““TheThe wordword sciencescience waswas prominentprominent inin PresidentPresident--electelect BarackBarack ObamaObama’’ss announcementannouncement ofof hishis choiceschoices toto taketake onon leadingleading rolesroles inin thethe areasareas ofof energyenergy andand thethe environment.environment. Unfortunately,Unfortunately, thethe wordword engineeringengineering waswas absentabsent fromfrom hishis remarks.remarks.””
first draft, December 10, 2008 ““...... WeWe willwill buildbuild thethe roadsroads andand bridges,bridges, thethe electricelectric gridsgrids andand thethe digitaldigital lineslines thatthat feedfeed ourour commercecommerce andand bindbind usus together.together. ““WeWe willwill restorerestore sciencescience toto itsits rightfulrightful place,place, andand wieldwield technologytechnology’’ss wonderswonders toto raiseraise healthhealth carecare’’ss qualityquality andand lowerlower itsits cost.cost. WeWe willwill harnessharness thethe sunsun andand thethe windswinds andand thethe soilsoil toto fuelfuel ourour carscars andand runrun ourour factories.factories.””
——InauguralInaugural AddressAddress JanuaryJanuary 20,20, 20200909 “‘“‘WeWe willwill restorerestore sciencescience toto itsits rightfulrightful place,place,’’ PresidentPresident ObamaObama declareddeclared inin hishis inauguralinaugural address.address. ThatThat certainlycertainly soundssounds likelike aa worthyworthy goal.goal. ButBut frankly,frankly, itit hashas meme worried.worried. IfIf wewe wantwant toto ‘‘harnessharness thethe sunsun andand thethe windswinds andand thethe soilsoil toto fuelfuel ourour carscars andand runrun ourour factories,factories,’’ asas ObamaObama decreeddecreed thatthat wewe will,will, wewe shouldn'tshouldn't looklook toto science.science. WhatWhat wewe needneed isis engineering.engineering.
as published January 25, 2009 WhatWhat isis science?science?
(What(What isis theoreticaltheoretical andand appliedapplied mechanics?)mechanics?)
WhatWhat isis engineering?engineering? NISTNIST
NationalNational InstituteInstitute ofof StandardsStandards andand TechnologyTechnology OfficeOffice ofof TechnologyTechnology PartnershipsPartnerships
TechnologyTechnology TransferTransfer SeminarSeminar SeriesSeries MayMay 1,1, 20082008 WasWas therethere aa hiddenhidden agenda?agenda? EngineeringEngineering
InventionInvention
ScienceScience
InventionInvention TheodoreTheodore vonvon KKáármrmáánn (1881(1881--1963)1963) TheodoreTheodore vonvon KKáármrmáán,n, Scientist,Scientist, Engineer,Engineer, oror Inventor?Inventor?
EducatedEducated asas engineerengineer IdentifiedIdentified onon stampstamp selvageselvage asas engineerengineer IdentifiedIdentified onon stampstamp properproper asas scientistscientist KnownKnown asas aerodynamicistaerodynamicist ReceivedReceived patentspatents asas inventorinventor
ScientistsScientists seekseek toto understandunderstand whatwhat is;is; EngineersEngineers seekseek toto createcreate whatwhat nevernever was.was.
——TheodoreTheodore vonvon KKáármrmáánn ScientistScientist
DealsDeals withwith existingexisting thingsthings andand phenomenaphenomena SeeksSeeks understandingunderstanding FramesFrames hypotheseshypotheses TestsTests hypotheseshypotheses PresentsPresents resultsresults WritesWrites reportsreports PublishesPublishes paperspapers EschewsEschews invention?invention? IsIs creatingcreating aa scientificscientific hypothesishypothesis doingdoing sciencescience oror engineering?engineering?
BeforeBefore beingbeing stated,stated, aa hypothesishypothesis doesdoes notnot existexist inin thethe formform ofof aa hypothesishypothesis CreatingCreating aa newnew hypothesishypothesis isis akinakin toto inventinginventing aa newnew thingthing TestingTesting aa hypothesishypothesis isis anan applicationapplication ofof thethe scientificscientific method,method, whichwhich typicallytypically involvesinvolves inventinginventing anan experimentexperiment PublishingPublishing isis likelike patentingpatenting ScienceScience seeksseeks toto understandunderstand whatwhat is;is; EngineeringEngineering seeksseeks toto createcreate whatwhat nevernever was.was.
