New Ways to Teach and Learn Physics Your Solution for Helium Recovery Laboratory Scale Designed for Your Space and Needs

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physicsworld.com Volume 27 No 3 March 2014

s EDUCATIONNew ways to teach and learn physics Your Solution for Helium Recovery Laboratory scale designed for your space and needs.

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Untitled-2 1 17/02/2014 09:19 physicsworld.com Contents: March 2014

Working abroad Graduate careers special 61–65 Get em young Why coding is vital to physics 27–29 Open learning The pros and cons of MOOCs 43–46 Quanta 3 Education 19 Frontiers 4 First image of cosmic web filament taken ● Physicists create Forum 21 analogue of magnetic monopoles in ultracold gas ● Flying Taking modern physics into schools Martin Hendry “jellyfish” is self-stabilizing ● Working out why wet skin wrinkles ● Pyramid powers polarizing light source using quantum dots Critical Point 25 Feynman’s failings Robert P Crease News & Analysis 6 Journal restarts after misconduct charge ● Dutch opt for open Computing in the classroom 27 access ● Free journal access for UK library users● Italian space University physics students often face a steep learning curve when boss resigns in corruption probe● India to build huge solar park they first meet programming, but teaching it at school could ● Cash boost for US science● Chinese dark-matter detector change all that, reports Jon Cartwright fires up ● Critics warn against US Air Force move ● Malfunction hits China’s lunar rover ● Researchers’ reading hits the buffers The power of YouTube 31 Philip Moriarty describes his experiences in front of the camera as ● China establishes five innovation centres● CERN plans for one of the stars of the Sixty Symbols series of science videos LHC successor Rules of engagement 36 Feedback 14 Fran Scott reveals her golden rules of explaining science to kids, Letters, online comments and other messages on evidence for including the importance of a carefully crafted learning outcome dark matter, the role of imagination in science, quantum parallelism, ice spikes in your bird bath, ball lightning and more Learning by doodling 40 Louise Mayor explores the benefits of taking image-heavy lecture Reviews 52 notes, as illustrated by a specially commissioned example, which ● Symmetry throughout physics ● Life in US and Soviet nuclear brings a classic Richard Feynman lecture to life cities ● Web life: AstroEDU The MOOC point 43 Graduate Careers 61 Massive open online courses are changing the education ● Working abroad ● All the latest graduate vacancies and courses landscape, as James Dacey discovers Recruitment 76 Thinking like a scientist 48 Eugenia Etkina and Gorazd Planinšicˇ show how the latest research Lateral Thoughts 80 into education can help how physics is taught But it’s obvious! David Pye

On the cover Physics World is published monthly as 12 is sues Education: new ways to teach and per annual volume by IOP Publishing Ltd, Temple Circus, Temple Way, Bristol BS1 6HG, UK Multimedia learn physics 19–51

(Shutterstock/Petr Vaclavek) United States Postal Identification Statement Haran Brady Physics World (ISSN 0953-8585) is published Check out the digital version of monthly by IOP Publishing Ltd, Temple Circus, Physics World for videos on: Temple Way, Bristol BS1 6HG, UK. Air freight and mailing in the USA by Sheridan Press. 450 Fame ●● The power of MOOCs (p43) Avenue, Hanover PA 17331. US Postmaster: ●● send address changes to Physics World, Explaining science on YouTube (p31) IOP Publishing, PO Box 320, Congers, ●● Richard Feynman in action (p40) NY 10920-0320, USA.

Physics World March 2014 1 Untitled-1 1 16/12/2013 09:25 physicsworld.com Quanta

For the record Seen and heard It is baffling that in our modern world left the scientists puzzled because this we have such blind trust in science NASA type of leech never normally experiences Prince Charles quoted in the Guardian temperatures less than a few degrees The first in line to the British throne says that below 0 °C. The leech also smashes people widely accept what science tells them – the previous record for a living object except when it comes to climate change, adding surviving a dunking, which was held by that climate deniers belong to the “headless tiny, eight-legged “water bears” and the chicken brigade”. larvae of one type of drosophilid fly, both of which lasted for just an hour. It would be worse than trying to reconstruct a book that you burned The designated survivor Mushrooms on Mars? The nuclear physicist and current US from its ashes You may remember the story of Walter energy secretary Ernest Moniz may Physicist Don Page from the University of Wagner, the Hawaii resident who went be 14th in the US presidential line of Alberta quoted in Nature to court to try to stop CERN’s Large succession, but if something really terrible In a new paper, Stephen Hawking suggests Hadron Collider (LHC) from starting, had happened in late January, he might that matter that gets sucked into a black hole before a judge threw out the case. Well, have found himself leading the world’s could be held behind the event horizon, with now another science-themed lawsuit biggest economy. That is because Moniz the information not being destroyed but rather has been filed, this time to force NASA was appointed “designated survivor” scrambled and then released back out through to investigate a strange white-coloured while US president Barack Obama Hawking radiation. object that its Opportunity rover spotted delivered his State of the Union address. on Mars. NASA released a photo of the The speech, which is attended by the I now know the size of the universe weird-looking entity, which was not visible country’s top leaders, including the vice- on 26 December 2013 but appeared in an president, members of the US cabinet better than I know the size of my image taken of the same spot on 8 January and Supreme Court justices, is where US house (see above). Despite wild speculation on presidents outline their legislative agenda Physicist David Schlegel from the Lawrence the Internet, NASA concluded that it was for the coming year. A designated survivor Berkeley National Laboratory quoted on the BBC “clearly a rock”. But that was not enough is a member of the cabinet who stays at a Astronomers working at the Baryon Oscillation for “scientist and astrobiologist” Rhawn distant, secure and undisclosed location Spectroscopic Survey announced that they had Joseph, who is so sure that the rock is during the address to maintain continuity measured the distance between galaxies in the in fact a living organism, more closely of government in the event of a natural universe to an accuracy of 1%. resembling “a mushroom-like fungus”, disaster or terrorist attack that ends up that he has filed an 11-page lawsuit in killing officials in the presidential line of California to make NASA examine succession. Of course, nothing untoward I’ve heard it described as playing the object in more detail. He has also happened, so Moniz did not find himself battleship apparently attempted to contact NASA as leader of the world’s richest nation. Physicist Gray Rybka from the University of boss Charles Bolden and other senior staff The question remains, however, where Washington quoted on KPLU news at the agency to persuade them to examine was Moniz during the speech? Having Rybka says that hunting for dark-matter the object more fully, so far to no avail. emerged with his trademarks flowing grey particles has similarities to playing the famous If the object is indeed biological, Joseph hair intact, at least we know Moniz wasn’t two-player game. also wants NASA to acknowledge that he at the hairdressers. made the discovery and that he appears as first author on and has “final editorial Star panties It’s a wonderful opportunity, but with approval” of the first six scientific articles How about getting yourself a bit of fear and trepidation as well published by NASA on this discovery. Any a nice pair of glow-in- Space scientist Maggie Aderin-Pocock quoted guesses how long it will be before Joseph’s the-dark solar system in the Guardian writ follows that of Wagner? underwear? The online Aderin-Pocock is taking over as a main shop “makeitgoodpdx”, etsy.com/makeitgoodpdx presenter of the long-running BBC TV series Cold leech which is based in Oregon, US, is selling The Sky at Night. All Physics World readers must have at the garments for £11.34 through Etsy. some point in their lives dipped a banana Available in sizes ranging from XS to into liquid nitrogen and then shattered XL, the solar system print was hand- One minute we’re eating pizza then the frozen object into pieces. And if you drawn by artist Nate Crane and features five minutes later we’ve helped to haven’t, you’ve probably wanted to. Well planets, moons, galaxies, shooting stars discover a supernova think again before putting an East Asian and asteroids, and is printed in “glow-in- Student Tom Wright from University College leech into a bath of liquid nitrogen as the the-dark ink”. According to the seller, London quoted on the BBC little creature will come back out alive. the underwear, which is made from 92% In fact, researchers in Japan have shown organic cotton and 8% spandex, is a “cut During an evening telescope class at the that Ozobranchus jantseanus can survive above” with a “tweaked and tested” style. university, undergraduates spotted the exploding in liquid nitrogen at –196 °C for up to “Rock ‘em and feel out of this world,” the star, which occurred in the Messier 82 galaxy. 24 hours. The findings have, however, description states.

Physics World March 2014 3 physicsworld.com Frontiers In brief Quasar shines a light on cosmic web Ballistic electrons go far in nanoribbons An international group of researchers has shown most is too diffuse and cold to produce stars that electrons can travel more than 10 µm in or emit its own light, making the web diffi- graphene nanoribbons without scattering – cult to observe. To get round this problem, which is much further than predicted by theory. Sebastiano Cantalupo of the University of Graphene is an extremely good conductor California, Santa Cruz in the US, along with of electricity as its electrons can travel very colleagues in the US and Germany, began close to the speed of light. But the presence looking for cosmic gas that is lit by one of the of imperfections means that an electron in a brightest sources in the universe – a quasar. freestanding flake of graphene barely travels When lit by the ultraviolet light from a qua- about 10 nm before scattering, increasing the sar, the cosmic gas emits radiation at a par- material’s electrical resistance. The researchers ticular wavelength of hydrogen, which the created pristine ribbons of epitaxial graphene team detected with a specially built narrow- just 40 nm wide and found that electrons can band filter.

travel along the edge of the ribbon without Anatoly Klypin and Joel Primack,Using Sebastiano Cantalupo the 10 m Keck I Telescope at the scattering. Even more surprising, the team Shine on Quasar UM 287 illuminates its surroundings. W M Keck Observatory in Hawaii, the spotted a large jump in the electrical resistance team detected the presence of a long fila- of sections of nanoribbon that are longer than The first view of part of a filament of the ment of gas or a nebula. It has a projected about 16 µm (Nature 10.1038/nature12952). “cosmic web” might have been glimpsed by length of about 460 kiloparsecs (about astronomers, thanks to a quasar acting like 1.5 billion light-years) and was illuminated Novel dual-pumping fibre laser built a torch to illuminate the gas. The observa- by the distant, radio-quiet quasar UM 287. A new type of fibre laser that operates in the mid- tions, made by an international team of As the amount of radiation emitted by infrared range has been designed by researchers researchers, could be the first evidence of the filament depends on how much hydro- in Australia. The device uses a dual-wavelength the long-predicted large-scale structure gen is illuminated, as well as its density and pumping approach that makes it 25 times more of matter in our universe – a network of distribution, the astronomers can infer the powerful than existing fibre lasers operating filaments thought to connect all matter, mass and physical properties of a cosmic at mid-infrared wavelengths. The team’s laser including galaxies and gas clouds. web filament, which is otherwise extremely produces more than 0.25 W, with a significant Matter in the universe is not uniformly difficult to do without a direct image. peak in emissions at wavelengths of 3.6 µm. distributed, but exists instead as filamen- While the filament’s morphology was in Many common hydrocarbon molecules absorb tary structures with intervening voids. Nor- good agreement with predictions from light in the mid-infrared range, and so a cheap mal matter and dark matter are thought to simulations, the filament itself appeared and convenient source of laser light in this part co-exist in this cosmic web, as scientists too bright given the typical density and of the spectrum could have a variety of practical believe that the gas “feels” the gravitational distribution of hydrogen gas in the simu- applications, from atmospheric analysis to force of the dark matter and traces it out lated web, suggesting that the gas is actu- non-invasive medical diagnosis (Optics Letters across the cosmos. ally much denser and has a much clumpier 39 493). A small fraction of this gas is dense distribution than predicted (Nature enough to produce stars and galaxies, but 10.1038/nature12898). Cloudy skies on nearby dwarf star mapped The weather forecast for a brown dwarf located naturally occurring, require electric charge just 6.6 light-years from Earth includes periods Monopoles seen in lab to come in discrete units. Dirac considered of patchy clouds, according to astronomers in what happens when a monopole interacts Germany, the UK and France. They applied a An analogue of a long-sought-after parti- with an electron and found that a monopole technique called Doppler imaging, which exploits cle comprising an isolated magnetic pole passing through an electron cloud would a star’s spin, to map the distribution of bright has been observed by physicists in the US leave a vortex in its wake. and dark areas. Using data from NASA’s Wide- and Finland. This latest work does not Hall’s group has reproduced that vortex field Infrared Survey Explorer, they saw, for the prove whether or not the unusual particles in a Bose–Einstein condensate of ultracold first time, features geographically localized in exist, rather it shows that a physical system rubidium atoms. The condensate is a single 2D across the globe of the brown dwarf, noticing described by the underlying mathematics matter wave and stands in for the electron patchy features all across the surface, which can be created in the lab. cloud in Dirac’s formulation. To reproduce are consistent with partial cloud cover. These Physicists have tried to create magnetic the monopole, the researchers applied a clouds are made of silicate rocks and molten- monopoles – first predicted by Paul Dirac real, external magnetic field to the conden- iron droplets kept aloft by vigorous atmospheric in 1931 – inside particle accelerators, and sate to orient its atoms in such a way that motions. The discovery lends insight into weather have searched pristine environments, such they create a “synthetic” magnetic field on “hot Jupiters” – giant planets that orbit so as the Antarctic ice, but have come up inside the condensate. To show that they close to their star that they are lost in its glare, empty-handed. The approach of David Hall really had produced a Dirac monopole, the usually making them difficult to observe (Nature and colleagues at Amherst College in Mas- researchers shone a laser beam through 10.1038/nature12955). sachusetts and collaborators in Finland is the condensate, which created a “shadow- to produce an analogue of what is known graph” – the shadow cast by the atoms was Read these articles in full and sign up for free as a “Dirac monopole” – the generalized pierced by a narrow strip of light, which, e-mail news alerts at physicsworld.com quantum-mechanical form of a magnetic the team concluded, was the vortex created monopole, which Dirac said would, when by an isolated north pole (Nature 505 657).

4 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com Frontiers

Innovation Leif Ristroph Leif Quantum dots power polarizing light source

A new way of generating linearly polarized photons using quantum dots has been developed by an international team of researchers. The novel source of polarized light could be used to develop energy-saving computers and mobile-phone screens, as well as secure communications. Researchers have long studied quantum dots and their many possible applications, but getting them to emit photons that have a predefined polarization has proved difficult and this is an essential requirement for many applications. Most devices that create polarized light do so by sending unpolarized light through a polarizing filter. However, at least half of the light (and so On the wings of a...jellyfish? an equal amount of energy as heat) is lost in A jellyfish-like flying machine that hovers and stabilizes itself with no feedback control has been unveiled by the process, making them rather inefficient. researchers in the US. This degree of self control is unique among such flapping-wing “ornithopters”, and its To avoid such losses, a better method would developers hope that their prototype – pictured above – could be developed into a toy. Made of carbon-fibre directly generate polarized light from the source loops and Mylar film, the ornithopter is the latest result in the drive to develop small autonomous flying itself. While researchers have known that this machines for a variety of uses ranging from environmental monitoring to military reconnaissance. It was is possible with quantum dots, until now the designed and built by Leif Ristroph and Stephen Childress of New York University. While the two applied polarization has been weak, hard to control and mathematicians did not set out to create a jellyfish, similarities soon become apparent on construction. The the methods to do it are complex. ornithopter is 10 cm wide and has a mass of 2.1 g. It flaps its four downward-pointing wings in and out, But now, Per Olof Holtz of Linköping University bobbing like a jellyfish as it ascends and hovers. Making such a functional ornithopter has proved to be a in Sweden and colleagues, along with other challenge in the past because flapping flight is inherently unstable, unless you are a flying insect. Robotic researchers in Thailand, have come up with an flying machines usually have to manage their flight continuously, sensing small perturbations and alternative method where asymmetrical quantum compensating for them with changes in wing motion J.( R. Soc. Interface 11 20130992). (See also p15.) dots of indium gallium nitride (InGaN) are grown at the apex of elongated microscopic six-sided gallium-nitride pyramids. The team can control Physicists figure out why wet skin wrinkles the precise elongation of the micropyramid, which in turn determines the polarization of the If you have ever sat in the bath and won- structure of corneocytes is based on a cubic emitted photons. They then used a continuous- dered why your fingers go wrinkly when unit cell made from criss-crossing filaments wave ultraviolet laser operating at 266 nm to wet, it is because the dead outer layer of of keratin that are not normally straight, but excite the dots and found that photons are your skin is made up of matrix-like struc- instead resemble helical springs. The vol- emitted with a well-defined wavelength and are tures called corneocytes. Physicists in Ger- ume of the unit cell can therefore increase highly linearly polarized, on average 84%. many have now modelled a corneocyte and by a factor of five until the filaments have Holtz told Physics World that nitride-based carried out calculations to see how its vol- essentially straightened out. semiconductors are good for generating ume changes as it takes up water. In this latest research, Evans has teamed polarized light because of their valence-band The outer layer of a mammal’s skin – up with Roland Roth of the University of structure. While the quantum dots that the known as the stratum corneum – is the Tübingen to study the thermodynamics team used emit violet light with a wavelength body’s first line of defence against toxins of the expansion process. In their calcula- of 415 nm, the photons can, in principle, take in the environment, and also helps to con- tions, the two researchers quantified the on any colour within the visible spectrum by trol the water content of our body. When corneocyte’s tendency to expand in terms simply varying the amount of the indium used. ambient conditions are dry, the stratum of the energy released as a filament absorbs The researchers’ method should let them build corneum forms a barrier to evaporation water. They calculated the free energy of ultracompact arrays of photon emitters, with to prevent the skin from drying out and the unit cell over a range of sizes, plotting a controlled polarization direction for each vice versa when it is wet. The stratum the free energy as a function of the length individual emitter. The method also has other corneum is made mostly from keratin – a of a unit cell and the radius of curvature advantages – the quantum dots can be used fibrous protein– which is arranged to form of the helical filaments. This “3D energy at high temperatures and produce a higher the corneocytes. landscape” revealed a distinctive valley- degree of polarization than is possible with In a previous study, Myfanwy Evans of the like structure that contains a region of low other semiconductors. It is also compatible with Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen- free energy where it is thermodynamically current electronic-processing techniques (Light: Nürnberg and Stephen Hyde of the Austral- favourable for the unit cell to exist (Phys. Sci. & Apps. 10.1038/lsa.2014.20). ian National University showed that the Rev. Lett. 112 038102).

Physics World March 2014 5 physicsworld.com News & Analysis Controversial journal relaunches A journal that shut after allegations of malpractice has been reopened, as Andy Extance reports

A physics journal shut by its found- investigation revealed that the only ing publisher due to “nepotistic three other referees for the special reviewing and malpractice” has been issue were also authors on the con- relaunched by its editor-in-chief, iStock/oonal cluding paper. “The authors stated Sid-Ali Ouadfeul from the Algerian relatively bold implications,” says Petroleum Institute. Pattern Recog- Rasmussen. “This is free speech nition in Physics (PRP) was closed and welcome in scientific discourse. by Copernicus Publishing, which is However, the review showed clear based in Göttingen, Germany, fol- malpractice. The journal was being lowing a special issue on solar vari- misused for publishing work from a ability that the journal published in different topic than agreed: climate January 2014, the concluding paper change, or its denial.” in which cast doubt on global warm- The closure has riled PRP’s sup- ing. Ouadfeul has now launched the porters, with Mörner calling the journal independently and is again situation “twisted”. “Nepotism is to inviting submissions. favour friends and relatives without Copernicus publishes 36 journals respect to qualifications,” he told on an open-access basis, including 16 that Mörner’s viewpoint on climate The heat is on Physics World. “We did the opposite. titles on behalf of the European Geo- change “did not play a role, since the An open-access The reviewers were all specialists. sciences Union. It also holds funding journal was never meant to publish journal that closed It is true they primarily were cho- deals with Germany’s Max Planck climate-change-related research”. after it published a sen among authors of the special Society and Helmholtz Association, In July 2013 Jeffrey Beall, a librar- special issue casting issue, with some additionally from and additionally invites ideas for new ian from the University of Colo- doubt on global outside. We achieved a wonderful journals. In a statement published rado, who runs the watchdog blog warming has been collection of papers that elevate an on its website, Martin Rasmussen, Scholarly Open Access, alleged that relaunched by its old hypothesis into a firm theory: Copernicus’s managing director, Ouadfeul self-plagiarized in PRP’s editor-in-chief. that solar variability is driven by the said that it had closed PRP because very first paper. He also noted that ‘planetary beat’. It is ironic that I am “the editors selected the referees on Ouadfeul edited two of the remain- accused of upsetting normal review- a nepotistic basis, which we regard ing four papers published up to that ing. My whole life, I have been keen as malpractice in scientific publish- point and said that climate-change on ‘fair play’. We had internal quar- ing and not in accordance with our sceptics had been named as the edi- rels within PRP, and I was fighting publication ethics we expect to be tors for the other two. for decent reviewing.” followed by the editors”. Mörner then proposed a special The shutdown also surprised Rasmussen told Physics World issue of the journal entitled “Patterns Ouadfeul. “It was normal peer that in 2012 Ouadfeul suggested in solar variability, their planetary review, like other journals,” he told Copernicus should launch a journal origin and terrestrial impact”, which Physics World. “I don’t know why on pattern analysis that would cover featured 14 papers on the topic pub- Copernicus closed it down, but now the theoretical, experimental and lished between November 2013 and we have reopened it. No problem.” applied aspects of the subject in all January 2014. “Obviously, we are on PRP now appears on a new website branches and disciplines of physics. our way into a new grand solar mini- with the relaunch driven exclusively As Rasmussen felt Ouadfeul was mum,” all the issue’s authors wrote and independently by Ouadfeul. “not yet well known in the interna- together in the special issue’s “gen- Indeed, Rasmussen regrets that tional scientific community”, the eral conclusions” paper in Decem- PRP did not use the public peer- firm asked him to look for a second ber. “This sheds serious doubts on review system Copernicus pro- editor-in-chief. the issue of a continued, even accel- motes, where referee comments Ouadfeul suggested Nils-Axel erated, warming as claimed by the are discussed publicly, which he Mörner, a retired ex-head of the IPCC project.” felt would have helped to “avoid or paleogeophysics and geodynamics But in January, when Copernicus I don’t at least uncover such malpractice”. department at Stockholm Univer- was about to issue a press release know why Although he calls the affair “unfor- sity, who was appointed as co-edi- to publicize the special issue, it saw tunate”, he denies that it reflects tor-in-chief before the journal’s first this comment and recognized what it Copernicus poorly on Copernicus or open access. papers were published in March called “a major problem with misuse closed it “Different approaches including 2013. Although Mörner is critical of of the journal’s topic”. The firm then down but public, open or closed peer review the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- noticed that most referees were also have shown that the vast majority mate Change and the idea that sea authors on the issue’s main papers, now we have of open-access journals are reliable, levels are rising, Rasmussen insists which drove it to close PRP. Further reopened it professional and highly reputable.”

