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Food Science and Human Wellness xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Food prospects and nutraceutical attributes of species: A

potential tropical bioresources – A review

∗

Gunasekaran Nagarani, Arumugam Abirami, Perumal Siddhuraju

Bioresource Technology Lab, Department of Environmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641 046, ,

Received 25 February 2014; received in revised form 27 June 2014; accepted 3 July 2014

Abstract

Plants with potential therapeutic values have been used from time immemorial to cure various ailments and infectious diseases. Of late, scientific

evidences have been provided on the potential therapeutic agent exhibited by certain traditionally used vegetable extracts. The importance of

wild edible may be traced to antiquity but systemic studies are recent. All the Momordica species have been consumed as vegetable and

traditionally used for various disorders. The whole parts are ascribed to possess the anti-diabetic effect in traditional medicinal system. The

active constituents of Momordica plant parts were type triterpenoids, phenolics, glycosides, and several kinds of peptides including

Momordica anti-HIV protein (MAP 30). Recent reports revealed the presence of several kinds of cucurbitane type triterpenoids in leaf, stem and

of Momordica species having several pharmacological activities. There is lack of scientific information available on the wild species which

also having several bioactive components with potential activities. So the present review compares and highlights the current knowledge of the

nutritional value, phytochemistry and physiological effects of wild species with known variety.

© 2014 Beijing Academy of Food Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Momordica spp.; Anti-diabetic; Triterpenoids; Momordica anti-HIV protein (MAP-30 protein)

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 00

2. Biogeography and botanical description ...... 00

3. Nutritional values ...... 00

4. Bioactive compounds ...... 00

4.1. Phenolics compounds ...... 00

4.2. ...... 00

4.3. Cucurbitane type triterpenoids ...... 00

4.4. ...... 00

5. Effect of physiological bioactivities of Momordica species on human health ...... 00

5.1. Anti-diabetic activity ...... 00

5.2. Anti-cancer activity ...... 00

5.3. Antioxidant activity ...... 00

5.4. Anti-microbial activity...... 00

5.5. Other medicinal effects ...... 00

6. Conclusions ...... 00

Acknowledgment ...... 00

References ...... 00

∗

Corresponding author at:. Tel.: +91 422 2428394; fax: +91 422 2422387.

E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (P. Siddhuraju).

Peer review under responsibility of Beijing Academy of Food Sciences.

2213-4530 © 2014 Beijing Academy of Food Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2014.07.001

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1. Introduction M. balsamina is restricted to the arid belt zones such as Rajasthan

and Gujarat, while M. cymbalaria is distributed in Andhra

Momordica species are vegetable crops, belonging to the Pradesh, Karnataka, and . M.

family of (also commonly referred as cucumber, sahyadrica is a recently described species [9] and is endemic

, melon or pumpkin family), which comprise of medium to the Western Ghats of India. In general, these plants are com-

sized plants that grow abundantly in warmer regions of the world. monly annuals or perennials. Leaves are entire or deeply lobed

They are well-known for the bitter taste due to the presence of (3–7). are monoecious or dioecious, solitary/pseudo

phytochemicals (alkaloid) and have a wide range of medicinal raceme, medium to big size, with foliaceous bracts, corolla

values. Although the exact origin of Momordica genus is unclear, creamish yellow to bright yellow color, green to pale green

most experts agree that the center of bitter gourd domestication stigma (in monoecious species) or yellow (in dioecious species).

lies in eastern Asia, possibly eastern India or southern China Fruits are medium to big sized (5–800 g), fleshy, green when

[1,2]. However, in Ayurvedic texts written by members of the unripe and orange red when ripe, ovoid oblongoid, ornamented

Indo-Aryan culture, it is stated to be emerged in India from 2000 with soft spines, warts or tubercles, splits from base into three

to 200 BCE [3]. Consumption of Momordica species as vegeta- valves. Seeds are enclosed in orange red sarcotesta (aril), and

bles is mainly concentrated in Africa and Asian countries. The sculptured, margins often undulate and dentate [10].

