CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE REVIEW OF LITERATURE
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Review of literature revealed that the selected wild edible plants are not studied so far bionutritional point of view. Hence, detailed plant food chemistry of selected wild edible plants from India and Iran has been carried out to investigate nutritional values.
Our method covers a considerable scope of the literature and highlights the variability that can occur in the quantity and quality of information available. Less thorough searches could, as was the case with Moringa oleifera leaves, have serious research and operational implications, mainly in the overestimation of intake or the discounting of useful species for the prevention of micronutrient malnutrition. The wide variation in the basis of expression makes the use of some information particularly difficult if a practitioner is not specialized in the compilation of food composition information. In some cases, published nutritional data are inaccurate and valueless for work relating to human nutrition. This could be prevented by journals involved in publishing nutrient values in relation to human nutrition adopting conventions easily understood by the end user (Salih et al. 1991). A diversity of scientific disciplines involved in the investigation of wild food plants is always encouraging, however, the lack of collaboration and
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standardization in methodology is not published. Research on the nutritional value of wild food plants requires the coirect presentation of botanical information, chemical analysis and nutritional data, otherwise the results cannot be inteipreted fully. This can only be achieved by well-organized and focused collaboration between all disciplines involved. The investment required for the thorough investigation of a particular food plant is fully justified. If wild food plants are to be utilized for diet diversification during times of famine and food insecurity, sound empiric data must be available to researchers for their investigation. The collection and assessment of available information is the first step in this process.
Once undertaken, researchers may be able to use information already collected or decide to undertake their own analysis on the species in question (Onyechi et al.
1988).
Health promoting compounds in vegetables and fruits:
Optimization of composition of plant-derived food would be a very cost-effective method for disease prevention, since diet-induced health improvements would not carry any added costs for the health sector If improvements can be obtained with existing or slightly adapted food technology, the production costs will be similar.
Many epidemiological studies show negative correlations between the intake of vegetables and fruits and the incidence of several important diseases, including cancer and atherosclerosis (Trichopoulou et al. 2003). Vegetables and fruits are
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known to contain components with several types of health promoting actions (as vitamins, as essential minerals, as antioxidants and as pre-biotic (fibers)) and most of these have been evaluated in intervention studies. In general, health benefits from supplementation have been proved only for groups that had particularly low intake of these compounds, e.g. due to malnutrition, while supplementations at high levels generally provided only minor additional improvements, and in some cases even showed adverse effects, as is the case for y5-carotene. However, the data from epidemiological studies shows sufficient linearity across the range to allow calculations of the benefits of substantial increases in the intake of fruits and vegetables to 400 g per day ( Van et al. 2000) or even higher ( Gundgaard et al.
2003). This should be compared with the lower levels (approx. 200 g per day) needed to ensure against deficiencies of the known beneficial compounds in the absence of supplementation or other dietary sources ( Ali & Tsou, 2002). Those levels are lower than the average intake in European countries. In addition, a few compounds are known or suspected to benefit health by other, less understood mechanisms, such as protection against cardiovascular disease by sulfoxides and/or flavonoides from Alliums ( Griffiths et al. 2002) or anticancer effects of glucosinolates and their derivatives ( Lund, 2003 ) from Brassicas . However, the epidemiological correlations are not confined to these two types of vegetables.
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While the consensus is that most people should eat more vegetables and fruit, rather than pills supplying adequate amounts of the relevant nutrients, it is not known why this is in fact better, nor how to advice people who cannot or will not eat the full selection in large amounts. As long as the compounds that make the greatest difference for health have not been identified, knowledge of the fate of plant constituents during cooking and storage cannot be used to conclude to what extent raw plant foods are better or worse than cooked ones or if a storage method increases or decreases the value for health. Similarly, the knowledge on biodiversity and plant composition does not tell us to what extent certain species, cultivars or cultivation conditions are important for this value. So while very specific and practically useful dietary recommendations are provided for groups of people who are at risk for malnutrition (Darmon et al. 2002), the advice to the affluent populations is to use a variety of species and preparation methods for the vegetables and fruit ( Trichopoulou et al. 2003). At present the primary background for this recommendation is our ignorance, diversity maximizes the random chance of obtaining sufficient amounts of the crucial, largely unknown compounds, as long as we do not know which foods are the best sources (
Trichopoulou et al. 2003). Once we have identified these compounds and sources,
will probably still recommend diversity, but then the advice will be based on we
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knowledge, and it will become possible to adjust and optimize the recommendations for people with special needs or preferences.