——TheodoreTheodore vonvon KKáármrmáánn EngineeringEngineering
DealsDeals withwith thingsthings thatthat diddid notnot previouslypreviously existexist SeeksSeeks toto createcreate newnew thingsthings CloselyClosely linkedlinked toto inventioninvention HasHas anan elementelement ofof artart toto it,it, butbut isis notnot artart forfor artart’’ss sakesake HasHas anan elementelement ofof sciencescience toto it,it, butbut isis notnot simplysimply appliedapplied sciencescience InventionsInventions andand designsdesigns mightmight bebe consideredconsidered hypotheseshypotheses toto bebe testedtested byby makingmaking andand buildingbuilding thethe thingsthings EngineeringEngineering isis notnot science,science, nornor isis itit simplysimply appliedapplied science.science.
SteamSteam engineengine precededpreceded thermodynamicsthermodynamics PoweredPowered flightflight precededpreceded aa completecomplete sciencescience ofof aerodynamicsaerodynamics RocketsRockets precededpreceded rocketrocket sciencescience MoonMoon landinglanding precededpreceded knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe lunarlunar surfacesurface AreAre engineersengineers andand scientistsscientists defineddefined byby theirtheir educationeducation oror byby theirtheir work?work?
CanCan anan engineerengineer behavebehave likelike aa scientist,scientist, oror aa scientistscientist likelike anan engineer?engineer?
CanCan aa scientistscientist bebe consideredconsidered anan engineer,engineer, oror anan engineerengineer aa scientist?scientist? NAENAE MembershipMembership
OneOne ofof fourfour inin ClassClass ofof 20062006 hadhad nono engineeringengineering degreedegree
MoreMore thanthan halfhalf holdhold patentspatents Averaging almost 20 each AlmostAlmost 77 percentpercent ofof NAENAE membersmembers areare alsoalso membersmembers ofof NASNAS (and(and vicevice versa)versa) 2626 NAENAE membersmembers alsoalso membersmembers ofof IOMIOM 66 membersmembers ofof NAS,NAS, NAE,NAE, andand IOMIOM AlbertAlbert EinsteinEinstein (1879(1879--1955)1955) AlbertAlbert EinsteinEinstein
SonSon ofof anan engineerengineer FamiliarFamiliar withwith familyfamily manufacturingmanufacturing businessbusiness PolytechnicPolytechnic educationeducation inin mathematicalmathematical physicsphysics TeacherTeacher’’ss degreedegree PatentPatent examinerexaminer ScientistScientist InventorInventor PatentPatent holderholder Multiple patents Several with Leo Szilard for refrigeration systems EinsteinEinstein atat SwissSwiss PatentPatent Office,Office, 19051905 ““TheThe readingreading andand analysisanalysis ofof patentpatent claimsclaims andand drawingsdrawings seemsseems toto havehave cultivatedcultivated notnot onlyonly hishis visualvisual imaginationimagination butbut alsoalso hishis knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe physicalphysical principlesprinciples thatthat underlayunderlay inventorsinventors’’ practicalpractical devices.devices.””
——ThomasThomas P.P. HughesHughes onon EinsteinEinstein EinsteinEinstein’’ss AnnusAnnus MirabilisMirabilis PapersPapers
LightLight quantaquanta BrownianBrownian motionmotion SpecialSpecial relativityrelativity EquivalenceEquivalence ofof mattermatter andand energyenergy ““TheThe formulationformulation ofof patentpatent statementsstatements waswas aa blessing.blessing. ItIt gavegave meme thethe opportunityopportunity toto thinkthink aboutabout physics.physics.””
——EinsteinEinstein onon ““thethe influenceinfluence ofof hishis experienceexperience asas aa patentpatent examinerexaminer onon hishis intellectualintellectual developmentdevelopment”” ““Moreover,Moreover, aa practicalpractical professionprofession isis aa salvationsalvation forfor aa manman ofof mymy type;type; anan academicacademic careercareer compelscompels aa youngyoung manman toto scientificscientific production,production, andand onlyonly strongstrong characterscharacters cancan resistresist thethe temptationtemptation ofof superficialsuperficial analysis.analysis.””
——EinsteinEinstein atat 7070
““HeHe waswas challengedchallenged andand amused,amused, notnot primarilyprimarily byby practicalpractical utility,utility, butbut byby whatwhat hehe calledcalled thethe funfun ofof inventing.inventing.””