fruits are usually parboiled or soaked in salt water before cooking

to reduce the bitter taste [4]. The Momordica species have

been used in indigenous medical systems in various countries 3. Nutritional values

in Asia and Africa. Based on the indigenous knowledge, wild

plant foods play a vital role in the complex cultural system of The mature green of the Momordica species is the most

tribal people for reducing various disorders. Research has shown commonly consumed portion of the plant, although the tender

that many edible wild plants are rich in specific constituents, leaves of M. balsamina can be cooked as a leafy vegetable pro-

referred as phytochemicals, which may have health promoting viding an important source of nutrients [11]. These green fruits

effects. The major plant-derived chemical groups in this fam- and leaves are a good source of carbohydrates, proteins, vita-

ily now recognized as having potential health promoting effects mins and minerals (Table 1). The protein content of this species

in Type I and Type II diabetes are cucurbitane triterpenoids, makes it a good source of essential amino acids (Table 2) such

saponin glycosides and Momordica anti-HIV protein (MAP 30 as methionine, phenylalanine, alanine, serine, cystine and thre-

protein). These phytochemicals may be incorporated into food onine compared to other vegetables and traditional protein-rich

stuffs or food supplements as nutraceuticals. The green fruits legumes [4]. Differences in the agro-climatic conditions may

and leaves of Momordica species play a major role in improving account for the variation in the protein contents in this species.

human health by offering nutritional and nutraceutical compo- Hassan and Umar [11] have studied the nutritional values of M.

nents. Therefore the present review mainly focuses on providing balsamina leaves. In comparison with other species, M. balsam-

baseline information on exploring nutritional and nutraceutical ina leaves have more dietary fiber (29%) and mineral contents

properties of some wild plant species along with cultivated vari- (Table 1) while Momordica fruits have moderate content of

ety of Momordica species such as M. charantia, M. balsamina dietary fiber, which helps to lower the blood cholesterol. M.

(Linn), M. dioica (Roxb), M. cochinchinensis (Spreng), and M. balsamina leaves are labeled as a heart protective leafy veg-

tuberosa or cymbalaria. Fig. 1 shows the green fruits of five dif- etable because of its high content of potassium (1320 mg/100 g)

ferent species in this genus. This study highlights the potential that helps to maintain normal blood pressure and other cardio-

of Momordica species as an important source of both nutritional vascular conditions [12]. The trace element, zinc, has also been

and bioactive compounds. In addition, this study also supports reported in fruits and leaves of Momordica species (Table 1).

the inclusion of these wild species into the main food stream of

the local population, improving their nutritional status.

4. Bioactive compounds

2. Biogeography and botanical description

Momordica plant parts are characterized by a wide diver-

Based on both historical literature [1,2,5], and recent anal- sity of bioactive compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids,

ysis of random amplified polymorphic DNA [6], inter simple carotenoids cucurbitane triterpenoids, and phytosterols. The

sequence repeats [7] and amplified fragment length polymor- potential health benefits of phytochemicals found in Momordica

phisms [8] molecular analyses, eastern India (including the states species have received ample attention in the recent literature,

of Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Jharkhand and Bihar) may be focusing especially on compounds with high antidiabetic, antitu-

considered as the primary center of the diversity of bitter gourd, mor and antioxidant properties. In particular, some of the actual

where a wild feral form, M. charantia varieties also exists. trends of the scientific research are strongly focused on obtaining

M. dioica and M. charantia are ubiquitous in distribution over in vitro evidence for the biological efficacy of individual con-

India except in north-east region, whereas M. subangulata ssp. stituents such as triterpenoids, carotenoids and phenolics from

Renigera is restricted to north-east and adjoining north Ben- different parts of Momordica spp. Around 228 different com-

gal hills. M. cochinchinensis is distributed in Andaman and a pounds were identified from different parts of M. charantia [13].

few of regions in the eastern and north eastern states of India. However, with regard to these various bioactive substances of

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Fig. 1. Green fruits of different Momordica species.

M. charantia, only limited information was found on the wild stilbenes and ligans [14]. The polyphenols found in food can help

species due to limited habitat and lack of awareness. to protect oxidative damage by acting directly on reactive oxygen

species and induce endogenous defense system. Phytochemistry

4.1. Phenolics compounds analysis of different plant parts of Momordica species revealed

the presence of flavonoids, coumarins, anthroquinones, antho-

Phenolic compounds are chemical substances considered as cyanins and phenolic acids [15]. Various types of phenolic acids

major secondary metabolites of plant origin having more than such as gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, gentisic acid, vanillic

one phenol group per molecule. Phenolics are classified into two acid, chlorogenic acid, tannic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid,

categories as flavonoids and non flavonoids. Flavonoids share a p-hydroxybenzoic acid, gentisic acid, chlorogenic, syringic acid,

basic structure consisting of two benzene ring linked through a ferulic and sinapic acid were identified in the pericarp, pulp and

heterocyclic prone C ring whereas non flavonoids phenolics con- seeds of M. charantia and M. cochinchinensis fruits. The content

tains the heterogenous group of compounds. The non flavonoid of these compounds vary among different parts and species. M.

compounds are further classified into phenolic acids, tannins, charantia is a rich source of gallic acid in all parts such as leaf

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Table 1

Proximate and mineral composition of Momordica fruit.