Specifically, the present information shows that compounds with already investigated beneficial properties, for example antioxidants, either have additional or unknown benefits and properties, or foods from plants simply contain other health promoting compounds with unknown effects, that have until now been overlooked. Many studies, including several EU-projects, such as QLKl-CT-
2001-01080, QLKl-CT-1999-00830, QLKl-CT-1999-00505, QLKl-CT-1999-
00498, QLKl-CT-1999-00124, BMH4960726 and COST 916, aim at investigating new properties and/or interactions of known compounds. In contrast, few studies focus on the identification of new types of health promoting compounds from vegetables and fruits. The multidisciplinary project "Health promoting compounds from vegetables'" described in the present paper was designed to initiate a systematic approach for screening for novel compounds from edible plants that are likely to have important effects on health.
Alocacia indica
It is a stout herb. The roots tock is sub erect, 3-8 ft. long, 1-6 in. thick with few soboli. Leaves are large, ovate, deeply sagittately cordate, lobes rounded and the sinus narrow. The spathe is 8-12 in. long and pale yellowish-green and bears
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unisexual, flowers. The female flower lie below on the axis and male flowers lie at the of the axis.
Uses
In tribal areas of India, especially in Konkan the stem slices are fried and consumed during fasting. The stem is very rich in starch and also contents of raphides.
Asparagus officinalis:
II is a peremiial growing to 1.5m by 0.75m. It is hardy to zone and is not bearing frost tender. It bears flower in August, and the seeds ripen from September to October. The flowers are dioecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but only one sex is to be found on any one plant so both male and female plants must be grown if seed is required) and are pollinated by Bees. The plant is not self-fertile.
The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and requires well- drained soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in
Asparagus is a dioecious perennial herb with scale-like leaves and an erect, much- branched stem that grows to a height of up to 3 meters. Asparagus is native to
Europe and Asia and is cultivated widely. The part used as a vegetable consists of the aerial stems, or spears, arising from rhizomes. The fleshy roots and, to a lesser degree, the seeds have been used for medicinal purposes.
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History
Asparagus spears are used widely as a vegetable and frequently are blanched before use. Extracts of the seeds and roots have been used in alcoholic beverages, with the maximum levels averaging 16 ppm. The seeds have been used in coffee substitutes, diuretic preparations, laxatives, remedies for neuritis and rheumatism, to relieve toothache, to stimulate hair growth, and as cancer treatments. Chinese medicine has used them to treat parasitic diseases. Extracts are said to have sei-ved as contraceptives. Home remedies have employed the topical application of preparations containing the shoots and extracts to cleanse the face and dry acneform lesions. very acid, very alkaline and saline soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires moist soil. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure.
Uses
Asparagus has been cultivated for over 2,000 years as a vegetable and medicinal herb.
Both the roots and the shoots can be used medicinally; they have a restorative and cleansing effect on the bowels, kidneys and liver.
Young shoots are consumed as a- raw or cooked. It is considered as a gourmet food. The shoots are harvested in the spring. It is preferred as a raw in salads, with a hint of onion in their flavor. They are normally boiled or steamed and used as a vegetable. Male plants produce the best shoots. It is not over-harvest because this would weaken it in the
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following year. The shoots are a good source of protein and dietary fiber. Roasted seeds
are substitute to coffee. The plant is antispasmodic, aperients, cardiac, demulcent,
diaphoretic, diuretic, sedative and tonic. The freshly expressed juice is used.
The root is diaphoretic, strongly diuretic and laxative. An inllision is used in the treatment of jaundice and congestive toipor of the liver. The strongly diuretic action of the roots makes it useful in the treatment of a variety of urinary problems including cystitis. It is also used in the treatment of cancer. The roots are said to be able to lower blood pressure. The roots are harvested in late spring, after the shoots have been cut as a food crop, and are dried for later use.
Composition
In grammes per lOOg weight of food: It consist of Water: 91.7; Calories: 26; Protein: 2.5;
Fat: 0.2; Carbohydrate: 5; Fiber: 0.7 and Ash: 0.6.
In milligram's per lOOg weight of food: Calcium: It consist of 22 Phosphorus: 62; Iron:
I; Sodium: 2; Potassium: 278; Vitamins: 540; Thiamine: 0.18; Riboflavin: 0.2; Niacin:
1.5 and Vitamin: 33
Asparagus roots contain inulin and at least eight fructo-oligosaccharides. Two glycoside bitter principles, officinalisins I and II, were isolated from dried roots in yields of 0.12% and 0.075%, respectively. Other root components are beta- sitosterol, steroidal glycosides (asparagosides A to I, in order of increasing
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polarity), and asparagusic acid. The shoots have several sulfur-containing acids
(asparagusic, dihydroasparagusic and S-acetyldihydroasparagusic); alpha-amino-
dimethyl-gamma-butyrothetin, a glycoside bitter principle different from those in
roots; flavonoids (mtin, quercetin and kaempferol); as well as asparagine,
arginine, tyrosine, sarsasapogenin, beta-sitosterol, succinic acid, and sugars.