——AdAd MaasMaas onon ““EinsteinEinstein asas EngineerEngineer””
EinsteinEinstein’’ss ““littlelittle machinemachine”” (Maschinchen)(Maschinchen)
NeededNeeded toto confirmconfirm theorytheory ofof BrownianBrownian motionmotion ConceivedConceived asas electrostaticelectrostatic inductioninduction machinemachine inin 19031903 AA devicedevice toto measuremeasure ““immeasurablyimmeasurably”” smallsmall voltagesvoltages (0.0005( volts) SoughtSought collaboratorscollaborators withwith mechanicalmechanical skillskill toto makemake devicedevice (Paul(Paul HabichtHabicht camecame toto hishis aid)aid) PrototypePrototype successfullysuccessfully testedtested inin 19101910 DevicesDevices commerciallycommercially availableavailable inin 19121912 EinsteinEinstein’’ss littlelittle machinemachine waswas reconstructedreconstructed aa centurycentury later.later. SomeSome ofof EinsteinEinstein’’ss PatentsPatents
RefrigerationRefrigeration systemsystem andand apparatusapparatus ElectromagneticElectromagnetic pumppump ElectromagneticElectromagnetic soundsound reproductionreproduction apparatusapparatus LightLight intensityintensity selfself--adjustingadjusting cameracamera AlbertAlbert EinsteinEinstein andand LeoLeo SzilardSzilard LeoLeo SzilardSzilard (1898(1898--1964)1964)
1898—Born the son of a civil engineer 1916—Began engineering studies at Budapest Technical University 1917—Entered Austro-Hungarian army 1919—Resumed engineering studies 1920—Continued engineering studies at Berlin- Charlottenburg Institute of Technology, but soon switched to physics at University of Berlin, where he took courses from Einstein, et al. 1926—Began collaboration with Einstein on refrigeration inventions ProblemsProblems withwith 1920s1920s RefrigeratorsRefrigerators
RefrigerantRefrigerant waswas poisonouspoisonous
methylmethyl chloride,chloride, ammonia,ammonia, sulfursulfur dioxidedioxide usedused MechanicalMechanical pumpspumps werewere liableliable toto developdevelop leaksleaks
NewspaperNewspaper reportreport ofof deathdeath ofof entireentire familyfamily duedue toto leakleak RefrigeratorRefrigerator motorsmotors werewere noisynoisy
IceIce boxesboxes hadhad beenbeen essentiallyessentially silentsilent 1920s1920s GeneralGeneral ElectricElectric MonitorMonitor TopTop RefrigeratorRefrigerator
ThereThere hadhad toto bebe aa betterbetter wayway
EliminateEliminate mechanicalmechanical pumppump
NoNo leaksleaks
NoNo noisenoise
NoNo needneed forfor electricelectric powerpower EmployEmploy principlesprinciples ofof thermodynamicsthermodynamics
PartialPartial pressurepressure
LatentLatent heatheat EinsteinEinstein--SzilardSzilard InventorInventor PactPact
AllAll patentspatents relatingrelating toto refrigerationrefrigeration wouldwould bebe consideredconsidered jointjoint propertyproperty SzilardSzilard wouldwould receivereceive profitsprofits first,first, upup toto amountamount equalequal toto universityuniversity assistantassistant salarysalary EinsteinEinstein andand SzilardSzilard wouldwould shareshare profitsprofits equallyequally thereafterthereafter SomeSome SzilardSzilard PatentPatent ApplicationsApplications
RefrigerationRefrigeration (with(with Einstein,Einstein, 1926)1926) ElectromagneticElectromagnetic pumppump (with(with Einstein,Einstein, 1927)1927) CyclotronCyclotron (1929)(1929) ElectronElectron microscopemicroscope (1931)(1931) NeutronNeutron chainchain reactionreaction (1934)(1934) NuclearNuclear reactorreactor (with(with Fermi,Fermi, issuedissued 1955)1955)
EinsteinEinstein--SzilardSzilard RefrigeratorRefrigerator
SingleSingle--pressurepressure thermallythermally drivendriven refrigerationrefrigeration cyclecycle Butane-ammonia-water mixture NoNo movingmoving partsparts No leaks No noise RequiredRequired nono electricity,electricity, onlyonly aa heatheat sourcesource PatentPatent rightsrights soldsold internationallyinternationally PrototypePrototype builtbuilt inin 19311931 byby AEGAEG NotNot manufacturedmanufactured Freon (1930) provided nontoxic refrigerant
AreAre inventionsinventions discovereddiscovered oror created?created?
AreAre theoriestheories discovereddiscovered oror invented?invented? EinsteinEinstein onon ErnstErnst MachMach
““MachMach’’ss weakness,weakness, asas II seesee it,it, lieslies inin thethe factfact thatthat hehe believedbelieved moremore oror lessless stronglystrongly thatthat sciencescience consistsconsists merelymerely ofof puttingputting experimentalexperimental resultsresults inin order;order; thatthat is,is, hehe diddid notnot recognizerecognize thethe freefree constructiveconstructive elementelement inin thethe creationcreation ofof aa concept.concept. HeHe thoughtthought thatthat somehowsomehow theoriestheories arisearise byby meansmeans ofof discoverydiscovery andand notnot byby meansmeans ofof inventioninvention..””