Compositions M. charantia M. dioica M. balsamina M. cymbalaria M. cochinchinesis

Moisture/% 93.20 84.1 71.00 84.30 88.6

Ash/% 7.36 6.7 18.00 – –

Lipids/% 6.11 4.7 2.66 – 0.1

Fiber/% 13.60 21.3 29.00 6.42 1.1

Protein/% 27.88 19.38 11.29 2.15 1.5

Carbohydrate/% 34.31 47.92 39.05 12.60 7.6

Energy kcal/100 g 241.66 311.5 189.22 73.00 37.0

Calcium mg/100 g 20 33 941 72.00 64.0

Magnesium mg/100 g – – 220 – –

Sodium mg/100 g 2.40 1.51 122.49 40.00 –

Potassium mg/100 g 171.00 8.25 1320.00 500.00 –

Iron mg/100 g 1.8 4.6 60.3 1.70 0.34

Zinc mg/100 g – – 3.18 2.82 –

Manganese mg/100 g 0.08 – 11.6 0.32 –

Copper mg/100 g 0.19 – 5.44 0.18 –

Phosphorus mg/100 g 70 42 130.46 0.46 89.0

Vitamin C mg/100 g 96 – – 290 0.04

Behera et al. [4]; Hassan and Umar [11].

(95.8 mg/L), stem (72.8 mg/L), green fruit (95.6 mg/L) and ripe fractions of M. cochinchinensis. The phenolic content of bitter

fruit (202 mg/L) [16]. According to Horax et al. [17], gentisic gourd fruits are determined by various factors such as the cul-

acid is also the predominant phenolic acid in M. charantia where tivar, agronomic management, climatic factors, developmental

it accounts maximum for 72.8 mg/100 g in immature green fruits stage, harvesting time, storage conditions, and postharvest man-

and 214.6 mg/100 g in seeds but vanillic acid and t-cinnamic agement. Most studies have investigated the functional activities

acid were found lower in comparison to other phenolic acids. of bitter melon fruits, leaves and stems. It has been determined

In the case of wild M. cochinchinensis, ferulic acid has been that the antioxidant capacity of bitter melon fruit is due to their

reported as the predominant phenolic acid in pulp (92.94 mg/L) high phenolic content [17]. Our previous report showed that the

followed by p-hydroxybenzoic acid in pulp (69.31 mg/L) and aril presence of various phenolic acids in the leaves from varieties of

(29.16 mg/L). Vanillic acid has not been found in either parts of M. charantia and M. dioica [18]. Among them the wild leaves

this fruit. Table 3 shows the phenolic acid profiles of various fruit were reported to have higher phenolic acid composition and

Table 2

Comparative account of amino acid composition of Momordica species with WHO adult requirements.

a b

Amino acid M. charantia fruits (mg/g) M. balsamina leaves (mg/g) Amino acid content meeting FAO

c

recommendations (mg/g protein)

Cystine 22.3 5.6 4

Aspartic acid 93.8 82.1 –

Threonine 25.2 31.3 23

Serine 55.0 40.0 –

Glutamic acid 96.0 123.8 –

Proline 54.4 32.1 –

Glycine 44.9 46.6 –

Alanine 51.2 41.6 –

Valine 42.2 41.1 39

Isoleucine 30.8 – 30

Leucine 64.9 83.8 59

Tyrosine 59.4 26.2 38

Phenylalanine 40.2 39.4 38

Methione 27.6 9 16

Histidine 72.8 25.0 15

Lysine 101 39.4 45

Arginine 45.6 48.7 –

Tryptophan – – 6 Note:

a

M. charantia fruit mature pericarp.

b

M. balsamina leaves.

c

Mean nitrogen requirement of 105 mg nitrogen/kg per day (0.66 g protein/kg per day).

Horax et al. [84]; Hassan and Umar [11]; WHO/FAO/UNU [85].

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Table 3

Phenolic acid composition of different parts with different maturity level of M. cochinchinensis fruits.