Asparagusic acid, and its derivatives, are plant growth inhibitors; they also are
nematocidal (imparting resistance to several important plant parasite nematodes).
Asparagus seeds contain large quantities of sodium hydroxide-soluble polysaccharides consisting of linear chains of beta-glucose and beta-mannose in a
l.T ratio, 1 to 4 linked to alpha-galactose as a terminal. Seeds also contain
3nribosome-inactivating proteins, in concentrations of 8 to 400 mg/100 g of starting material. These proteins, with molecular weights of approximately 30,000, have alkaline isoelectric points and inhibit protein synthesis by rabbit reticulocyte lysate. Asparagus stalks contain folate and the folate conjugases asparagusate dehydrogenase I and II, as well as lipoyl dehydrogenase. Folate levels can be measured accurately only after inactivation of the conjugases Stalks also may contain residues of permethrin, an insecticide often applied to protect asparagus
during growth. These residues peak approximately 3 days after insecticide
treatment and then decline by approximately 85% by the seventh day. Other
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herbicides applied during the growth of asparagus have been detected in commercial stock.
Asparagus is packed with nutrients and low in calories, sodium and cholesterol. It is an excellent source of folic acid and is a source of vitamin C, thiamin, and vitamin B6. Asparagus contains no fat or cholesterol of dietary significance. It is an important source of potassium and many micronutrients. According to the
National Cancer Institute, asparagus is the highest tested food containing glutathione, one of the body's most potent cancer fighters [also quoted as "most potent anti carcinogens and antioxidants"]. Additionally, asparagus is high in mtin, which strengthens blood vessels.
Chlorophytum comosum:
Chlorophytum comosum commonly known as Safed Moosli belong to family
Liliaceae. Roots of this pharmacologically important plant contain several steroids and saponins. Dried roots are used as tonic in Ayurvedic formulations and exported from India in substantial amount. Conventional propagation of this plant through division of stock or seeds is slow and does not generate the required number of propagules. Large scale propagation through conventional methods not only poses difficulty of seed dormancy and viability but also lack of availability of elite clones. Being a tuber crop, it becomes imperative to introduce high yielding
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clonally propagated varieties to commercial growers .Even though the plant is of high economic value, only a very limited number of studies have been carried out.
This report describes a protocol for the rapid in vitro propagation of selected clones of this valuable medicinal plant.
Its tubers are used in Ayui-vedic medicines; it contains about 27 alkaloids, steroid saponin (2-17%), polysaccharides (40-45%), carbohydrates, proteins (7-10%), minerals, vitamins etc. White musli or Dhauli Musli is used for the preparation of health tonic used in general and sexual weakness. It contains spermametogic properties, decoction of safed musli for curing impotency as they are rich in glycosides (Mimaki et all996).
Composition and Uses
For therapeutic application in ayurvedic, unani. Allopathic.
Curative of many physical illness and weakness.
It has spermatogenic property and helpful in curing impotency as they are rich in glycosides.
Curing of Diabetes and Arthritis.
For increasing general body immunity.
Root powder fried in the GHEE, CHEWED in case of apthae of mouth and throat.
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Curative of Natal and post Natal problems.
Above all this SAFED MUSLI (SAFED MOOSLl) is found very effective in increasing male potency.
It is considered as alternative to Viagra.
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites that are derivatives of the pentose phosphate, shikimate and Phenylpropanoid pathways in plants. Phenolic compounds exhibit a wide range of physiological properties, such as anti- allergenic, anti-thermogenic, anti-intlammatory, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti thrombotic, cardio protective and vasodilatory effects (Benavente- Garcia, 1997;
Manach and Mazur, 2005; Middleton, 2000; Puupponen-Pimia, 2001& Samman,
1998).
Phenolic compounds have been associated with the health benefits derived from consuming high levels of fruits and vegetables (Hertog and Feskens, 1993; Parr and Bolwell, 2000).
The beneficial effects derived from phenolic compounds have attributed to their antioxidant activity (Heim et al. 2002).
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The most important property is their capacity to act as antioxidants protecting the body against reactive oxygen species and may have an additive effect to the endogenous (Shahidi and Naczk, 1995 & Sellappan, 2002).
As polyphenols, phenolic acids are powerful antioxidants and have been reported to demonstrate antibacterial, antiviral, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory and vasodilatory actions (Duthie, 2000; Breinholt, 1999; Shahidi and Naczk, 1995).
The data compiled by (Radtke, 1998; Clifford, 1999) indicate that many vegetables are either moderate or good sources of phenolic acids.
Structurally phenolic compounds comprise an aromatic ring, bearing one or more hydroxyl substituents and range from simple phenolic molecules to highly polymerized compounds (Bravo, 1998& Shahidi, 2002).
Despite this structural diversity, the groups of compounds are often referred to as polyphenols (Harborne, 1989; Harborne, 1999).