6 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com News & Analysis

Publishing Concerns voiced over Dutch open-access drive

Researchers and institutions in houses and funders to address the “Scientific quality is the only issue, the Netherlands are scrambling to issues of such a transition to fully all the rest is secondary.” implement new publishing rules open-access publishing, calling on However, Amsterdam-based after the Dutch education minis- academia to meet the potential extra scientific-publishing house Elsevier try announced plans late last year costs. Dekker, who was involved in formally welcomed the initiative, to speed up the transition from the implementation of the open- stressing it has already opened up subscription-based scientific pub- access policy for the EU’s Horizon several hundred of its titles. “We lishing to open access. Speaking at 2020 programme, even warns that if will be happy to work out a system the annual European conference the Dutch five-year goal is not met, that fits all,” the company said in a on academic publishing in Berlin he will pass a law to restrict public statement. Yet particle physicist Jos in January, Dutch education secre- Opening up funding of research to open-access Engelen, current president of the tary Sander Dekker said that free research publishing researchers only. Dutch funding agency, the Neth- access to scientific information is Sander Dekker, Dekker’s appeal has led to strong erlands Organisation for Scientific essential to healthy science and that Dutch education reactions in the Dutch scientific Research (NWO), and a former “publicly funded research should be secretary, has vowed community, many of whom doubt CERN chief scientific director, told publicly available”. However, crit- to speed up the the feasibility of the plans, includ- Physics World that giving power to ics warn that the move could hurt transition from ing the possibility that they cannot commercial publishers has “turned physicists’ attempts to publish in the subscription-based publish in journals that do not offer out to be a mistake”. “Their interests top journals. scientific publishing open access. “The incentive to aim are also in selling events and adver- Open-access publishing usually to open access. for the highest-impact titles will be tisements that are not necessarily comes in two forms – “gold” in which undermined. Dutch science will in the interest of a public funding an article is free for all to read as soon lose”, economist Roel Beetsma of agency such as the NWO, which is as it is published if the author pays an the University of Amsterdam wrote trying to foster the national interest article processing charge, or “green” in an open letter to Dekker late of good Dutch research,” he says. where the paper is embargoed for a last year, in which he stated doubts Yet Engelen adds that Dutch certain period after which it is free that the cost of scientific publishing physics will be relatively unhurt by to read online. In November 2013 would come down following a move Dekker’s plans. “We already have a Dekker told parliament that all sci- to open access. relatively open culture, with reposi- entific publications that were “made Beetsma’s concern over the lack of tories such as arXiv,” he says. “There in Holland” would be open access in access to top journals is backed up the scientific debate takes place. 10 years’ time – via either the gold or by astronomer Ed van den Heuvel, And we all know how to handle the green route – with at least 60% being also at Amsterdam. “Denying Dutch drawbacks of the system as I am sure so in 2019. researchers the ability to publish in responsible scientists in other fields Dekker, a member of the Dutch subscription journals such as Science will learn just as well.” liberal VVD party, has now urged and Nature is scientific hara-kiri,” Martijn van Calmthout researchers, libraries, publishing Van den Heuvel told Physics World. Amsterdam Publishers open journal content to UK public library users Library users in the UK now have ies from 10 local authorities, the go into a library that has signed up access to hundreds of thousands of majority of which are in southern for the initiative and then use a reg- journal articles following a new ini- England, were involved in testing the istered computer in the library to tiative called Access to Research, programme, with the initiative now access a specially built Web-based which was rolled out last month. being launched nationwide. Access to search platform. “The programme The two-year pilot programme will Research is in response to one of the will now give the public free access to allow public-library users in the UK main recommendations of the Finch research around the world through

to freely access 8000 journals from report, which was published in June Shutterstock/wavebreakmedia our public libraries,” says UK science 17 publishers including IOP Publish- 2012 and aimed to reach a consen- minister David Willetts. “This will ing, which publishes Physics World, sus on an open-access policy among Access all areas connect people, including students as well as Elsevier, Nature Publish- universities, libraries, researchers, Library users in the and small businesses, to a wealth of ing Group and Wiley. learned societies and publishers UK will now have global knowledge – maximizing its The new initiative is being spear- in the UK. The recommendation access to more than impact and value.” Richard Mollet, headed by the Publishers Licensing stated that major academic pub- 8000 journals from head of the Publishers Association, Society (PLS), a not-for-profit firm lishers should grant public libraries 17 scientific adds that the pilot will be “hugely that oversees licensing in the UK for a licence to provide free access to publishers. valuable for publishers, libraries and book, journal, magazine and website academic articles. their patrons”. copying. Last year, about 250 librar- To browse a journal, users must Michael Banks

Physics World March 2014 7 News & Analysis physicsworld.com

Italy Space chief quits following corruption probe

Italy’s space activities have been Stepping down Chiara Carrozza the day after police ESA thrown into uncertainty following Enrico Saggese, searched his offices, and which was the resignation of Enrico Saggese president of the accepted a few hours later, Sag- as president of the Italian Space Italian Space gese claims he is innocent of any Agency (ASI). Saggese stepped Agency, has resigned wrongdoing, asserting his “com- down in the wake of investigations in the wake of plete extraneousness to the alleged by prosecutors regarding possible investigations into actions”. He explains that he decided fraudulent contracting, expenses- contracts, hirings to quit “in the interest of the ASI’s paid holidays and questionable con- and expenses. international prestige” and in order sultancies awarded by the agency. to “better defend my uprightness, The organization, which has an respectability and prestige”. annual budget of around 7500m, According to Rodolfo Guzzi, a for- will now be run by a government- mer ASI director, the agency essen- appointed commissioner until a new tially stopped funding basic research president is nominated. during Saggese’s presidency. He says The presidency of Saggese, an larities” in the agency’s operations, that of the agency’s 7100m budget electronics engineer, was contro- including “invoices for non-existent for domestic activities, all bar a few versial from the start. He took over transactions”, and who said that million was awarded to commercial as a commissioner in 2008, after Saggese had threatened to ruin his enterprises, whereas previously a the then government of Silvio Ber- career when he brought the mat- substantial fraction of the money lusconi removed the existing presi- ters to light. The prosecutors sub- had supported projects at research dent, astronomer Giovanni Bignami. sequently put Saggese and six other institutes and universities. Saggese’s arrival angered many sci- individuals under investigation for That funding will now remain entists, not only for the treatment their alleged involvement in bribery, blocked until a new president is handed out to his predecessor but the offices and homes of whom were appointed, Guzzi adds. Although also because of question marks over raided by police on 6 February. that should not lead to any of the the new chief’s independence. Sag- Investigators are also studying ASI’s roughly 200 employees being gese was vice-president for space documents relating to a lavish trip laid off, it might, he points out, activities at one of the ASI’s biggest to California that Saggese is alleged cause industry to cut back on per- contractors – aerospace and defence to have laid on for 33 guests using sonnel. Aldo Sandulli, a professor of giant Finmeccanica. Doubts not- mainly public money. The visit, administrative law from Suor Orsola withstanding, however, he was which cost a reported 7930 000, is Benincasa University of Naples, was appointed president of the agency a said to have involved business-class appointed ASI commissioner – a year later. flights and nine days’ worth of luxury temporary position – on 12 February. According to the newspaper La accommodation in order to watch a Carrozza has set up a selection com- Stampa, the latest investigations rocket launch that in the end did not mittee to provide her with a short list were sparked by a whistle-blowing take place. of candidates for the presidency. ASI manager who told prosecutors In his letter of resignation, which Edwin Cartlidge in Rome that he had noticed “irregu- he sent to research minister Maria Rome

Energy electronics and construction. The idea for the plant stems from 2009 when India released its ambitious India plans world’s biggest solar power plant National Solar Energy Plan that set a target of generating 20 000 MW of solar India has unveiled ambitious plans to involve the installation of 1000 MW and power by 2022 at a cost of $20bn. In build the world’s largest solar-energy is likely to be finished by 2016. When 2013 India’s installed capacity for solar park. Dubbed the Ultra Mega Solar fully commissioned a decade from now, stood at 2100 MW (with the highest

Power Project and located about Bagla Pallava the Indian government estimates that being Germany at 32 000 MW). 550 km south-west of New Delhi in the plant will supply enough energy Speaking at the Delhi Sustainable the state of Rajasthan, the plant is to light up more than 40 000 typical Development Summit in New Delhi last projected to generate 4000 MW. When Indian homes. month, Rajendra K Pachauri, chairman complete it would be 16 times bigger According to the Indian Ministry of the Intergovernmental Panel on than the 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar of New and Renewable Energy, the Climate Change and director-general Project located in Arizona, US, which is Power from the Sun plant is estimated to cost around $1bn of the Energy and Resources Institute currently the biggest such facility. The next step in but the government is hoping it can in New Delhi, emphasized the need India is proposing to construct the India’s National source $500m of subsidized green to embrace clean energy, adding plant on an empty salt pan in the Thar Solar Energy Plan is funding from the World Bank. The that “a large proportion of human Desert in western India. Having an area the 4000 MW project is being spearheaded by the society remains totally outside modern of about 10 km2, it will be set on the Ultra Mega Solar Solar Energy Corporation of India and energy systems”. banks of a highly saline natural inland Power Project. is being supported by six public-sector Pallava Bagla lake. The first phase of the project will companies that specialize in power, New Delhi

8 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com News & Analysis

Funding gut research, education, healthcare, infrastructure and other investments necessary for a vibrant economy,” he says. Physics gains ground in US budget Indeed, the sequester and last October’s two-week government After years of suffering budget cuts, Spending splurge shutdown continue to cast a shadow the 2014 US budget, signed by US The 2014 US budget over the research community, with president Barack Obama in mid- contains steep rises telescopes in Arizona, California, January, contains promising news for science including Hawaii and West Virginia facing for physics researchers. The Office a 9.7% increase for possible closure. Equally disturb- of Science at the Department of the Department of ing, research universities report Energy (DOE) receives $5.07bn – an Energy’s Office of Falbisoner MartinCC-BY delays in existing research projects, increase of 9.7% over last year’s fig- Science. reductions in the numbers of new ure – while its Advanced Research research grants and cuts in staff Projects Agency–Energy stands to – effects that could permanently obtain $280m, worth an extra 11.2%. reduce the productivity of research. NASA’s science programme receives Patricia Dehmer, DOE acting direc- $5.15bn – a rise of 7.7% – and the tor, warns that her department will National Science Foundation will still award fewer grants over the get $7.17bn, up 4.2%. next three to five years, because the Much of the current year’s budget now requires it to fund them increases merely make up lost in full at the time they are awarded, ground following sequestration instead of paying them out in three- in 2013 – which saw a 5% cut in all to five-year increments. government agencies’ budgets fol- “Sequestration is a very damaging lowing a failure to solve political sentative for Illinois. Yet Rush Holt budgeting approach when it comes disagreements in 2011 – and the fact of New Jersey, a fellow physicist and to scientific research,” says Michael that Congress failed to pass budgets Democratic Congressman, takes a Lubell, director of public affairs at in financial years 2012 and 2013. In less optimistic view. While lauding the American Physical Society. “The those two years it voted on “continu- the budget’s inclusion of $508m that approach of making temporary cuts ing resolutions” that maintained the he sought for the DOE’s Office of and then restoring funds works if budgets at the previous years’ levels. Fusion Energy Sciences, he laments you are paving roads. But it doesn’t “While it wasn’t perfect, I was that the budget is premised on “the work so well with scientific research; pleased that the bill preserves essen- deep, deep cuts” of the sequester. people leave the country or go into tial funding for scientific research “Even over the next two years, more other fields.” and development,” says Bill Foster, a than three-fourths of the sequestra- Peter Gwynne physicist who is a Democratic Repre- tion cuts remain in place – cuts that Boston, MA

China the liquid, producing radiation. The radiation is then picked up using photomultiplier tubes. PandaX is PandaX heats up the race for dark matter now the fourth major experiment to hunt for dark matter using xenon A new $8m Chinese experiment following the XMASS Dark Matter has begun taking data in the search Experiment in Japan, XENON100 for dark matter. The Particle and in Italy and the Large Underground Astrophysical Xenon (PandaX) Ji Xiangdong Xenon experiment in the US. While experiment has opened at the China these facilities are bigger in terms Jinping Underground Lab, which is of the amount of liquid xenon located under some 2.4 km of rock they hold, there are plans to scale in Sichuan province. PandaX will up PandaX. use its 120 kg tank of liquid xenon to “Results depend on the scale of the search for weakly interacting mas- experiment, which means the usable sive particles – a leading dark-mat- amount of xenon,” says PandaX ter candidate – and its first data are spokesperson Xiangdong Ji from the expected later this year. SJTU and the University of Mary- Dark matter accounts for around land. “We are considering scaling 26.8% of the total mass-energy of China and the US are also involved Going underground up to nearly half a tonne of xenon the universe, with dark energy mak- in PandaX, including the Shanghai PandaX will use a later this year.” Indeed, PandaX was ing up 78.3% and ordinary matter Institute of Applied Physics, the 120 kg tank of liquid originally designed to operate more the rest. PandaX was first mooted in universities of Shandong, Peking, xenon to search for than a tonne of liquid xenon but 2009 by researchers at Shanghai Jiao Michigan and Maryland as well weakly interacting when it will be upgraded has yet to Tong University (SJTU) together as the Yalong River Hydropower massive particles – a be decided. “We haven’t set a timeta- with support from China’s science Development Company. leading dark-matter ble,” says Ji. “It depends on the funds, and technology ministry and the When a dark-matter particle hits a candidate. which depends on the results.” National Natural Science Founda- xenon atom in the tank, it transfers Jiao Li tion of China. Six other institutes in energy to the atom, which recoils in Beijing

Physics World March 2014 9 News & Analysis physicsworld.com

Research Patterson will give the AFRL at least a bit of a boost.” Dayton’s lack of proximity to other research organizations could result Military lab move sparks controversy in the AFOSR’s researchers and support staff refusing to move out of the A money-saving proposal from the Washington area – a phenomenon US Air Force to move its Office of that has happened in past military Scientific Research (AFOSR) from relocations. Virginia senators Tim Virginia to Ohio has come up against Kaine and Mark Warner, along strong protests from politicians and with Representative Jim Moran, researchers. The American Physical have written a letter to General Society (APS) – along with a group Janet Wolfenbarger, commander of 15 universities that receive funds Force/AbhishekAirUS Yadav of the Air Force Material Com- from the AFOSR – argues that the mand at Wright-Patterson, warning relocation could damage the Air against the move. They add that the Force’s commitment to fundamen- AFOSR’s current location provides tal research, with APS president “fertile ground for the cultivation of Malcolm Beasley warning that it collaborative research”. could “cripple” the Air Force’s basic The proposed relocation came to research programme. light when the Institute of Electrical With a budget of $525m in 2013, Projects Agency. Relocation, and Electronics Engineers released the AFOSR has about 170 employ- Sparked by the US military’s need relocation a letter it wrote to Wolfenbarger in ees. It invests in basic research to cut costs as its budget declines fol- Plans to move the Air mid-January, stating that the move – from controls for air and space lowing the end of its wars in Iraq and Force Office of would be “high risk” and would flight to energy technologies and Afghanistan, the proposal would Scientific Research result in “significant attrition of tal- materials development – that is car- move the AFOSR to the Wright- from Virginia to Ohio ent and disruption of that important ried out by academic and non-profit Patterson Air Force Base in Day- has met strong research enterprise”. In response, research organizations across the ton, Ohio, the current home of its opposition over fears the Air Force asked for comments country. The lab’s current location Air Force Research Laboratory that it could “cripple” from the research community, but near Washington, DC, is close to (AFRL), which focuses on applied its research gave just five days to respond. Yet the the headquarters of other govern- research. “There’s always a compe- programme. issue is not likely to be settled soon. ment agencies responsible for fund- tition for funds between the AFOSR Owing to red tape, the Air Force ing basic research, including the and the AFRL,” Michael Lubell, might not decide whether or not to National Science Foundation, the the APS’s director of public affairs, make the move until October 2015. Department of Energy, NASA and told Physics World. “The concern is Peter Gwynne the Defense Advanced Research that moving the AFOSR to Wright- Boston, MA

Space for natural resources and taking 3D images as well as taking infrared spectra and analysing the lunar soil. Jade Rabbit wakes up from lunar sleep The probe is also carrying a telescope and an ultraviolet camera to China’s first lunar rover, Jade Rab- observe the universe and the plasma bit, woke up last month after a sphere around the Earth. two-week shutdown, but problems However, after initially taking remained to get the probe fully some images of the Moon’s surface, operational as Physics World went to CNSA/CLEP/CAS on 25 January Jade Rabbit experi- press. There were, however, initially enced mechanical problems. The conflicting reports about the status problems were apparently related to of the mission after the English- the probe’s process for shutting down language website of the state-owned for the lunar night, which lasts more China News Service reported that than two weeks and during which Jade Rabbit “could not be restored temperatures plummet to –180 °C. to full function as expected”. How- However, upon waking up last ever, China’s official Xinhua news Staying alive high and weighs 140 kg. In ancient month Xinhua said that the probe agency later said that mission con- China’s Jade Rabbit Chinese mythology, Chang’e is the was “alive” and receiving signals trol was still working to fix “control has come out of Chinese goddess of the Moon and from Earth. “It’s awake. We have abnormalities”, and that the rover hibernation but is Jade Rabbit was her pet. Chang’e-3 a signal,” China National Radio “can be saved”. still having technical follows on from China’s two success- quoted Pei Zhaoyu, a spokesman Jade Rabbit was launched on the troubles. ful lunar orbiters – Chang’e-1 and for the lunar probe programme. Chang’e-3 probe on 2 December Chang’e-2 – which launched in 2007 “But the problem still hasn’t been 2013 from the Xichang Satellite and 2010, respectively. resolved.” As Physics World went to Launch Center in Sichuan province. Jade Rabbit carries a camera, press it is was unclear how long it The rover, which is expected to travel radar and infrared and X-ray spec- would take to resolve the problems around 10 km over the surface of the trometers. The main mission of the and whether the probe would be fully Moon for a period of three months, rover is to survey the Moon’s surface operational again. is around 1.5 m long, 1 m wide, 1.1 m and geological structure, looking Michael Banks

10 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com News & Analysis

Research Number of papers read by researchers levels off

A study of US academics has discov- scholarly articles, but perhaps their ered that the number of papers that upper capacity has been reached,” researchers are reading is no longer says Tenopir. going up but has levelled off. The The survey also indicates that study, led by Carol Tenopir from the academics aged 60 or older are Center for Information and Com- more likely to read a printed article, munication Studies at the University while younger researchers prefer a of Tennessee in Knoxville, finds that digital format. “Readings from all researchers read on average 264 aca- Anton Shutterstock/Matushchak ages are now overwhelmingly from demic articles per year in 2012, about e-sources, and a growing percentage the same as they read back in 2005. of those readings are read on screen It also shows that scientists spend rather than printed out on paper” around half an hour reading each adds Tenopir. paper (Learned Publishing, in press). Hazel Hall, a social scientist from The annual survey of reading hab- Edinburgh Napier University who its began in 1977 and is based on a Reading matters following two decades the number was not involved in the study, says questionnaire sent to about 800 A survey has of manuscripts consumed increased that despite the levelling off in the academics at five US universities. unveiled that steadily, while each got less attention. number of papers read, this does Scientists are asked to give details researchers read on In 2005 a significant surge in not necessarily mean that research- of the number of papers they read – average 264 the numbers of articles read was ers are reading less overall. “Their beyond just the title or abstract – as academic articles in recorded by the survey, coupled awareness of new research is actu- well as answer questions about the 2012 – about the with a marked decrease in the ally greater than in the past because time spent reading and the purpose, same as in 2005. time researchers spent with each meta-knowledge about newly pub- value and the format of the papers. article to just 32 minutes, but the lished research is so much easier to When the survey first started, sci- most recent survey shows that the access, for example through online entists used to read 12–13 articles number of papers read now seems contents page services [such as] Twit- per month, spending an average of to be stabilizing. “Academics still ter feeds,” she says. 48 minutes on each. But during the spend many hours each year reading Katia Moskvitch

Research China establishes five innovation centres

After nearly a year of planning, the China. “It will play an important role for Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) the development of particle physics in has created its first batch of Centres China by identifying the objectives and Jianwei Pan Jianwei for Excellence and Innovation (CEI). ideas for development, and promote Focusing on quantum information and talents,” says Yifang Wang, the director technology, particle physics, the Earth of IHEP, who has been appointed head of system, brain science and thorium the new centre. Although its budget had molten-salt reactors, the centres have not yet been approved as Physics World been given management autonomy went to press, Wang estimates it will be so they can set their own research no more than $1.6m annually. direction and introduce performance The other three centres are the incentives for staff. CEI in Tibetan Plateau Earth System The CEI in Quantum Information and Sciences, based in Beijing, the CEI in Quantum Physics will be based at the Brain Science, located at the Institute University of Science and Technology of the situation of competitive funding in Leading light of Neuroscience in Shanghai, and the China (USTC) in Hefei and will receive China,” says Jianwei Pan, a quantum Quantum physicist CEI in Thorium Molten Salt Reactors around 60 million yuan ($10m) each physicist from USTC and the director Jianwei Pan will be Energy System, which is based at the year to buy new equipment and fund of the centre. “The fields with hopeful director of the Centre Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics. researchers. Chunli Bai, the president major breakthroughs need stable for Excellence and The CEIs will each receive independent of the CAS, hopes that the centre can funding to support scientists to devote Innovation in assessments every two or three years, achieve a “comprehensive leading more time and energy into research, Quantum which will be carried out by a panel of position” in quantum information, similar to what happens at the Max Information and international researchers. After five which will include the construction of Planck Institutes in Germany.” Quantum Physics years a more comprehensive assessment a “secure and scalable” fibre-optic The CEI in Particle Physics, which based at the will be conducted to determine whether quantum network between Beijing and is based at the CAS’s Institute of High University of Science or not each CEI will continue. Shanghai by 2016. Energy Physics (IHEP) in Beijing, will and Technology of Jiao Li “We hope that the CEI will improve be used to integrate particle physics in China in Hefei. Beijing

Physics World March 2014 11 News & Analysis physicsworld.com

Sidebands Particle physics

First neutrinos for US experiment One of the world’s longest-distance CERN kicks off plans for LHC successor neutrino experiments has detected its first neutrino. The NuMI Off-Axis Electron The CERN particle-physics lab near Blueprint for the Neutrino Appearance (NOvA) experiment Geneva is putting plans in place to future CERN in the US is designed to study neutrinos build a successor to its Large Hadron An outline plan for a created at Fermilab near Chicago that Collider (LHC). At a meeting held at future tunnel in are then – after passing through a “near” the University of Geneva last month, Geneva that could detector at Fermilab –sent some 800 km some 300 physicists and engineers – house a 80–100 km towards NOvA’s main detector at Ash including current CERN boss Rolf- particle collider. River, Minnesota. Both detectors are Dieter Heuer – discussed a range of supposed to be complete later this year options for a possible future collider. with the experiment expected to run This includes plans for a massive for six years. Neutrinos come in three next-generation circular collider – “flavours” – electron, muon and tau – with a circumference of 80–100 km and the goal of the NOvA experiment is – that would accelerate protons to to determine the order of the neutrino energies of about 100 TeV. masses, known as the mass hierarchy. While the 27 km-circumference tunnel that would most likely be built NOvA is made up of more than 200 LHC has been colliding protons at in Geneva. It could initially collide scientists from 38 institutions in Brazil, energies of up to 7 TeV in the hunt for electrons and positrons at energies the Czech Republic, Greece, India, new particles since it first switched on of about 350–500 GeV. Most of the Russia, the UK and the US. in 2008, for more than 30 years physi- cost of such a machine would be cists have been carrying out R&D on in excavating the tunnel, with the Asia catches up in R&D stakes linear colliders that could one day accelerator itself only accounting for Europe and the US no longer dominate be the LHC’s successor. One lead- about one-third of the total. Yet that research and development, according ing design effort is the International same 100 km tunnel could then be to a report published by the National Linear Collider (ILC), which would used well into the future, eventually Science Board (NSB) – the policy- accelerate electrons and positrons housing a proton–proton machine making body of the US National Science to about 250 GeV and smash them that could operate at an energy of Foundation. The NSB’s biennial report together at a rate of five times per up to 100 TeV. Researchers are plan- – Science and Engineering Indicators second. Funding for the $8bn, 31 km- ning to complete a conceptual design – concludes that countries in Asia long collider has yet to be found, study for TLEP by 2017 as an input are catching up with their western but Japanese particle physicists are to the next review of the European counterparts. Since 2001, the share of already making moves to host this strategy for particle physics. the world’s R&D performed in the US next-generation particle smasher. Although Ellis admits that the has fallen from 37% to 30%, while it has Meanwhile, a design for a higher- 100 km tunnel would involve an dropped from 26% to 22% in Europe. In energy machine – the Compact Lin- “enormous investment”, he thinks the same period Asia has seen its share ear Collider (CLIC) – that could that the advantages would outweigh increase from 25% to 34%. Fuelling this operate at 3 TeV is being developed such concerns. Indeed, the 100 km increase has been China, which has by a team at CERN. Construction tunnel could even be built so that grown from 4% to 15% since 2001. The of the ILC and CLIC could begin in it could allow two machines – one report also states that China is investing the coming decade and they would, if electron–positron and one proton– heavily in clean energy, spending nearly built, study the Higgs boson in great proton – to operate simultaneously, $61bn in 2012 – double that of the US. detail through the “clean” collisions if needed. Ellis says that a prelimi- that can be made from colliding nary engineering report has already Ireland pushes photonics electrons and positrons rather than been done on the 100 km tunnel The Irish government has established smashing protons together. and it threw up no “major show- a new 730m Irish Photonic Integration Yet it remains unclear whether stoppers”, even if parts of it would Centre. Led by the Tyndall National these machines will be built and be built underneath Lake Geneva. Institute together with University College physicists have recently been com- “The geology in the region is quite Cork, Cork Institute of Technology and ing up with other proposals that good for digging,” adds Ellis. Dublin City University, the centre brings involve circular colliders similar Yet Lyn Evans, who masterminded together more than 100 researchers to to the LHC. “We need to keep our the construction of the LHC and is develop new light-enabled technologies options open about what the next now responsible for overseeing the in the hope that it will grow Ireland’s particle collider will be,” says John development of the ILC and CLIC, share of Europe’s 758bn photonics Ellis of Kings College London, who says that, for the moment, the top market. The centre will receive 720m has been involved in designs for priority for CERN is the full exploi- from the government with an additional particle colliders beyond the LHC tation of the LHC and its luminosity 710m from industry and it will work and spoke at the meeting. “A bigger, We need and energy upgrade programme. “A with 18 industry partners including more ambitious machine could offer to keep our machine of [TLEP’s] size will have hi-tech start-ups such as X-Celeprint. us more capabilities.” options open a very high cost, so there must be a The firm has already agreed to base its One leading design for a next- about what the very strong scientific justification headquarters at Tyndall and create up to generation circular collider is TLEP, and international support,” he told 20 jobs over the next two years. which would be housed in an enor- next particle Physics World. mous new 80–100 km-circumference collider will be Michael Banks