Fruit fractions Hydroxybenzoic acids (mg/g) Hydroxycinnamic acids (mg/g) Total mg GAE/g

GA PCCA p-OH VA ChA CFA SyA p-CA FA SNA

Peel (green) 2.46 ND 2.30 ND 0.56 ND ND ND ND ND 5.32

(Yellow) 6.39 ND 6.36 ND 1.97 2.65 ND 4.14 11.32 7.38 40.2

(Red) 2.46 ND 2.30 ND 2.98 2.97 ND ND ND ND 10.7

Pulp (green) 3.09 2.28 60.31 ND ND 2.69 7.19 7.82 92.94 4.56 180.8

(Yellow) 2.57 2.87 2.53 ND ND 2.69 2.25 2.25 7 ND 22.2

(Red) 3.13 ND 2.30 ND 2.82 3.2 3.81 2.24 6 ND 23.5

Aril 4.97 16.15 29.16 ND 1.97 3.41 4.76 11.77 18 4.66 89.9

Note:

GA, gallic acid; PCCA, protocatechuic acid; p-HO, p-hydroxybenzoicacid; VA , vanillic acid; ChA, chorogenic acid; VA , vanillic acid; CFA, caffic acid; SyA, syringic

acid; p-CA, p-coumaric acid; FA, ferulic acid; SNA, sinapic acid; ND, not detected.

Kubola and Siriamornpun [16].

antioxidant activity than those of cultivated variety. Regarding ripen fruit of different species of bitter melon. The amount of

flavonoids the presence of catechin, epicatechin, quercetin, api- carotenoids in Momordica fruit and seeds varied depend upon

genin, myricetin, luteolin and kaempferol has been documented the period of maturation. Lutein and ␣-carotene are impor-

in different varieties on M. charantia and M. cochinchinensis tant groups of carotenoids present in early and mature green

fruit fraction. The inner flesh and aril parts have higher flavonoid fruits. However, zeaxanthin and β-cryptoxanthin are less abun-

content than the other parts of the fruit [16,19]. Kaempferol, lute- dant in early and mid-stage fruits than in mature fruits. A major

olin and apigenin were found only in the wild species but not in , lycopene, a red carotenoid, is only accumulated in

M. charantia [20]. The increased level of antioxidant activity of the final stage when the pulp began to turn red [21]. Lycopene

green fruits might be caused by the presence of flavonoid found to be high in aril and low in pulp but not detected in seeds

content. Rutin was reported in the M. tuberosa and M. charantia [22]. On the other hand, the content of lutein was found to be rich

whereas absent in M. cochinchinensis fruit. Our previous report in peel (yellow) fractions, which was substantially higher than

on flavonoid composition of Momordica leaves suggested that other fractions. However, the concentrations of each group of

rutin was only found in M. dioica and absent in the other two corotenoids were lower than M. cochinchinensis. Reports sug-

varieties of M. charantia [18]. gest that the intake of lutein or diets supplemented with rich

in lutein such as fruits and vegetables are important for the

4.2. Carotenoids prevention of diseases like some cancers, eye diseases and car-

diovascular diseases [22,23]. In , the seed membranes

The ripen fruits of Momordica species contains a wide range of M. cochinchinensis are used to aid in the relief of dry eyes

of carotenoids and are good sources of β-carotene [21], although due to the presence of corotenoids [23].

wild species have been explored for the highest content of

corotenoids. Especially, M. cochinchinensis is very popular for 4.3. Cucurbitane type triterpenoids

its high content of lycopene and β-carotene [22]. Table 4 sum-

Cucurbitane triterpenoids are the main constituents of

marizes the carotenoids content that were found in the analyzed

cucurbitaceae family [24]. They exhibit a broad range of potent

species. The Momordica fruit aril membrane and seed pericarp

biological activities namely hepatoprotective, cytotoxic, anti-

contain highly valuable sources of carotenoids [21]. They are

inflammatory, cardiovascular, anti-diabetic and antiparasitic

responsible for the yellow, orange, and scarlet red colors of

effects [24,25]. The terpenoids, also referred as isoprenoids

which is derived from five isoprene units. The cucur-

Table 4

bitacins are a typical group of cucurbitane type triterpenoids

Carotenoid concentration of M. charantia and M. cochinchinensis seed mem-

brane (␮g/g fresh weight). found in all plants and belonging to the cucumber family