Of these, phenolic acids, flavonoides and tannins are regarded as the main dietary phenolic compounds (King and young, 1999).
The antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds is due to their ability to scavenge free radicals, donate hydrogen atoms or electron, or chelate metal cations
(Afanas'ev 1989 and Amawicz, 2004).
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In the case of phenolic acids for example, the antioxidant activity depends on the numbers and positions of the hydroxyl groups in relation to the carboxyl functional group (Rice-Evans, 1996 and Robards, 1999).
Though phenolic compounds are present almost all foods of plant origin, fruits, vegetables and beverages are the major sources of these compounds in the human diet (Hertog et al. 1993).
There are wide variations between the total phenolic contents of the different fruits or vegetables (Bravo, 1998 and Kalt, 2001).
Phenolic compounds present in fruits are found in both free and bound forms mainly as beta glycosides but the total phenolic compounds contents of fmits are often underestimated (Sun et al. 2002).
Besides, phenolic contents of plant foods depend on a number of intrinsic
(Genus, species, cultivars) and extrinsic (agronomic, environmental, handling and storage) factors (Tomas-Barberan and Espin, 2001& Rapisarda, 1999).
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Cordia myxa:
Cordia myxa has delightful white flowers, about 2.5 centimeters wide and long,
that adorn our shrub for more than half the year, especially during winter and
spring. Each rapidly formed vegetative shoot will form an inflorescence of
generally eight to 12 flower buds. These buds are truly remarkable in having a nest
of black hairs on the five-lobed calyx-yes, black! Atop the calyx are about ten
greenish appendages, which make the young bud look instead like a developing
fruit with attached stigmas. The flower opens to a pure white corolla, funnel-
shaped and with ten lobes of the fused petals. The filaments are fused to the throat
of the corolla (stamens are epipetalous) and so the white anthers project in a ring
about a centimeter from the tube. Through the center emerges a simple style with
two stigmas. The ovary is conical but has ten scalloped lobes around the base. This
ovary should mature into a somewhat fleshy drupe.
Eulophia Ochreata
It is terrestrial glabrous herb with fleshy tuberous roots. Leaves are 3-5, elliptic-
lanceolate, acuminate, 4-12 by 1.5-2.5 in., many nerved and sessile. Flowers are
membranous in all their parts. In florescence is dense many flowered cylindrical racemes
4-6 in. long; scape 8-12 in. long, stout below, furnished with board loose ochreate
sheaths; bracts beneath the flower 0.33- 0.5 in. long, conspicuous, narrow, linear
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lanceolate, acute; pedicels with ovary 0.5 in. long. Scales 0.5 in. long, linear lanceolate,
acute, strongly nerved. Petals are 3/8 in. long, broadly elliptic, acute, strongly nei-ved.
Spur a small hemispheric sac. Lip is 3/8 in. long, broadly ovate, obtuse; side lobes 0;
nei-ves all fringed. Fruit is capsule, 1.5 - 1.75 in. long, ellipsoid and faintly ribbed. Uses
It IS known by various vernacular names such as 'Manya" in Sanskrit, which signifies
the neck. The tubers resemble with the scrofulous glands in the neck hence it is believed
to be useful on tuberculosis of neck bone, hi Marathi it is called as 'Mankand' (neck - man). The word also applies the scrofulous diseases in the neck. It is also called as
'amarkand" meaning never dying
Tubers of Eidophia are the excellent example of Nulraceuticals used by the tribes. The tubers contribute significantly to the food and nutrition security, best known for their rejuvenating and anti-fatigue effect. "Indigenous Traditional Knowledge" survey found that the tubers are boiled, pilled, cut in to small pieces and mixed with equal volume of sugar and milk and finally made into a paste and is prescribed mainly for stomach ulcer and as a general tonic. Tubers are astringent, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, used against spider poison and as blood purifier. It is also used in cough, cold and heart troubles.
The tubers are applied externally and given internally to cure disease. In north, (Punjab) tubers are used as a saleb. The tubers contain large quantity of white mucilage. Tubers are astringent, used as a nutritive tonic, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic and blood purifier. It is also used in cough, cold and heart troubles.
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Momordica dioica:
Momordica dioica belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae. It is a indigenous plant of
East Indies. This species is under cultivation in India for food purposes. There are
several varieties. The young, green fruits and tuberous roots of the female plant
are eaten by the natives, and, in Burma, according to Mason, the small, muricated
fruit is occasionally eaten. At Bombay, this plant is cultivated for the fmit, which
is the size of a pigeon's egg and knobbed, says Graham.
Antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity of ethanolic and aqueous extracts of
Momordica dioica leaves is reported. Efficacy of application of vegetable seed oils as grain protectant against infestation by Callosobnichus chinensis and its effect on milling fractions and apparent degree of dehusking of legume-pulses.