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ad.indd 1 13/02/2014 14:29 Digital tube base physicsworld.com Electronics for Your ring galaxies accurately, but the LCDM Scintillators and PMTs predicts a spherical distribution. TB-5 4. I have published a model based on New!!! Feedback MOND that concludes that galaxies are controlled by quantum mechanics Letters and comments that appear here may have (arXiv:1304.7483; see also Canadian been edited. Journal of Physics 91 668), and this scheme Physics World, Temple Circus, Temple Way, Bristol also makes a connection with dark BS1 6HG, UK energy. The conclusion is that galaxies E-mail: [email protected] are organized systems, and the pattern Web: physicsworld.com of their organization follows identical Twitter: @PhysicsWorld equations to those used in particle physics Facebook: facebook.com/physicsworld to describe mixing between the three known flavours of neutrinos and also mixing between quarks. It is my understanding that there Debating dark matter are many experiments currently being Includes funded to look for dark matter, at a cost of • Digital pulse processor with charge and modified gravity roughly $200m each. In view of the large sensitive preamplifier and MCA amounts of money being spent, a balanced • All power supplies (low voltage and In reply to Catherine Heymans’ article “What is the view of the facts is essential. It would be nature of the dark universe?” (Features, October valuable if astrophysicists and particle high voltage) 2013 pp33–34). physicists could get together amicably to • Interface hardware and PC software discuss these issues. • 14 pin photomultiplier tube base Catherine Heymans’ article assumes David Bugg that dark matter exists. But until Queen Mary, University of London (emeritus) Features astrophysicists actually identify dark- [email protected] • Compatible with standard scintilla- matter particles, it is surely premature to tion spectrometers declare that this is the case. The article Fergus Simpson (University of Barcelona, • USB or Ethernet (10T-PoE) for control also fails to mention alternative schemes, [email protected]) and Catherine Heymans and power such as Modified Newtonian Dynamics (University of Edinburgh, [email protected]) • Flexible architecture (MOND), that do not require dark matter. reply: MOND was invented by Mordehai The points that Bugg raises primarily • Includes pulse height acquisition, Milgrom, but he is only one of several focus on issues relating to the nature of MCS, SCA, and List Modes. Supports authors who have criticized today’s galaxies. The LCDM model, however, pulse shape discrimination. Standard Model of cosmology (known as makes no concrete predictions regarding • Optional gamma-ray spectrum analy- the LCDM). Their criticisms include: the properties of individual galaxies. sis software and software develop- 1. The Milky Way and Andromeda To do so would require additional ment kit with examples galaxies are accompanied by 24 and 28 assumptions on galaxy formation, and this satellite galaxies (give or take one or is an active area of research where a great Typical Performance with NaI(Tl) two each) all of which fall within thin deal of uncertainty remains due to the • Dynamic range: 10 to 3000 keV discs. However, Benoît Famaey and highly nonlinear processes involved. Stacy McGaugh, astronomers from the If we wish to test cosmological theories • Resolution: <7% FWHM @ 662 keV, Université de Strasbourg in France and of gravity, as we have done in a recent <5% @ 1.33 MeV Case Western Reserve University in the publication (MNRAS 429 2249), it is • Count rates: to 200,000 cps US, point out that the LCDM predicts essential to look on much larger scales. • Power: 750 mW typical 200–600 satellites, in a roughly isotropic The smooth conditions of the early distribution (arXiv:1301.0623). universe provide an ideal environment Applications 2. Robert Sanders of the University of where precise theoretical predictions • Homeland Security: portal monitors, California, Berkeley remarks in a recent can be made, thereby providing a stern shipping containers, handheld paper (arXiv:1311.1744) that the LCDM observational test for cosmological monitors fails to account for the fact that the radii models. Exquisite measurements of the • First responders and emergency of galaxies vary as the fourth power of cosmic microwave background by the their mass. In contrast, this ratio follows Planck satellite (arXiv:1303.5076) have workers naturally from MOND: Brent Tully and provided us with strong corroborating • Nuclear safeguards verification Richard Fisher found this relation in 1977, evidence supporting the picture of a • Toxic dump site monitor and MOND uses the Tully–Fisher relation photon-baryon fluid oscillating in the • In situ processing to fit all galaxies using just one parameter gravitational wells of an inert dark fluid, • Environmental or industrial monitor- known to 20% accuracy. which we call dark matter. ing 3. Pavel Kroupa and collaborators Further evidence of a distinct matter- comment that the LCDM fails like component comes from the aftermath • Teaching and research completely to explain polar ring galaxies of a collision between two clusters of • For OEMs and custom users (arXiv:1304.4931). Most galaxies appear galaxies (D Clowe et al. 2006 Astrophysical as discs or spheres, but polar galaxies have J. 648 L109). Their gravitational wells ® two discs nearly at right angles to one were found to be displaced from the bulk another. These discs exert Coriolis forces of the conventional matter. This is difficult AMPTEK Inc. on one another, like forces responsible for to explain with simple modifications to e-mail: [email protected] www.amptek.com cyclones on the Earth. MOND fits polar gravity, yet is a natural consequence of a

14 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com Feedback INTRODUCING More on that jellyfish structure of our universe – is unrivalled. As Bugg points out, a number of experiments such as SuperCDMS and MODEL 18-I LUX are currently attempting to directly detect dark matter as it passes through Leif Ristroph Leif TEMPERATURE the Earth. Whether this strategy is viable hinges on whether the constituent quanta of dark matter are weakly interacting MONITOR massive particles (WIMPs). While we cannot be sure that dark matter takes this form, the potential reward of discovering a new fundamental particle makes the decision to search an irresistible one. Failure to make a detection would represent a failure of the WIMP conjecture and not dark matter as a whole. To demand direct detection as a necessary requirement would be This jellyfish-like flying machine (built by to deny a number of great scientific ENHANCED FOR Leif Ristroph and Stephen Childress of New discoveries, from planets orbiting other York University) can hover and stabilize itself stars (M Mayor and D Queloz 1995 Nature INDUSTRIAL in flight with no feedback control (“Flying 378 355) to the existence of gravitational ‘jellyfish’ is self-stabilizing”, 16 January waves (R A Hulse and J H Taylor 1975 http://ow.ly/tl63X; see also p5). Astrophysical J. 195 L51). AUTOMATION

Why use this to make a toy for kids? How about • 8 Independent input using it in real-world applications? How about A case for quantum channels support a wide using the energy created by its flying wings variety of industrial and to generate wind for air ventilation for homes cryogenic temperature or to power up a small device? Start an idea- parallelism generating contest among kids and I am sure In reply to Philip Ball’s article “Questioning quantum sensors. they will come up with a tonne of cool things. speed” (Features, January pp38–41). Lucky Pataky • Operation from 1.0K via Facebook I was surprised to read Ball’s article to over 1500K with on the possible ways in which quantum Most flying creatures have an active control computers achieve their vaunted appropriate sensor. system (the brain). This little prototype has processing speeds. Whether the reason no control system. It demonstrates one of the is quantum parallelism, entanglement or • Flexible input power: possibilities for living creatures to fly in an contextuality, we can be certain of one environment such as Jupiter’s atmosphere – it thing: classical computation processes Power-Over-Ethernet would not have to be a “balloon creature”, as has proceed in our familiar 3D space, whereas (POE) or 7.5-48V AC/DC. been proposed before. This is an amazing little quantum computation takes place in the achievement. I’d love to see if it could scale to much higher dimensional configuration • Remote interfaces: something large enough for human flight. space or state space. edprochack There is now no doubt that the quantum Ethernet and RS232. via physicsworld.com wavefunction is an objective physical entity (M F Pusey et al. 2012 Nature Phys. • Industrial grade security. 8 475). In other words, the wavefunction is Built-in firewall, HTTPS collisionless dark-matter particle. “ontic”, and for any object that is known to authentication. While we agree that a fair representation be ontic, logic dictates that we can make of scientific research and viewpoints is the same claim for the space in which it important, equally it would be misleading resides – in this case the configuration • User programmable to suggest that a viable alternative to the space. As any physicist knows, the dark-matter paradigm currently exists. dimensionality of multi-particle • MODBUS Industrial Alternatives are indeed being investigated configuration spaces can be vast. And by Protocol and developed, but they must be tested definition the simultaneous eigenstates of against a variety of observations before any quantum algorithm exist at different they can be considered to be on even locations within that configuration space. terms. In itself, MOND is not widely I believe that David Deutsch (whose regarded as a competing model, as it is views were mentioned in Ball’s article) incompatible with Einstein’s relativity. is generally correct in his claim that Its relativistic extension, TeVeS, shows quantum parallelism is real. Once we greater promise, but is a substantially more accept this broader view, only then do we complex model with many free parameters. need to worry about such finer details as 858-756-3900 In contrast, the sheer simplicity of the entanglement and contextuality. [email protected] LCDM model – which uses a single Jim Austin particle and a small cosmological constant University of Keele, UK www.cryocon.com to explain the geometry and large scale [email protected]

Physics World March 2014 15 Feedback physicsworld.com

Impressive ice spikes In reply to David Appell’s article “When ice grows up” Briers David (Lateral Thoughts, February p52).

I was fascinated by this article, especially as it seems to explain a phenomenon that occurred in our bird bath a few years ago, Laboratory and which had everyone baffled (see photo, right). The bird bath’s internal diameter is Cryostats 33 cm, so the length of the “sculpture” is about 16 cm. I assume the weird shape of 1.7 K — 800 K the spike was caused by the wind? Spiked David Briers’ bird-bath phenomenon. Cryogen Free David Briers Visit us at booth Kingston University, London, UK (emeritus) However, the ellipse can be accurately #04 at the DPG [email protected] approximated by a parabola near its March Meeting turning point. Richard Gill Watt an imagination Bourton-on-the-Water, Gloucestershire, UK [email protected] In reply to Francis Farley’s letter on “Imagination in Spectroscopy science” (Feedback, February p20). Superconductivity Great balls of fire I agree with Farley’s comments on the importance of imagination in science. In reply to the physicsworld.com news article However, it is interesting that the first “Burning soil fuels ball lightning” (9 January, http:// name he quotes in order to justify them ow.ly/tl8aO) on evidence that a burning core of soil is that of James Watt. It is not clear acts as an energy source for ball lightning. that Watt’s achievements were any more revolutionary than those of his This mechanism does not readily explain predecessors or his successors. Surely the reports of ball lightning that claim it is Micro Raman greatest breakthrough was that of Thomas formed within enclosed spaces such as Micro-PL Savery in conceiving of a steam engine in aircraft or buildings. the first place, closely followed by Thomas Mark Stenhoff Newcomen’s injection of cold water to via physicsworld.com condense the steam, thereby speeding up the cycle. Watt, in contrast, only made Is it possible for nuclear fusion to occur incremental improvements to Newcomen’s with the energy of lightning? engine, such as the introduction of the reader01 Nanoscience Probe Station separate condenser. via physicsworld.com It is true that the “expansive principle” was Watt’s idea, though apparently he The idea has been suggested, for made little use of it. And most tellingly example by J R Roth (Fusion Science and Ultra-Low Piezoelectric of all, the “imaginative” Watt shied Technology 27 255). The current level of Vibration Translation away from the next great breakthrough knowledge on the subject is insufficient, 3-5nm Stages – making the steam engine small though. It would be important to be able enough to be put on wheels by using to produce long-lifetime ball lightning at 5K high-pressure steam, thus ushering in will in the laboratory, and then see if the Sample Stage the age of railways. It is a travesty that necessary temperature and density for Temperature Richard Trevithick, who did embrace this thermonuclear reactions can be reached. revolutionary idea, was rewarded with Then, we must also remember that it relative obscurity. isn’t enough to prove you can get fusion Jim Grozier reactions – you also need to produce Brighton, UK more power from them than you put into [email protected] the system. On the other hand, the idea of producing fusion reactions in discharges Approximately correct on high-pressure gases was explored in the 1980s. It was called the “gas In reply to Max Tegmark’s article “It’s all just embedded pinch”, and was followed by mathematics” (Features, February pp22–27). discharges on solid fibres. In both cases, instabilities didn’t allow the necessary Tegmark is wrong to state (in the conditions for thermonuclear reactions Advanced Research Systems caption to figure 1) that the trajectory of to be reached, although the results were Tel: +1 610 967 2120 something thrown in the air is an upside- quite interesting. Fax: +1 610 967 2395 down parabola. It is an ellipse – the jjeherrera www.arscryo.com * [email protected] same as an object in a gravitational orbit. via physicsworld.com

16 Physics World March 2014 Periodic Table ofof thethe ElementsElements New publishing partnership for 2014

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Managing Editor Susan Curtis Marketing and Circulation Gemma Bailey Advertisement Sales Chris Thomas Advertisement Production Mark Trimnell Diagram Artist Alison Tovey Art Director Andrew Giaquinto Subscription information 2014 volume Lessons for learning The subscription rate for institutions is £355 per annum for the magazine, £674 per annum for the archive. Single issues This special issue looks at some innovative ways to teach and learn physics are £34. US orders to: IOP Publishing, PO Box 320, Congers NY 10920-0320, USA (tel: 800 358 4677 (toll free) or “Why don’t scientists behave more like scientists when it comes to education?” 845 267 3018; fax: 845 267 3478; e-mail: ioppublishing@ It’s an interesting rhetorical question that was put to me when I caught up cambeywest.com). Rest of world orders to: Subscriptions Dept, IOP Publishing, Temple Circus, Temple Way, Bristol, BS1 6HG, recently with a senior figure from the world of physics education. The comment UK (tel: +44 (0)117 929 7481; fax: +44 (0)117 929 4318; reminded me just how easy it is for us to ignore the evidence of how people e-mail: [email protected]). Physics World is available on an best learn physics, despite physicists undoubtedly being proponents of evidence- individual basis, worldwide, through membership of the Institute of Physics based reasoning. The temptation, particularly at university level, is to teach the way one was taught, even if those methods weren’t particularly good. Copyright © 2014 by IOP Publishing Ltd and individual contributors. All rights reserved. IOP Publishing Ltd permits There are, though, some amazingly effective educators, and this special issue single photocopying of single articles for private study or of Physics World offers a snapshot of just some of the many innovative ideas research, irrespective of where the copying is done. Multiple copying of contents or parts thereof without permission is in that exist for learning and teaching physics. It’s not an exhaustive selection, breach of copyright, except in the UK under the terms of the but includes topics that we simply felt were interesting or novel. For example, agreement between the CVCP and the CLA. Authorization of photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or we examine the huge growth of “massive open online courses”, or MOOCs, personal use of specific clients, is granted by IOP Publishing in which universities make their lectures freely available in video form on the Ltd for libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) Transactional Reporting Service, Internet (pp43–45), while Philip Moriarty, a condensed-matter physicist at the provided that the base fee of $2.50 per copy is paid directly to University of Nottingham, describes his experiences as one of the stars of the CCC, 27 Congress Street, Salem, MA 01970, USA Sixty Symbols series of YouTube science videos (pp31–34). Bibliographic codes ISSN: 0953-8585 Elsewhere, we look at the importance of giving children computer-program- CODEN: PHWOEW ming skills from an early age (pp27–29). There’s also a great feature by BBC Printed in the UK by Warners (Midlands) plc, The Maltings, West Street, Bourne, Lincolnshire PE10 9PH science presenter Fran Scott, who reveals her golden rules for engaging children with science (pp36–39), while Eugenia Etkina and Gorazd Planinšicˇ examine the implications for teachers of the fact that learning involves physical changes in the brain (pp48–51). The Institute of Physics And if you’re a student who’s tired of writing notes in lectures, then how about 76 Portland Place, London W1B 1NT, UK Tel: +44 (0)20 7470 4800 drawing pictures instead? It’s a technique that professional “doodler” Perrin Fax: +44 (0)20 7470 4848 Ireland uses, and to show you how it works, we asked her to “doodle” notes E-mail: [email protected] for the video of a lecture given by the inspirational Richard Feynman in 1964 Web: www.iop.org (pp40–41). We’ll never know but my bet is he would have been amused. Matin Durrani Physics World is an award-winning magazine and website Editor, Physics World SIPAwards 2012: Best Use of Social Media MemCom Awards 2012: Best Magazine – Professional The contents of this magazine, including the views expressed above, are the responsibility of the Editor. Association or Royal College They do not represent the views or policies of the Institute of Physics, except where explicitly stated.

Physics World March 2014 19 Multi-Physics Finite Element Analysis The Easy Way!

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Untitled-1 1 18/2/10 09:25:28 physicsworld.com Education: Forum Taking modern physics into schools

Having helped to introduce a new curriculum in Scottish schools that showcases the latest Jesse KarjalainenJesse physics research, Martin Hendry describes the lessons learned in bringing cutting-edge physics into the classroom

We are living through an exciting time for physics, especially in the “big science” fields of cosmology and particle physics. There was last year’s exquisite mapping of the cosmic microwave background radiation by the Planck satellite, which came hot on the heels of the ground-breaking discovery of the Higgs boson at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider in 2012 and the 2011 Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery that the expansion of the universe is accelerating. Yet contemporary ideas such as dark energy, which was invoked to explain the accelerated cosmic expansion, present something of a dilemma for physics educators. On the one hand these concepts are intriguing and thought-provoking, inspiring pupils to study physics beyond high Prisms to particles The new Scottish physics curriculum incorporates hot topics such as the Higgs boson. school (and maybe even pursue a career in the subject). On the other hand, even the enable pupils to demonstrate a knowledge study a unit entitled “Our dynamic uni- most passionate advocate of modern cos- and understanding of the big ideas and verse”. This incorporates elements of cosmology would surely not argue that our concepts in physics, develop the skills of mology including a review of evidence for ideas about dark energy are as well founded scientific enquiry and investigation using the Big Bang, dark matter and dark energy, and fully established as, for example, New- practical techniques, and recognize the as well as a look into the Standard Model of ton’s laws of motion (even if Newtonian role of creativity and inventiveness in the particle physics, the astrophysics of stars, physics is itself an approximation to real- development of the sciences. and an introduction to special and general ity – albeit a remarkably successful one). So My personal involvement in the new cur- relativity. The material concentrates on the where do you draw the line in designing the riculum has focused on trying to put these big picture rather than lots of details. The school syllabus? Should there be a place for lofty goals into practice, particularly for aim is to challenge and enthuse pupils, giv- contemporary research – however specula- the senior phase of school education: the ing them a sense of how our understanding tive – in the physics curriculum? Higher and Advanced Higher syllabus that of these fields has changed and continues to is normally studied by pupils in their fifth change – and to highlight the deep, philo- From dark energy to transiting exoplanets and sixth years of secondary school. This sophical questions about the origin of the Significant developments in school educa- has not yet been fully implemented because cosmos and our place within it that these tion in Scotland over the past few years have the pupils undertaking the new programme fields are seeking to address. given me the opportunity to look at how are still working their way through the lower Another key element of the revised best to showcase modern physics research secondary stages. But for several years a Higher physics syllabus is the “Research- in the classroom. This work has resulted in revised Higher and Advanced Higher phys- ing physics” unit. This is a 20-hour module the new “Curriculum for Excellence” which ics syllabus, based on some of the concepts where pupils research the physics under- will be fully introduced in Scottish schools from the Curriculum for Excellence, has lying a topical issue, which involves plan- over the next couple of years. Although the been available to “early adopter” schools ning and carrying out their own practical curriculum is a Scottish initiative, I believe (nearly 10% of all physics pupils taking investigations, and preparing a communi- there are some important universal lessons these exams in Scotland in 2013). This cation (usually, but by no means always, a that those in all nations can learn. has provided a vital test bed for some key written report) that summarizes their find- In the words of Education Scotland, the elements of what will shortly become the ings. Among the topics that have proven curriculum “aims to achieve a transforma- Curriculum for Excellence Higher and popular for this unit is the search for extra- tion in education in Scotland by providing Advanced Higher physics syllabus adopted solar planets. Alongside Internet research a coherent, more flexible and enriched by all schools. and the use of simulation software from curriculum from three to 18”. In the sci- For example, in the revised Higher and the website of NASA’s Kepler satellite, ences the enriched curriculum should Advanced Higher curriculum, pupils now for example, pupils in a number of schools

Physics World March 2014 21 Education: Forum physicsworld.com have built their own classroom-based from the Higgs discovery to the mysteries of planet-transiting experiments using noth- Should there be a dark energy. They seem to be entirely coming more hi-tech than a household lamp, a fortable with a physics landscape in which simulated cardboard “planet” and a simple place for there are more questions than answers. digital lightmeter. The implementation of the new curricu- Of course, the accommodation of this lum has been far from smooth and serious new material has required some reorganiz- contemporary concerns remain among Scottish physics ation of the current syllabus, with some teachers about assessment arrangements topics being moved to the lower second- research – however for the new national qualifications, and ary years and others (such as analogue the degree of guidance and support that electronics) removed altogether. However, speculative – in the is provided by the education authorities. the number of topics in the latter category However, my overall impression is that is very small owing to a general “declut- the content and ethos of the new syllabus tering” of the syllabus, shifting the focus physics curriculum? – and in particular the “Researching phys- from specific pieces of factual knowledge ics” module and the revised elements of to more emphasis on method and the “Our dynamic universe” – have been very scientific process. popular with the early-adopter schools. As the Curriculum for Excellence Higher and Enthusing students ited many of the schools whose pupils are Advanced Higher physics syllabus rolls To date, the results of these changes – in undertaking the revised syllabus, and have out across all schools in the next few years terms of pupil engagement and enthusi- held numerous workshops and Q&A ses- I hope that this trend will continue and a asm – appear to be very encouraging. The sions with their teachers. From secondary new generation of budding physicists will introduction of the new curriculum has schools in the Hebridean islands to inner- be inspired as they explore the very latest prompted a subtle shift in science teaching city schools in Glasgow and Edinburgh, I contemporary discoveries. from focusing on what we know to how we have seen first-hand the tremendous enthu- know it. By learning something about the siasm and ingenuity of these early adopters, Martin Hendry is a cosmologist latest discoveries in fields such as cosmol- and the practical activities that they have at the University of Glasgow, UK, ogy and particle physics, pupils are gaining introduced to support the new syllabus. I where he is also head of the valuable insight into the process of science, have also witnessed the enthusiasm of the school of physics and astronomy, and how contemporary theories are being pupils as they engage in the classroom with e-mail martin.hendry@ tested by observation and experiment. the same cutting-edge physics topics they glasgow.ac.uk Indeed, in the past three years I have vis- see featured on television and the Internet –

Next month NASA in Physics World Climates of the cosmos Now that exoplanets are being discovered almost as fast as astronomers can catalogue them, climatologists are characterizing the landscapes and climates of these new realms, indicating whether they could support life

Pause for thought Is open and efficient communication always the best route to progress in physics, or does the constant exchange of information threaten creativity and innovation?