(Cucurbitaceae) and have been reported as the main chemical

Carotenoid (␮g/g) M. cochinchinensis M. charantia

constituents of Momordica species from different parts. Bitter

α

-Carotene 4.2 ND

melon contains several groups of triterpenoids including

β-Carotene 61.8 Trace

charantin [26], kuguacins A-S [27], momordicine I, II and III

Lycopene 424.6 261

[28] and karavilagenin A, B, C, D and E [29,30]. Hsu et al. [31]

Zeaxanthin – Trace

E

Lutein 1.1 ND isolated the five new terpenoids namely, cucurbita-6,22( ),

β β

β

Cryptoxanthin 1.9 Trace 24-trien-3 -ol-19,5 -olide, 5 ,19-epoxycucurbita-6,22(E),24-

Xanthophylls 9.9 ND β

triene-3 ,19-diol, 3β-hydroxycucurbita-5(10),6,22(E),24-

Total carotenoids 424.6 261 tetraen-19-al, 19-dimethoxycucurbita-5(10),6,22(E),24-tet-

β

ND, not detected. raen-3 -ol and 19-nor-cucurbita-5(10),6,8,22(E),24-pentaen-

Rodriguez et al. [86]; Vuong et al. [87].

3β-ol. Furthermore, cucurbitane-type triterpene glycosides,

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charantagenins D and E are isolated from the fruit of M.

charantia L. [32]. Hsiao [33] fractionated 15 cucurbitane-type

triterpene glycosides from extract of M. charantia

fruit. Ma et al. [34] isolated two cucurbitane triterpenoids

and bidesmoside triterpenoid saponins from the seeds of

M. charantia. In addition, leaves also considered as impor-

tant sources of triterpenoids. Zhang et al. [35] isolated

seventeen cucurbitane-type triterpenoids with six new com- β

pounds (23E)-3 ,25-dihydroxy-7 β-methoxycucurbita-5,

23-dien-19-al, (23S*)-3 β-hydroxy-7 β,23-dimethoxy-

cucurbita-5,24-dien-19-al, (23R*)-23-O-methylmomordicine

§

IV, (25 )-26-hydroxymomordicoside L, 25-oxo-27-

normomordicoside L, and 25-O-methylkaravilagenin D.

In addition, two new charantin group triterpenoids charantin A

and charantin B were recently isolated from the leaves of M.

charantia [36]. A number of non-specific measures of saponin

derivatives also exist in Momordica species. Saponins are

steroid or triterpenoid glycosides, common in a large number

of plants and plant products that are important in human and

animal nutrition. These compounds have also been observed to

kill protozoans and molluscs, to be antioxidants, to assist the

digestion of protein and the uptake of vitamins and minerals in

the gut, to cause hypoglycaemia, and to act as antifungal and

antiviral agents [37]. Saponins are a group of high molecular-

weight compounds in which the saccharide units of glycosides

were linked with triterpene groups. charantosides (I–VIII),

momordicosides U, V, and W were some of the major saponins

identified from M. charantia fruits [38,39]. Other types of

saponins like goyasaponins I, II and III have been reported

in the fresh fruit of Japanese M. charantia [40]. Triterpenoid

saponins such as momordicoside M, N, O, and L were generally

predominant in fresh green fruits of M. charantia [41]. The

wild species such as M. balsamina and M. cochinchinensis

are also major sources of triterpenoids. M. balsamina contains

several cucurbitane-type triterpinoids which are isolated from

different parts including balsaminapentaol, balsaminol A,

balsaminol B, cucurbalsaminol A, cucurbalsaminol B [42]. M.

cochinchinensis contained five saponins triterpenoids namely

A, B, C, D and E [43]. The cucurbitane-type triterpenoids were

reported for several medicinal properties such as hypoglycemic,

antiproliferative activities and also used for the treatment of

free radical and reactive oxygen species mediated diseases

[30]. In addition, these compounds were reported as partial

agonist/antagonist for estrogen receptors such as ER␣ and ER␤

and were used for the management of estrogen related health

problems [44]. Some of the newly identified triterpenoids with Fig. 2. Structure of novel triterpenoids from Momordica species.

their structure are shown in Fig. 2.