1948 ““JudgingJudging fromfrom hishis useuse ofof physicalphysical metaphorsmetaphors inin hishis scientificscientific writing,writing, hishis preferencepreference forfor visualvisual thinking,thinking, andand hishis familiarityfamiliarity withwith inventions,inventions, itit isis safesafe toto assumeassume thatthat hehe fullyfully recognizedrecognized thethe similaritysimilarity betweenbetween thethe intellectualintellectual activityactivity ofof thethe creativecreative scientistscientist andand thatthat ofof thethe creativecreative inventor.inventor.””
——ThomasThomas P.P. HughesHughes onon ““EinsteinEinstein thethe InventorInventor”” ““ForFor EinsteinEinstein aa hardhard--andand--fastfast lineline betweenbetween technologytechnology andand sciencescience simplysimply diddid notnot exist.exist.””
——ThomasThomas P.P. HughesHughes ““ScientistsScientists seekseek toto understandunderstand whatwhat is;is; EngineersEngineers seekseek toto createcreate whatwhat nevernever was.was.””
——TheodoreTheodore vonvon KKáármrmáánn InventionInvention
EngineeringEngineering
InventionInvention
ScienceScience
InventionInvention
““IfIf wewe wantwant toto ‘‘harnessharness thethe sunsun andand thethe windswinds andand thethe soilsoil toto fuelfuel ourour carscars andand runrun ourour factories,factories,’’ ...... wewe shouldn'tshouldn't looklook toto science.science. WhatWhat wewe needneed isis engineering.engineering.
Washington Post Outlook ScienceScience && EngineeringEngineering ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment
EinsteinEinstein && SteinmetzSteinmetz ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment exáxtÜv{exáxtÜv{ 99 WxäxÄÉÑÅxÇàWxäxÄÉÑÅxÇà ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ThomasThomas A.A. EdisonEdison (1847(1847--1931)1931)
MenloMenlo Park,Park, N.J.,N.J., LaboratoryLaboratory (1876(1876--1887)1887) SomeSome EarlyEarly R&DR&D LaboratoriesLaboratories
18861886 WestinghouseWestinghouse 19001900 GeneralGeneral ElectricElectric 19021902 DuPontDuPont 19081908 CorningCorning 19121912 KodakKodak 19191919 AlcoaAlcoa
Margaret B. W. Graham and Alec T. Shuldiner, Corning and the Craft of Innovation (Oxford, 2001) ReasonsReasons forfor IndustrialIndustrial R&DR&D
NewNew productproduct developmentdevelopment MitigateMitigate marketmarket competitioncompetition AvoidAvoid antitrustantitrust suitssuits InternalizeInternalize innovationinnovation processprocess DiversifyDiversify productproduct lineslines
Thomas Edison wanted his “invention factory” to invent “useful things every man, woman, and child in the world wants . . . at a price they could afford to pay.” ResearchResearch 99 DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment TheThe && isis thethe linchpinlinchpin inin R&DR&D LinearLinear R&DR&D ModelModel
ResearchResearch DevelopmentDevelopment VannevarVannevar BushBush (1890(1890--1974)1974)
Chief, OSRD (1941-1947) April 3, 1944 VannevarVannevar BushBush
“I’m no scientist, I’m an engineer” (1945) National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) National Defense Research Council (NDRC) Office of Scientific Research & Development (OSRD) “Czar of research” Science —The Endless Frontier (1945) “Basic scientific research is scientific capital.” Linear model (science leads to new technology) National Science Foundation (NSF) Enormous influence on postwar R&D But, in 1964, Bush wrote that “engineering is more a partner than a child of science” ProjectProject HindsightHindsight (1960s)(1960s)
DoDDoD studystudy afterafter $10$10 billionbillion spentspent onon scientificscientific researchresearch (~25%(~25% onon basicbasic research)research) GrowingGrowing skepticismskepticism ofof linearlinear modelmodel ContributionsContributions toto 2020 newnew weaponsweapons systemssystems studiedstudied EightEight--yearyear studystudy Results:Results: 91%91% ofof contributionscontributions technological;technological; 9%9% scientific,scientific, withwith 0.3%0.3% (two(two events)events) basicbasic researchresearch Conclusion:Conclusion: ImmediateImmediate andand directdirect scientificscientific influenceinfluence smallsmall
U.S.U.S. R&DR&D SpendingSpending asas aa percentagepercentage ofof GDP,GDP, 19531953 toto 20062006 RR && DD && RR && DD && RR && RR && DD && RR && DD && DD && RR && DD && RR && DD ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment
ScienceScience && EngineeringEngineering
EngineeringEngineering && ScienceScience
DevelopmentDevelopment && ResearchResearch
ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment && ResearchResearch
DevelopmentDevelopment && ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment ScienceScience && EngineeringEngineering