Our wobbly galaxy It is well known that the Milky Way rotates around a supermassive black hole at its centre, but a surprising recent discovery, which no-one can yet explain, has found that it also undulates up and down

Plus News & Analysis, Forum, Critical Point, Feedback, Reviews, Careers and much more physicsworld.com

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• Fully integrated platform – book and journal content in one place on IOPscience • E-reader compatible – books and chapters will be published in HTML, PDF and EPUB format • Multimedia content – becomes an integral part of the book • Rapid publication times – books published within four months of receipt of final manuscript • High-quality research – across the breadth of physics • No DRM – we allow simultaneous use

For more information about purchase options for 2014 please contact [email protected] or visit ioppublishing.org/books. physicsworld.com Education: Robert P Crease Critical Point Feynman’s failings

They were never successful as a ning theatre performance,” Jaffe told me. “We see how Feynman uses his body, and textbook. So why, a half-century brings the audience along with him. If all of after their publication, do so Trevett Steve us could stand before students with Feyn- man’s personality and dynamism, we’d all many physicists keep be better teachers!” Jaffe has tried to channel some of that energy in a forthcoming Richard Feynman’s three volumes text of his own, The Physics of Energy. within reach? Robert P Crease The critical point has a theory Still curious about why Feynman’s Lec- tures had managed to fail as a textbook Richard Feynman’s Lectures on Phys- yet inspire so many others, I asked people ics were the centrepiece of an innovative if they had ever heard of criticisms. Most experiment in physics education half a were stumped. Several recalled hearing century ago at the California Institute of that the historian of science Paul Forman Technology. Rapid changes in physics, and had criticized Feynman for being “too improvements in high-school science and much fun”. Forman was amused when I mathematics education following Sputnik, mentioned this to him, and sent me a copy made Caltech’s educators aim high. They Encapsulated genius Feynman’s original set of of the 1991 article containing the brief wanted to stop using textbooks as the pri- lectures have stayed in print for 50 years. remark that had evidently triggered that mary material for the first two years of col- memory (Isis 82 71). lege physics and instead teach it through a Magician’s secrets Forman’s article is about what he called series of original lectures. While the initial I asked Daniel Kleppner, an emeritus pro- “transcendence”, or the temptation of idea was for all faculty to share the lectures, fessor of physics at the Massachusetts Insti- some scientists and other scholars to see Feynman was eventually chosen to deliver tute of Technology (MIT), who once tried themselves as beyond ordinary morality them entirely himself, which he did in 1961– to incorporate several of Feynman’s lec- just because they work in a “transcend- 1962 and 1962–1963. Audio (but not video) tures into a course on mechanics. Klepp- ent world of intellectual or aesthetic ideas recordings were made, and other faculty ner didn’t use Feynman’s original lectures, and ideals” – in other words, as if they had transcribed the lectures, intending to edit which had only been audio recorded, but reached a higher plane of existence. Almost them into a new textbook. films of a later series he gave at Cornell as an aside, he mentioned Feynman, who Things did not go as planned. The edit- University in 1964. Things didn’t work out. though “avowedly deficient in his sense of ing process was gruelling and required, as “It went over like a lead balloon,” Kleppner social and personal responsibility”, was still the editors reported in their foreword, “the says. “The students needed the personal able to be “regarded by his fellow physicists close attention of a professional physicist relationship. Even though it was an old- as an eminently moral character” for the for from 10 to 20 hours per lecture”. Even fashioned lecture format, they preferred simple reason that he was so “manifestly then, the editors were dissatisfied with me in person to Feynman in a movie.” devoted to physics, indubitably getting ‘fun’ the “completeness, smoothness, or logical Inspired by Feynman’s example but tap- out of it.” organization” of their product. But they ping his own experiences, Kleppner then Forman’s provocative article is about decided to publish anyway. wrote a textbook with his colleague at the something different – but his off-hand Finding a publisher was easy. Feyn- time Robert Kolenkow. Entitled An Intro- remark about fun is revealing, and a clue man’s Nobel prize was still a few years off duction to Mechanics (1973), it really was, to what makes Feynman’s Lectures so com- (1965), but his reputation as a teacher was and still is, used to teach MIT undergradu- pelling and inspiring. Getting fun out of already established. The Lectures – with ates; a second edition is being reissued this explaining and doing your work is not just their classic red covers – were published by year. And that’s the point. As Kleppner a pose that teachers put on to charm stu- Addison–Wesley in 1964 and have never explains, the Feynman books are a major dents, but a sign of mastery of the material. gone out of print, selling hundreds of thou- contribution to physics education – but for The trouble is that Feynman’s concep- sands of copies. The original audio versions faculty, not students. “He was a magician tual engagement was a notch above the are also available. and his lectures are a handbook of magi- undergraduate audience. The strength of For several years after the Lectures were cian’s secrets,” he says. “They are not too the Feynman Lectures – their conceptual published, a few people tried to use them as a difficult for undergraduates like Feynman sophistication and ability to draw imagina- textbook, including Caltech physicist David – except there are none!” tive connections between topics in physics Goodstein. “It didn’t work,” he recalls. “I In 2009 Microsoft Research put Feyn- – is also their weakness for undergraduates, tried hard. But they’re too sophisticated.” man’s Cornell lectures (entitled The Char- who need to understand those topics first. Goodstein came up with his own under- acter of Physical Law) on a special video That’s why, though written as an undergraduate course instead, and co-authored platform together with commentary by graduate textbook, the Lectures turned out The Mechanical Universe (1986) – a text- MIT professor Robert Jaffe. These lectures to be more useful for teachers. book that was not only used successfully but are shown at MIT every January and attract turned into an educational TV series. a healthy student audience. But Jaffe finds Robert P Crease is a professor in the Department of So why does everyone still have and these lectures are even more valuable as a Philosophy, Stony Brook University, US, and consult the Lectures if they failed at their model for teachers. “It’s one of the great co-editor-in-chief of Physics in Perspective, original purpose? physics personalities at his best – a stun- e-mail [email protected]

Physics World March 2014 25 A PASSION FOR PERFECTION

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14.02.12_PhysicsWorld_3_Prod_GB_213x282.indd 1 12.02.14 16:46 physicsworld.com Education: Computer science

Computing in the classroom Computer science is essential for modern physics, yet students come little prepared for it. That may soon change, says Jon Cartwright

Particle physics 40 years ago was a slow process. Col- savvy, always been keen to use computers,” says Jon Cartwright is a lisions had to be recorded on black-and-white pho- Joel Goldstein, a particle physicist at the Univer- freelance journalist tographs, which were then pored over by hundreds sity of Bristol in the UK who works on the Compact based in Bristol, UK, of technical assistants. This was true even of (for Muon Solenoid experiment at the LHC. “As comput- http://jcartwright. the time) cutting-edge accelerators such as CERN’s ers have evolved, it’s become almost impossible to co.uk Big European Bubble Chamber, which took images design any experiment now that doesn’t use a com- every three seconds. puter. Even our simple undergraduate lab experi- Today it is a very different story. Inside the Large ments have computers to do the hard chores, such as Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, for instance, data logging. You’re taking data every few seconds. collisions occur every 25 nanoseconds. Data gen- Why not get a computer to do that, so you can have erated at such rates have to be processed by a net- a cup of tea?” work of powerful computers around the world. Yet despite the thorough dependence of modern But particle physics is far from being the only field science on computing, few physics students gain any within physics that makes use of high-level comput- proper understanding of it before university. Indeed, ing. From simulating the behaviour of cold atoms many undergraduates are unaware that computing to designing control systems for complex equip- is a part of daily research, or that almost all working ment, computing has become not an optional but a physicists are fluent in at least one programming lan- necessary activity. guage. Goldstein, who used to teach undergraduate “Physicists have always been fairly technically programming at Bristol, says that many new phys-

Physics World March 2014 27 Education: Computer science physicsworld.com

But the disparity in computer-science education is changing. Educators have been putting increasing

Allen Heard Allen pressure on governments to treat computer science as a unique subject discipline – one, like physics and maths, that can improve problem-solving skills. If these educators are successful, undergraduate physics students will be better prepared for their physics courses – and may become better physicists as a result. “It will save us time and effort in the basic computer courses,” says Goldstein. “We’ll be able to start from a higher level, and go to a higher level.”

A new discipline Computer science is the science of how computers work, how they are programmed, and what they can and cannot do. It goes back to the earliest computers – arguably as far back as the early 19th century and the work of the British polymath Charles Babbage, who invented the first mechanical computer. As an academic discipline, however, computer science only began to emerge in the 1950s. In 1953 the University Learning through play Lincoln, four-year-old son of Allen Heard of Cambridge in the UK began offering the world’s (head of computing/IT at Ysgol Bryn Elian in North Wales), working on first year-long course in computer science, which ran using his Raspberry Pi as a webcam server for an insect habitat. until 2008. In 1962 the first computer-science degree programme in the US was offered by Purdue Uni- ics students are “taken a little bit by surprise” by versity in Indiana – although even at this time there what is in store. “We teach them from the ground was still scepticism among academics that computing up,” he says. “And we have to, because the range of was a science. abilities is huge. We get some people who have done No such scepticism exists today, but while com- programming as hobbyists and can code in their puter science is widely read at university, and sleep, but there are others who have barely written a included in many degree courses such as physics, it is Word document.” still little-taught at school. Perhaps the most promi- Students do not have only themselves to blame. nent exception is Israel, which took an educational While some countries have long had computer sci- review at the turn of the century and now teaches ence on the school curriculum, others give students computing as a fully fledged scientific subject, focus- little if any teaching in the subject. In the UK, for ing on the key concepts and foundations of the field. example, the vast majority of teaching about comput- Indeed, it has the most rigorous computer-science ers has focused on information and communication high-school programme in the world, according to technology (ICT), a relatively lightweight subject that a 2011 report by Microsoft Research UK that com- focuses on consumer-level applications of comput- pared the international teaching of computer sci- ing, such as communication, e-commerce and office ence. Israel’s programme comes in short or long software. ICT has for many years been a mandatory versions, which are both elective. Still, even the long part of the UK National Curriculum, with very few version is taken annually by 7000 students – the same students opting to take GCSEs or A-levels in actual number who opt for physics. “Israel has been the computer science, or “computing” as the subject is model country for many years,” says Chris Stephen- known to UK exam boards. son, executive director of the US Computer Science Teachers Association. Stephenson says that a few other countries, such Educators have been putting as Estonia, New Zealand and China, are beginning to take computer science more seriously. But in Ste- increasing pressure on governments phenson’s own country – the US – the situation is mixed. Part of the problem in the US is that education to treat computer science as a is largely controlled not by federal government but by individual states, or sometimes even by individual unique subject discipline – one, like districts. Some states, such as Texas, have been rated highly for their computer-science standards, teaching and assessment. But many others are lagging behind. physics and maths, that can improve “The biggest challenge for the US is access to rigorous computer-science courses,” says Stephenson. problem-solving skills “Far too many schools offer no computer science or low-level ‘point and click’ applications courses. This is especially true in high-poverty schools.” Many educators in the US are trying to even the playing field. The non-profit organization Code.org

28 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com Education: Computer science recently launched a video featuring celebrities such The power of the Raspberry Pi as Shakira, Ashton Kutcher and Barack Obama, encouraging people to attempt one hour of programming using tutorials on its website. Meanwhile Code. org’s sister organization, the advocacy group Com- puting in the Core (CinC), has introduced bills into Samuel BancroftSamuel the House and Senate that will make computer science a core subject, like physics, in the hope that this will make it easier for schools to introduce computer science on their curricula. It has also persuaded more US states to recognize computer-science cred- its as counting towards high-school graduation. “Computer science hasn’t always counted in the same way as maths or science,” says Della Cronin, a spokes person for CinC. “We feel that has diminished demand among students, and made it difficult to invest in computer-science teachers.” Pressure from non-governmental organizations can pay off. Last year, the UK government announced that from September, computer science proper, The power of the tiny Raspberry Pi computer to encourage programming is including programming and the theory of comput- obvious from the story of three sixth-form students at William Howard School in ing, will form a mandatory part of the National Cur- Cumbria, UK, who in June 2013 launched a helium-filled weather balloon with a riculum, taught from Key Stage 1 (pupils aged five) payload of scientific instruments, all of which were controlled by this device. onwards. It was a breakthrough due in no small part The students – Samuel Bancroft, Ben Bancroft and Jake Greenwood – say to input from societies such as Computing at School their school does not offer computer science as a subject, and that they did not and the British Computing Society (BCS). “I believe receive any help for their experiment. Nevertheless, they say they had interests that Britain’s move from an ICT-focused curriculum in both physics and computer science, which the Raspberry Pi allowed them to to a computer-science curriculum is quickly moving pursue creatively. Britain to the front of the pack,” says Stephenson. In an e-mail to Physics World, the students described their experiment, which reached an altitude of more than 31 500 m. “The measurements we obtained Starting young certainly gave us an idea of the hostile conditions present at such a height,” Pupils learning computer science from age five, they wrote. “The pressure was as low as 0.88% of ground-level pressure at peak when previously they may never have learnt it at all, altitude. Temperature also fluctuated dramatically. We took especial interest is a radical step. But it is both achievable and wel- in our ionizing radiation readings, which we took using a Geiger–Müller tube. come, according to Bill Mitchell, the director of the The measurement for our radiation (measured in counts per ~20 seconds) BCS Academy of Computing, which promotes com- increased dramatically beyond 4 km, before reaching a peak at 24 km. Beyond puting as an academic discipline. Mitchell says that this point it then decreased with increasing altitude. It was these data that we young children can learn the basics of programming found fascinating.” visually using software such as Scratch, which is pro- The data were so great, in fact, that they will be published in the journal duced by developers at the Massachusetts Institute Physics Education this month. of Technology in the US. In Scratch a pupil can, for instance, create a cartoon fish, rotate it and make it avoid other objects, using simple commands and lighted the desire for greater computer-science without directly executing any actual code. “We teaching, however, it is the Raspberry Pi. Inspired were told [by primary school teachers] that when by the BBC Micro, a teaching computer that graced they teach programming to pupils aged 5 to 11, they many British school classrooms in the 1980s and are actually very good at it,” says Mitchell. “What’s 1990s, the Raspberry Pi is a credit-card-sized com- more, if you do it in the right creative way, they really puter designed to encourage the learning of com- enjoy it, and it helps them develop intellectually. It’s puter science the world over. Its developer, the UK a win–win situation.” Raspberry Pi Foundation, first started selling its All this bodes well for physics, which increasingly units in 2012 for $35, and since then has sold more depends on technology. “Physics certainly relies on than two million. computer science quite heavily these days, particu- The Raspberry Pi has led many people to redis- larly when you consider particle physics, where the cover programming who played with it in their youth. search for elusive particles would be impossible with- More importantly, it has led to an upsurge in pro- out the use of high-performance supercomputers,” gramming among young people, including those says Dennis Frailey, vice-chair of the Institute of planning to study physics (see box above). Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Com- Back at Bristol, Goldstein reveals that his 13-year- puter Society Educational Activities Board. “And old nephew is also a “huge Pi fan”. “He is making it’s certainly true that advances in meteorology, such Raspberry-Pi-controlled cars and things like that,” as weather reporting and climate modelling, have he says. “He’s picking up all these skills. And if we get been substantial in the last few decades, mostly due a good core of highly interested students with these to computers.” skills, these are people who are going to have a mas- If there is one development that has truly high- sive head start when they get to university.” n

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As one of the presenters of the hugely successful Sixty Symbols series of YouTube science videos, Philip Moriarty describes his experiences in front of the camera and how they have transformed his ideas about bringing physics to wider audiences

“No, put the pen down. No equations.” song, I reasoned, adding that maths similarly adds Philip Moriarty is a “But. But. But…” that extra dimension to the physics. (I’m rather keen professor of physics Asking a physicist to forgo mathematics when on the links between music and physics and maths – at the University of explaining a particularly challenging concept is see box on p32.) Nottingham, UK, always going to lead to some consternation – as is But Haran was having none of it. “No, it’s like e-mail obvious from my response above to film-maker explaining Shakespeare to a non-English speaker,” philip.moriarty@ Brady Haran’s request. And this wasn’t the first time he replied. “Sure, they miss out on the true beauty nottingham.ac.uk that we’d argued this point. Haran put down his cam- and cleverness, but at least you can tell them the The picture above era and made his point. Again. story and why it’s so important. Stubbornly reading shows the author “Start writing equations and you might as well them Hamlet in English will achieve nothing.” making a video with speak in a completely different language – you’re This type of exchange is par for the course when Brady Haran for going to lose most of the viewers.” making videos with Haran – the exceptionally tal- Physics World, which Sighing, I countered that explaining physics with- ented and remarkably prolific film-maker and jour- you can watch in our out including at least a sprinkling of maths was nalist behind a slew of very successful science-related digital edition selling the viewer short. “Brady, it’s like the differ- YouTube channels. His films include the physics- ence between listening to a guitarist playing alone focused Sixty Symbols series, Periodic Videos (cov- compared to the music they create as a member of ering all 118 known elements), Numberphile and a band,” I argued. The interplay of the instruments Computerphile (about mathematics and computing, completely changes the perception and impact of the obviously) and the forerunner of them all – TestTube

Physics World March 2014 31 Education: Video outreach physicsworld.com

Where heavy metal meets maths (and physics) ject experts and teachers to students, school pupils and those with no background in science at all but an intense interest in it. And from comments left beneath the videos – as well as via social media, e-mails and face-to-face conversations – we know that viewers range in age from five to at least 75. Jeremy Kalgreen, Kalgreen, Jeremy This wide spread in backgrounds and ages, which is very different from that in a typical university lecture theatre, means that making YouTube videos is

available at monstersofgrok.com at available extremely rewarding but also rather daunting. Just how should we pitch our explanations? To make mat- If there is one thing I have learned from the last 15 years of teaching ters worse, the first time my colleagues or I get to undergraduates, supervising PhD students and co-ordinating physics postdocs, see the final video is generally only once it has been it’s that a Venn diagram of physicists and fans of heavy-metal music (and its uploaded to YouTube. Our lack of involvement in the plethora of sub-genres) has quite a large overlap. I’m certainly not the first to editing process makes some sense – it lets Haran get have noticed the link – just visit the excellent Monsters of Grok website to see his films out quickly and give them a tighter focus the huge range of T-shirt designs that rather niftily combine the names of famous than if we were constantly sticking our noses in. physicists and the logos of popular rock and metal bands. I particularly like the But because the subscriber base for each of Haran’s Gauss/Kiss design, the Newton/Iron Maiden hybrid and the Sagan/Slayer cross- channels runs into the hundreds of thousands, once over (see above). we watch the video it can easily have already picked Given this connection, I regularly try to brow-beat Brady Haran into doing up thousands of views and hundreds of comments. videos that incorporate some aspect of metal into our descriptions of maths and Any verbal slip-ups, perceived or actual, can be rap- physics. For example, we have made a music video on the Numberphile channel idly subjected to intense scrutiny by the YouTube with the multi-talented Dave Brown, which involved writing and recording a “math audience. And they take no prisoners. metal” song whose riffs, rhythms, lyrics and “sound effects” have been derived But as Haran and my colleagues at the University from the digits of the golden ratio, φ. Meanwhile, Sixty Symbols has videos on of Nottingham describe (see box on p34), the ben- the physics of mosh pits, and the relationship between the wah-wah pedal used efits of communicating physics via YouTube generally in rock guitar and Fourier analysis. far outweigh the occasional discomfort of a small Another idea that we are developing (and which the UK’s Engineering and number of negative viewer comments. They also Physical Sciences Research Council has agreed to fund) is a song and video compensate for the irritations of the “trolls” who based on the Schrödinger equation: what better aide-mémoire for students populate any online forum, and the many e-mails we studying quantum physics than to have it as part of the lyrics to a metal song? In receive written in various weird and wacky fonts – fact, the response to the metal–physics theme has been extremely encouraging: almost always with a liberal smattering of BLOCK our videos have so far attracted almost half a million views and the comments CAPITALS – which claim that the correspondent on them have been overwhelmingly positive. Their aim is not just to preach to the has discovered a new and astounding grand theory of converted, but to encourage an interest in maths or physics among those who everything and that [insert world-renowned physicist may not have thought about the subject before. of choice] had got it all wrong. We’ve certainly made at least one convert who posted this comment under the golden-ratio video: “I think you just tricked me into liking math. Clever bastards.” Nagging reservations Yet in spite of the benefits it brings, I do have some nagging reservations about online education, both (“videos behind the scenes in the world of science”). via YouTube channels and through massive open Haran’s motivation for making videos has always online courses (or MOOCs) (see “the MOOC point” been to connect viewers with scientists much more pp43–46). I think we need to temper our enthusiasm naturally than is the norm with traditional media – to for online education with some healthy scepticism provide a “window” into a scientist’s world. His vid- about the extent to which actual learning is taking eos are raw, honest and direct, lacking the “corpo- place. Enthusing and engaging viewers is exception- rate sheen” that so many science films veer towards. ally important (and fun), but learning is a complex It is an approach that has proved incredibly popular: and messy business that needs at least as much effort at the time of writing, the subscriber base for all of from the student as from the teacher. Indeed, Frank Haran’s channels is over two million, and his videos Noschese – a physics teacher at John Jay High School have been viewed a total of 155 million times – and in New York – has gone as far as describing educa- rising fast. Haran has the uncanny ability to know tion via video (including the work of the extremely exactly what will work, and what won’t, in the videos popular Khan Academy channel) as “pseudoteach- he makes. (And he almost always wins in spats like ing” because students do not actively engage with the above.) the material. This is obviously a deeply contentious issue, par- Daunting and rewarding ticularly among the growing YouTube education Having worked with Haran since 2009 and featured community (and I’ll return to it later). But what’s in some 45 of his videos, the experience has trans- interesting is that when I asked Haran about his formed my ideas on public engagement and out- approach to video-making, he said he did not label reach. A big challenge when communicating physics his online videos as education, entertainment or even concepts and ideas via YouTube is the diversity of as “edutainment”. According to Haran, his main mis- the audience, which ranges from academics, sub- sion is simply to “find out interesting stuff and tell

32 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com Education: Video outreach other people about it”. In other words, Haran sees his videos as essentially a form of journalism, which is not surprising given that he worked as a journalist both for the BBC and the Adelaide Advertiser in his native Australia before moving to Nottingham in 2002. This journalistic bent gives rise to a none-too- subtle tension when making YouTube videos in the Haran style. As academics, our approach to explaining a concept is arguably the polar opposite of what journalists like to do: we prefer to painstakingly lay the groundwork, carefully building up an explanation in as precise a fashion as possible, with a sometimes rather too intense focus on the minutiae of the science. Journalists instead want to get to the headline as quickly as possible – to grab the audience from the start and compel them to read, watch or listen to their story via a strong “hook”. It took me some time to get used to this approach, and it can still be uncomfortable to let go of the detail, particularly when you know that at least some of the Sixty Sym- bols audience will call you out for it in the comments section under the video. Indeed, the ability of viewers to give instant feed- For us academics on the other side of the camera, Let me edutain you back to YouTube videos is both a blessing and a curse. however, this aspect of film-making can be daunt- Some of the science You’re glad that people have responded to your ing: whatever “narrative” we may have developed for channels created by videos and want to read what they have to say, but a particular topic can be shot down in flames by a film-maker Brady you have to be braced for the worst. The universal single unanticipated and perceptive question from Haran – but do they advice regarding YouTube videos, which is to ignore Haran within seconds of the record button being really help students to learn? the comments entirely, can be pretty well impossible pressed. “We don’t know what Brady is going to ask, to follow. I too usually disregard the wise counsel of and he asks some really good, pertinent and challeng- PhD students and postdocs in my research group, ing questions that can leave you a bit flummoxed,” many of whom think YouTube comments are noth- says my Nottingham colleague Ed Copeland, a cos- ing more than the condensed collective stupidity mologist whose appearances in Sixty Symbols and of humanity. Numberphile have rightfully won him a dedicated Haran’s channels tend to buck this trend: the following on Facebook and Twitter. comments can often prompt a well-informed and, Copeland admits getting the balance right is “very at times, quite erudite discussion. Still, you do have challenging” – to make explanations neither too ver- to learn to put up with some unpleasant stuff. My bose and technical nor too short and shallow. “Brady astronomy colleague Meghan Gray, who has featured plays a crucial role there, pulling me back from in many of Haran’s videos, points out that there is an getting too technical but giving me enough leash infuriating gender bias that often taints the comment to discuss some technical aspects,” he says. Even threads, with the comments she gets often being far Roger Bowley, an emeritus professor in physics and more focused on her appearance than those received astronomy at Nottingham who’s been a member of by male colleagues. “Whether the intention is to flat- the Sixty Symbols team right from the start, admits ter or be nasty, it can be uncomfortable and unpleas- that “simplifying complex ideas into a single, logi- ant, and the scientific message becomes secondary,” cal story line that can be understood by the general she says. “Fortunately, other viewers will tend to public” is the most challenging aspect of the process. quickly censure those who express views of this type, which is heartening – we do have some lovely fans.” Powerful impact The key to a successful YouTube video, according Getting the balance right to Mike Merrifield, an astronomer at Nottingham, Although Haran is not a scientist by training, and is to put yourself in the position of the viewer and has no formal education in physics, chemistry or avoid confusing or jargon-filled explanations. “You mathematics beyond secondary school level, he has need to simplify things to a point where they are an abiding interest in – and passion for – science and understandable in this format without compromis- mathematics. This plays a pivotal role when it comes ing the underlying science”, he says. Yet keeping to engaging the audience. “Perhaps my most impor- things simple without fundamentally compromis- tant role is to represent the viewers,” he says. “I try to ing the description of the science is an exceptionally think about what they’d ask if they were in the room. difficult balancing act. Indeed, last year I decided I Not necessarily what the scientists want to say, but wasn’t getting this balance right and grew ever more what do the viewers want to know? Nothing makes concerned about the perception we were creating by me happier than when a viewer writes to say ‘Thank trying to put across physics in easy-to-digest, video you Brady – that was just the question I was hoping clips lasting just a few minutes. Physics is not easy you would ask next!’ ” and we shouldn’t pretend it is – it needs hard work