Antifeedant activity of Momordica dioica fruit pulp extracts on Spodoptera I dura.
An unusual anti-H lectin inhibited by milk from individuals with the Bombay phenotype. It has a potentiality of blood sugar lowering and has been cultivated in
India, Bangladesh and neighbouring countries for a long time. It is rich in carotene, protein, carbohydrates and vitamin C. Kakrol as an important summer vegetable is widely grown in Comilla, Brahmabbaria, Rangpur, Norshingdi and
Sylhet districts of Bangladesh and has high economic value with export potential.
Improvement of this crop has not been attempted adequately, because of its
dioecious nature and its vegetative mode of propagation. Presently its propagation
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entirely depends on underground tuberous roots, which occupy the valuable
cultivable land for a long period i.e. until next planting season. Maintaining tuber
quality in tleld condition as well as to consei-ve it in storage is difficult. Micro
propagation may help overcome these problems to a great extent. There have not
been many studies on micro propagation of teasle gourd in Bangladesh or in
neighboring countries.
Momordica clioica, commonly known as Teasle Gourd Kakrol, Kankro, Kartoli or
Kantoli, is a relatively small oval to ovoid vegetable; it is a very highly prized
vegetable in the Indian Sub-continent though relatively rare. It is only available
during the rainy months Momordica dioica, is usually planted in the summer, it is most possibly a native plant of the India sub-continent. The vegetable is rich in calcium, phosphorus, iron and carotene and is in demand for export and for internal markets. The crop can be grown in different types of soil and is propagated for cultivation through tuberous roots between March and April. The crop can be harvested in 90-100 days. Yield ranges from 10-12 m tons/ha. Fruits
are consumed by frying, or cooking, with or without meat or fish.
Morphology
a) Macroscopic Finely chopped pieces of tuberous roots, outer surface rough and
grayish-brown, central portion white to cream, starchy, friable; fracture, fibrous;
odorless and slightly bitter taste.
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b)Microscopic T.S. shows cork 6 to 9 cell deep, cell brick- shaped and airanged in
rows with grayish-brown contents; cork cambium cell similar in structure and size
followed by a zone of compressed cells 2 to 4 cells deep; cortex composed of
about 10 layers of cells, thin walled, irregular in shape and parenchymatous,
towards the inner side of the cortex, scattered solitary or groups of
sclerenchymatous cells are present; phloem 6 to 8 cells deep, phloem parenchyma
usually filled with starch grains of about 16 to 25 |a in diam.; xylem composed of
scattered vessel strands and xylem parenchyma; most of the vessels are usually solitary or found in groups of 2 or 3; xylem parenchyma contains round or oval starch grains similar to that in phloem. Powder: Whitish-brown, free flowing, characterized by the presence of sclerenchymatous cells, showing radial pit canals and naiTOw lumen; starch grains, cork cell and parenchymatous cells are also present. (Nagasawa, 2002).
TRIBAL AND HERBAL MEDICINE USES
In the Amazon, local people and indigenous tribes grow bitter melon in then- gardens for food and medicine. They add the fruit and/or leaves to beans and soup
for a bitter or sour flavor; parboiling it first with a dash of salt may remove some
of the bitter taste. Medicinally, the plant has a long history of use by the
indigenous peoples of the Amazon. A leaf tea is used for diabetes, to expel
intestinal gas, to promote menstruation, and as an antiviral for measles, hepatitis,
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and feverish conditions. It is used topically for sores, wounds, and infections and
internally and externally for worms and parasites.
In Brazilian herbal medicine, bitter melon is used for tumors, wounds,
rheumatism, malaria, vaginal discharge, inflammation, menstrual problems,
diabetes, colic, fevers, and worms. It is also used to induce abortions and as an
aphrodisiac. It is prepared into a topical remedy for the skin to treat vaginitis, hemorrhoids, scabies, itchy rashes, eczema, leprosy and other skin problems. In
Mexico, the entire plant is used for diabetes and dysentery; the root is a reputed aphrodisiac. In Peruvian herbal medicine, the leaf or aerial parts of the plant are used to treat measles, malaria, and all types of inflammation. In Nicaragua, the leaf is commonly used for stomach pain, diabetes, fevers, colds, coughs, headaches, malaria, skin complaints, menstrual disorders, aches and pains, hypertension, infections, and as an aid in childbirth (Nagasawa, 2002).