ResearchResearch && DevelopmentDevelopment CharlesCharles P.P. SteinmetzSteinmetz (1865(1865--1923)1923) CharlesCharles ProteusProteus SteinmetzSteinmetz
ExcelledExcelled inin mathmath andand physicsphysics StudiedStudied mathmath atat UniversityUniversity ofof BreslauBreslau FledFled GermanyGermany beforebefore completingcompleting thesisthesis WorkedWorked forfor smallsmall NewNew YorkYork manufacturermanufacturer asas electricalelectrical engineerengineer FirmFirm acquiredacquired byby GeneralGeneral ElectricElectric SteinmetzSteinmetz relocatedrelocated toto SchenectadySchenectady Driving force behind GE Research Lab, 1900 SolvedSolved problemsproblems inin electricalelectrical distributiondistribution ReceivedReceived overover 200200 patentspatents
““SteinmetzSteinmetz”” becamebecame aa synonymsynonym forfor ““engineerengineer”” CharlesCharles SteinmetzSteinmetz andand ThomasThomas EdisonEdison SteinmetzSteinmetz andand MarconiMarconi GeneralGeneral ElectricElectric publicitypublicity photophoto ofof EinsteinEinstein andand Steinmetz,Steinmetz, 19211921 GEGE demonstrationdemonstration ofof transoceanictransoceanic radioradio transmission,transmission, 19211921
scientistscientist andand inventorinventor
inventorinventor andand scientistscientist InventionInvention
EngineeringEngineering
InventionInvention
ScienceScience
InventionInvention Want to Engineer Real Change? Don't Ask a Scientist.
By Henry Petroski Sunday, January 25, 2009; B04
"We will restorestorere science to its rightfurightfull pplace,"lace," President Obama declared in his inaugural address. That certainly sounds like a worthy goal. But frankly, it has me worried. If we want to "harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories," as Obama has decreed, we shouldn't look to science. What we need is engineering. To be fair, Obama's misconception is a common one. Most people who aren'aren'tt scientists or engineers seem to ththinkink that science and engineering are the same. They're not. Science seeks to understand the world as it is; only engineeengineeringring can change it. That's not what most high-school teachers or even college professors telltell their science students. But the truth is that fullfull scientificscientific understanding isn't always necessary for technological advancement. Take steam engines: They were pumping water out of mines long before a science of thermodynamics was developed to explain how they worked. The engines were what prompted researchers to look inintoto the nature ooff steam power in the first place. This may make me a heheretic,retic, bubutt I'll take the argument a step farther: Science can actually get in the way of technology. In the 19th century, some scientists were convinced that even the largest steamship couldn't carry enough coal for transatlantic trips. Only when skeptical engineers designed ships that made this supposedly impossibimpossiblele task possible were the naysaying scientists forced to reconsider. And think about the Wright brothers, who refused to believe that ononlyly bbirdsirds were meant to fly. If WWilburilbur and Orville had waited for the publication of a sophisticatedsophisticated textbook on aerodynamics, they might never have left their bbicycleicycle shop in Dayton for the dunes ooff Kitty Hawk. Engineering, not science, enabled them to develop propellerpropellers that worked in the air the way a shipship's's ppropellerropeller spins through water. Steamships and flying machines may seem like things of the past, but the ingenuity behind them couldn't be more relevant today. Some of our greatest energy challenges require engineering breakthroughs, not scientificscientific discoveries. The principles that explain how a battery works, for example, are old news. But a lighlightweighttweight and cost-effective battery pack with enough juice to power a car over long distances remains an elusive goal. The same is true ooff fuel and solar cells. Scientists established long ago that natural pprocessesrocesses invoinvolvinglving chemicals and sunsunlighlight can produce electricity. We need engengineersineers to make the cells lean enough to compete wwithith coal and oil. Science alone is never enough. The president and his green team -- particularly Energy Secretary Steven Chu -- appear to understand the urgency of the world's energy problems. I'm not so convinced that they accept that science, for all its beauty, is not the best place to seek practical fixes. Obama should keep his ppromiseromise to "restore science to its rightful place" -- and put engineering on at least an equal footing. [email protected] Henry Petroski is a professor of civil engineering and history at Duke University. He is aatt work on a book abouaboutt science, engengineineering and global challenges.challenges.