Physics World March 2014 33 physicsworld.com IOP YouTube science – from those who’ve taken part Laurence Eaves, semiconductor physicist Appears in: Sixty Symbols, Numberphile INNOVATION It’s rewarding that people come up to me in a railway station, museum or cinema foyer and tell me that they are fans of our videos. It’s like Alvy Singer being recognized by AWARDS 2014 a fan in Woody Allen’s Annie Hall! Meghan Gray, astronomer Innovative physics. Winning solutions. Appears in: Sixty Symbols, Deep Sky Videos It’s wonderful that by chatting to Brady Haran for half an hour in my office, I can reach tens of thousands of people around the world, many of whom kindly take the time to CALL FOR ENTRIES get in touch and express their appreciation. Mike Merrifield, astronomer Physics has been at the heart of Appears in: Sixty Symbols, Deep Sky Videos, innovations from the light bulb to the Backstage Science A rewarding aspect of the YouTube experience is when Large Hadron Collider. Today, physics and the DHL delivery man says “Nice videos, by the way” as physicists drive the success of the best he’s leaving. and brightest companies. Tony Padilla, cosmologist Appears in: Sixty Symbols, Numberphile Making videos about stuff you aren’t as expert on as you’d like to be is challenging. When you really stray away Has your company created a from home, you have to put in much more preparation successful innovation from physics? time, and it can be a bit like revising for an exam. And the examiners are the viewers. They don’t miss a trick. The IOP Innovation Awards represent the strength and scope of physics innovation in the UK and but the rewards are great if you put the effort in. Ireland, companies creating impact across a range When the great physicist Richard Feynman was of sectors from oil and gas to renewable energy, asked to describe how magnets work, he made an medical technologies to high-tech manufacturing. exceptionally important point about explaining physics to a general audience. Feynman believed that not Enter now at www.iop.org/innovation or everything can be, or should be, reduced to an explanation of just a few minutes and a simple, but poten- e-mail [email protected] for tially misleading, real-world analogy. As he famously further information. said when asked to briefly explain his Nobel-prize- winning work on quantum electrodynamics: “Lis- Closing date for entries: Friday 30 May 2014 ten, buddy, if I could explain it to you in a minute, it wouldn’t be worth the Nobel prize.” To me, Feynman’s comments illustrate the inher- ent tension between the journalistic and academic approaches to science communication – and it is a point that I have debated at length with Haran and a number of other colleagues involved in Sixty Sym- bols. Indeed, so concerned was I at having misrepre- sented important physics in a couple of videos that last year I decided I would bow out of contributing to Sixty Symbols. What changed my mind was a message from a 16 year old in Dublin who said that the Sixty Symbols videos are what had inspired him to pursue a career in science. Since watching them, he had ended up getting an A in his Junior Certificate exam, having previously scraped Bs and Cs. Perhaps it’s the Irish connection (I did my undergraduate degree and PhD at Dublin City University) but I found that message affecting and humbling. When Sixty Symbols has that type of influence, I can live with a few qualms about the nature of YouTube edutainment. n

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Untitled-5 1 31/01/2014 13:31 Education: Science for kids physicsworld.com Rules of engagement

Empowering children to look at the world around them with curious, questioning eyes is the goal of Fran Scott, who describes the golden rules she follows to do just that

Most recently Ever hear a child say “Yeah, I get it!”? Well, if you working for do, they’re lying. They’re only saying those words Children’s BBC and because you’re boring them and they don’t want to BBC Learning, listen anymore. Instead they want to move on to that Fran Scott uses her dancing robot exhibit, go and play with their friends, expertise within the or for everyone to just stop staring at them. Sounds field alongside her harsh, but if they truly understood then they would neuroscience knowledge to convey be questioning you about the phenomenon or sharing seemingly complex it with their friends. In short, they’d be too engrossed scientific ideas to in further curiosity to bother to give you an update children in novel and on their knowledge level. entertaining ways, This is just one of the many idiosyncrasies I have e-mail fransfacts@ learnt over the past nine years of being involved in gmail.com, informal children’s science education. Over those www.franscott.co.uk years I have gained a reputation for not only understanding the science, but also being able to explain it, and well. I am involved in many arms of science outreach: I scientifically review and advise on science books and also consult on and present children’s science on the BBC. I chose this avenue because I find nothing more frustrating than the lazy communication of science to children. After all, it is during their primary- school years (ages 5–11) that children are forming their initial opinions of the subject – finding out if it’s right for them or not. I strongly believe that we, as scientists, as physicists, have a responsibility not to intimidate them with our over-use of jargon, or with children? I have a set of four “golden rules” that our inability to break things down, and instead show can be remembered using the acronym REAP – and children the basic ideas. We need to empower them indeed they do reap great results. I like rules; they to use these foundations as a base from which they make you put the seemingly obvious into practice. can look at the world around them with curious, So, if the following seem obvious, it’s because they questioning eyes. are; however, they’re not so obvious that everyone is Yes, I chose this avenue. Explaining science to adhering to them. children is not an easy process; it’s not a wimp-out. It takes time, a clear understanding of the concepts Rule 1: Research – know the whole concept and a lot of thinking. Do not think that you can sim- Only by knowing the whole of the story can you ply hand the children branded pens and then talk at interpret it and summarize it as a whole, rather than them about your area of expertise. Do not think that as a fragment. And “the whole” is important. People all you need to know is the level of the science you don’t remember fragments so well. We’re not inter- are explaining to the children. Both these approaches ested in bits of a story, we want to know the whole, are purely lazy. But I still see them – and too often. we want to know why. So if you can’t explain the So, having said what not to do when explaining sci- whole of the story it’s just not going to “go in”. Or, ence to children – trivialize the task at hand – what as Einstein reputedly, and rather more concisely, put is it you can do to improve your science interactions it: “If you can’t explain it to a six year old, you don’t

36 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com Education: Science for kids British Science Association Science British

understand it yourself.” formed right away. The power of fun Whenever I’m asked to explain a concept, this For example, when I was advising on the principle Fran Scott is my first port of call. I absorb myself in it. I read of floating for the Archimedes episode of the Chil- adjudicates a tug-of- – a lot. I also talk to people – a lot. I talk through dren’s BBC programme Absolute Genius with Dick war at the British what I think the theory is. I talk to experts. No one and Dom, the main ideas I extracted were: Science Festival in which children person can be an expert in everything, so don’t be ● The volume of water displaced by an object discover friction by embarrassed to ask. I see my goal as being able to when fully submerged is equal to the volume of trying to pull apart help children understand a theory. It is not about me the object. two interleaved being the sole person involved in doing this; it is a ● An object will float if the weight of the water telephone matter of using the knowledge that’s out there, and displaced by the object is equal to or greater than directories. me then translating this into something that children the weight of the object. can understand. ● An object will float if it is less dense than or equally as dense as the fluid it is trying to float on. Rule 2: Extraction – select the key ideas ● An object will float if the buoyant force is equal These usually constitute four to six bullet-pointed to or greater than the weight of the object. aspects, ideas or stories that together explain the Reading those ideas, they may seem, at first glance, whole of the principle you have researched. These to be saying the exact same thing. They’re not. Yes, ideas don’t always have to be connected, or even fully they all explain Archimedes’ principle in their own

Physics World March 2014 37 Education: Science for kids physicsworld.com

Fran: Yes, but there’s more to it. It’s about density really…. Child Fran: What’s density? BBC Science BBC

…you get the picture. Admittedly, this conversation is usually internal. One important phrase I always refer to during this process is “You’re only ignorant once” – i.e. once you know something, it is difficult to remember what it’s like not knowing it. So, do your best to empty your head of all the familiar jargon and the complex ideas that you now currently and willingly accept as the norm. So after all the internal questioning, what did I come up with?

For objects of the same weight, the bigger the object is, the more likely it is to float.

Attention grabbing way, but none of them fully explains it. At least not to I know what you’re thinking: that’s simple. Yes, but The author puts her a person who doesn’t yet know the words “displaced” tied up in this simple phrase are the ideas of density, four golden rules into or “density” – i.e. not to your average six year old. water displacement and upthrust, as all of these, at practice for And so to rule 3…. their core, are dependent on size. BBC Science. Rule 3: Assimilate – boil down the ideas to one Rule 4: Present – make your learning outcome engaging “learning outcome” How you present your carefully constructed idea During this process I aim to fully understand the depends on where you are presenting it, obviously, main messages in the points I have extracted in rule 2 but there are some key elements that are transferable and then collate these messages into one main idea to all situations. that highlights the basis of all these principles. This First, make it entertaining. This is perhaps contro- should be a maximum of three sentences long. I do versial – surely education is mutually exclusive to this by becoming somewhat of a six year old myself. entertainment? Not in my eyes; without attention I ask “Why?”. I probe “What is density?”. I ask “So in the first place, no learning can actually occur. what?”. Let me explain… And don’t think that just because it’s physics, it can’t be entertaining. Fran: The volume of water displaced by an object But entertaining doesn’t necessarily mean using when fully submerged is equal to the volume of the big, loud, “wow” moments; it covers a multitude of object. attention devices, from the use of narrative through Child Fran: So what? to cleverly used humour. As educational consultant Fran: Well, this is what Archimedes actually came Sai Pathmanathan so elegantly puts it in a summary up with while he was sat in the bath. It was his of her research on “edutainment”, “the cognitive “Eureka!” moment. It’s pretty important stuff. processes involved in understanding humour are the Child Fran: Why? same as those involved in problem-solving. Humour Fran: Because it allowed him to be able to measure can therefore reinforce these processes so that the volume of the king of Syracuse’s crown, and meaningful learning takes place”. work out if it was made of pure gold or not. Second, know what is familiar to your audience Child Fran: So what? Surely that’s not that and build on it. No child is an empty vessel. Every important, is it? child has already come across physics in many, many Fran: Well, no. But finding this out allowed everyday situations. Yes, they may not yet know why Archimedes to apply mathematics and a theory to objects act a certain way, but they know that they do why boats float, which previously had just been act a certain way. done by trial and error. So, don’t presume your audience knows noth- Child Fran: Eh? How did he get from sitting in the ing. Everybody knows something. Building on that bath to boats? something they already know will make your audi- Fran: He realized that for a boat to float it had to ence comfortable and therefore more confident. It displace an amount of water that weighs the same will also, through the intricacies of how memories as, or more than, it does. are formed – memory by association – allow that new Child Fran: What does displace mean? knowledge to stick. Fran: Push aside. Finally, do not use jargon, unless you first explain it. Child Fran: So if it could push aside more water it Yes, jargon can be useful; it can allow you to com- was more likely to float? municate your theory or idea in a concise manner, Fran: Yep. And the bigger the object is the more using one word instead of several. But always remem- water it pushes aside. ber that phrase: “You’re only ignorant once”. What Child Fran: So bigger things float better? may seem just normal use of English to you may be

38 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com CBBC

Talk to the hand Making science entertaining for children doesn’t necessarily mean “wow” moments; it may mean interacting with a CBBC puppet. Beam spot size when passing gobbledegook to a child. By all means use jargon, through magnetic quadrupoles with opposite polarities and anti-periodic modelling around the beam axis. but precede that jargon with its meaning. And always precede, not follow. It’s a peculiar thing, jargon; one that requires a balance. When evaluating presentations, I find that jargon, just like extensive vocabulary, is used by the presenter as a marker of their intellect. A balance is needed; you need to use enough (explained) jargon to gain the trust of your audience, but not so much that you lose them. Never use unexplained jargon as a quick route to being perceived as intelligent; that’s just an ego-trip, and won’t help your audience. Also consider this: “jargon” may include more words than you might think. Words such as density, displace and buoyancy would all be foreign to a six year old and so do need to be explained, if used at all. With these key elements in mind, it is up to you to devise a demonstration/scene/workshop/game that encapsulates your one learning outcome. This may be something that doesn’t, at first, seem connected to the concept you are conveying, but think outside the box; think more about your learning outcome than your initial concept. And keep thinking. Talk it through with adults and children and, of course, yourself. Ensure that you are perfectly happy that the take-home message of your demo/scene/workshop matches your carefully selected learning outcome.

Sweetshops and rubber rings So, yes, there is an art to explaining the facts. But by being armed with these golden rules, hopefully now the somewhat daunting task of explaining physics well to six year olds, in a way they’ll understand forever, seems a whole lot more manageable. And next time you see clips on children’s television of people “playing” with sweets in a sweetshop, discovering that although the bags all weigh the same, some float better than others – or perhaps presenters swimming in a pool, sinking without flotation aids, but then floating perfectly after armbands and rubber rings are attached – you’ll know that every scene has been thoughtfully considered and carefully crafted so that the one desired learning outcome is indeed the one the children take away. n

Physics World March 2014 39 Education: Visual learning Learning by doodling Do your reams of written lecture notes ever really sink in? Louise Mayor investigates how visual methods can help you process and remember information

Louise Mayor is Commissioned by Physics World, this colourful features editor of image is based on a lecture by Richard Feynman Physics World, called “The Great Conservation Principles”. It is one e-mail louise. of seven Messenger Lectures he gave at Cornell Uni- [email protected] versity in the US in 1964 and can be watched online at http://ow.ly/to2xE or in the digital version of this magazine. (See p25 for more on the impact of Feyn- man’s teaching.) The drawing’s creator is professional “science doodler” Perrin Ireland, who describes herself as “a learner who needs to visualize concepts in order to understand them”. Her doodling began while she was doing a degree in human biology at Brown University in the US. Ireland’s illustrated notes were so helpful that her coursemates began asking for copies. Quite simply, for many people, thinking visually or in a story-like way helps them to recall facts and explanations – which can come in very useful when trying to learn something new. Doodling has also entered the world of academics, with some conference organizers commissioning a professional doodler, such as Ireland, to “live-scribe” at their event. As well as adding interest and helping delegates to process information, the drawings make a nice record of the meeting. Ireland is not alone in her vocation; there is a growing movement of “information visualizers” who bring their methods to businesses to foster innovation and productivity. Disney, for example, has used SB Ink – a creative consultancy run by “Infodoodler- in-chief” Sunni Brown – to “ideate” on a project in 2009 (the exact topic of which was kept under wraps). The participants were asked to “visually play” with ideas for how they wanted the project to turn out, and Brown recorded the resulting ideas and decisions in a style similar to Ireland’s. Everyone’s brain contains different memories and associations, so the best way to take advantage of these techniques is to do them yourself – because when you convert the information you’re trying to learn into images, associations and analogies, you are forced to relate them to the images and concepts already stored in your mind. We’d love to see your efforts – please send them to [email protected]. n ● For more on how learning depends on building connections to prior knowledge, see pp48–51

40 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com

Physics World March 2014 41 FORTHCOMING INSTITUTE CONFERENCES APRIL 2014 – JULY 2016

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The MOOC point Massive open online courses give students free access to some of the world’s top educators. James Dacey explores the benefits and drawbacks of these courses compared with those traditionally offered by universities

Walter Lewin is a very rare breed – one of the hand- make them sit on the edge of their seats.” James Dacey is ful of academics who have made it their mission to If students could learn free of charge from a hand- multimedia projects transform the way their students look at the world picked selection of über teachers such as Lewin – in editor of Physics around them. Rather than seeing teaching as a chore their own time and from the comfort of their own World, e-mail james. that’s taking precious time away from research, he home – why would they make do with uninspiring [email protected] approaches the lecture hall as if it were a stage, hav- lecturers at their own university department? ing carefully crafted interactive lectures that can It’s a question that’s become more common over have students hanging on to his every word. “The the past few years, which have seen the rise of massive class has to see, and smell, and feel in their hands, open online courses, commonly known as MOOCs. that you love physics,” says Lewin, an emeritus pro- These are short courses usually mixing online fessor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of teaching with assignments such as problem sets and Technology (MIT), whose teaching talents have been extended projects. While the concept of online pri- recognized through numerous prizes and awards. vate study has been around for as long as the Web, the “You must somehow at times make them laugh. I can novelty with MOOCs is that these courses are freely make them cry. I have them so in my hands that I can available and the providers take full advantage of the

Physics World March 2014 43 Education: Online courses physicsworld.com

Breaking down barriers assistant,” he says. Indeed, several “meet-up groups” have emerged around the world in which students get One inspiring example of the power of MOOCs to break together to work on studying the edX MOOCs. down global barriers to education is the story of a Agarwal says the MOOC model is “flipping the boy called Battushig Myanganbayar from Ulan Bator funnel” in the student-recruitment process, giving in Mongolia. In 2012, aged just 15, he took the edX people opportunities at a university that they may “Circuits and electronics” MOOC, a subject he had no prior never have received otherwise. “In a typical univer- experience with through his state education, and achieved sity, say Harvard University or MIT, they admit less a perfect score. Myanganbayar has since moved to the than 10% of students that apply. [With edX] any- US where he has started an undergraduate degree at the body can come in and take the course, however a Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and is so far taking smaller number passes the course.” As an example, courses in electronics, solid-state chemistry and biology. Agarwal says that the first time edX ran its “Circuits As if his personal achievements weren’t impressive enough, Myanganbayar has and electronics” MOOC, 155 000 students from 162 also created a series of videos on YouTube in which he explains some of the more countries signed up for the course, and of these 7200 difficult concepts from the MOOC in Mongolian, having translated them from the students passed. Even with the high drop-out rate, original English versions. “Every time when I learn new stuff, every time when I’m this figure is substantially higher than the number of working on a new project, I think about how it could bring happiness for people in students passing the campus-based course. the future and that gave me a lot of energy,” he explains. But there are others who question the idea that MOOCs have transformed the status quo in education. They argue that cases such as that of Battushig latest Web technology, such as online video and inter- Myanganbayar – a 15 year old from Mongolia who active virtual labs. Indeed, MOOC evangelists claim took a MOOC and ended up winning a place at MIT that these courses are a key step in the global democ- (see box above left) – are the rare exceptions rather ratization of education, given that anyone with good than the rule. It’s a view backed up by a recent sur- enough Internet access can take them. vey described in the online repository Social Science But could an online course ever provide the same Research Network, which found that most students complete learning experience as that gained from completing courses from one particular MOOC pro- attending a university in person? After all, students vider already hold a degree from a real-world univer- can’t simply stick their hand up mid-lecture if they sity. Sent to people enrolled in MOOCs offered by are lost, or wait behind at the end to ask for some- Coursera, it found that 83% of the 34 779 students thing to be clarified. And surely doing a MOOC from who replied already had an undergraduate degree, home can never match the social aspect of attending with 44.2% reporting education beyond a bachelor’s a university, which is just as valuable in a student’s degree. The authors, led by Gayle Christensen of the university experience as is personal academic study. University of Pennsylvania, wrote that the student population tends to be “young, well educated and Flipping the tunnel employed, with a majority from developed countries”. Lewin is the instructor for two physics MOOCs offered by MIT via edX – a large, US-based MOOC A blended approach provider – on the subjects of classical mechanics and Another interesting development is the incorpora- electricity and magnetism. In addition, many of his tion of MOOCs into existing degree programmes. colourful lectures, which often include dramatic One example of this “blended learning” has taken demonstrations such as Lewin swinging across the place at MIT, which has seen a major revamp of a front of a lecture hall to illustrate pendulum motion, module known as Junior Lab. This long-standing have been recorded and made available through practical course is usually taken by third-year stu- MIT’s OpenCourseWare project (OCW), which was dents specializing in physics, and has been described launched in 2002 and is often thought of as the pre- by Krishna Rajagopal – MIT’s associate head of cursor to the current MOOC initiatives. But despite physics education – as “the centrepiece” of the his high profile in MIT’s Web education, Lewin rec- undergraduate physics programme at MIT. In the ognizes that taking one of his online courses could traditional incarnation of Junior Lab, students never reproduce the experience of attending one of attend a series of introductory lectures and are given his lectures in person. He views the edX and OCW a selection of reading assignments before they begin initiatives purely as ways of extending his reach and the practical work. Rajagopal and his colleagues a means to inspire viewers around the world to con- have been running a trial where they have replaced sider studying physics full-time at a university. this pre-course activity with a suite of online activi- However, the president of edX, Anant Agarwal, ties and resources, including videos and interactive believes that MOOCs can offer advantages over tra- exercises, based on the edX technology. The idea is ditional learning and that there is no reason why the that students can access the information as and when social aspects of learning have to be compromised in they require it throughout the course, freeing up taking these Web courses. Agarwal points out that more time for focused discussions with lab instruc- the students taking edX MOOCs can access discus- tors when working on practical projects. sion forums where they can get a response from fel- The MIT physics department is pleased with the low students within minutes. “In an on-campus class, outcome of the trial and is planning to officially often students have to wait a couple of days or a week launch the revamped Junior Lab for the 2014 spring to find 10 minutes with a professor or a teaching semester. Rajagopal says he will be looking at how

44 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com Education: Online courses students perform in the online activities to get an idea of the concepts that students find particularly challenging. “Every class I’ve ever taught, at the end you wish you had 10 or 15 minutes more, so you could do the one last thing that you wished you had time for. So I’m hoping I’ll get time for a lot of those things, by actually knowing what my students have done before they come into class.” While it is too early to assess whether the new-look Junior Lab is doing better at preparing undergraduates for a career in physics, students who have taken part in the trial seem to have enjoyed the format. “Junior Lab has the reputation of essentially making one’s life a living hell for about a semester and con- suming all of their time,” says undergraduate student Isaac Yandow. “The [online] pre-labs are good. We have to do them before every lab and they make me a lot more confident than I was before”. This style of blended learning is gaining in popu- larity in the US, according to Agarwal. He says it is also being used at university and high-school level for course instructors to cherry-pick the best educational fad. As Mike Sharples, a researcher in MIT's Junior Lab online resources to incorporate into their on-campus educational technology at the Open University who As of this semester, course, just as they might have done in the past with is the academic leader of FutureLearn, explains, students taking the textbooks. edX has already been involved in pilot institutions see “huge opportunity to engage learn- MIT physics programmes at two Massachusetts community col- ers around the world in high-quality education at department’s key leges and at San José State University (funded by a higher level [as well as] major strategic opportuni- experimental grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation), ties: to promote their brand and display the quality module, Junior Lab, will have access to a to deliver “Circuits and electronics” as a blended of their teaching content worldwide, and to recruit suite of online course. “Initial results for the San José State pilot some students from MOOCs onto degree courses”. resources alongside show a dramatic decrease in failure rates from pre- In other words, universities may well see MOOCs as their practical vious semesters,” says Agarwal. He claims the per- an opportunity to expand their real estate. By build- assignments. centage of students required to retake the course ing attractive new campuses online populated with dropped from 41% under the traditional format to superstar teachers, they may entice more students 9% for those taking the edX blended course. back to their real-world headquarters. In addition to creating FutureLearn, the Open Uni- Plethora of platforms versity has also recently launched the OpenScience MOOCs are courting so much attention at the Laboratory, thanks to a £1m grant from the Wolfson moment because of the sheer pace at which new Foundation. This website is a resource for science courses are appearing. Between them, the large undergraduates who have free access to virtual labo- US-based MOOC providers Udacity, Coursera and ratories, including microscopes and a spectro meter, edX are already offering hundreds of courses in a and remotely control real-world equipment includ- wide selection of fields, particularly in STEM sub- ing telescopes and bench-top experiments. Nicholas jects (science, technology, engineering and maths) Braithwaite, an engineering physicist who is Open- and computer science. The normal model has so Science Laboratory director, says that the lab has far been for major universities to create and deliver already signed up users in 84 countries. “Although the MOOC courses, with the online platforms being we began on our home territory of undergraduate created and maintained by MOOC providers. The science, we recognize the potential contribution that provider edX, for instance, was launched in 2012 the OpenScience Laboratory might make to primary, after Harvard and MIT each invested $30m, and the secondary and further education; we are actively organization has since teamed up with several other seeking partners in these sectors,” he says. leading US universities. In September 2013 the first UK-based MOOC Down to business provider FutureLearn, wholly owned by the Open Despite the potential of MOOCs, there is a lot of University, opened registration for its first batch uncertainty about their economic sustainability. A of courses, including one called “The discovery of report by the UK Department for Business Inno- the Higgs boson”. FutureLearn’s partners include vation and Skills released in September 2013 noted 26 universities – 23 of which are in the UK, with that “the Burning Issue in the MOOCosphere is the remaining three in Ireland, New Zealand and the search for business models”. Online education Australia, as well as the British Library and the initiatives do not come cheap and the report also British Museum. highlighted fears among smaller and less prestig- The scope and scale of how universities are engag- ious institutions that they may lose market share as ing with MOOCs seems to suggest that the courses a result of MOOCs bankrolled by big elite univer- are destined to become much more than the latest sities fighting for students in the increasingly com-