4.4. Phytosterols

predominant phytosterols have been identified in Momordica

Sterols cannot be synthesized by humans and are absorbed

species namely, decortinone, decortinol, clerosterol,

from the diet in small but significant amounts. Plant

peroxide, 3 β-hydroxy-(22E,24R)-ergosta-5,8,22-trien-7-one,

have proved to lower serum total and low density lipoproteins

β α

22-diene-3 ,7 -diol, 5 α,6 α-epoxy-(22E,24R)-ergosta-8, 6

(LDL)-cholesterol concentrations, so they have been incor-

α

-epoxy-(22E,24R)-ergosta-8,22-diene-3 β,7 β-diol, 5 α,6 α

porated into functional foods. Sterols are minor components

β α

-epoxy-(22E,24R)-ergosta8,22-diene-3 ,7 -diol, and 5 α,6 α

of human dietary lipids and comprise the major portion of β

-epoxy-3 -hydroxy-(22E,24R)-ergosta-8,22-dien-7-one [45].

the unsaponifiable fraction of most edible and oils. Nine

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5. Effect of physiological bioactivities of Momordica triglycerides and lipoproteins [53,54]. With respect to the clin-

species on human health ical trials, 12-weeks treatment with bitter gourd tablet was

conducted in different groups of patients after normal meals. The

5.1. Anti-diabetic activity study showed that regular consumption of these tablets associ-

ated with positive effects in glucose, cholesterol, HDL, LDL,

Diabetes poses a major challenge and the economic pressure triglyceride levels and had beneficial effects on glucose toler-

to the world population, leading to increasing interest in the use ance [55]. Furthermore, nanoparticles of extract of M. charantia

of traditional remedies for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. and its adsorption on polyethylene glycol (PEG) microspheres

Momordica species are well known for the treatment of dia- are considered as an alternative treatment of diabetes [56].

betes from ancient times and nowadays the tablet forms of bitter Considering all these facts, it can be concluded that Momordica

gourd are also available in the market. Momordica species are has potential anti-diabetic properties, which may suggest the

used for the treatment of both Types I and II diabetes. Insulin is inclusion of this plant in anti-diabetic regimens. However, fur-

the mainstay for patients with type 1 diabetes. Recently, several ther studies in details are warranted to explore the mechanistic

proteins were isolated from M. charantia which were involved and therapeutic potential of Momordica for decreasing serum

in the insulin signaling pathway. Isolated compounds such as glucose concentration in combination with the active phyto-

insulin-like peptide (plant (p)-insulin), charantin, vicine, glyco- chemical substances.

sides, karavilosides, fruit and seed extract, juices and powders

have demonstrated potential effects in lowering blood sugar by 5.2. Anti-cancer activity

increasing glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis in the liver,

muscles, and cells and activating insulin receptor substrate In the last few decades, a number of preliminary stud-

1 (IRS1) in skeletal muscle by tyrosine phosphorylation [46]. ies have been carried out to reveal the anti-cancer activity of

Some other reports stated that the hypoglycemic effects might Momordica sp. There are many significant evidences suggest-

␤

be due to the significant increase in cell number, glucose uptake ing links between diets rich in bitter melon and lower risk of

by skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, and activation of AMPK lymphoid leukemia, lymphoma, choriocarcinoma, melanoma,

pathway that stimulates the insulin secretion [47]. Hazarika et al. breast cancer, skin tumor, prostatic cancer, squamous carci-

[48] studied the docking mechanism by block the active site of noma of the tongue and larynx, human bladder carcinomas and

the glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) protein with known Hodgkin’s disease [57]. There are some epidemiological evi-

three anti-diabetic compounds namely, charantin, dence stating that intake of bitter melon are inversely related

and . GSK-3 is one of the negative regulators in to the incidence of cancer. Methanol extract of M. charantia

the hormonal control of glucose homeostasis which are involved was shown to inhibit the growth of four human cancer cell lines,

in the carbohydrate metabolism through the mechanism of Hone-1 nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells, AGS gastric adenocar-

phosphorylation and inactivation of the enzyme glycogen syn- cinoma cells, HCT-116 colorectal carcinoma cells, and CL1-0

thase. The novel IR-binding protein (Trypsin inhibitor) was lung adenocarcinoma cells. M. charantia induces cell death by

isolated from aqueous extract of M. charantia seeds, which activating the caspase-3 enzyme and increase the level of apop-

lowered blood sugar levels by regulating the insulin signaling togenic protein and the expression of Bax gene, which induces

pathway in muscles and adipose tissues and stimulating the IR- DNA fragmentation and nuclear condensation [58]. Treatment

downstream pathway [49]. M. charantia extract also considered of fractionated seed extract of M. charantia in human myeloid