PLANT CHEMICALS
Momordica dioica, contains an array of biologically active plant chemicals including tnterpenes, proteins, and steroids. One chemical has cUmcally
demonstrated the ability to inhibit the enzyme guanylate cyclase that is thought to
be linked to the cause of psoriasis and also necessary for the growth of leukemia
and cancer cells. In addition, a protein found in bitter melon, momordin, has
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clinically demonstrated anticancerous activity against Hodgkin's lymphoma in
animals. Other proteins in the plant, alpha- and beta-momorcharin and
cucurbitacin B, have been tested for possible anticancerous effects. A chemical
analog of these bitter melon proteins has been developed, patented, and named
"MAP-30"; its developers reported that it was able to inhibit prostate tumor growth. Two of these proteins-alpha- and beta-momorcharin-have also been reported to inhibit HIV virus in test tube studies. In one study, HIV-infected cells treated with alpha- and beta-momorcharin showed a nearly complete loss of viral antigen while healthy cells were largely unaffected. The inventor of MAP-30 filed another patent which stated it was "useful for treating tumors and HIV infections.
" Another clinical study showed that MAP-30's antiviral activity was also relative to the heipes virus in vitro.
In numerous studies, at least three different groups of constituents found in all parts of bitter melon have clinically demonstrated hypoglycemic (blood sugar lowering) properties or other actions of potential benefit against diabetes mellitus.
These chemicals that lower blood sugar include a mixture of steroidal saponins known as charantin, insulin-like peptides, and alkaloids. The hypoglycemic effect is more pronounced in the fruit of bitter melon where these chemicals are found in greater abundance (Liener et al. 1969).
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Alkaloids, charantin, charine, ciyptoxanthin, cucurbitins, cucurbitacins, cucurbitanes, cycloartenols, diosgenin, elaeostearic acids, erythrodiol, galacturonic acids, gentisic acid, goyaglycosides, goyasaponins, guanylate cyclase inhibitors, gypsogenin, hydroxytryptamines, karounidiols, lanosterol, lauric acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, momorcharasides, momorcharins, momordenol, momordicilin, momordicins, momordicinin, momordicosides, momordin, multiflorenol, myristic acid, nerolidol, oleanolic acid, oleic acid, oxalic acid, pentadecans, peptides, petroselinic acid, polypeptides, proteins, ribosome-inactivating proteins, rosmarinic acid, rubixanthin, spinasterol, steroidal glycosides, stigmasta-diols, stigmasterol, taraxerol, trehalose, trypsin inhibitors, uracil, vacine, v-insulin, verbascoside, vicine, zeatin, zeatin riboside, zeaxanthin, and zeinoxanthin are all found in bitter melon (Nagasawa,2002).
Contraindications:
• Momordica dioica, traditionally has been used as an abortive and has been
documented with weak uterine stimulant activity; therefore, it is
contraindicated during pregnancy.
. This plant has been documented to reduce fertility in both males and
females and should therefore not be used by those undergoing fertility
treatment or seeking pregnancy.
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• The active chemicals in bitter melon can be transferred through breast milk;
therefore, it is contraindicated in women who are breast feeding.
• All parts of bitter melon (especially the fruit and seed) have demonstrated
in numerous in vivo studies that they lower blood sugar levels. As such, it is
contraindicated in persons with hypoglycemia. Diabetics should check with
their physicians before using this plant and use with caution while
monitoring their blood sugar levels regularly as the dosage of insulin
medications may need adjusting.
Although all parts of the plant have demonstrated active antibacterial activity,
none have shown activity against fungi or yeast. Long-term use of this plant
may result in the die-off of friendly bacteria with resulting opportunistic
overgrowth of yeast (Candida). Cycling off the use of the plant (every 21-30
days for one week) may be warranted, and adding probiotics to the diet may be
beneficial if this plant is used for longer than 30 days. (Nagasawa, 2002).
Portulaca oleracea:
Portulaca oleracea (Family-Portulacaceae) which consists of more than 120 species of often succulent herbs and shrubs (Hyam and Pankhurst, 1995; Ozcan et
al, 2003) P. oleracea, hereafter refeired to as purslane, is widespread as a weed
and has been ranked the eighth most common plant in the world (Coquilla, 1951)
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It is fast growing, self-compatible and produces large numbers of seeds that have a long viability.
It is an annual, a sprawling succulent with thick, brittle, hairless, red stems arising from a central rosette. The leaves are obovate and the small yellow flowers only open if it is sunny. It produces copious numbers of tiny but visible black seeds. It likes to grow on cleared areas, often rough but will thrive in a cultivated garden. It is a relative of the inedible garden varieties of Portulaca.
All parts can be used including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds are used as culinary, medicinal and an ornamental. Its extraordinary range of \'itamins (A, C and E) and minerals like calcium and potassium salts, phosphorus, manganese and iron, glutathione and Omega 3 fatty acids make this plant a nutritional treasure. It is a great source of antioxidants.