Physics World March 2014 45 physicsworld.com

Caught on camera

Positioning Systems

FOR MICROSCOPY

P-545 – Dynamic Motion in 3 Axes MOOC master Walter Lewin has his microphone attached, ready for filming. Travel ranges to 200 µm Resolution in the nano - In a special filming trip to MIT, Physics World interviewed several meter range people quoted in this article. Members of the Institute of Physics Response time in the range accessing Physics World in digital format through our apps or via of a few milliseconds myiop.org can enjoy a short film about blended learning initiatives at MIT and an extended interview with Battushig Myanganbayar.

petitive global market. Whereas the likes of Harvard and MIT can use MOOCs as a shop window for their much-lauded campus courses, the worry is that smaller institutions may struggle to attract recruits. M-687 – Low-Profile, Some of them have also pointed out that MOOCs Precision XY Stage are unable to serve learners with more complex Travel ranges to 135 mm learning needs. One way that MOOC providers have sought to Minimum incremental diversify their business is to seek partnerships with motion up to 0.1 µm, external organizations. For example, the “Secret highly stable power of brands” course, offered to the public free Velocity to 120 mm/s of charge by FutureLearn, was developed by the Uni- versity of East Anglia in association with the international brand consultants Wolff Olins. Fittingly, both parties stand to benefit from the association PIFOC® – Scans and with each other’s brand, as well as producing some Positions Objectives good PR through embracing modern technologies Travel ranges to 1 mm and business models. Similarly, the Khan Academy, a not-for-profit online education platform in the US, Resolution in the nano- has joined forces with the Bank of America to cre- meter range ate the website BetterMoneyHabits to provide people Minimum settling time with tips and advice for personal finance. Meanwhile, many MOOC providers have started charging for Positioning systems from PI are particularly suited for add-ons such as final examinations, university cer- the most challenging applications in microscopy, life tificates and even official university credit, prompt- science, biotechnology or medical technology. They ing some to question the “open” aspect of MOOCs. offer subnanometer resolution, large travel ranges and In the near future, this model of MOOC provid- they are extremely fast. For more information, contact us: ers working with academic and industry partners is likely to become more common, although some lead- [email protected] · www.pi.ws ing universities, such as Oxford and Cambridge, have Physik Instrumente (PI) GmbH & Co. KG · Tel. +49 (721) 4846-0 been noticeable by their absence, not yet offering any MOOCs. For the short term, individual universities will no doubt continue to grapple with the financial implications of MOOCs; for many it appears to be a PIEZO NANO POSITIONING risk worth taking. It looks like, for now at least, both online and offline education are here to stay. n PI-MICROSCOPY

46 Physics World March 2014 pi_130535_kombi_m2_91x262_en.indd 1 12.08.13 15:34 PASCO Capstone Software and The 850 Universal Interface The Most Powerful Data Acquisition, Display & Analysis System for Physics has arrived. It’s time for a totally new data acquisition, display, and analysis system for physics. PASCO Capstone Software and the 850 Universal Interface combine to bring unrivalled power to physics and engineering labs. Call us on 01902 402402 to find out more or to arrange your demo!

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ad.indd 1 13/02/2014 16:14 Education: Scientific habits physicsworld.com Thinking like a scientist Eugenia Etkina and Gorazd Planinšicˇ describe how research into how people learn – plus the desire to help all students develop scientific “habits of mind” – is reshaping the way they teach physics

Eugenia Etkina is a An essential question for every teacher is “What will communication between employers and universities physics educator at my students remember a year after they have taken (materials are available at http://ow.ly/sZCkZ). Rutgers, the State the final exam?” This question is significant for stu- Another factor driving the shift in physics educa- University of New dents specializing in physics, since each course they tion relates to changes in our understanding of how Jersey, US, e-mail take will contribute to their understanding of what people learn. We now recognize that learning is a pro- eugenia.etkina@ it means to do physics. But it is perhaps even more cess of physical change that occurs in the brain, and gse.rutgers.edu. critical for students in introductory physics courses, possibly in the whole body. A more complete expla- Gorazd Planinšicˇ is a physicist at the since most will not go on to become professional nation of this “embodied cognition” can be found in University of physicists and are thus unlikely to encounter pure the work of Margaret Wilson, a psychologist at the Ljubljana, Slovenia physics in the future. University of California, Santa Cruz. In essence, Traditionally, we, as physics educators, have focused learning involves rewiring paths to the neuronal con- on teaching fundamental physics concepts and the nections that students already have when they enter ways that such concepts apply to real-world problems. our classrooms, and this process is enhanced when But in recent years, this focus has shifted. Numer- students interact bodily with their environments. ous studies of what makes people successful in the This new understanding has important implications workplace have shown that while understanding sci- for how physics is – or should be – taught. entific concepts is important, the ability to think like a scientist while solving complex problems is equally Rewiring minds vital (see, for example, International Journal of Sci- To understand how the “rewiring” process works, let ence Education 24 661). Specifically, students need to us consider a simple example. Suppose a child sees know how to formulate a problem; collect and analyse something new – a pile of dirt, for example. She won- data; and identify patterns. They also need to know ders what it is, so she searches her brain for existing how to test ideas; how to evaluate assumptions and knowledge that might be relevant. This process pro- solutions; how to distinguish evidence from inference; duces another question: is dirt like chocolate? If it is, how to argue scientifically; and so forth. then it should taste like chocolate – and so we see the Science educators around the world have begun child putting dirt in her mouth. incorporating this new focus into their curricula. For Although the result of this “experiment” is that example, the Next Generation Science Standards in dirt is not like chocolate, this does not mean that the the US place scientific “habits of mind” (sometimes child did not learn anything. On the contrary: she called science practices or science competencies) at completed what is called a brain learning cycle. Such the centre of science education for all students from cycles begin with concrete experiences and simple kindergarten to the end of high school (http://ow.ly/ observations and then proceed to reflections that sZCbr). On the other side of the Atlantic, a multina- connect such observations to things they already tional group of physicists involved in a project called know. The next step is to produce a hypothesis about Tuning Educational Structures in Europe found this connection, followed by the immediate testing that the competencies ranked most highly by phys- of this hypothesis through an active movement. As ics graduates and employers include problem solv- James Zull – a biologist at Case Western Reserve ing, teamwork and the ability to apply knowledge University and founder of its University Center for in practice. With this in mind, the group has pro- Innovation in Teaching and Education – put it in his duced a guide for academics involved in planning or book The Art of Changing the Brain (2002), learning revising physics degree courses as part of the Bolo- takes place when someone is continuously building gna process, along with a platform for establishing connections to prior knowledge through interactions with the world and reflective thinking. More recently, in his book From Brain to Mind: We now recognize that learning is Using Neuroscience to Guide Change in Education, Zull also showed that imagery plays an important a process of physical change that role in the learning cycle. Think of an apple. Your understanding of what an apple is will be an amalgam occurs in the brain, and possibly in of your perceptual experiences: you may remember the feel of biting into it, the taste, the smell and so the whole body on. Even if you have never eaten an apple, you may be able to draw on photographs or other illustrations you have seen. Together, these experiences form a “per-

48 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com Education: Scientific habits iStock/esenkartal

ceptual symbol” that we can then call “apple”. Shorn learners to benefit from each other’s different exper- of this underlying experience, however, the word tise and encounter different points of view, and “apple” will mean nothing to you, even if you are pre- they also encourage them to speak about the ideas sented with some kind of textbook definition of it. that they are working on. The mere act of speaking Finally, because learning is inherently social, the also involves the motor function, which is extremely rewiring process is enhanced when a learner inter- important for learning. acts with other people. Interactions with peers allow These ideas – that learning is a physical change;

Physics World March 2014 49 Education: Scientific habits physicsworld.com

1 Learning in motion observational experiment motion diagram force diagram a →→→ ν1 + Δν = ν2 Δν→ → →ν → → → 3 ν2 ν1 F FT on C H on C → b FE on C

Δν→ = 0 →ν →ν →ν → 3 2 1 FT on C c → FE on C

→ Δν → F → → → T on C → ν3 ν2 ν1 → FH on C FE on C Photos taken with a blinking LED, motion diagrams and force diagrams for a cart that isa )( speeding up, (b) moving at constant velocity and (c) slowing down. On the motion diagrams the dots represent the positions of the cart at equal time intervals, the →ν vectors represent the cart’s velocity and Δν→ vectors represent the change in the velocity. On the force diagrams each force exerted on the cart is labelled with two → → subscripts that indicate two interacting objects: F E on C is the force exerted by Earth on the cart, TF on C is the force exerted by the track on the → cart and F H on C is the force that the hand exerts on the cart.

that it takes place in cycles; that images need to pre- difficult concepts in introductory mechanics: when cede formal definitions; and that it is a social process a non-zero sum of forces is exerted on an object, it – are by no means exhaustive. For us, however, they is the change in the object’s velocity vector (Δν→) that are the major building blocks in our understanding is aligned with the sum of all forces, rather than the of how people learn, and they have some important velocity vector itself (→ν). This idea forms the qualita- implications for how we teach physics. tive foundation for understanding Newton’s second One implication is that for rewiring to take place law. However, the most common experience students in the brain, learners need to be actively engaged in have of this law is of an object that is initially at rest the instructional process. In other words, passively and then starts to move. In this case, both Δν→ and listening to good explanations – as often happens in →ν point in the same direction. Because people usu- traditional physics lecture courses – will not produce ally focus on the velocity, this may lead them to think the needed change. The rewiring approach to learn- – erroneously – that an object always moves in the ing also suggests that we should view the knowledge direction of the force. that students bring to our classrooms as a productive In the lesson described below, we assume the stu- resource to build on, rather than as an impediment dents have already learned that in physics, the word to future learning. This is true even though students’ “force” stands for a physical quantity that charac- prior physics knowledge consists of ideas that often terizes the interaction of two objects. We will also contradict each other. Finally, physical interaction assume that they have some experience with the with the world is extremely important. forces most common in mechanics and that they Another lesson is that learners need opportunities know how to add them as vectors. Note also that the to conduct observations and try to explain them using activities we describe will be much more successful their existing knowledge – for example, by creating if students work together in small groups and pre- analogies. This process enables learners to extend sent results of the consensus of this group work to the their knowledge and to test new ideas by doing exper- class. Using small boards for students to show their iments or by discussing their thoughts with peers. A work to the rest of the class is very helpful. final lesson is that learners need a perceptual symbol of a concept before a teacher introduces a formal Step 1. Provide students with simple concrete experi- definition. This perceptual symbol could be a real ences. Use a heavy cart with small wheels on a smooth phenomenon with which they have some physical track. Ask students to push the cart (it is important experience, but it could also be a picture or a state- that the students are pushing, not the teacher), exert- ment in which they describe the phenomenon in their ing a constant force on it. Students will observe that own words – or even some combination of the three. the cart moves faster and faster. The next experiment Oof! A person is to set the cart in motion and let it coast without catches a 5 kg Ideas in motion touching it. If the surface is smooth, the cart will medicine ball If the discussion so far seems rather abstract, here move at a constant velocity. Finally, when the cart dropped from about is an example of a lesson that is both consistent with is moving, ask students to exert a force on it in the 1 m. A blinking LED the ideas above and also geared towards helping stu- direction opposite to the direction of motion. The shows the time dents develop scientific habits of mind. The example students will observe the cart slowing down in the interval of the catch. may seem trivial, but it addresses one of the most direction of motion. The heavier the cart, the easier

50 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com Education: Scientific habits The rewiring approach to learning suggests that we should view the knowledge Shutterstock/Vadim Ivanov Shutterstock/Vadim that students bring to our classrooms as a productive resource to build on, rather than as an impediment

Interaction Encourage groups of students to present their findings back to the class. it is for them to see that it does not stop instantly. To increase the perceptual aspect of the three experi- photo below left allows students to infer that the ments, the students can use a bowling ball instead of person exerts the stopping force over the substantial the cart and push it with a mallet. difference). Thus the experiment also helps the students realize that it is impossible to stop a moving Step 2. Help students construct images of the concept object instantly. and connect new ideas to what they already know. After doing the experiments described above, stu- Step 5. Help students reconcile the new rule with their dents will have a physical feeling for the situation. previous experiences. Does this rule make intuitive The next task is to help them build on this. One way sense? Encourage students here to come up with is to take a flashing LED light, attach it to the cart examples of different moving objects (such as a ball and take photos (see figure 1). Independently of the thrown upwards, a parachutist doing a sky-dive or a availability of such photos, though, you should ask sledge coming to a stop after the end of a slope) and the students to create graphical images that repre- analyse them by making motion and force diagrams sent each experiment with a motion diagram and and co-ordinating between them. Ask the students to force diagram for the cart (remember, we assume come up with three examples when the rule is true in that the students have already learned how to make everyday life and three examples when it is not. This such diagrams). They should create drawings simi- discussion will pave the path to the concept of non- lar to those in figure 1. The two-subscript notation inertial reference frames. for the forces addresses the difficulty of identifying forces exerted on an object. Habits for success This example shows how to help students construct Step 3. Encourage students to identify patterns. Let one of the most complex concepts of Newtonian students discuss the patterns that they see in the sets dynamics using our knowledge of how people learn. of diagrams. They will notice that on each diagram Specifically, it focuses on a learning sequence in the sum of the forces vector is in the same direction which students start with very simple concrete expe- as Δν→. You can help them formulate a provisional riences and construct representations to analyse rule: when the sum of the forces exerted on an object them. Afterwards, they progress to identifying pat- is not zero, the object changes its velocity and the terns (and explaining them when possible), actively velocity change is in the same direction as the sum testing the patterns (or explanations) in new experi- of the forces. ments and reconciling them with prior experiences. This path is non-threatening and gives all stu- Step 4. Engage students in active testing of the rule. dents the opportunity to be successful at different Invite students to propose new experiments for which points. The new knowledge they gain has not been the outcomes can be predicted using the new rule handed down from an authority figure; instead, it is (after doing these activities a few times you will know the result of the students’ own carefully constructed what equipment your students will request). Here learning experiences, including their analysis of sim- the perceptual aspect of learning can be emphasized ple experiments. Repeating this path many times again. In addition to trying the experiments that they during the instruction will allow the students to form propose, ask the students to use the new rule to pre- the scientific “habits of mind” they need to be suc- dict what they will feel when catching a heavy medi- cessful in the future. We believe this is important cine ball dropped from above as opposed to holding because such habits do more than just help our stu- it. They need to use the motion diagrams and force dents to succeed in a world that demands creative diagrams to make the prediction and then physically problem solving; they also make the world a better experience how much harder they need to push on place, as more of its citizens become capable of mak- the ball to catch it compared to holding it still (the ing informed decisions. n

Physics World March 2014 51 physicsworld.com Reviews

Matthew R Francis We are bound by symmetry

rial.) Later chapters discuss entropy and the arrow of time; relativity and the isotropy of the universe; and a number of topics in particle physics. These include the quantum property known as spin, electroweak theory, the Standard Model of particles and Shutterstock/K Jakubowska Shutterstock/K interactions, and of course the Higgs boson, which is practically a mandatory subject in any popular-physics book now. Inevitably, Goldberg’s explanations vary in quality. I found his discussion of the Casimir and Unruh effects (weird quantum phenomena in the vacuum) to be very good intro- ductions for non-specialists. He also provides an excellent summary of the problems facing attempts to unify the different forces of nature, and specifically the question of proton decay. On the other hand, his explanation of Lagrangians and the principle of least action (both essential topics in a mathematical sense) falls short, since it requires him to define a lot of new terminology in just a few pages, most of it barely mentioned again. The book also misses an opportunity to explain how specific symmetries shaped Guiding light As in art, symmetry is often a guid- just over 300 pages, the book pro- the development of the Standard The link between ing principle in science. Physicists vides an engaging whirlwind tour of Model; while it outlines a few of physics and in particular seek patterns that much that constitutes modern phys- the important symmetries (includ- symmetry is familiar highlight underlying principles that ics. Condensed-matter physics is a ing parity or reflection symmetry, but Dave Goldberg’s can, in turn, be translated into sleek notable large omission – but then time-reversal, time-translation, and book aims to explain mathematical form. It’s not merely again, a discussion of symmetry in exchange of matter and antimatter) it in an accessible an aesthetic choice. Many, perhaps that branch of physics could fill an early on, it fails to bring them back way to laypeople. most, of the accomplishments of entire book in itself. into the picture when the Standard modern theoretical physics have Goldberg, who is a physicist at Model is discussed. The Universe in the exploited symmetry and its excep- Drexel University in Pennsylvania, Goldberg sometimes indulges Rearview Mirror: tions to describe and predict the US, takes a very conversational tone, in the bad habit of parroting con- How Hidden results of experiments. The 2012 with many jokes of a type I’d describe ventional narratives when they are Symmetries Shape discovery of the Higgs boson and the as “professorial”: they’re the kind of wrong or misleading. For example, Reality development of superconductors are quick hit-or-miss asides one might he admits that it’s unfair to bring Dave Goldberg just two of the success stories arising make in a lecture to keep the students up the luminiferous aether – the 2013 Dutton Books from symmetry. listening. His book begins with the hypothetical substance permeat- £16.88/$27.95hb This is old hat to professional basics – what is symmetry in a mathe- ing space to provide a medium 352pp physicists, but perhaps less widely matical sense? – before delving into through which light can travel – only known to laypeople. For that rea- the matter–antimatter asymmetry in to point out that it was superseded son, Dave Goldberg’s book The Uni- the book’s first numbered chapter. by relativity. He even writes, “I feel verse in the Rearview Mirror strives (A structural quibble: the “Intro- a little bit dirty right now” (though to explain in an accessible way how duction” is actually an essential that doesn’t stop him). But the true symmetry affects…well, pretty much chapter of the book, as it introduces unfairness of the standard narra- every major topic in quantum phys- many of the major concepts needed tive is that it ignores the complex ics, gravitation and cosmology. In to understand the subsequent mate- reasoning behind the aether theory.

52 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com Reviews

Some of the brightest minds of 19th- the UK (his Francophone father was century physics worked on it, and the The book provides Swiss, not French). fact that they were ultimately wrong Such mistakes are small but does not reflect poorly on them. We an engaging embarrassing. Putting them aside, might as well call Isaac Newton an though, the book as a whole is sound idiot for not coming up with quan- on its subject matter, and Goldberg’s tum physics. whirlwind tour of conversational jokes keep his nar- Of course, Goldberg is not alone rative light. Whether readers find in that brand of writerly laziness. He much that his jokes amusing likely depends on is also not the only one to repeat the personal taste, though, so here’s a trope that the “twin paradox” – the constitutes slightly goofy metaphor that gives a mismatch in age between a twin who flavour of the book while also encap- travels to a distant star and one that sulating what it’s about. “There’s a stays on Earth – can only be resolved modern physics proverb: a Persian rug is perfectly with general relativity. Even so, one imperfect, and precisely imprecise. hopes for better, particularly since Traditional rugs have a small imper- these stories are repeated in practi- though, since another chapter is fection, a break in the symmetry that cally every popular-physics book. devoted to the mathematician Emmy gives the whole thing more char- The Universe in the Rearview Mir- Noether, who is rightly lauded as a acter. So it will be with the laws of ror also contains a few odd errors of pioneer in the study of symmetry in nature, and a good thing because a fact. Goldberg erroneously lists the physics. (By my count, only two other perfectly symmetric universe would prominent experimentalist Chien- women are named in the book: the be staggeringly boring. Our universe Shiung Wu as “C-S Yu” – a particu- Australian particle physicist Helen is anything but.” larly galling insult to a great scientist Quinn and the ubiquitous Marie who has often been overlooked, in Curie.) In a similarly careless error, Matthew R Francis is physicist and science part because of her gender and eth- Goldberg refers to Paul Dirac as writer. He blogs at http://galileospendulum. org, e-mail matthewfrancis@ ESRF_125x193:Mise ennicity. page This 1 error 18/09/12 seems to 17:19 be one of Page French, 1 even though Dirac was born carelessness rather than misogyny, in Bristol and lived most of his life in galileospendulum.org

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Alexei Kojevnikov white-collar professionals in the rest of the country. The litany of environmental crimes at both plutopia sites extends over decades. During the early years, Plutopia forever in a hurry to produce plutonium, the plants often processed irradiated fuel without letting it cool down long enough for the most radioactive, short-lived isotopes to decay. And when the Maiak Combine’s waste-storage facility overfilled in 1949, Soviet managers did not dare Reuters/Denis Sinyakov Reuters/Denis interrupt production. Instead, they decided to release radioactive liquids into the river Techa, contami- nating its basin forever. That same year, their American counterparts ordered the so-called “Green Run” – a release of highly radioactive waste into the Columbia River that was, they claimed, a scientific experiment. The waste facilities at both sites leaked and released isotopes into the air. Originally meant to be temporary, they were constructed upon a wishful assumption that science would eventually figure out how to Inhospitable zone Kate Brown does research in places ject, housing workers from the US dispose of radioactive garbage. In The area around the where most of her colleagues pre- plutonium-production facility in a 1957 a storage container at Maiak Techa river in Russia fer not to travel. Her wonderful racially segregated settlement. After overheated and exploded, produc- remains radioactively first book, A Biography of No Place the end of the Second World War, it ing Chernobyl-scale contamina- contaminated (2005), explored the pre-Second- evolved into a futuristic city that pro- tion in the Urals. Soviet authorities decades after the World-War history of the west- vided its residents – predominantly ordered the resettlement of villages nearby Maiak ernmost borderland of the Soviet blue-collar workers – with privileged from the most dangerous area along Combine’s Union, which was then home to a middle-class salaries and standards the Techa, but the resettlement took radioactive-waste mix of ethnic minorities, including of living, including better housing, several years and was not even com- facility overflowed. Polish, German, Ukrainian and schools, policing and special health- pleted, leaving some inhabitants Jewish. For her new book Plutopia, care services. within the heavily polluted zone. Plutopia: Nuclear Brown visited two of the world’s most In the early years, Richland’s In the US, special interests of land Families, Atomic radioactively contaminated regions: Soviet counterpart, Ozersk, segre- speculators ensured that areas near Cities, and the the areas near the Hanford Nuclear gated its permanent civilian work- the Hanford site were irrigated and Great Soviet and Reservation in Washington State force from conscripted soldiers and sold to aspiring farmers who were American and the Maiak Combine in the Ural prisoners, but motivated them with not informed of the risks. Plutonium Disasters Mountains, once the centres of plu- the sense of duty and self-sacrifice Plant supervisors – whether Kate Brown tonium production for the Ameri- that came directly out of the war- appointed by Soviet atomic agen- 2013 Oxford can and Soviet nuclear industries. time effort of saving the country cies or by corporate subcontractors University Press Her primary interest lies in exposing from foreign invasion. Not only the such as General Electric or West- £16.88/$27.95hb the dark underside of their military- rank-and-file, but also top scientists inghouse – established similarly 416pp 528pp economic activities: the history of and generals, exposed themselves to styled regimes of corporate loyalty, environmental pollution and the high levels of radiation during work secrecy, public assurances of safety development of segregated “atomic emergencies. By 1960, when the and intimidation of whistle-blowers. cities” that provided privilege and Soviet Union had achieved a modi- In Plutopia, Brown gives voice to better protection for the plants’ per- cum of security through nuclear critics of the cover-up practices as manent staff, but not for the “com- deterrence, the city made a transi- she describes her travels to the pol- moners” who lived and farmed just tion to a more peacetime mode and luted areas, interviews those who outside the fence. followed Richland in adopting a con- challenged the atomic establishment Brown, a historian at the Univer- sumerist strategy. The concept of the or were victimized by it, and reports sity of Maryland, Baltimore County, “middle class” is not in a literal sense stories of accidents, illnesses and invented the word “plutopia” to applicable to Soviet society, which genetic deformities possibly related characterize these cities, whose did not permit the development of a to radioactive exposure. citizens were compensated for their truly rich, upper class. However, its Brown is aware that her inform- risky work and diminished liberties elites were allowed a lifestyle that ants are not always reliable sources. with an abundantly consumerist life- reminds Western observers of their Indeed, many are prone to the sorts of style designed to ensure their loyalty own middle classes; just as in Rich- rumours and conspiracy theories that and conformity. The city of Rich- land, blue-collar workers in Ozersk are abundantly generated around all land, near the Hanford site, began received salaries and perks that closed sites that place strict control as an outpost of the Manhattan Pro- would have been appropriate for over information. But at the same