β

as an herbal remedy for type-II diabetes, contains a specific 11 - HL60 cells induced the differentiation and can be used as ther-

hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 inhibitor, responsible for apy for leukemia [59]. Pitchakarn et al. [60] reported that fresh

reducing the PPARA gene expression [46]. Folk wisdom showed bitter melon leaf extract significantly decreased the gene expres-

that Momordica species helps to prevent or counteract Type II sion of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in a breast cancer cell line. It

diabetes, improves glucose tolerance and suppress postprandial has also been found that these extract could increase them

hyperglycemia in rats [50]. Oxidative stress is also one of the RNA level of TIMP-2, known to have inhibitory effects on the

causative mechanisms for diabetes. M. charantia fruit juice is activity of MMP-2. Most attention to date has focused on sev-

reported to restore antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismu- eral phytoconstituents of Momordica including triterpenoids,

tase and catalase in diabetic patients to the normal level [51]. Kuguacin J, ␣-momorcharin and MAP 30 protein. Fang et al.

Treatment of alloxan induced diabetic rats with bitter melon pre- [61] reported the inhibiting property of MAP 30 protein iso-

␤

vented the death of -cells by decreasing the oxidative stress due lated from seeds of M. charantia against the growth of Hep

to the presence of vitamin C (an anti-oxidant). Feeding saponin- G2 leukemia cells. Moreover, other proteins from M. charantia

rich fraction of M. cymbalaria over a period of one month to seeds were reported to inhibit melanoma proliferation. Xiong

streptozotocin-induced Type II diabetic mice leads to increased et al. [62] isolated a novel ribosome-inactivating protein called

insulin secretion, hepatic glycogen synthesis and attenuation of ␣-momorcharin and ␤-momorcharin from the mature seeds of

hyper insulinemia. Also the treated groups showed an increase in M. charantia which efficiently inhibits the growth of prostate

β

the number of pancreatic islets and -cells in the pancreas [52]. cancer. Manoharan et al. [63] described the mechanisms of this

Treatment with the fruit extract of M. tuberosa and seed extract phytochemical in different cancer cell lines, ␣-momorcharin

of M. dioica has been shown to decrease blood glucose level in and ␤-momorcharin increased the cell death specifically in

diabetic rats with simultaneous reduction in serum cholesterol, cancer cell lines by increasing the caspase-3 and 9 activities,

Please cite this article in press as: G. Nagarani, et al., Food prospects and nutraceutical attributes of Momordica species: A potential tropical

bioresources – A review, Food Sci. Hum. Wellness (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2014.07.001

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8 G. Nagarani et al. / Food Science and Human Wellness xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

releasing cytochrome c and elevating calcium level. Recently, of 20% (V/V). Purified triterpenoid ester from M. cochinchinen-

Weng et al. [44] isolated a novel cucurbitane-type triterpenoid sis leaves was proved to inhibit Trigrophyton mentagrophytes

(3β, 7β-dihydroxy-25-methoxycucurbita-5, 23-diene-19-al) and Candida albicans [74]. MAP-30 and type-I ribosome inac-

from wild bitter gourd that induces apoptotic death in breast tivating protein from bitter melon reported to have anti-HIV

cancer cells. Ramalhete et al. [64] proved that some novel cucur- activity [75]. Fruit pulp of M. balsamina was found to be

bitacins, balsaminagenin B, balsaminoside A and the known effective against HIV-1 and significantly increased the CD4

karavelagenin C, together with some new mono or count within the first two weeks of treatment when com-

diacylated derivatives of karavelagenin C from aerial parts of M. pared to the untreated mice [76]. Adesina et al. [77] reported

balsamina strongly inhibited the human MDR1 gene transfected that application of bitter melon leaf powder at the concen-

to mouse lymphoma cells. The seed extracts of M. cochinchi- tration of 2 g greatly reduced Callosobruchus maculates in

nensis have been reported as inhibitors for breast cancer against stored cowpea seeds. Methanol extract of bitter melon leaves

ZR-75-30 breast cancer cells [65]. exhibited strong oviposition deterrent activity against Liriomyza

trifolii females on the host plant leaf when it was dipped in

5.3. Antioxidant activity the methanol extract at a concentration of 1 mg of fresh leaf

equivalent/mL [41].