Portulaca oleracea is used as : a salad vegetable, chopped or left whole a lightly cooked vegetable like spinach a vinegar a topical poultice
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a decoction in water a paste for skin treatments a wound healer
It is also used-
1- As a general nutritive for everyone but especially for menopausal women, people with absorption diftlculties, people recovering from illness and fatigue states and older people
2-For any hot inflamed skin conditions e.g. boils, cuts, dermatitis psoriasis
3- For people with digestive conditions such as imtable bowel, ulcerative colitis, other ulceration or inflammations and diarrhea.
4- For people with cystitis.
5- As a diuretic
6- For people with pre-menstrual bloating
7- .For a general anti-oxidant both as a preventative of age-related illnesses and part of the approach to treating people with chronic health problems.
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Nutritive value oi Portulaca oleracea
1. Leaves from both indoor and outdoor samples of purslane contained higher
amounts of alpha-linolenic acid (18:3w3) than did leaves of spinach. Chamber-
grown purslane contained the highest amount of 18:3w3. Samples from the two
kinds of purslane contained higher levels of alpha-tocopherol, ascorbic acid and
glutathione than did spinach. Chamber-grown purslane was richer in all three and
the amount of alpha-tocopherol was seven times higher than that found in spinach,
whereas spinach was slightly higher in beta-carotene. One hundred grams of fresh purslane leaves (one serving) contain about 300-400 mg of 18:3w3; 12.2 mg of
alpha-tocopherol; 26.6 mg of ascorbic acid; 1.9 mg of beta-carotene; and 14.8 mg of glutathione. We confirm that purslane is a nutritious food rich in omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants.!.
2. Leaves had the highest amount of protein in the third growth stage (44.25 g/100 g dry matter). Roots showed a decline in protein level as the plant aged. Soluble carbohydrate was significantly higher in growth states 1 and 3. Significant variation among growth stages was found with regard to total phosphorous, calcium, potassium, iron, manganese, and copper. Total phosphorus (P) content in leaves was significantly higher than P found in stems and roots. Iron (Fe) content
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varied significantly among growth stages, and roots and leaves had the highest Fe content (121.47 and 33.21 mg, respectively). Significant accumulation of manganese (Mn) was found in different growth stages. Leaves and roots had significantly higher Mn content than stems.4
3. The fatty acid profile and beta-carotene content of a number of Australian varieties of purslane (Portulaca oleracea) were determined by GC and HPLC. The total fatty acid content ranged from 1.5 to 2.5 mg/g of fresh mass in leaves, 0.6 to
0.9 mg/g in stems and 80 to 170 mg/g in seeds. Alpha-Linolenic acid
(C18:3omega3) accounted for around 60% and 40% of the total fatty acid content in leaves and seeds, respectively. Longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids were not detected. The beta-carotene content ranged from 22 to 30 mg/g fresh mass in leaves. These results indicate that Australian purslane varieties are a rich source of alpha-linolenic acid and beta-carotene.
4. The results of the study showed that as the plant matured from stage 1(15 days) to stage II (30 days) calcium and magnesium content increased. In contrast, phosphorus content decreased as the plant matured. Varietals differences were also obsei^ved at different stages of maturity. The results also indicated that the consumption of green leafy vegetables at stage 1(15 days) and stage II (30 days) potentially provide the greatest amount of minerals.
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Portulaca oleracea has a long history of use for human food, animal feed and medicinal puiposes (Salisbury, 1961).These days, however, most people in modern societies limit their diet to a few cultivated vegetables so that wild plants such as purslane tend to be under-utilized. Recent research indicates that purslane offers better nourishment than the major cultivated vegetables. In particular, it has a high percentage of a-linolenic acid (LNA) is a richer source of this fatty acid than any other green leafy vegetable investigated to date (Simopoulos,1992;
Simopoulos,1995; Guil and Rodriguez, 1999; Ezekwe,1999 and
Palaniswamy, 1997).
LNA, an omega-3 fatty acid, is an essential fatty acid because it cannot be synthesized by humans but has to be ingested. It plays an important role in human growth, development and disease prevention. It is the precursor of the longer- chain omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid
(DPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), found predominantly in marine organisms, to which a wide range of health benefits have been ascribed (Galli &
Simopoulos,1994) The ability of LNA to convey these health benefits is limited by its poorer conversion to EPA and DHA in humans. Thus recent reports claiming the existence of longer-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in purslane have attracted considerable interest in this plant as an alternative source of these
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nutrients for human consumption (Omara & Mebrahtu, 1999 and Simopoulos &
Salem, 1986).
Purslane has been described as a "power food" of the future because of its high nutritive and antioxidant properties (. Levey G.A., 1993). It is an excellent source of antioxidants such as vitamins A, C and E and P-carotene, which, through their ability to neutralize free radicals, have the potential to prevent cardiovascular disease, cancer and infectious diseases. Taken as supplements, they can decrease the rate of oxidation of low-density lipoprotein, a significant contributor to atherosclerosis.
