitate any changes that may be required in their management. Currently, there is a marked tendency for scientists to examine the intimate details of the biochemical and molecular aspects of organisms, and by those concerned with crop production to focus on socio-economic aspects. This book goes some way toward addressing the resulting imbalance by presenting a comprehensive account of the biology, effects and management of coffee pest and pathogens. The book will be useful to students of tropical agriculture, agriculturalists and extensionists, and those with an interest in crop protection and the incorporation of sustainable pest management into integrated crop management systems. We are indebted to the following: Professor Dr Michael S. Engel, Natural History Museum, University of Kansas, USA, for advice and help on the taxonomy of bee species involved in the pollination of coffee; Dr D.J. Williams for reading the section on root mealybugs and for providing useful comments; Dr M. Shaffer, Natural History Museum, London, for information on the geographical distribution of Prophantis and Thliptoceras species; Dr Julio Ferrer, Swedish Museum of Natural History, for information on the African species of Gonocephalus; Dr Peter Baker, CABI Europe-UK, for initial review and provision of information; Dr Mike Rutherford, CABI Europe-UK, for help with photographic material; and the UK Department for International Development’s Crop Protection Programme for covering the cost of the colour plates (under Project R8423). I Coffee as a Crop and Commodity The origins of the coffee crop can be traced back to the Ethiopian highlands for Coffea arabica (arabica), and the forests of West and Central Africa for C. canephora (robusta). The earliest records of its use as a beverage seem to be from the Yemen in the 14th century, from where it spread to other Middle Eastern countries in the 15th century and across the Arabian Sea to India. European traders subsequently took coffee seeds to other parts of Asia, Africa and eventually to South America, where the crop flourished in the absence of many of its major pests and diseases. As a perennial plantation crop with a good export market and suitable for cultivation in cleared forest areas, coffee was well suited to the needs of colonial settlers. By the early 20th century, Brazil was the biggest producer and international trade in coffee grew to become a multimillion dollar industry. Coffee is today grown in more than 60 tropical countries of the world and accounts for a significant part of the foreign exchange earnings of many. Coffee-growing is predominantly a smallholder enterprise throughout the world and the crop is grown on over 11 million ha worldwide. An estimated 25 million farmers depend on coffee for their livelihoods, even though smallholders often receive less than 5% of the retail value of a cup of coffee in Europe or North America. The international coffee market has been subjected to large price fluctuation due to variations in supply and demand, and it is the poorest rural communities who are most affected by unstable world prices. The collapse of the quota system of the International Coffee Agreement in 1989 resulted in large price fluctuations and, with large-scale planting in Vietnam, led eventually to overproduction by the turn of the century, followed by a rapid fall in the world price to reach a 30-year low in 2003. This slump in the world coffee price has had an adverse effect on the livelihoods of millions of smallholders in many of the least developed countries. Many of the international aid organizations such as Oxfam and Christian Aid have developed action plans to 1 2 Part I assist poor farmers around the world who have been thrown back into poverty by the crisis. The International Coffee Organisation (ICO) is addressing the issue of overproduction by promoting coffee consumption in emerging economies and through the Coffee Quality Improvement Programme (CQP). The CQP seeks the withdrawal from the market of poor-quality coffee that does not meet the minimum standards. Participation in the CQP is voluntary. From October 2002, the minimum export standard has been that there should be not more than 86 defective beans in a sample of 300 g, which must also meet required moisture content levels to prevent fungal growth that leads to mycotoxin contamination. The effects of new plantings and investments in coffee during the period when prices were high are still expected to keep production above consumption for some time to come. However, if world consumption can continue to rise by 1.5–2% each year and the CQP is widely adhered to, the medium-term commodity outlook is more optimistic, a view supported by some recovery of prices since 2004.