Oxidative stress is implicated in the etiology of many dis-

eases such as dyslipidaemia, atherosclerosis, obesity, Type II

5.5. Other medicinal effects

diabetes, arthritis, cancer, cardio vascular diseases and neurode-

generative diseases. It is a condition of increased production

Momordica-supplemented foods are considered as good

of free radicals and other reactive oxygen species and decreased

sources of hepatoprotective substances, which can help to pro-

antioxidative defenses [66]. Various extracts of bitter gourd have

tect liver damage by restoring liver markers and preventing the

potential antioxidant activity which might play an important role

lipid peroxidation reaction [78]. Lii et al. [79] reported that wild

in diabetic-related enzymes and individuals with neuroinflam-

bitter melon fruit pulp significantly inhibited lipopolysaccaride-

mation and liver diseases. Nerurkar et al. [67] reported that the

induced inflammatory response in rats. Momordica has potential

administration of bitter melon fruit extract significantly reduced

anti-fertility activity in both male and female mice. It induced

the neurodegenerative diseases as its role as antioxidant to reveal

irregular estrous cycles and suppressed the release of ova and

a mechanism for its neuroinflammation action. Cucurbitane-type

caused highly significant post-coital anti-implantation effect

triterpene glycoside 1 and 3 isolated from stems and fruits of M.

in early stage of pregnant [80]. The glycoprotein, ␣- and ␤-

charantia significantly inhibit the effect on Xanthine oxidase

momorcharins isolated from M. charantia seeds induced the

activity which is the key enzyme for the induction hyperuricemia

testicular degeneration in male animals and the effect was

and gout [68]. Antioxidant compounds in bitter gourd pulp and

reversible within a predictable time frame of 8 weeks after

seed powders showed potential natural antioxidant activity to

discontinuation of the treatment [81]. Analgesic and neuropro-

inhibit the lipid peroxidation in sunflower oil [69]. Moreover,

tective activity were observed in M. dioica fruit and M. charantia

the antioxidant activity of butanol fraction of M. charantia was

fruit juice [82,83].

determined in in vitro and a cellular system and the extract effec-

-

tively ameliorated oxidative damage induced by ONOO [70].

The potential antioxidant activity of M. balsamina has already 6. Conclusions

been reported and its antioxidant components are polyphe-

nols, inhibiting 5-lipo-oxygenase enzyme that is responsible for Momordica species may be considered as a nutritious veg-

inflammation [71]. etable and can play a role in health improving attributes of

As previously stated, bitter gourd was generally consumed their wide range of functional components. The green fruits,

after cooking, so it is important to analyze the effect of heat leaves and stems were rich sources of triterpenoids, carotenoids,

treatment on bitter . Phan-Thi and Wache [72] studied the phenolics that could potentially be used as antioxidants in

effect of heat treatment on lycopene concentration and antioxi- nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Com-

dant ability. They found that moderate heating transferred all pare to the known common variety, the wild species offers

trans-isomers to cis-isomers leading to increased antioxidant more potential phytoconstituents for improving the human

activity. In the case of M. charantia, blanching considerably health. The regular consumption of these wild bitter gourds

decrease the phenolic content and antioxidant activity which associated with the reduced risk of several chronic diseases

denoted that thermal treatment is more suitable for wild species mainly diabetes for cost effective treatment for rural commu-

compared to commercial variety [73]. nities. The health promoting properties of common cultivated

variety have been demonstrated in both in vitro and in vivo

5.4. Anti-microbial activity studies. However, studies on wild species remain sparse.

Finally, the review undertaken here generated many sugges-

Various broad-spectrum anti-microbial components have tions concerning the nutritional value, bioactive components,

been isolated from Momordica species. M. charantia leaf extract medicinal, nutraceutical and functional food properties of

inhibits Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia and Bacillus these plant resources may serve as a foundation for future

subtilis with a maximum inhibitory activity at a concentration investigations/interventions.

Please cite this article in press as: G. Nagarani, et al., Food prospects and nutraceutical attributes of Momordica species: A potential tropical

bioresources – A review, Food Sci. Hum. Wellness (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2014.07.001

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G. Nagarani et al. / Food Science and Human Wellness xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 9

Acknowledgment [20] P.A. Tuan, J.K. Kim, N. Park, et al., Carotenoid content and

expression of phytoene synthase and phytoene desaturase genes in

bitter melon (), Food Chem. 126 (2011) 1686–

The authors wish to thank University Grants Commission

1692.

(UGC), New Delhi, India (F. No. 34-259\2008) for the financial

[21] J. Kubola, S. Siriamornpun, Phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of

assistance. different fruit fractions (peel, pulp, aril and seed) of Thai gac (Momordica

cochinchinensis Spreng), Food Chem. 127 (2011) 1138–1145.

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