In Australia, purslane is a native plant found in all mainland states (Elliot and
Jones, 1995). Moreover, it has been used as a traditional food and medicine by
Aborigines and its health attributes were noted by early European settlers (Isaacs,
1987).Suq:)risingly, however, there has been no attempt to evaluate the nutritional attributes of Australian varieties of purslane. In this study, the fatty acid profile and P-carotene content of several Australian varieties of purslane were analyzed by chromatographic methods and compared with North American varieties.
70 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Solanum indiciim:
Solanum indiciun is a small tropical perennial plant that originated from India it is widely distributed in West Africa, from Sien^a Leone to Nigeria, from
Cameroon eastward to Ethiopia and South Zimbabwe, it is also found in some parts of Southeast Asia, Brazil and Southern Europe (Yamaguchi, 1983). Its common name is eggplant while it is known locally as "Igbagba" or "Igbo" (
Datta, 1988). S. indiciun is characterized with leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds.
The leaves are 10-30 cm long and 4-15 cm wide; they are alternate, oval in shape and lobed with wavy margin. The flowers are carried on short stalked inflorescence (containing 2-7 flowers), they are about 3-8 cm in diameter, and the flowers at the lower part are bisexual while those at the upper portion of the plants are males. The fruits are round, with grooved portions that are flattened at the top and bottom. They are about 5-7 cm long and 7-8 cm wide, while the seeds of egg plant are asymmetrical, shiny and minutely patterned structure (Yamaguchi,
1983).
Eggplant has been known to be useful in many regions of the world both in soup preparation and folk medicine. All the parts of the plant are useful to the populace; its leaves are used in cooking vegetable soups, while the fruits are eaten when cooked with rice in Indonesia. The root of the plant is used against bronchitis, itch.
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body aches, and asthma and to cure wounds while its seeds are used to treat toothache. The juice from the vegetables is used in the treatment of gout, rheumatism and angina. It is also used as childbirth anesthesia, to treat inflammatory tumors, cancerous tissues and in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. The people of Nepal use it as a sedative while the Moroccan used it to stimulate memory (Stoker, 1995). All parts of S. indicum except the fruit have been reported to cause upset stomach, heart failure, drooling and lethargy in dogs.
This study therefore sought to determine the effect of some conventional food processing techniques on the nutritional quality of the eggplant leaves as well as the hemolytic effect of the diluted infusion of the eggplant leaves on human erythrocyte in vitro (Edmonds et al. 1995).
Phenolic contents of some fnaits are considerably lower than that of berries and grapes (Asami et al. 2003).
Reported that organically grown strawbenies were found to have higher phenolic content than conventionally grown crops (Hakkinen and Torronen, 2002).
Sources of non-heme iron, which is not absorbed as well as heme iron, includes beans, lentils, flours, cereals and grain products. Other sources of iron include dried fruits, peas, asparagus, leafy greens (Black, 2004).
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Based on available scientific evidence, zinc may be efficacious in the treatment of
(childhood) malnutrition, peptic ulcers, leg ulcers, and infertility, Wilson's disease, herpes, and taste or smell disorders. Zinc has also gained popularity fotits use in prevention of the common cold (Al-Maroof, 2006).
Leafy vegetables hold an important place in well-balanced diets (Ames and Gold
1996; Lucarini and Canalil999; Kratzer and Vohra 1986).
On the other hand, with few exceptions, fruits and leafy vegetables are believed to occupy a modest place as a source of trace elements due to their high water content (Gibson, 1994).
In addition to meeting nutrient intake levels, greater consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and cancers of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, lungs, stomach, and colon (Gillman,
1995; Joshipura, 2001& Riboli 2003).
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73 PLATE!
Fig.l: Flowering Twig oiAlocacia indica Sch.
Fig.l: Stem of A. indica Fig.3: Stem slices of A. Sch. indica Sch. PLATE-II
Fig.4: Habit of Asparagus officinalis D.C.
Fig.5: Young Stems of Asparagus officinalis D.C PLATE-III
Fig.6: Habit of Chlorophytum comosum Linn.
Fig.7: Root tubers of Chlorophytum comosum Linn. PLATE-IV
Fig.8: Habit of Cordia myxa Roxb.
Fig.9: Fruiting twig of Cordia myxa Roxb. PLATE-V
Fig.lO: Habit of Eulophia ochreata Linn.
Fig.ll: Tubers of Eulophia ochreata Linn. PLATE-VI
Fig.l2: Habit of Momordica dioica Roxb.
Fig.l3: Fruits of Momordica dioica Roxb PLATE-VII
Fig.l4: Habit oiPortulaca oleracea Linn.
Fig.15: Flowering twig oiPortulaca oleracea Linn. PLATE-VIII
Fig.l6: Habit of Solanum indicum Linn.
Fig.l7: Fruits of Solanum indicum Linn.