Physics World March 2014 55 Reviews physicsworld.com

time, they are also bearers and collec- they still engaged in what Brown calls autobiographical books. Vladislav tors of unique information that has “a crime of opportunity” by studying Larin’s Kombinat Maiak (2005), the often been ignored or overlooked. diseases and genetic disorders among most detailed existing account of the Overall, Brown does a careful and villagers who had been left to live zone’s ecological problems, is used in convincing job as a sceptical inves- along the banks of the radioactive a limited way. Insiders – residents of tigator. She reports personal stories Techa for two generations. For the plutopia – could have provided more and tries to independently verify and more dangerous work of cleaning up information, both in writing and in separate reliable from unconfirmed and containing accidents, both sites possible interviews. parts, while admitting that many used so-called “jumpers” – workers The winding down of the Cold War questions remain unresolved. conscripted or hired on a limited- left plutopia’s managers worried: One such unresolved problem term basis who were subsequently what would happen to their cities and concerns health risks associated with transferred elsewhere and no longer employees once plutonium was no long-term exposure to radiation in monitored for health effects. longer a top priority for the govern- relatively low average doses. In the Brown visited contaminated vil- ment? As it turned out, pollution is a early years, when radiation monitor- lages on the Techa and talked to their profitable business and cleaning it up ing was restricted primarily to high- residents, but could not get inside the guarantees an even more perpetual intensity gamma rays, workers at security zone encircling Maiak and source of spending than the initial certain stages of plutonium produc- Ozersk. This leaves the Soviet side production of radioactive materi- tion were often overexposed to other of her story somewhat lacking in als. Thus, even in the post-Cold-War dangers. Having observed dete- primary accounts, especially for the world, grants continue to pour into riorating health and some terminal chapters describing the early years of the military-industrial complex of cases among employees, Soviet doc- construction. To fill the gap, she uses the atomic cities, and to the haves tors coined the term “chronic radia- narratives from the secondary liter- rather than the have-nots. In her tion sickness” and imposed limits on ature about atomic spies. However, conclusion, Brown hints cryptically the overall time workers could spend such literature is neither very relia- that “We are all citizens of plutopia.” in dangerous areas. Over the years, ble (when writing about spies, many Her core metaphor may indeed be they treated about 1000 patients suf- authors feel entitled to embellish sto- extendable to our increasingly seg- fering from this disease, but their ries beyond reason), nor especially regated societies, to those living in American colleagues have been relevant to the topic (unlike Los Ala- gated communities or in states heav- reluctant to accept the diagnosis. mos, Hanford is not known to have ily guarded against immigration, In the meantime, some medical leaked classified information to the and for whom the existence of such crimes were also committed. During Soviet side). At the same time, some freedom-restricting boundaries is the late 1960s, US researchers used very appropriate sources are miss- justified by the sense of entitlement, prisoners in Walla Walla, near the ing. I was surprised to find no men- privilege and hierarchy created by Hanford site, as experimental sub- tion of Zhores Medvedev, who blew the boundaries themselves. jects and exposed their testicles to the cover of secrecy over the 1957 high doses of radiation. Soviet doc- radioactive disaster in the Urals, or Alexei Kojevnikov is a historian at the tors did not deliberately set up condi- of Mikhail Grabovsky’s Plutonievaia University of British Columbia, Canada, tions for human experimentation, but Zona (2002) and other quasi- e-mail [email protected]

Web life: AstroEDU Who is behind it? Anything else I should know? AstroEDU is managed by Edward Gomez of the Las Each activity comes with extensive Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope and Pedro documentation for teachers. Some also give Russo of Leiden University in the Netherlands, information on how the activity could fit into with support from the International Astronomy particular science curricula; for example, “Model Union’s Office for Development. Both Gomez and of a black hole” is judged appropriate for a UK URL: http://astroedu.iau.org Russo are also on the site’s 10-strong editorial year 5 unit on forces. board, which includes astronomers from Brazil, So what is the site about? Nigeria, Japan, Australia, Canada and Europe. How can I get involved? In the past few years, we’ve used this column to Educators, astronomers and interested publicize many excellent teaching resources on Can you describe some of the activities? members of the public are welcome to upload the Web, including repositories for experiments At the moment, AstroEDU is still a prototype, with their own astro-themed activities to the site on earth science (Earth Exploration Toolbook, only around a dozen projects in total. However, and/or volunteer to act as peer reviewers for March 2012, p65), quantum physics (The they are off to a promising start, with a pleasing others’ submissions. Before doing so, however, Quantum Exchange, March 2013, p61) and range of activities suited to children of all ages AstroEDU’s managers recommend you read the general science (Science Buddies, June 2011, and abilities. “Meet our neighbour: Sun”, for site’s submission guidelines and notes on activity p39). AstroEDU is a newcomer to the “online example, is designed to help mixed classes of preparation, which contain advice on how to science activity database” category, having sighted and visually-impaired primary-school craft resources that teach scientific skills and posted its first tranche of astronomy-themed children build and explore tactile maps of the attitudes, not just concepts. They also advise you projects in autumn 2013. But aside from its Sun, complete with flares and sunspots. At the to “Think about what you want your students to be novelty and its focus on astronomy, what sets it other end of the scale, an interactive Web app able to do at the end of your resources” and urge apart is its commitment to peer review. In fact, all called “Star in a box” gives advanced students you to incorporate elements of guided, enquiry- of the activities on the site have been vetted and the chance to explore what happens as stars based learning into your activities. If that sounds approved by two reviewers – one astronomer and of various masses get older and age out of the like a lot of work, well, yes, it probably is. Did you one educator. Hertzsprung–Russell diagram’s “main sequence”. think teaching was easy?

56 Physics World March 2014 Advancing Cryogenics

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Between the lines

Mastering quantum mechanics Now try writing about it After all, education doesn’t stop Leonard Susskind’s book The Tendencies towards over-formality when you graduate. Theoretical Minimum was a and obfuscation in written ● 2013 University of Chicago Press

CC-BY NeolexxCC-BY surprise bestseller in 2013, defying communications by scientific £9.00/$13.00pb 136pp conventional wisdom about practitioners have been shown to the perils of mixing equations inhibit reader comprehension. Fun and educational and popular science. Its sequel, Fortunately, as Anne Greene When the list of children waiting to Quantum Mechanics: the Theoretical demonstrates in her book Writing join Caroline Alliston’s UK-based Minimum, is similar in many ways. Science in Plain English, such science club grew longer than the Both books are based on Susskind’s problems are not inevitable. club’s actual membership roll, she Different approach popular continuing-education Greene teaches scientific writing knew that she was doing something Superstar teacher course at Stanford University. Both at the University of Montana, and right. However, the engineer and Leonard Susskind’s were co-written with one of his her book offers solutions to many mother of two also knew that new book aims to students in that course, although common faults, including wordy she couldn’t be in three places at explain to quantum this time around, Art Friedman, phrases, passive voice and poor once. Her solution was to collect mechanics, but it’s a data consultant and former sentence structure. She also digs some of her club’s most successful not one for software engineer, has taken over into topics such as the “register”, experiments and publish them newcomers to the co-author role from science or tone, of a piece of writing. In for others to use. Alliston’s latest the subject. educator George Hrabovsky. And casual conversations, most people collection, Physics for Fun, follows of course, the new book is just as employ an informal register two that were nominally devoted to mathematical as its predecessor. But (“How the heck do porcupines technology and features 30 all-new there are also some differences. As manage to mate with all those projects. The book gives roughly Susskind and Friedman point out, spines everywhere?”), but authors equal space to mechanical projects quantum mechanics is “technically of journal articles tend to use the (such as a miniature trebuchet) much easier” than its classical abstract register (“The assessment and electrical ones (including a predecessor, but it is famously hard of strong direction tendencies of hydrogen generator and a model to get one’s head around. Their the North American porcupine house with working doorbell, book also takes a different approach was made…”). In Greene’s view, lights and fan). Most experiments from that of many undergraduate neither register is appropriate for require only common household quantum-mechanics courses, scientific writing. Instead, she items, and tweens and young teens covering entanglement, quantum recommends the “conventional should be able to build them without information and even tensor register”, where the author tells a much adult guidance. However, products before encountering that story with identifiable characters the physics behind some is rather old standby, the simple harmonic in a formal and emotionally complex, and Alliston’s short, child- oscillator, in the 10th and final neutral way (“Male porcupines are friendly scientific explanations lecture. Readers who have seen polygamous and defend several do not always do it justice. The such material before, even if in the females, and I hypothesized that second project in the book, for distant past, will probably get more competitively dominant males example, is a spectroscope made out of Quantum Mechanics than would have larger home ranges”). from an old compact disc. Although complete newcomers will. Indeed, The book’s numerous exercises give the spectroscope is fairly easy to Friedman himself qualifies as a readers the chance to practise their construct, a proper explanation lapsed quantum mechanic, having writing and editing skills, while of how it actually works would earned an undergraduate degree excerpts from well-written papers challenge A-level students, never in physics before switching to in a variety of disciplines (including mind the book’s target audience computer science. As he puts it, “the astronomy and genetics as well as of children aged 7–14 years. Long world seems filled with people who wildlife biology) offer inspiration. on fun but perhaps a little short on are genuinely, deeply, interested in Slim enough to read on a short-haul physics, Physics for Fun nevertheless physics but whose lives have taken flight and small enough to tuck makes a good source of ideas for them in different directions. This into a laptop case, this book makes parents, teachers and would-be book is for all of us”. a good travelling companion for science-club founders. ● 2014 Allen Lane/Basic Books physicists who want to improve their ● 2013 Alliston Publishing £5.00pb £20.00/$26.99hb 384pp professional communication skills. 60pp

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Physics World March 2014 59 CALL FOR 2014  FALL MEETING & EXHIBIT PAPERS November 30 - December 5, 2014 | Boston, Massachusetts www.mrs.org/fall2014 Abstract Submission Deadline June 19, 2014 Abstract Submission Opens May 19, 2014

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Untitled-3 1 17/02/2014 09:25 GraduateCareers March 2014

Working abroad The ups and downs of travelling the globe for your career Shutterstock/AfricaRising physicsworld physicsworld.com brightrecruits.com physicsworld.com GraduateCareers Navigating new cultures

Working overseas is a common career step for physics graduates, but moving countries can produce a culture shock. tanmaniStock/kaan Sharon Ann Holgate explains how to manage the effects of cultural differences

Many physicists will study or work overseas at some point during their careers. Indeed, the field’s international nature means that even those who remain in their home countries will regularly interact with colleagues from around the globe. While being exposed to new cultures can be enriching, cultural differences can also create challenges for physics graduates who choose to do further study overseas, accept a short-term secondment or research post in another country, or even just attend a language, the more you will get out. Erik less easily dealt with. Elizabeth Tasker is a foreign conference. Fortunately, the down- Lucero, an American-born physicist who physicist at Hokkaido University in Japan, sides can be minimized with some planning is now a research scientist at HRL Labo- and has previously worked in Canada and and insider knowledge. ratories in the US, served as the “interna- the US after studying in her native UK. Consider Clive Alabaster, a Norway- tional ambassador” for his PhD research In contrast to people in these other coun- based British physicist who is a co-director group at the University of California, Santa tries, who typically nod their heads to sig- and consultant at White Horse Radar. His Barbara. He says that as well as boosting nal agreement and understanding, Tasker work has taken him to a wide range of coun- his language skills, classes in basic Japa- notes that “Japanese people nod and smile tries, including Australia, Canada, Ger- nese “helped prime me for the culture” to show they are listening, but they may many, Malaysia, South Korea and – while before he travelled to Japan to promote the not be understanding anything. This leads in his former role as a lecturer at the UK’s group’s research at the country’s RIKEN to many misunderstandings and strange Cranfield University – Saudi Arabia. Ala- institute. By talking to colleagues who had conversations.” She advises that anyone baster says that he read up on all of these worked in Japan, Lucero also discovered who comes to work in Japan from overseas countries before travelling, but before his that having business cards is “a big deal” should “be prepared to roll with the mis- Saudi trip, he also sought advice from the there because that is how people exchange takes”, adding,“You will be misunderstood university’s international-affairs office details. In the US, he adds, “I wouldn’t have so you always need a plan B!” and an Arabic-speaking colleague who ever thought of needing them, especially as had previously worked there. From them, a graduate student.” When in Rome… he says, “I learned if somebody passes you Some communication differences are Another way to maximize your effective- something, you must accept it in your right ness is to look out for, and adapt to, differ- hand and pass it right hand to right hand”. ences in working practices. For example, At mealtimes, Alabaster adds, you will If you can say after discovering that Norway’s working keep being offered food in Saudi Arabia hours are shorter than the UK’s, Alabaster until you decline it. “It’s perfectly okay to ‘please’, ‘yes’ and says that he now avoids arranging meet- decline, but if you have accepted it onto ings there before 10 a.m. or after 4 p.m. your plate you should finish it,” he says. Management styles can also differ widely. ‘thank you’, people Sylvi Händel, a postdoctoral researcher Speaking the language in physics at the University of California, Alabaster also recommends learning at will look very kindly Los Angeles, who has previously worked least some of the local language when work- in Australia and studied in the UK, has ing abroad, even if your working language on that experienced this first-hand. In her native is English. “If you can say ‘please’, ‘yes’ and Germany, she says, “When you have done ‘thank you’, people will look very kindly something wrong or not completed a on that,” he explains. But as with most task…people are very direct and will tell things, the more you put into studying a you. In the UK, people will rather suggest

62 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com GraduateCareers

Globetrotters: six physicists who have worked abroad

Erik Lucero John Hassard Elizabeth Tasker Riccardo Sturani Sylvi Händel Clive Alabaster “I always had in my “Don't assume you have “People address each other in “Once you get in a physics “Engage with the country, “When I gave a talk with mind that I was a guest something which is a formal way in Japan using department anywhere you their values and the UK colleagues in Saudi in someone’s house. needed, just because you family names and suffixes, might almost forget the traditions. You can learn Arabia, it was really You should respect any come from a prestigious not by their first name. My country you’re in because so much more about folks appreciated that we had offer that your hosts are university or cutting-edge choice to use family names we all talk the same when you move out of slides prepared in English making to you as their tech company.” and suffixes even when mathematical language your own personal comfort and translated into Arabic way of trying to make speaking in English came and we can immediately zone. The worst thing you even though everyone you feel welcome.” from a desire to try and understand each other can possibly do is to hang could speak English.” meet people half-way, when we speak about out with your home folks albeit without speaking our research.” in a foreign country.” much Japanese!”

born studied worked visited an alternative idea to you, so it is a totally out about any specific procedures relevant with colleagues, just to get in touch with different approach.” to the country you are working in before people”. Similarly, Lucero connected with Keep in mind though that some differ- starting business negotiations. Otherwise, colleagues in the physics lab he visited at ences that you encounter will be personal though, he recommends treating everyone China’s Zhejiang University by inviting rather than cultural. When it comes to the same. them to play the tile game mah-jong, which business negotiations, “Aggressive, pas- is, he explains, “very culturally relevant to sive, hard-working, lazy, selfish, construc- Social interactions the Chinese”. tive, honest and devious approaches exist For Händel, the biggest cultural chal- Social differences are more numerous everywhere,” says John Hassard, a UK- lenge of working abroad is meeting and than professional ones, according to Ric born physicist at Imperial College London, making friends with people outside of the cardo Sturani, an Italian-born physicist who has founded companies in Qatar and work environment. “I usually deal with the who is currently on a four-year research Bahrain. Hassard, who is currently based problem by joining a local sport or hobby contract at the Universidade Estadual in Qatar, but has also worked in the US, group,” she says, adding that it is “helpful Paulista in São Paulo, Brazil. A veteran Japan and Switzerland, advises finding to engage in watching the ‘national sport’ observer of cultural differences, Sturani

Physics World March 2014 63 GraduateCareers physicsworld.com has studied in Italy and France, and worked be, many physicists find it well worth the says that he feels “very fortunate to have as a postdoc in Finland, Switzerland and effort. “Of course it’s hard to jump-start a been able to go abroad and see how other Italy before moving to Brazil. He says that new life in a new city,” Sturani says. “You people in the world do great physics”. He Finland gave him the biggest cultural shock don’t even know where to shop for food, adds “For my own growth as a scientist, see- because it took more time to get to know let alone who to go out with at the week- ing the slight differences in their approach people there. “In Finland, people tend end. But you usually know your colleagues to the work was very important for me to to interact less with you on a human level already because you’ve met them at confer- reflect on and I’ve tried to integrate these because they don’t want to invade your pri- ences, and I like the challenge and excite- different approaches into how I work now.” vacy,” he says. “It’s because of their natural ment of learning new languages and being shyness and their way to show respect and part of a different culture.” There can be Sharon Ann Holgate is a freelance science writer consideration for you.” professional advantages as well. Although and broadcaster with a DPhil in physics, As challenging as working overseas can he has never lived outside the US, Lucero www.sharonannholgate.com Making the right move

Your first steps into the world of work after graduation are an adventure and working abroad

can seem like an especially Shutterstock/cofkocof exciting way to begin. But is it right for you? Marcia Malory investigates

Working in a foreign country can be rewarding. “It strengthens the CV to do some international time, learning about different cultures and acquiring language skills,” says Gordon Chesterman, careers- service director at the University of Cam- bridge, UK. Employers may regard foreign experience as a sign of “a little bit more independence and maturity in someone”, he adds, because it inevitably involves “being removed from the protection of friends and family”. companies that will enhance your CV. to teach you how to find a place to live or On the other hand, expat life can be Once you have decided where you want to get your electricity turned on. How will you stressful. On a bad day, homesickness can go, you can minimize stress by finding out deal with such matters independently? strike anyone, even the most emotionally in advance what to expect once you’re there. Then there’s the financial side. “We hardy. After you’ve had an argument with Learn about all the regulations that will encourage students to look at the cost of a close friend or been criticized unfairly affect you, from immigration laws to for- living,” says Chesterman. “It can be astro- by your manager, the inability to find your eign tax rules, and try to foresee any prob- nomical in some cities and much less in favourite comfort food can seem intoler- lems that could arise (see box opposite). others.” Can you be sure that your earnings able. And even if you love being in a new For example, a bank might require proof of will cover your expenses? Have you thought environment, there will be times when residence, while a landlord might want you about exchange rates? You should also cultural differences seem overwhelming to have a bank account. Remember: once consider ways that being a foreigner could (see pp62–64). So what can you do to mini- you’ve graduated you won’t have an adviser affect your job prospects. Some employers mize these problems and make the most of might be reluctant to hire you and Uni- your time in a new place? versity of London career adviser Deena When deciding Lamela-Panthaky recommends that you Do your research study a country’s work culture before mak- When deciding where to work, Chesterman where to work, ing an application. “What kind of applica- suggests that you begin by considering your tion processes are they used to? What does motives for moving abroad. For example, a CV look like there? Does everybody go are you moving to experience a new cul- begin by considering to an agency?” Little things, such as using ture? If so, he says, “The bigger the cultural the expected e-mail format, can affect how differences, the more you’re going to gain.” your motives for prospective employers perceive you. But if your reasons are related to career or research opportunities, it is probably more moving abroad Delayed reactions important that the country you’re moving Other challenges associated with working to has prestigious academic institutions or abroad may not become apparent until

64 Physics World March 2014 physicsworld.com GraduateCareers after you move. For example, your non- Dos and don’ts when working abroad citizen status could cause you problems at work. Kirsten Cooper, head of physics at Do take care of your visa rent to someone who can’t yet live in the country Bootham School in York, UK, is originally Find out what visa you need to live and work in legally and has no credit history there could from South Africa and she observes that the country, and how to get yours approved. be difficult. Give yourself time to resolve such class trips to other EU countries were a real Visas can be expensive so make sure you can possible catch-22s. pain before she obtained UK citizenship. afford to pay for yours. If you have a spouse or “You have to take a train down to London children who are moving with you, they will need Don’t stick to your own kind and apply for a visa. You have to have all of visas too. The best way to avoid homesickness and get your accommodation sorted out. You have used to your new culture is to interact with local to have an invitation. It’s expensive.” Do pay your taxes people. Go out with your colleagues. Join a club If you move to another country for short- Learn your home country’s rules on how expats or a community group. Become a volunteer. term work or study (as an international are taxed as well as your adopted country’s rules student or postdoc, for example) and then on the taxation of immigrants. Find out if there’s Do be kind to yourself decide to stay permanently, you may face a tax treaty between the two countries. Simple things, such as paying for groceries or a fresh set of issues. Universities are often using public transport, can become difficult when much more culturally diverse than their Don’t leave your housing search too late you haven’t yet learned exactly how the system surrounding communities; after gradu- You might need to show proof of accommodation works. Learn from your mistakes; don’t punish ation you might be the only person from to obtain your visa, but finding a landlord who will yourself for making them. your country living in your area or working at your organization. Cooper recalls that after she left the University of York, where to return home. If this happens, don’t be home as you once did when you were away. she received her Master’s degree, someone disappointed with yourself. Settling in a Give yourself time to reacquaint yourself assumed that she didn’t know how to use foreign country is extremely challenging with your former surroundings, and give a mobile phone. Primary-school students and not everyone is cut out for it. your family and friends a chance to get used at her first teaching job mistook her South But regardless of whether your time to the new you. You will adjust. After all, African accent for a speech impediment. abroad proves to be a learning experience when you spend time abroad you develop or an exciting adventure (or both), you the skills required to cope with change It’s okay to go home should expect to feel some reverse culture wherever you are. Most expats feel lonely or lost sometimes. shock when you return to your home coun- However, if you’re constantly feeling angry, try. Living abroad will have changed you. Marcia Malory is a freelance science writer, sad or frustrated, it might be best for you At first you might feel as out of place back www.marciamalory.com

If you are graduating this year then your IOP membership will lapse after you graduate. Regrade your student Graduating membership today to this year? continue with IOP. Choose from three options: • Associate Member – for early career Don’t forget physicists (including postgraduate students) to regrade wanting to maintain their professional membership. your IOP • IOPimember – this digital membership is membership! perfect for anyone with an interest in physics. • Still an undergraduate? – if you are continuing your undergraduate studies please let us know so we can extend your free membership. Regrading is easy! All you need to do is go to www.myiop.org, log in and then follow the instructions.

