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From the Chapel to the Gallery the Aestheticization of Altarpieces in Early Modern Italy

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FROM THE CHAPEL TO THE GALLERY THE AESTHETICIZATION OF ALTARPIECES IN EARLY MODERN ITALY by Sandra Richards A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Art University of Toronto © Copyright by Sandra Richards 2013 From the Chapel to the Gallery: The Aestheticization of Altarpieces in Early Modern Italy Sandra Richards Doctor of Philosophy, History of Art Department of Art University of Toronto 2013 Abstract This dissertation examines the aesthetic response to altarpieces in early modern Italy, which culminated in the reconstitution of altarpieces as gallery paintings, when, beginning in the seventeenth century, wealthy collectors began removing them from churches and displaying them in their private collections. Such a transformation not only entailed a complete rupture in the function of these paintings – from object of public veneration to private delectation – but also frequently met with resistance and censure from local authorities. It is precisely because it was a very difficult thing to do that the documents concerning the removal of altarpieces are frequently revealing about contemporary attitudes toward art among collectors as well as ecclesiastics. In order to understand the mechanisms – both theoretical and practical –that had to be in place for such a transformation to occur, I explore the history of the altarpiece from the rise of ius patronatus as an economically motivated form of piety in late-medieval Italy, through the encroachment of artistic criteria such as invention and difficulty in the making and viewing of religious art in the sixteenth century, and, finally, to the post-Tridentine discourse on sacred images. Because the purpose of this study is to establish the church as a venue for ii a nascent connoisseurial discourse, I also consider the development of art collecting in Italy, which was circumscribed in extent through most of the sixteenth century. Lastly, I provide a comprehensive overview of the removal of altarpieces in seventeenth-century Italy, a phenomenon that has previously received only scant attention in art historical literature. iii Acknowledgments I cannot thank enough my supervisor, Philip Sohm, for his unflagging enthusiasm for this project, which did so much to encourage me to see it through to the end. Over the past several years, he has generously shared his encyclopaedic knowledge of early modern Italian art, benefitting this dissertation immeasurably. I must also express my gratitude and considerable debt to my former supervisor, Alexander Nagel – whose work has been so important for my own – for guiding me towards a fascinating and fruitful topic. I would also like to acknowledge the support and guidance extended to me by the members of my defence committee. Evonne Levy’s thoughtful analysis and many insightful suggestions have given me much to consider as I go forward with my research. Giancarla Periti very graciously agreed to sit on my committee at the last minute. And I was delighted to have Cathleen Hoeniger step in as my external reader. Her meticulous review of my dissertation and kind words following the defence were greatly appreciated. Her involvement also represents a fitting conclusion to my graduate studies. I travelled to Italy for the first time some years ago as an undergraduate student enrolled in the Queen’s University Venice Summer School, which she co-taught with Leslie Korrick: it was an experience of profound consequence for my academic career and that has culminated in this dissertation. The archival research for this dissertation would not have been possible without a travel fellowship from the University of Toronto generously funded by Peter H. Brieger. I must mention again my gratitude to Alexander Nagel for making possible an invaluable week-long visit to Venice during the early stages of my research, where I was able to engage in onsite discussions about altarpieces with him and my fellow doctoral students at the v University of Toronto. I spent a welcome summer month in Montreal conducting research under the auspices of the Canadian Centre for Architecture Collection Research Grants Program. In addition, I am grateful to David Franklin, then Deputy Director and Chief Curator of the National Gallery of Canada, for providing me with an incredible opportunity to apply and further develop my ideas through a curatorial fellowship endowed by Donald and Beth Sobey at the National Gallery of Canada. Peter Trepanier and the staff at the Library and Archives of the National Gallery of Canada always made me feel right at home using their collections, even long after the fellowship had come to an end. Lastly, I must thank the Department of Fine Art at the University of Toronto for providing funding to bring this dissertation to completion. Both Alison Syme and Gaby Sparks went beyond the call of duty in helping me to navigate the various hurdles entailed in re-entering the world of academia. The friendship and camaraderie of my fellow graduate students at the University of Toronto, Bernice Iarocci and Christine Kralik, as well as my friends abroad, Vanessa Franco and Jennie Koerner, helped to sustain me over the long haul. I would also like to acknowledge all of my colleagues at the Department of National Defence and the Department of Natural Resources who have cheered me on in recent years. My father, William, and brothers, Michael and Stephen, always gave me their wholehearted support, even if from afar. I reserve my deepest gratitude, however, for my mother, Joan. She felt all the ups and downs along the way as if she wrote this dissertation herself, and never stopped providing encouragement and helping out in any way that she could. It is to her that I dedicate this work. Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................. v List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................ ix Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter 1. The Altarpiece between Image and Art .............................................................................. 23 I. Early History of the Altarpiece.................................................................................................... 25 II. The Expansion of Lay Patronage ................................................................................................ 29 III. Modes of Valuation in Fifteenth-Century Altarpieces ................................................................ 38 IV. Leon Battista Alberti’s De pictura and the Development of the Pala ......................................... 44 V. The Litigation Surrounding Leonardo’s Virgin of the Rocks ...................................................... 60 Chapter 2. Altarpieces and Their Viewers ........................................................................................... 77 I. Leonardo and Perugino at the Annunziata .................................................................................. 78 II. An Excursus on Early Art Collecting .......................................................................................... 91 III. The Critical Audience for Altarpieces in Dolce’s Aretino ........................................................ 101 IV. Attitudes of Viewership in Churches ........................................................................................ 113 Chapter 3. The Altarpiece as Dimostrazione : Three Case Studies ..................................................... 121 I. Altarpieces and Artistic Rivalry ................................................................................................ 121 II. Diplomatic Gifts ........................................................................................................................ 134 III. Images of St Sebastian .............................................................................................................. 149 IV. The Encroachment of Aestheticization ..................................................................................... 158 Chapter 4. The Rupture between Sacred and Secular ........................................................................ 169 I. Tensions about Religious Art in the Years Leading to Trent .................................................... 169 II. The Bifurcation of Art and Image: Gilio’s Dialogo contro gli errori de’ pittori and Paleotti’s Discorso intorno alle imagine sacre e profane ......................................................................... 180 III. The Bifurcation of Art and Image: Raffaello Borghini’s Il Riposo ........................................... 195 IV. The Picture Gallery ................................................................................................................... 204 V. Giulio Mancini’s Considerazioni sulla pittura : Picture Collecting and the Demand for Art ... 213 vii Chapter 5. From the Church to the Gallery ....................................................................................... 227 I. The Late 16 th Century: Cardinal Ferdinando de’ Medici’s Acquisition of Andrea
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