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66 Physics World March 2014

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68 Physics World March 2014

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National Institute for Theoretical Physics Stellenbosch Node Study a PGCE in Physics Postdoctoral Fellow (Two-year Contract) The Stellenbosch node of the South African National Institute for The PGCE Physics course at The School of Education provides Theoretical Physics (NITheP) has a postdoctoral vacancy in the fields of Leeds will provide you with the teacher training for graduates skills and experience you need to under two routes: Condensed Matter and Statistical Physics. teach physics across the full 11-18 University-led training: The appointment will be made within the structure of Stellenbosch Secondary age range. You will also n A one year full-time be introduced to teaching biology University on a two-year contract basis, with the possibility of renewal programme that leads and chemistry up to age 16. for one additional year. to qualified teacher status. We design our programmes to n You will acquire direct teaching Duties: Maintaining a vigorous research programme. develop both subject knowledge experience through work Requirements: A doctorate of high standing in the relevant fields • a and teaching techniques. University placements within secondary tutors are able to draw on the developing research record and demonstrated research potential. PhD schools. The School of Education extensive research carried out at the must have been obtained within the past five years will administer your training University of Leeds into children’s Commencement of duties: 1 July 2014 or as soon as possible thereafter. programme. learning of science. You will also Closing date: Review of applications will begin on 19 March 2014 and School-led training: work with supportive teacher continue until the fellowship has been awarded. mentors within our network of local n School Direct is a new partnership schools. In addition school-led path to gaining Value of fellowship: The value of the fellowship will be commensurate to broadening your own physics qualified teacher status. with experience and research profile. knowledge, you will learn how to n The School of Education Enquiries: Prof Frederik Scholtz on +27 21 808 3871 or at make this knowledge accessible works with a number of [email protected]. and interesting to students by School Direct schools to Applications: Applications must include a complete CV, publication list, implementing a range of teaching deliver teaching training. approaches and techniques for description of present and future research interests and copies of relevant managing activities in the classroom. qualifications. Applications to be e-mailed together with names and addresses/e-mail details of at least 2 referees to: Mrs René Kotzé For further information and how to apply visit: at [email protected]. http://www.education.leeds.ac.uk/teacher-training/pgce/pgce-physics Webpage: http://www.nithep.ac.za. NITheP reserves the right not to make an appointment and continue searching after the closing date and only short-listed candidates will be contacted.

70 Physics World March 2014 PhD Studentships in the Science & Technology of Fusion Energy

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10 fully funded places Centre for available in Applied Doctoral Training in Applied Photonics Photonics The Centre for Doctoral Training in Funding Applied Photonics is offering 10 Fee plus stipend of a minimum Centre for Doctoral fully funded places to exceptional £20,226 for EngD researchers candidates. and £15,226 for PhD researchers. Training in Applied The CDT offers a 4 year Photonics programme with an emphasis on Entry Qualifications research and development in a 1st class or 2.1 degree at commercial environment. Most MPhys or MEng level in physical www.cdtphotonics.hw.ac.uk research in the Centre takes the sciences, particularly physics and form of EngD projects but some PhD electrical engineering graduates. projects will be available. Exceptional applicants from a BSc or BEng programme are also to be The Engineering Doctorate (EngD) is considered. an alternative to the traditional PhD for students who want a career in Further Details industry. The programme combines For further details and list of current PhD-level research projects with projects and eligibility criteria masters-level technical and MBA please visit courses, and the students spend www.cdtphotonics.hw.ac.uk about 75% of their time working or contact directly with a company. Professor Derryck Reid e: [email protected] Funds are also available to support t: 0131 451 3792 company employees who wish to study for an EngD whilst remaining in employment.

Physics World March 2014 71 WWW.CAREERSINTERNATIONAL.COM

Are you one of tomorrow’s female EPSRC Wind Energy Systems leaders in the Doctoral Training Centre Energy field? Wind Energy Systems Research Apply now to the most exclusive Recruitment Studentships Summit for women with a passion for Energy. Study for a PhD with the UK’s leading University Wind Energy Research Centre and become qualified to contribute to this dynamic and fast growing sector. Top Women - XP Energy The UK Wind Energy Research Centre at the University of Strathclyde is pleased 26 MARCH 2014 - Brussels to offer 10 prestigious 4 year EPSRC research studentships for talented engineering or physical science graduates to undertake a PhD in wind energy research. Successful students will join the EPSRC Centre for Doctoral Training in Wind Energy Systems, which is part of this national centre of excellence at the University. Accreditation of the Wind CDT by the IET and IMechE enables students to develop professionally throughout the course and gain all the competencies required for Chartership. Sponsors Course Details Our CDT offers a unique programme, combining training and research which Other Participants will aid graduates in transitioning into careers in the wind energy sector. With proven and rapidly growing international A SERVICE PROVIDED BY demand for highly qualified engineers and researchers, this course offers high level training which is attractive to industries. To prepare for this exciting future, graduates will work closely with manufacturers, developers and researchers. This multidisciplinary programme brings together graduates from various science and technology disciplines to create a unique community of researchers. Training Department of Physics covers all aspects of wind energy systems including the wider socio-economic context. Entry Requirements The University of York is the number 1 UK university in the world ranking of Studentships are available to UK and eligible EU citizens with (or about to obtain) universities under 50 years old. a minimum of a 2.1 or a Masters degree in Physical Science or Engineering. These competitive Studentships will commence each year in October and will cover The Department of Physics is growing vigorously, with an investment University fees and provide a competitive stipend. package during the last five years of 18 new academic posts, plus major new Applicants must be able to demonstrate enthusiasm, creativity, resourcefulness laboratories and facilities including the York-JEOL Nanocentre, Biological and a mature approach to learning. Physical Sciences Institute, York Centre for Quantum Technologies, the York Applying Plasma Institute, High Performance Computing and Astrocampus. To apply now for October 2014 intake, please visit: http://www.strath.ac.uk/windenergy/. In addition to a dynamic and internationally renowned research environment, we offer an active programme of post-graduate training including skills and professional development, and an attractive campus environment 2 km from the centre of one of the most beautiful cities in the world. Postgraduate opportunities Visit Research in the Department of Physics at the University of York spans a wide range of exciting fields in fundamental, cross-disciplinary and applied physics. Our internationally recognised research is organised into three groups with strong ties to industry: n Condensed Matter Physics: nano and low-dimensional systems, photonics, magnetism and spintronics, quantum theory and applications & biophysics and organic systems n Nuclear Physics and Nuclear Astrophysics n Laser-Plasma Physics, Low Temperature Plasmas and Fusion energy We offer PhD and MSc research degrees, as well as a 4-year PhD in the Fusion Centre for Doctoral Training, a one-year taught MSc in Fusion Energy and a nine-month Graduate Diploma in Physics. PhD studentships are currently available with funding from the EPSRC/STFC, the Fusion CDT, industry sponsorship or the University of York. Some funding is also available for the MSc in Fusion Energy. Scholarships are also available.

For more information visit www.york.ac.uk/physics/postgraduate or email the Graduate Admissions Tutor, Dr Yvette Hancock The jobs site for physics and engineering ([email protected])

72 Physics World March 2014

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PhD studentship: THE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM Rear ejection in laser drilling University of Nottingham UK MSc in Physics and Technology Fully funded industrial CASE PhD (3.5 years), £15,000 The jobsannually site for tax physicsfree, UK nationals and engineeringonly. of Nuclear Reactors This is an exciting opportunity to gain a PhD in a leading UK Contact: Dr Paul Norman, university whilst working in close collaboration with industry. School of Physics & Astronomy, University of Birmingham, This project will determine how laser parameters and Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT material type effect rear ejection during laser drilling. Email: [email protected] Phone: 0121 414 4660 Numerous experimental techniques, including use of http://www.ph.bham.ac.uk/prospective/postgrad/pgptnr.htm specialised imaging systems, will characterise material expelled during laser drilling of various materials. l One year taught postgrad MSc. Next year starts 29/09/2014. Applicants with, or expecting, a 2.1 or above undergraduate Course structure refined over the 50 years the MSc has run. degree, in engineering, physics or similar subjects should l Fully integrated labs and tutorials every week to bring together email [email protected] the wide range of subjects and provide practical and written to apply. examples and guidance in person. Closing date April 30th, start October 2014. l Study courses on Reactor Systems, Reactor Physics and Kinetics, Radiation Transport, Thermal Hydraulics, Reactor Materials and more. PhD programs also possible. l Summer project, usually taken in industry and in many cases Reach an international has led to employment. audience l Sponsored by all the major players in the nuclear industry. PLACES/FUNDING CURRENTLY AVAILABLE

Physics World March 2014 73 Add your organization’s details to brightrecruits.com free of charge Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik Teilinstitut Greifswald Max-Planck-Institut Personalstelle Wendelsteinstraße 1 für Plasmaphysik 17491 Greifswald IPP is one of the world’s leading centers for fusion Tel.: (0 38 34) 88-23 50 research and is concerned with investigating the physical basis of future fusion power plants. The institute is associated with the European Fusion Program and the Helmholtz Association of German Research Centers. More information at www.ipp.mpg.de

The Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics in Greifswald, Germany, is seeking in the framework of its development program for young scientists for the Edge and Divertor Physics Division (Experimental Plasma Physics 4) a graduate physicist The research focuses on characterization and analysis of the edge and scrape-off layer plasma in the Wendelstein 7-X stellarator, with the goal of reaching a deeper understanding of the physical parameters and transport processes that determine the scrape-off layer width in both limiter and divertor configurations. The work will focus especially on the development and operation of Langmuir probes, on the data analysis of the measurements obtained from these probes, and their connection to existing theories and code predictions, for example the EMC3-EIRENE code. The applicant is expected to have completed his or her PhD in experimental plasma physics. A proven track record of developing and operating Langmuir probes, as well as extracting new and important physics insights from these and other complementary measurements is strongly desired. A strong scientific track record, including a number of first-authored publications in peer-reviewed physics journals, and several national and international conference contributions, including invited talks is advantageous. Experience in leading small to medium-sized research teams is desirable and an excellent command of the English language indispensible. The employment is limited to 2 years. An interesting and versatile research position is offered, with a salary according to public service remuneration group 13 TVöD. IPP is committed to increase the fraction of female scientists, and therefore particularly encourages qualified women to apply for this position. IPP is committed to increase the fraction of disabled people in its workforce and explicitly encourages people with disabilities to apply. Please submit your application, which should include a statement of purpose, a CV with a full publication list, any relevant transcripts, and at least two personal references who can be contacted for recommendation letters, to the above address, stating the Reference number PD55 till 28.02.2014.

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E-ACT Yorkshire TOSHIBA RESEARCH EUROPE LIMITED Academies has School CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORY Direct places available Research Scientists in Quantum Photonics on the salaried and Applications are invited for research positions at Toshiba Research unsalaried routes for Europe in Cambridge working on solid-state quantum photonic devices, such as quantum light sources, quantum memory and quantum Maths, Physics and detectors, for applications in quantum communications, sensing and Chemistry teachers of computing. the future. Candidates should hold a PhD in Physics, Electronic Engineering or a related discipline and have demonstrated achievement in the fields of photonics, quantum photonics or optical semiconductor devices. Experience of cleanroom fabrication techniques, quantum optics or device characterization would be an advantage. Applicants should send a covering letter, CV and contact details of three referees to: We believe in growing our own Dr A J Shields, Assistant Managing Director teachers and future leaders. Toshiba Research Europe Ltd., Cambridge Research Laboratory, We are looking for ambitious 208 Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 0GZ, UK. and committed professionals URL: www.quantum.toshiba.co.uk. who are passionate about their E-mail: [email protected]. subject and have a desire to share their enthusiasm with PhD Studentships in Quantum Photonics Applications are invited for experimental PhD positions in the area of young people of secondary photonic approaches to quantum information technology. school age. Applicants must be EU nationals and have (or expect) a 1st or upper See for yourself what a great 2nd class degree in Physics, Electronic Engineering or related discipline. job teaching is by arranging a Applicants should send a covering letter, CV and contact details of two visit for a taster day. referees to [email protected].

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Chief Operating Officer - Director Designate Radiological Protection Engineers – Analytical Instrumentation Company Chapelcross (Dumfriesshire) Circa – £39k-£61k, dependent on experience plus We are acting for an AIM-listed company, based in Surrey, applying advanced excellent benefits technology in the field of Analytical Instrumentation. CLEANING UP THE UK’S NUCLEAR LEGACY IS A The COO will provide strategic leadership to a team of gifted individuals in CHALLENGE WORTHY OF YOUR EXPERTISE both the operations and engineering areas. The company has successfully launched its first product, and the COO will develop and implement a robust An excellent opportunity has now arisen for two Radiological plan to supply the current product efficiently in volume, and to introduce a Protection Engineers, based at our Chapelcross site near Annan in continuing flow of new products building on the core technology, to extend Dumfriesshire (South West Scotland). Only 1.5 hours from Glasgow/ the market segments addressed by the business. This is a unique opportunity Newcastle by road and excellent rail links from Carlisle, we are easily to play a decisive role in a rapidly developing business with major growth accessible. Near the Lake District, we are on the edge of some of the opportunities. most spectacular countryside in the country. Visit Magnox Ltd are the The ideal candidate will be a clear thinker and good communicator, and will management and operations have first-hand experience in some of the following areas: contractor responsible for the  Analytical instrument industry decommissioning of nine nuclear  A research environment sites, and are also responsible for  Small scale manufacturing the operation of one nuclear and  Implementation of quality systems one hydroelectric site on behalf of the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA). This means you An excellent salary and benefits package will be offered. will enjoy a unique opportunity To apply, or for further information, contact: [email protected] to play a key role in protecting Closing Date March 21, 2014 the UK environment for generations to come. You will perform a key role within a busy multi-disciplined decommissioning project, providing advice to a broad spectrum of personnel on all areas of radiological protection. Substantial radiological hazards form a large part of the projects delivery The jobs site for physics and engineering challenge, you will play a significant role in the decision making of Winton Advanced Research Fellowships in the the projects’ future path to address these challenges. Physics of Sustainability Your duties will include; • Providing radiological protection advice in-line with company University of Cambridge – Department of Physics arrangements Fixed-term: The funds for this post are available for 5 years in the • Engaging with the wider site departments to help ensure project first instance. delivery The Fund Managers of the Winton Programme invite applications • Provide technical support to current and future project strategy and for up to two Advanced Research Fellowships. Fellowships will implementation be of 5 years’ duration and will provide salary comparable to You will also be a customer-focused individual, who can comply junior university faculty positions (on the scale currently £37,756– with the Health, Safety, Security, Environmental and Quality policies, £47,787 per annum) and appropriate support for equipment, procedures, work instructions and risk assessments. As part of the role graduate students, travel and operating expenses. Proposed you may be required to support other Magnox sites. projects should be in new areas or take new approaches in established areas related to research in the broad field of the You will be qualified to at least degree level or hold an RPA certificate application of physics to sustainability. and have several years’ experience as an operational health physicist/ provision of radiological protection advice. For applicationReach details andan further international information see: http://www.winton.phy.cam.ac.uk/jobs Along with a competitive salary, you will be also eligible to audience participate in our bonus group reward scheme. You will receive a Quote reference: KA02722 generous holiday entitlement of 30 days plus Bank Holidays and the Closing Date: 31 March 2014 option to join our company pension plan. The University values diversity and is committed to equality of opportunity. For further information and to apply please visit www.magnoxsites.co.uk/careers Please return all completed application forms to [email protected] FAO Clare Osborne by Add your organization’s details to 14 March 2014. In promoting equal opportunities, we welcome applicants from all sections of the brightrecruits.com free of charge community. We select people according to their abilities and our needs.

Physics World March 2014 77 The Faculty of Physics, Mathematics, and Computer Science at the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz (JGU) invites applications for an appointment at the level of Chair in Physics University Professor (W2 with tenure) Salary: Professorial Band 2 (minimum £83,011) in Experimental Physics Closing Date: Thursday 01 May 2014 in the area of Electronic and Magnetic Properties of Condensed Matter Systems. Reference: A908 The professorship will become available in 2014. Lancaster’s Department of Physics was ranked first and equal- We are looking for a scientist with an internationally visible research record in the first in the 2008 and 2001 UK Research Assessment Exercises fields of electronic and magnetic properties (such as magnetism, superconductivity, topological insulators etc.) of new correlated materials. Possible research topics are respectively and is seeking to further enhance its scientific standing. static and dynamical properties of nanostructures, inorganic/molecular hybrid Lancaster University wishes to appoint an outstanding physicist systems and the interaction of spin, charge and orbital degrees of freedom. at the level of Professor (equivalent to a Full Professor), to join The position is embedded in the Graduate School of Excellence Materials Science in Mainz (MAINZ) and intense collaboration with existing experimental and theoretical an existing research group or create a new research group in any groups at the Institute of Physics is expected. Candidates have the possibility to area of experimental or theoretical physics which complements participate in coordinated research activities, in the Center for Innovative and and enhances the existing research programme of the Physics Emerging Materials (CINEMA), and will have access to state-of-the-art lithography Department. At Lancaster there are 3 professorial pay bands and and microscopy tools. Band 2 is just below the Distinguished Professor grade (Band 3). Applicants are expected to have a Ph.D. in physics, a proven first rate research record and to possess the required pedagogical skills for teaching. Undergraduate The post is permanent and tenable from 1 October 2014. In courses are usually given in German. JGU promotes a concept of intensive tutoring addition to your research activities, you will also be involved with and expects a high rate of presence at the university. The appointment requires participation in teaching activities and in the duties of academic administration. undergraduate and postgraduate teaching. JGU aims at increasing the percentage of women in academic positions and If you are an ambitious scientist with an international reputation for encourages in particular the application of women. excellence in research, please contact Professor Peter Ratoff (Head JGU is an equal opportunity employer and particularly welcomes applications from of Department) for an informal discussion. persons with disabilities. Email: [email protected] Tel: +44 1524 593639. JGU is a leading research university with a focus on Physics and Materials Sciences and is regularly ranked top 10 in Germany. At the Institute of Physics a The Lancaster University Department of Physics is strongly number of large scale research activities are coordinated including the Graduate committed to fostering diversity within its community as a source of School of Excellence Materials Science in Mainz (www.mainz.uni-mainz.de) and the Excellence Research Cluster "Precision Physics, Fundamental Interactions and excellence, cultural enrichment, and social strength. We welcome Structure of Matter" as part of the German Federal Excellence Initiative. those who would contribute to the further diversification of our Qualified candidates are asked to submit their applications by March 31, 2014, department. including the usual documents (CV; list of publications; copies of three key publications; research proposal) as a single PDF file via the portal http://www.phmi.uni-mainz.de/stellen. Applications should be addressed to “Dekan des Fachbereichs 08, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Staudingerweg 7, 55128 Mainz“.

Chair in Accelerator Physics (Associate Director of the Cockcroft Institute) Salary: Professorial (minimum £60,266) Reference: A907 And Lecturer in Accelerator Physics Salary: £37,756 to £45,053 Postdoctoral Position in Atomic, Molecular, Reference: A909 and Optical Physics, Closing date: Thursday 1st May 2014 National Taiwan University As a founding member of the Cockroft Institute and with the UK’s highest ranking physics department in the 2008 Research Assessment Exercise, Lancaster Applicants are invited for a postdoctoral position in theoretical University is seeking to appoint a Chair in Accelerator Physics (Associate Director and computational atomic, molecular, and optical physics or of the Cockcroft Institute) and Lecturer (Assistant Professor) in Accelerator Physics chemical physics. The candidate should have strong background to further consolidate the Institute’s international profile. The successful applicants will be expected to advance experimental research in accelerator physics in close in high performance computing. The successful candidate will collaboration with Institute members in the Physics & Engineering Departments, conduct research in one or more of the following forefront areas: other universities, and Daresbury and Rutherford Appleton Laboratories. atomic and molecular multiphoton processes in intense laser You must have a Ph.D. in accelerator physics, particle physics, electrical fields, attosecond science, time-dependent density functional engineering or a related discipline, with an outstanding research and publications theory, coherent control, Quantum computing / information, etc. record and a high level appreciation and grasp of potential future international accelerator developments. Applications including a cv, list of publications, and at least three Informal inquiries about the institute may be made to Professor Swapan recommendation letters should be sent to: Chattopadhyay, [email protected]. For information about the Lancaster University Physics Department: Professor Peter Ratoff, Professor S. I. Chu, [email protected]. Center for Quantum Science and Engineering, The Lancaster University Department of Physics is strongly committed to fostering Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, diversity within its community as a source of excellence, cultural enrichment, E-mail: [email protected] and social strength. We welcome those who would contribute to the further diversification of our department.

78 Physics World March 2014

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Physics World March 2014 79 Lateral Thoughts: David Pye physicsworld.com But it’s obvious!

In Through the Looking Glass, Humpty Dumpty tells Alice, rather scornfully, “When I use a word it means just what I choose it to mean – neither more nor less.” Well, fine, but it would still be a good idea to make clear to others what that meaning is. This is often done infor- mally by means of “conventions”, which are defined as “established usage”. But who does the establishing? Questions related to definitions are often regarded as pedantic – nowadays a pejorative term – because the Shutterstock/TwilightArtPictures answer is “obvious”. But is it? A few examples illustrate some possible pitfalls. The direction of linear polarization of light is generally set by that of the electrical vector, or e-vector. Thus light reflected from a horizontal shiny surface is horizontally polarized. But once, when laying out a practical class in remedial physics for biology students, I found that the Polaroid sheets had all been marked the “wrong” way. Upon querying this, I was told that “physicists refer to the magnetic vector”, and under this con- There is facility in south-west England was due to different convention, light reflected from a horizontal shiny surface no widely ventions regarding circular polarization between US is vertically polarized. Maybe some physicists do use and UK radio engineers: one team had considered the this convention, but even back in the early 1900s, such accepted handedness of signals as they were transmitted, while usage was regarded by R W Wood (author of Physical interpretation the other team looked at their being received. Optics, first published in 1905) as “rather unfortunate”. of the Finally, a difference of usage is now appearing in By the time the third edition was published in 1934, relation to circularly polarizing optical filters. To me, Wood had firmly rejected it, and the e-vector conven- handedness it would seem logical for a left-handed filter to be one tion is also used in all the later physics textbooks I own. of movement that allows left-handed circularly polarized light to pass When linearly polarized light passes through an along a helix through it, and can therefore be used to create such light optically active medium, such as a solution of natural from unpolarized light. This seems to be a natural and sugars, its direction of polarization rotates progres- obvious usage. But recently some authors have adopted sively. If the rotation is seen to be clockwise, it is said the opposite convention: to them, a left-handed filter is to be right-handed or dextrorotatory – as with sucrose one that blocks left-handed circularly polarized light. or glucose (also known as dextrose). If the rotation is They claim this is the convention “used by physicists”. anticlockwise, it is left-handed or laevorotatory, as with Is it really? To me, this convention appears unnatural fructose (aka laevulose). This convention is univer- and potentially misleading. (And my suppliers do not sally accepted because it is “obvious” – the light pass- use it – so take care when ordering!) ing through the solution is always observed as it comes Of course, any usage is acceptable provided one towards one’s self, and no other interpretation seems makes clear what it is. A good example is electronic sensible. (Although it does raise the question of why filters, which are usually (and helpfully) specified as clockwise is considered “right handed”, since the hands either “bandpass” or “bandstop” for particular frequen- go left at the bottom of the dial!) cies. But in photography, a “UV filter” can either be a But things are not so clear when the polarization is filter used to block UV or the exact opposite: a “black- circular. In this case the vector(s) rotate, following a hel- light” filter used to take pictures by UV alone. Here the ical course, and there is no widely accepted interpreta- sense is usually clear only from the context. tion of the handedness of movement along a helix. True, Pedantry can sometimes be overly fussy. It would be a normal corkscrew and the thread of a right-handed plain pernickety, for example, to make every botanical screw are seen to rotate clockwise as they recede from reference define its convention on twining handedness, the observer, and the screw advances (tightens) when since the usage is universal within that field. But where rotated clockwise. So far, so good; it’s obvious. But a different usages are known to exist, then a definition botanist looking down at the seedling of a climbing should certainly be given. Otherwise, serious misun- plant will say that it rotates clockwise if it twines to the derstandings can and will arise. The signal-reception right – that is, coming towards the observer. The right- problem at Goonhilly Down was quickly corrected handed hop plant twines “round its poales…always by rewinding a helical antenna, and is now forgotten. according to the course of the sunne” (Reynolde Scot, However, a few decades later, the Mars Climate Orbiter A Perfite Platform of a Hoppe Garden, 1574), while bind- burned up while entering the planet’s atmosphere weed and runner beans twine the other way – anticlock- because its two teams were using different unit systems wise. That usage is obvious too, although if viewed from – and the choice of units would seem even more “obvi- soil level (as by an ant) it would look otherwise. ous” than different definitions of terms. With radiated signals, the convention used depends on whether one considers the transmitter or the David Pye is emeritus professor of zoology at Queen Mary, University receiver. It is said that the very poor initial reception of of London, UK, and author of Polarised Light in Science and Nature signals from the Telstar satellite by the Goonhilly Down (Institute of Physics Publishing, 2001), e-mail [email protected]

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